food packaging experiment

Lesson Food Packaging

Grade Level: 7 (6-8)

Time Required: 30 minutes

Lesson Dependency: None

Subject Areas: Chemistry, Science and Technology

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Activities Associated with this Lesson Units serve as guides to a particular content or subject area. Nested under units are lessons (in purple) and hands-on activities (in blue). Note that not all lessons and activities will exist under a unit, and instead may exist as "standalone" curriculum.

• Package Those Foods!

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Engineering connection, learning objectives, worksheets and attachments, more curriculum like this, pre-req knowledge, introduction/motivation, associated activities, vocabulary/definitions, user comments & tips.

An entire industry is devoted to packaging engineering and the industry is expanding as more and more products are created. Packaging engineers focus on the same components that students focus on in this exercise, which includes research, design, production, marketing and analysis.

After this activity, students should be able to:

• Identify four functions of a food package.
• Explain how each food package design works.
• Identify the chemical and physical changes different types of materials prevent or facilitate.
• Explain what a food packaging engineer does.

Educational Standards Each TeachEngineering lesson or activity is correlated to one or more K-12 science, technology, engineering or math (STEM) educational standards. All 100,000+ K-12 STEM standards covered in TeachEngineering are collected, maintained and packaged by the Achievement Standards Network (ASN) , a project of D2L (www.achievementstandards.org). In the ASN, standards are hierarchically structured: first by source; e.g. , by state; within source by type; e.g. , science or mathematics; within type by subtype, then by grade, etc .

Ngss: next generation science standards - science.

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State Standards

North carolina - science.

Prior to this activity, students should have a basic understanding of the following:

Physical properties of matter: mass, volume, melting point, boiling point and texture.

Chemical properties of matter: combustibility, solubility, flammability.

Physical changes: phase change, shape change.

Chemical changes: oxidization, evolution of gas.

(Have handy an assortment of food packaging examples to show students, such as a plastic or glass soda bottle, bag of flour, soup or noodles that can be cooked or heated in their containers, food in a plastic bag, milk carton, cracker or cereal box, chips bag, candy wrapper.)

Did you know that a huge field of engineering exists with the purpose of designing packages for different food products? Today, we are going to look at some packages that engineers have already designed and see why they made them the way they did. Do you ever drink a beverage from a plastic or glass bottle? (Hold up a soda bottle.) Have you ever wondered why a bottle is designed the way it is? What are some of the qualities of this bottle and the reasons why the bottle has those characteristics? (Listen to student ideas and write them on the classroom board.)

Now, lets look at this bag of flour. (Hold up a bag of flour.) What is different about the characteristics of this bag compared to those of a soda bottle? (Main differences: material and structure.) Why do you think that the bag is so different from the bottle?

Now look at these two other packages. (Hold up a package of soup or noodles that can be heated and a food in a plastic bag.) Please write down the qualities of these packages and why you think they have those characteristics.

Considering all these packaging examples and the reasons for each of the packages, let's brainstorm three important functions of food packages, besides contaiig the food.

• To keep the food clean.
• To protect the food product from unwanted physical and chemical changes (such as oxidation and destruction from insects) and to facilitate in desired physical changes (such as heating or cooling).
• To identify the product and provide sales appeal.

Now please write beside each characteristic you wrote down, what function is being fulfilled. As you can see, the materials that make a package plays a huge role in its functioning. If you want to be able to put your food and package in the microwave, would you make the package of metal? Why not? If you want to make sure your food will not be crushed by something heavy, would you put your food in a plastic bag? Would you put a liquid in a package made of paper?

Besides a package's materials, its structural design is very important for its functions. What type of food package structures can you think of?

• cartons (milk carton)
• boxes (cereal box)
• bags (bag of chips/bag of vegetables)
• cans (can of soup)
• bottles (bottle of soda)
• wrappers (candy)

What are the advantages and disadvantages of these package structures?

Let's look at these two different packages for the same food. (Bring out a food packaged aesthetically and the same food packaged less appealingly.) Which one would you rather buy? What qualities does that package have that the other does not? (A symmetrically shaped package, a pretty label, a nicely colored package, etc).

Lesson Background and Concepts for Teachers

Food packages have four main functions besides providing food containers.

• To be inexpensive and economical, both in its materials and its transportation.

In this lesson, a focus on the first three functions of food packages provides a great introduction to how package materials are chosen. The first function is pretty simple to fulfill; packaging materials prevent dirt from getting into food. Fresh produce is an exception to this approach since a fruit or vegetable's skin protects its insides from contamination and consumers are expected to clean the produce before eating. Thus, natural fruit and vegetables are basically "self-packaged."

The second function of food packages is probably one of the hardest to understand. A number of physical changes can be considered for this function. The main physical change that can occur is physical damage. Food can be crushed and damaged without the proper protection from its package. Chalenge students to design a packaging of their own following the mentioned functions with the Package Those Foods! activity.

Another physical change that children can relate to is soda going flat. The scientific word for this happening is effervescence, which is the escape of air bubbles from a liquid. This physical change occurs when a carbonated beverage is opened. The carbonation quickly escapes through the opening. Students should consider this physical change in the packaging of beverages. Bottles can be resealed to prevent the further escape of air bubbles while cans cannot.

Also many children are familiar with mixing. By mixing, we mean to disperse one substance throughout another, usually by swirling. A food example is dissolving a lemonade powder in water. This process is not a chemical change because the water and powder do not form a new chemical. The powder is solely dispersed evenly throughout the water to make a mixture of individual water and lemonade molecules.

One example of a major physical change is phase change. Phase changes occur if a food changes state between solid, liquid or gas. An example of a food whose package must consider phase change is ice cream. An ice cream carton is meant to hold an almost solid ice cream. However, the design must also anticipate liquid in case of melting. The design must also be capable of being put in the freezer and also taken out by the consumer. Thus, a good point to make is that a food package designer would not make an ice cream package of metal because it would be too cold to touch and remove from the freezer. Also, designs for packages for foods that are meant to be warmed up in microwaves must take into account the melting point (the temperature at which a material changes from solid to liquid) of the package materials. If a package is to be microwaved, a material with a low melting point would not be a good choice, since the package would melt into the food!

A major chemical change involved in the creation of food packages is organic growth in foods. Organic growth occurs by microorganisms, which feed on foods. As microorganisms feed, the food rots and the microorganisms multiply. It is not eating the rotten food that makes a person sick, but eating the vast number of microorganisms on that food. Microorganism growth can include the growth of bacteria, molds and yeast. Microorganisms grow and affect different foods at different rates.The package in which a food is held affects a food's rate of organic change.

Such organic change affects how long a food can be stored before and after its opening. Plastics and cans do not allow moisture to seep into the food product that they hold. Thus, they keep microorganisms from outside away from the food. Vacuum sealing removes all of the oxygen from a food. Without oxygen, microorganisms cannot grow and so the food does not rot. If a food's microorganisms are removed through processing, these packages prevent most organism growth in the food and enable its shelf life to be long. These non-perishable foods can last for two years or longer.

After opening a food package, however, microorganisms in the air can quickly get into the package to start an organic degradation of the food. This event is why food packages say, "refrigerate after opening." Microorganisms can only grow in certain temperatures so refrigeration slows rotting and freezing usually stops degradation altogether. In spite of this, naturally non-perishable foods whose majority is not fruit, vegetable, nut oil or dairy are okay if not refrigerated for a reasonable amount of time since their rate of organic change is very slow.

Many different processes exist to make a food non-perishable, as discussed earlier. A common process is thermal processing, in which foods are treated with heat to destroy all microorganisms. Thermal processing takes less energy for plastic-packaged foods than-metal packaged foods. Thus, taste is preserved more in plastic-packaged food than canned food. This is a major advantage to use plastic in packaging rather than metal.

Since paper packages permit the entrance of oxygen and moisture, they usually hold foods whose rate of organic change is very slow or foods whose consumption is assumed to happen within days of production.

Despite the physical and chemical changes that some materials may prevent or encourage, all materials have advantages and disadvantages, which are listed in the Food Packaging Materials Worksheet .

Watch this activity on YouTube

boiling point: The temperature at which a substance changes from liquid to gas.

melting point: The temperature at which a substance changes from solid to liquid.

phase change: A transition between liquid and gas or liquid and solid.

solubility: The ability of a substance, the solute, to dissolve in a solvent.

Food Analysis : Ask students to analyze the physical properties of foods and identify the chemical and physical changes that they need to pay attention to in the creation of their food packages. Have them describe how they would address each of the functions of a food package.

This lesson introduces students to the main parts of the digestive system and how they interact. In addition, students learn about some of the challenges astronauts face when eating in outer space. Engineers figure out how to deal with such challenges.

American Management Association. Packaging Division. Packaging for Retail Impact, with Specific Applications to the Dairy, Meat, Candy and Baking Industries. New York, NY: American Management Association, 1965.

Contributors

Supporting program, acknowledgements.

This content was developed by the MUSIC (Math Understanding through Science Integrated with Curriculum) Program in the Pratt School of Engineering at Duke University under National Science Foundation GK-12 grant no. DGE 0338262. However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policies of the NSF, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government.

Last modified: February 25, 2020

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March 23, 2021

Scientists created edible films for food packaging

by Anna Marinovich, Ural Federal University

An international group of scientists from India and Russia has created edible food films for packaging fruits, vegetables, poultry, meat, and seafood. Films consist of natural ingredients, they are safe for health and the environment. In addition, films are water-soluble and dissolve by almost 90% in 24 hours. Description of the research and results of experiments are published in the Journal of Food Engineering .

"We have created three types of food films based on the well-known naturally occurring seaweed biopolymer sodium alginate," said Rammohan Aluru, senior researcher Organic synthesis laboratory at Ural Federal University and co-author of the paper. "Its molecules have film-forming properties. Sodium alginate is an auspicious carbohydrate macromolecule that has the potential film-forming properties upon hydrolysis and abundantly existed in cell walls as a mixture of various salts. The greatest advantage of sodium alginate is that it performs as liquid-gel in an aqueous medium."

Alginate molecules were cross-linked with a natural antioxidant ferulic acid. It makes the film not only strong, but also homogeneous, more rigid, and prolongs the life of the products.

"Food stays fresh longer due to the antioxidant components that slow down the oxidation processes," said Grigory Zyryanov, professor of the Department of Organic and Biomolecular Chemistry at Ural Federal University. "In addition, we can add to the films natural antiviral agents, that will also extend the shelf life of food. Garlic, turmeric, and ginger contain compounds that may prevent the spread of the viruses."

According to the authors, no special equipment for the production of films is required. On an industrial scale, it can be created by food products and films manufacturers.

"It can also be produced at a polymer production plant. The only condition is that it must meet the standards that apply to food production. And if an inexhaustible source of algae the ocean is nearby it will be quite simple to create such films," said Grigory Zyryanov.

Scientists from the Sri Venkateswara and Sri Padmavati Mahila Viswavidyalayam Universities (Tirupati, India), Ural Federal University and Ural Branch of the RAS (Ekaterinburg, Russia) worked on the creation of the films. The research was supported by the University Grants Commission (New Delhi, India, Rajiv Gandhi National Scholarship F1-17.1 / 2016-17 / RGNF-2015-17-SC -AND-18494 / SAIII) and the Central Institute of Plastics Engineering and Technology (Vijayawada, India).

Sodium alginate is a well-known edible biopolymer of natural origin used as a thickener and stabilizer ( food additive E401), used as a thickener or stabilizer. Ferulic acid (a derivative of cinnamic acid) has a wide range of pharmacological properties, in particular, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antitoxic, hepato- and cardioprotective, antiviral and antibacterial ones, which is mainly due to the antioxidant properties of this acid.

Provided by Ural Federal University

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Recent advances in edible food packaging

For immediate release, acs news service weekly presspac: december 01, 2021.

Packaging helps keep food safe from spoilage, and currently, many food items are wrapped in plastic. But growing concerns about the effects of plastic when it ends up in the environment have prompted researchers to explore alternative packaging materials, including those that can be eaten right along with the foods they are protecting. Below are some recent papers published in ACS journals that report on progress toward edible food packaging materials.

“Bioactive Peptides: A Promising Alternative to Chemical Preservatives for Food Preservation” Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry Oct. 14, 2021

In this review of bioactive peptides, researchers describe the benefits of using these compounds to preserve food. They also discuss the latest research to incorporate them into edible films and coatings, which can transport these additives to the foods they protect.

“Laccase-Catalyzed Grafting of Lauryl Gallate on Chitosan To Improve Its Antioxidant and Hydrophobic Properties” Biomacromolecules Oct. 3, 2021

Chitosan, a chemically modified form of chitin, which is commonly obtained from the exoskeletons of sea creatures such as crabs and shrimp, is being pursued by many researchers as a basis for plastic alternatives. Here, researchers added a phenolic compound called lauryl gallate to chitosan with a process called grafting, and showed that the resulting material has the potential to be used as an edible coating.

“Plasticization Efficiency and Characteristics of Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Low-Molecular-Weight Polysaccharides for Starch-Based Materials” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering Aug. 26, 2021

As a step toward a new packaging material, these researchers evaluated various sugar molecules as plasticizers, or molecules that could make starch-based films more flexible. Starch is biodegradable and edible, and therefore is a good candidate for packaging that people can consume.

The American Chemical Society (ACS) is a nonprofit organization chartered by the U.S. Congress. ACS’ mission is to advance the broader chemistry enterprise and its practitioners for the benefit of Earth and all its people. The Society is a global leader in promoting excellence in science education and providing access to chemistry-related information and research through its multiple research solutions, peer-reviewed journals, scientific conferences, eBooks and weekly news periodical Chemical & Engineering News . ACS journals are among the most cited, most trusted and most read within the scientific literature; however, ACS itself does not conduct chemical research. As a leader in scientific information solutions, its CAS division partners with global innovators to accelerate breakthroughs by curating, connecting and analyzing the world’s scientific knowledge. ACS’ main offices are in Washington, D.C., and Columbus, Ohio.

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• Published: 20 June 2022

FOOD TECHNOLOGY

Protecting foods with biopolymer fibres

• Yi Wang 1 ,
• Jaya Borgatta 1 &
• Jason C. White   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5001-8143 1  

Nature Food volume  3 ,  pages 402–403 ( 2022 ) Cite this article

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A cost-effective, high-throughput fibre-based food packaging approach using non-toxic, biodegradable biopolymer materials offers a strategy to considerably increase food safety and security while minimizing food waste.

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Wang, Y., Borgatta, J. & White, J.C. Protecting foods with biopolymer fibres. Nat Food 3 , 402–403 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00519-6

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Recent Trends in Edible Packaging for Food Applications — Perspective for the Future

• Open access
• Published: 17 October 2023
• Volume 15 , pages 718–747, ( 2023 )

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• Nishant Kumar 1 ,
• Pratibha 2 ,
• Jaishankar Prasad 1 ,
• Ajay Yadav 1 , 3 ,
• Ashutosh Upadhyay 1 ,
• Shruti Shukla 4 ,
• Anka Trajkovska Petkoska 5 ,
• Shweta Suri 1 , 6 ,
• Małgorzata Gniewosz 7 &
• Marek Kieliszek   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5836-4865 7  

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Edible packaging plays an important role in protecting food products from physical, mechanical, chemical, and microbiological damages by creating a barrier against oxidation, water, and controlling enzymatic activation. The employment of active agents such as plant extracts, essential oils, cross-linkers, and nanomaterials in edible packaging promises to improve mechanical, physical, barrier, and other properties of edible materials as well as food products. In the current review, we have compiled information on the recent advances and trends in developing composite (binary and ternary) edible packaging for food application. Several types of active agents such as essential oils, plant extracts, cross-linking agents, and nanomaterials as well as their functions in edible packaging (active composite) have been discussed. The present study provides the collective information about the high- (high-pressure homogenizer, ultrasonication, and microfludizer) and low-energy (phase inversion temperature and composition and spontaneous emulsification) methods for developing nanoformulations. In addition, concepts of comprehensive studies required for developing edible coatings and films for food packaging applications, as well as overcoming challenges like consumer acceptance, regulatory requirements, and non-toxic scaling up to the commercial applications, have also been discussed.

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Nowadays, the food packaging sector is encountering a number of challenges to improve the shelf life of perishable and semiperishable food products such as fruits, vegetables, meat and meat products, bakery, and other products in order to maintain their consumer acceptability at minimum health risk [ 1 , 2 , 3 ]. The leading role of the food packaging sector is to provide protection to the food from physical, mechanical, chemical, and biological effects by creating barrier properties against water transpiration and gas exchange, retaining higher quality attributes, and reducing the microbiological load and solid waste that could affect the shelf life extension of food products [ 4 , 5 ]. The lack of packaging technologies can affect the environment surrounding by generating a food waste. As per the World Bank report, the total solid waste was accounted as 1.3 billion tons in 2012 and expected to increase up to 2.2 billion tons annually by 2025. The use of non-biodegradable and non-renewable packaging sources can have serious environmental drawbacks [ 6 , 7 ]. Additionally, the demand for healthy and safe foods with minimum use of chemical-, synthetic-, or plastic-based inputs has rapidly increased in the last few decades due to increasing consumer awareness about environmental and health concerns [ 8 ]. The edible packaging in the form of coatings and films can be the best alternative solution for the reduction of non-renewable and non-biodegradable packaging options of food products [ 9 , 10 , 11 ]. The development of edible coating and films for the shelf life extension of food products has seen remarkable growth in recent years [ 12 ]. In the year 2020, the global market of edible coating and films was valued at USD 2.06 billion and projected to grow at a CAGR of 7.64% during 2021–2027. The increase in market share is due to the greater use of edible films and coatings as alternatives to traditional plastic-based food packaging materials. This growth is driven by stringent food packaging laws aimed at ensuring food safety and addressing sustainability concerns. Recently, with the advancement in sustainable packaging, countries are moving ahead from the linear economy to the circular economy [ 13 ]. The European Union (EU) in 2020 adopted the Circular Economy Action Plan that aims at reducing the traditional packaging waste and promotes the use biodegradable polymers for safeguarding the environment. Moreover, in the recent years (2000–2021), a large number of research articles in aspects of edible coatings and films for food products have been published in different databases such as Elsevier, Taylor & Francis, Wiley, Springer Nature, Emerald Insight, and Inderscience. Figure  1 schematic indicates the interest of researchers and scientific community in the arena of edible packaging for food products. The number of publications on edible packaging for different types of food products has found approximately 9-fold increase during the period of 2000–2021.

Schematic representation of publications on edible packaging from 2000 to 2021

Food packaging plays a crucial role in protecting the food products during the supply chain and the storage period that may help in the reduction of food waste and loss. The innovation in packaging technology such as edible packaging and nano-based packaging provides new opportunities to improve the efficiency of packaging materials as well as quality of food products by protection from the deterioration agents [ 2 , 14 ]. From the past times, the petroleum-derived polymers have been used for packaging purposes which are not beneficial due to the environmental and safety concerns [ 15 ]. To overcome this problem, edible packaging helps in reducing the use of synthetic/plastic polymers in food packaging industry.

According to the framework regulations EC 1935/2004, the food packaging and other contact packaging materials must be used as per the Food Safety Act, 1991. This act states that the packaging materials should not release any toxic constituents into the food products at a level that could be harmful to human health. Numerous types of natural biopolymers such as polysaccharide, proteins, and lipids derived from plant and animal sources are available for developing a variety of edible packaging for different food categories; these biopolymers have good film/coating forming ability with biodegradable and non-toxic nature [ 16 , 17 ]. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to succinctly review the literature the relevant to the different types of edible packaging (coatings and films), edible components, and different types of additives (active agents, nanomaterials, plasticizers), including high-pressure homogenization technologies used for developing nanopackaging to improve their stability. In addition, different types of film formation and deposition methods of edible packaging on food products are also reviewed. In addition, this review also describes the effects of different types of composite edible packaging, including binary and ternary packaging on the quality attributes on different types of food products. Conclusively, this study provides innovative, scientific, and collective information about the concept, mechanism, and application of different types of edible packaging for food products, which could be beneficial for the scholars, researchers, and the scientists’ community to explore the applications of edible packaging in food processing sector.

Edible Packaging

In recent years, at global level, the use of plastic and synthetic packaging materials exceeds a million tons annually [ 18 ]. As per reports of research and markets (2020–2025), the annual consumption of plastic-based materials has increased approximately 230 million tons till date. Moreover, the plastic- and synthetic-based materials are non-biodegradable and cause a lot of problems to the environment as well as to human health. The environmental pollutions affect human cardiovascular and respiratory systems and can cause several types of disease risks such as asthma, lung cancer, cardiovascular disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, bronchiolitis, dysfunctions of central nervous system, and cutaneous diseases due to release of harmful gases and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [ 19 ]. To minimize these environmental problems and address health and safety issues, edible packaging offers a suitable and renewable solution, in addition to its biodegradable, non-toxic, and biocompatible nature. These packaging can also serve as a carrier of active ingredients, such as different additives, colorants, flavors, antioxidant/antimicrobial agents, plant active agents, nutraceuticals, probiotics, and prebiotics, thereby providing food safety and quality [ 20 , 21 ]. Edible packaging, i.e., edible coatings and films, are excellent eco-friendly options to extend the shelf life of food products for a longer period of time by retarding the oxidation, moisture transfer, enzymatic metabolic activity, and microbial spoilage [ 22 , 23 , 24 ]. Historically, the wax-based edible packaging (coating) was firstly used to extend the shelf life of citrus fruits; it was initially used in the twelfth century in China [ 17 ]. Technically, the edible coatings and edible films are different terms. For example, edible coating is a liquid form of material that can be applied to the surface of food products using dipping, spraying, panning, and fluidized bed deposition methods. It can also act as a barrier to prevent oxidation and moisture loss in food products. On the other hand, an edible film is a thin layer or solid sheet that can be applied as a wrapping, covering, packaging, or a separation layer for food products to prevent external, environmental, and other physiological damage [ 23 , 25 ]. The edible coatings and films can be directly applied to the surface of the food products.

The edible packaging (active) is regulated by European Union, regulation No. 1935/2004 and its amended regulation No. 2023/2006 [ 26 ]. Several types of biopolymers such as polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and their composites can be used to develop edible coatings and films for extending shelf life of fruits, vegetables, meat, meat products, and other items [ 2 , 27 ]. These biopolymers can be derived from renewable and edible sources, i.e., plants, animals, bacteria, fungi, and algae. The main representatives of biopolymers include polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, pectin, hemicellulose, gums, agar, alginates, chitosan, pullulan, and others), proteins (gluten, soy protein, zein, casein, collagen, whey protein, and fish protein), and lipids (bee wax, shellac wax, carnauba wax, free fatty acids, and oils). In general, they are used as thickening agents, gallants, emulsifiers, stabilizers, foaming agents, and protector coating in the food and pharmaceutical sectors [ 2 , 28 ]. Moreover, biopolymers are non-toxic, eco-friendly, biodegradable, and biocompatible in nature and also act as a carrier of active agents such as organic acids [ 29 ], plant extracts [ 30 , 31 , 32 ], antimicrobial compounds [ 33 ], essential oils [ 34 ], probiotics, and prebiotics [ 21 , 35 ]. Additionally, the plasticizers (glycerol, propylene glycol, and polyethylene glycol), as low molecular weight and non-volatile compounds, are used to improve the viscosity, resistance, flexibility, solubility, barrier, thermal, and mechanical properties of the edible films and coatings by reducing the tension of hardness, deformation, density, viscosity, and electrostatic charge of polymers. At the same time, plasticizers change the three-dimensional molecular structure of biopolymers, reducing the required energy for molecular motion and formation of hydrogen bonding between the polymer chains [ 2 , 36 ]. The poor water vapor barrier property of the polysaccharide-based edible packaging is the only disadvantage due to the presence of polar groups that results in the hydrophilicity of the biopolymers [ 13 ]. The hydrophilic nature of the polysaccharide-based biopolymers also results in the cracking and flaking of the edible packaging [ 37 ]. On the other hand, the main drawback of the protein-based edible coating and films is poor gas barrier property due to hydrophilic nature like polysaccharide. Therefore, several researchers have worked on the development of polysaccharide and protein-based edible packaging with good water and gas barrier properties using of cross-linking agents as additives [ 38 ].

The biopolymer-based edible packaging is a promising technology for preserving food and food products. It helps prolong their shelf life and functionality by retaining higher quality attributes, preserving the freshness of food products, and maintaining their color, vitamins, minerals, and other nutritional and sensory characteristics. Additionally, it minimizes issues such as lipid oxidation, weight loss, and microbial contaminations [ 39 , 40 , 41 ]. The application and mechanism of edible coating on different types of food products are shown in Fig.  2 . The recent investigation has evidentially proved that the application of edible coating could be a potential way to extend the shelf life of fruits and vegetables such as mango [ 42 , 43 ]; banana [ 44 ]; grapes [ 45 ]; pomegranate [ 46 ]; blueberry, plum, and nectarin [ 47 , 48 ]; strawberry [ 49 , 50 ]; cucumber [ 51 ]; carrot [ 52 ]; tomato [ 53 ]; and others fresh cuts [ 54 , 55 , 56 ], including meat and meat products such as trout fillets [ 57 ]; chicken breast fillets [ 58 ]; pork chops [ 59 ]; chicken and meat ball [ 60 ]; meat, beef, and pork patties [ 16 ]; beef products [ 61 ]; ham and bologna [ 62 ]; bacon [ 63 ]; and biscuits [ 64 ] by retarding the moisture loss, minimizing the lipid oxidation, discoloration, reducing shrinkage, minimizing tyrosine value, and lowering off flavor and microbial load. Moreover, the polysaccharide-based edible packaging has good gas barrier properties with excellent mechanical and thermal properties. On the contrary, the lipid-based edible packaging lacks gas barrier properties; however, it is beneficial in the context of water transpiration barrier properties [ 65 , 66 ]. According to Yousefi et al. [ 67 ], the application of edible-coating material prepared using sodium alginate, pectin, chitosan, gelatin, collagen, soy protein, whey protein, sodium caseinate, acetylated monoglyceride, diglyceride, and acetylated monoglyceride has potential in meat and meat products to maintain their quality attributes and shelf life for a longer period during storage. On the other hand, Rux et al. [ 68 ] extended the shelf life of cucumbers using commercially available lipid-based edible coating (LiquidSeal). Their study reported that the application of the coating drastically retarded the water loss and respiration rate. Additionally, a majority of the consumers endorsed the coating as an alternative of plastic-based packaging.

Application, mechanism, and functions of edible coating on food product

The different types of polysaccharide, protein, and lipid-based biopolymers such as chitosan, cassava starch, pullulan, gelatin [ 30 , 31 , 69 ], starch [ 70 , 71 ], aloe vera [ 72 ], alginate [ 73 ], carboxy-methyl-cellulose, hydroxyl-propylmethylcellulose [ 74 ], pectin [ 75 ], xanthangum, gum arabic [ 76 ], guar gum [ 77 ], whey protein [ 78 ], shellac wax [ 79 ], carnauba wax [ 80 ], and bee wax [ 81 ] were used to extend the shelf life of fruits and vegetables and other food products like guavas, black mulberries, mango, green bell pepper, blue berries, tomatoes, black berries, chili, pineapples, shrimps, cheese, sea bass, and strawberries.

The natural biopolymer components are widely used to develop eco-friendly and biodegradable packaging for different types of food products. Several types of edible packaging such as smart/intelligent and active packaging, composite edible packaging, nanopackaging, and nanoformulations are used to extend the shelf life and quality attributes of the food products. The biopolymer edible packaging acts as a barrier against moisture, oxygen, aroma, oil barrier, and mass transfer and also acts as a carrier of active ingredients such as antioxidants, antimicrobials, colorants, and flavoring agents [ 82 ].

General Characteristics of Edible Coatings and Films

In order to acquire the ideal properties of edible packaging, coatings, and films, physical, chemical, mechanical, thermal, barrier, and biological characteristics are very important. These properties usually include the moisture/gas barrier properties, rheological, adhesive properties, transparency, opacity, moisture absorption, solubility, swelling capacity, thermal properties (glass transition), mechanical (tensile strength, young module, elongation at break), color, contact angle, hydrophilic-hydrophobic interaction, particle size, microstructure, functional, antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidant, organoleptic, and others [ 83 ]. They are affected by several factors such as types and properties of polymer matrix, its crystallinity, film-forming conditions, type of solvent used, pH of formulation, casting and drying temperatures, and concentrations of additives, i.e., plasticizer, antimicrobial agents, antioxidants, emulsifiers, and cross-linking agents [ 24 , 84 ]. Also, the nature of the food item and its surface characteristics are important for application of edible coatings and films as well as the used deposition method. Therefore, the quality of the packed system is determined by the characteristics of the food item, packaging material, and the applied deposition method.

Composite Edible Packaging

In recent years, researchers have focused on developing composite edible coatings and films to improve the shelf life of food products; it is also termed as multicomponent system [ 85 ]. Therefore, to develop the composite edible packaging for food products, the biopolymer combinations such as carbohydrates-carbohydrates, protein–carbohydrates, lipid-based binary, and ternary biopolymer combinations are used in general [ 86 ]. The composite or blended biopolymer-based edible packaging is more effective to improve the quality attributes of food products [ 87 ]. The properties of the composite edible coatings and films are dependent on the compatibility and molecular interactions between the materials and additives within the composition [ 88 , 89 ]. Sometimes the composite edible packaging achieves synergistic effects of the used polymers. The combination of biopolymers allows enhancing the thermal, mechanical, barrier, and other physico-chemical properties of edible coatings and films, thereby extending their applications in food packaging sector due to intermolecular interaction and microphase separation processes between the blended biopolymers [ 90 , 91 ]. Cortés-Rodríguez et al. [ 92 ] improved the physicochemical and mechanical properties of composite edible packaging developed using chitosan, whey protein, and cassava starch for application on fruits. Previously, there are studies that present composite edible coatings and films for the extension of the shelf life of fruits and vegetables [ 93 ] and bakery products, i.e., bread, buns, biscuits, etc. [ 94 , 95 , 96 ]. The composite edible coatings and films can be classified as binary and ternary materials; the binary edible film contains a combination of two hydrocolloids while ternary including a combination of three hydrocolloids [ 82 , 85 ]. The composition of binary edible coatings and films can be formulated using a combination of carbohydrate–carbohydrate, carbohydrate–protein, and protein–protein [ 97 , 98 ]. Many researchers have developed binary and ternary edible coatings/films using different types of biopolymers. The inclusion of carbohydrates with protein-based formulation to developing edible films has shown enormous applications in food packaging sector due to their polymer properties, i.e., water and gas transpiration properties [ 85 ]. Several methods like classical, thermo-mechanical, and enzymatic methods can be used to develop binary and ternary complexes. Classical method is the standard protocol used in the preparation of binary complex; in this method, the complexes are boiled in water bath, then cooled overnight, and lastly centrifuged to collect supernatant [ 99 ]. Thermo-mechanical and enzymatic methods are used to develop ternary complexes for food packaging. In thermo-mechanical process, rapid visco analyzer is used to produce ternary complex. To obtain the starch–lipid–protein-based ternary complex, the mixture is lyophilized and then ground. In enzymatic method, the ternary composite coatings and films can be produced by polymerization of primers to branched polymers and their enzymatic hydrolysis into smaller parts for interaction between polymers [ 100 ]. Previous researchers, Maizura et al. [ 101 ] developed a composite edible packaging using hydrolyzed sago starch/alginate and reported that the inclusion of two matrixes improved the mechanical, barrier, and antimicrobial activities with excellent adhesive properties. The binary edible film based on chitosan and pullulan was also prepared by Kumar et al. [ 90 ]; their application on different fruits and vegetables was performed on mango [ 93 ], bell pepper [ 30 ], tomato [ 31 ], and litchi [ 102 ]; they were investigated and extended their shelf life by 6, 3, 6, and 3 days, respectively, at ambient temperature. In addition to these studies, all the fruits and vegetables were found acceptable at the end of storage time (18 days) at cold storage conditions. The binary and ternary complexes based on gellan gum, 2 hydroxyethyl cellulose, and lignin were prepared for food packaging application by Rukmanikrishnan et al. [ 103 ]. The prepared composites were potential to UV protection with improving thermal stability [ 104 ]. The higher antioxidant activity of binary and ternary composites was recorded with incorporation of 1%, 5%, and 10% (weight per volume) of lignin. The composite packaging (coating/films) of gelatin–pectin enriched with garlic essential oil [ 105 ], sodium alginate–sodium isoascorbate [ 106 ], chitosan–montmorillonite nanocomposite [ 107 ], corn starch with cellulose nanofiber, emulsifier and basil essential oils [ 108 ], konjac glucomannan–curdlan [ 109 ], yam starch with aetoxylon bouya essential oils (EOs) and calcium propionate [ 110 ], potato starch–sodium abenzoate [ 111 ], and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose with cyclodextrin and cellulose nanocrystals [ 112 ] were developed to improving the postharvest shelf life of red chilli, freshcut pineapple, Williams pear, mandarin, cherry tomatoes, and strawberry fruits throughout the storage period by minimizing the weight loss, lipid oxidation, maintained higher consumer acceptability, and color attributes.

Based on the previous studies, it can be concluded that the addition of various types of natural ingredients such as plant extracts, essential oils, plasticizers, cross-linking agents, and nanomaterials are used to developed active packaging; most of these ingredients act as an antimicrobial agent and help in minimizing lipid oxidation or improving the functional, mechanical, and barrier properties of the edible coatings/films and at the same time help in the protection food from external environment. The addition of natural ingredient helps in the elimination of unwanted components such as moisture content, harmful gases, and odors. The choice of packaging material and additives depends on the types of commodities and their respiratory and transpiratory actions. Hamed et al. [ 84 ] reported that the addition of natural agents, plasticizers, and nanomaterial in the coating formulations improved the mechanical properties and also act as ethylene scavengers, CO 2 emitters, O 2 scavengers, and antimicrobial/antioxidant effects on the produces, which resulted in prolonged shelf life. The water and oxygen barriers as well as antimicrobial properties of starch [ 113 ]- and chitosan [ 114 ]-based films were improved with the addition of cinnamon essential oils and luteolin nanoemulsion. On the other hand, Kumar et al. [ 90 ] proved that the addition of pomegranate peel extract and glycerol helps in the improving mechanical, physical, barrier, and thermal properties of chitosan: pullulan composite edible packaging for food applications due to intermolecular interaction between the matrixes. The addition of plasticizers may help in binding the materials with together, resulting in a smaller particle size of matrix and improved flexibility, workability, and distensibility of the packaging [ 36 ]. However, the encapsulation of nanomaterials and active agents such as plant extract and essential oils may possess antimicrobial properties and also help their controlled and sustainable release due to their chemical natures, relative to the amounts of interaction of their constituents [ 115 ]. The antimicrobial effects mainly attributed to the diffusion of active agents to nanoparticle via film and surface of microorganism, damaged their cell wall, and deactivated the microorganism through critical biochemical pathway [ 116 ]. Numerous researches have been reported that the synergistic interactions between the major and minor bioactive may result antimicrobial mechanism of essential oils in edible packaging [ 117 ]. In addition, the encapsulation of active agents may improve the dispersibility, compatibility between the matrixes, and stability of antimicrobial/antimicrobial activity. Several researchers have previously encapsulated active agents such as essential oils, plant extract, and nanomaterials (nanoemulsion) to improve the antimicrobial mechanism of packaging materials for food applications [ 118 ]. For example, Kong et al. [ 119 ] and Chen et al. [ 120 ] improved the antifungal and antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli , Staphylococcus aureus , and Bacillus cereus in starch–PVA and gelatine nanofiber-based biodegradable packaging with the addition of carvacrol nanoemulsion and eugenol EOs, respectively. On the other hand, the oregano EO nanoemulsion was incorporated in HPMC coating formulations and improved their antimicrobial activity against S. aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, E. coli, Salmonella typhimurium, Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Vibrio parahaemolyticus , etc. [ 121 ].

Cross-linking Agents

The cross-linkers agents are important agents to improve the mechanical, structural, thermal, and other properties of edible packaging [ 122 ]. Several types of cross-linking agents such as tannic acid [ 123 ]; genipin [ 124 ]; transglutaminase [ 125 , 126 ]; galla chinensis extract [ 127 ]; clay [ 128 ]; glutaraldehyde, sodium trimetaphosphate, and citric acid [ 129 , 130 ]; sodium chloride [ 131 ]; calcium chloride [ 132 , 133 , 134 ]; carboxymethyl cellulose/hydroxypropyl methylcellulose [ 135 ]; and calcium lactate, formaldehyde, carbodimide, hexamethylene, 1,6-diaminocarboxysulfonate, glutaraldehyde, keratin, metal ions, natural extracts zink chloride, heparin, wax, tannic acid, and lactic acid [ 132 , 136 , 137 ] are used to improve the properties of polymers. Based on the recommendation by the competent authority, as well as considering their nature and toxicity/non-toxicity, these cross-linkers can be used to develop edible packaging for food products [ 138 ]. The incorporation of cross-linkers with polymer constructs a cross-linked fluid system; they also help to significantly improve the rheological characteristics of the materials by increasing molecular weight of polymers and intermolecular interactions [ 139 ]. Furthermore, they help improve the molecular structure of the polymer matrix, develop a porous structure, enhance mechanical strength, and improve functional properties, such as hydration, cohesion, water resistance, and gas barrier properties of edible packaging [ 140 , 141 , 142 ]. Therefore, the selection and choice of the cross-linking agents depend on the chemical structure, molecular weight, functional groups of the polymers, and their compatibility and molecular interaction with cross-linking agents, suggesting that cross-linking agents must be cost-effective, recognized as safe for consumption, and recommended to be used in food processing sector [ 28 , 123 , 143 ]. Several researchers investigated the effects of cross-linking agents on the properties of different types of edible packaging (films and coatings) — they reported that the addition of cross-linking agents has the potential to improve the functionality of the edible packaging by creating van der Waals forces and hydrophobic and hydrogen bonds and by ion-cross-linking and electrolytic interactions; also, they help to extend the shelf life of food products throughout the storage condition [ 144 , 145 ].

Zhang et al. [ 146 ] reviewed and reported that the cross-linking agents such as citric acid help in the improving physical, mechanical, and antimicrobial properties of packaging films and can be used in preserving the shelf life and organoleptic properties of fresh foods. Duong et al. [ 147 ] used calcium chloride and hexyl acetate as cross-linking agents to improve the functional properties, such as barrier and mechanical properties, of alginate-based packaging. This led to prolonged shelf life of fresh-cut rose apple by up to 10 days at 4 °C, achieved through delayed browning, reduced respiration rate, and microbial load.

Active Edible Packaging

Nowadays, the development of edible packaging (coating/film) with natural antimicrobial and antioxidant agents has great potential due to food safety and extending shelf life of food products by minimizing oxidation with the retention of higher quality attributes of the food products, i.e., fruits, vegetables, fresh cuts, meat, and dairy products [ 120 , 148 , 149 ]. The incorporation of additives such as plasticizer, emulsifier, nanoparticles, and natural active agents (essential oils, plant extracts, etc.) significantly improves the properties of edible packaging [ 150 ], which helps to maintain the shelf life and quality attributes of the package food products, i.e., fruits, vegetables, and others [ 24 , 151 ]. As per EU Commission regulation (No. 450/2009), the incorporation of active agents deliberately in food packaging or the surrounding environment of food products would enable the absorption or release of substances in various food packaging forms [ 152 ]. Some of the commercially available active packagings such as Active-Film ™ , PEAKfresh, BIOPAC, ATCO, SANDRY, FreshPax, Celox ™ , ZERO 2 , Biomaster, Food-touch, ATOX, Pure Temp, and Green box are available in the market for food packaging purposes [ 153 ]. These active packaging methods help in the food protection by controlling moisture loss, reducing water vapor transmission rates, inhibiting ethylene synthesis, and improving antimicrobial and antioxidant activities. The naturally derived active agents such as essential oils and plant extracts can be incorporated in edible coatings and films to enhance their functional properties. They act as antioxidant and/or antimicrobial agents, helping to reduce the oxidative stress and microbial contamination. The incorporation of active ingredients is responsible for the destruction of both outer and inner membranes of microbial cells, leading to their death [ 154 , 155 ]. The multifunctional intelligent and pH-senstitve active packaging was developed by Kong et al. [ 156 ] using cross-linked zein. The prepared packaging was found effective to monitoring the freshness of the pork at 4 °C up to 9 days of storage. The mesoporous silica nanoparticles were used with tea tree essential oils and blueberry extract, serving as antimicrobial and antioxidant agents, respectively, while also functioning as a colorimetric pH indicator. The packaging can be easily monitoring the freshness of meat by cell phone.

Essential Oils

Nowadays, the consumer awareness and demand of the natural antimicrobial and preservative free food packaging have been increasing due to food safety and health concern [ 157 ]. Essential oils (EOs) are one of the most important naturally derived products with natural antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antifungal properties due to the presence of phenolic and bioactive compounds [ 158 ]. They are generally recognized as safe for human consumption, and they have been approved by United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) to use as additives and flavor agents in food or food products. Usually, EOs are used in food packaging industry to develop antimicrobial packaging against several types of foodborne pathogens [ 159 , 160 ]. Recently, many researchers considerably investigated the effects of EOs such as tea tree [ 161 ]; oregano, rosemary, and garlic [ 162 ]; thyme, lemon grass, and sage [ 163 ]; Origanum vulgare L. [ 164 , 165 ]; lime [ 157 ]; Zataria multiflora [ 166 ]; citral [ 167 ]; clove [ 168 ]; sunflower [ 34 ]; curcuma oil [ 169 ]; basil oil [ 170 ]; and ornage peel [ 171 ] to improve the physical, mechanical, barrier, and biological properties of PLA, quince seed mucilage, alginate and pectin sodium alginate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, chitosan, chitosan/zein, pectic and basil seed gum–based edible, and composite films by minimizing mentioned flaws [ 172 , 173 ]. Therefore, the incorporation of EOs into edible packaging provides a sustained release of bioactive ingredients which helps to minimize oxidation and mask the undesirable aroma [ 174 , 175 ]. Additionally, the EOs are used to develop antifungal coating, especially for fruits and vegetables, to retard the green and blue molds in highly perishable and perishable horticulture commodities. Furthermore, the addition of EOs as potential natural antimicrobial additive is concerned with improving the properties of edible films/coatings as well as food products, such as beverages, fruits and vegetables, milk, and dairy-based products [ 158 , 176 ].

Plant Extracts

Plant-derived natural polyphenols are attractive components to fabricate and improve the functionality of the food packaging. Plant parts such as leaves, flower, seed, root, and peel waste have potential to extract antimicrobial and antioxidant polyphenols and bioactive compounds and incorporate them into edible coating and films. This offers an alternative to traditional packaging methods and helps to overcome postharvest losses by extending shelf life [ 148 , 177 ]. These plant extracts can act as antibrowning agents, nutrients, colorants, and antimicrobial agents in edible packagings [ 178 ]. In addition, plant-derived natural extracts are recommended for incorporating in the food and are generally recognized as safe for the consumption. The incorporation of plant-derived extracts in polymer matrix provides mechanical, thermal, biological, and other physicochemical properties of the packaging materials. These properties of edible films and coatings depend on the interaction between the matrix and plant extract, their molecular interaction, and the crystallinity of the polymers [ 90 ]. The previous scientific evidences have proved that the incorporation of plant extracts such as pomegranate peel extract [ 24 , 90 ], raspberry extract [ 179 ]; green tea extract [ 180 ]; blueberry extract [ 181 ]; bilberry extract [ 182 ]; parsley, grape, and blueberry pomace extracts [ 183 ]; green tea extract [ 161 ]; tea extract [ 184 ]; cinnamon, clove, and star anise extracts [ 185 ]; and grape fruit seed extract, improves the thermal, mechanical, biological, and other properties of edible packaging and food products [ 178 ].

Nanomaterials

Nanotechnology is an emerging technology used in the food packaging sector for developing the nanopackaging with an excellent barrier, mechanical, thermal, antioxidant, and antimicrobial properties. It is expected that the manufacturing of the nanopackaging will cover 25% of the total food packaging in near future. The nanotechnology intervention in the food packaging sector helps to extend the shelf life of the food products by ensuring the food safety, reduced food losses and shortage, and repairing the tears in packaging for improving the consumer health. Several types of nanomaterials including nanoparticles, polymer nanocomposite, nanoemuslions, nanoformulations, and nanofillers, such as nanostarch, nanocellulose, nanochitosan, nanoproteins, and nanolipids, have been used to develop active packaging by extending the major properties of the packaging systems such as containment, convenience, protection, preservation, marketing, and eco-friendliness [ 186 , 187 , 188 ]. Nanoparticles, such as silver, gold, titanium dioxide, zinc, and nanoclay, have been used to improve the properties of food packaging [ 189 , 190 ]. The nanomaterials and other forms of nanotechnology processes generally improve the packaging system by developing active, smart, and intelligent packaging systems by protection of food from mechanical, physical, microbial, and UV damages [ 191 ]. Additionally, they could control the release of preservatives and other active agents to extend the shelf life of food products.

Regulatory Aspect of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials (NMs) have demonstrated their potential in improving the functional properties of the packaging materials, but NMs due to their relatively small size, migration from the packaging material into food, and high power of penetration in human cells could be a real threat to public health [ 192 , 193 ]. The various regulatory organizations around the globe have laid down various laws and safety guidelines for the use of NMs for the food and the packaging applications [ 194 ]. These regulatory laws and guidelines differ from country to country and include the explicit or implicit mention of NMs in the regulatory documents [ 195 ]. The EU (European) Commission in 2011 through its recommendation 2011/696/EU has explicitly talked about the definition of nanomaterials. They defined NMs as “a natural, incidental or manufactured material containing particle, in a unbound state or as an aggregate or as an agglomerate and where, for 50% or more of the particles in the number size distribution, one or more external dimensions is in the size range of 1 nm–100 nm” [ 196 ]. NMs used for the packaging applications fall under the regulations of plastic food contact materials [ 197 ], and risk associated with NMs will be performed case-by-case basis. The FDA regulatory body of the USA has published the guidelines for the use of nanomaterials in food packaging applications and stressed the importance of evaluating the safety of NM on a case-by-case basis. The FDA has approved titanium dioxide and silicon dioxide NMs for use as food contact materials [ 198 , 199 ], and zinc oxide NM has been granted generally recognized as safe (GRAS) status [ 200 ].

Techniques for Development of Nanoformulations

In food packaging sector, several types of techniques such as high-energy and low-energy techniques were used for the development of nanoformulations and nanoemulsions. High-energy techniques like high-pressure homogenizer, ultrasonication, and microfluidizer are used for the formation of nanomaterials; on the other hand, the low-energy techniques include phase inversion temperature and composition and spontaneous emulsification methods [ 201 ]. For the development of minimum particle size formulations, the high-energy emulsification techniques preferred to develop packaging for food purposes [ 202 ]. The high-energy techniques promote the high mechanical force application to develop nanoformulations by reducing larger droplets into smaller sizes. They help to increase the surface area of the matrix by reducing their particle size which improves mechanical, physical, thermal, barrier, and other functional properties of the edible coatings and films [ 203 ]. These techniques reduce the particle size of the matrix through cavitation mechanism by supplying an adequate amount of energy. High-pressure homogenization process is divided into two parts, i.e., hot high-pressure homogenizer (HHPH) and cold high-pressure homogenizer (CHPH) techniques. In HHPH, mixtures are dispersed in warm surfactants above melting point and stirred at high-speed rotation, while in CHPH, the mixture is dispersed in cold surfactants [ 202 ]. The high-pressure homogenization techniques provide more uniformity and dispersion of the materials [ 204 ], which results in increasing the surface area of the material by reducing the particle size and promoting microphase separation between two materials and additives [ 205 ].

Film Formation and Deposition Methods of Edible Packaging on Food Products

The applicability of the edible coatings on food products like meat and meat products, fruits and vegetables, and others is an important part to prolong the shelf life of these products. This is achieved by retarding moisture loss, reducing microbial count, preventing color degradation, minimizing oxidation, and minimizing loss of sensory characteristics. The edible packaging can be applied on the different types of food products according to the product types, their characteristics, and physical properties such as viscosity, density, and surface tension of the matrix. The wet process mechanism is based on the dispersion of the polymers. Several types of deposition techniques are known like dipping, brushing, spraying, fluidized bed coating, electrospraying, panning, electrostatic deposition, and vacuum impregnation [ 12 , 206 , 207 ]. Figure  3 represents the coating application methods on food products. However, dipping and spraying techniques are generally used to apply edible coatings on fruits, vegetables, and fresh-cut produce due to their cost-effectiveness and better efficiency [ 2 , 23 , 207 , 208 , 209 ]. Besides, very few studies have been available on the comparative analysis on coating application techniques. Several researchers have applied different techniques to extend the shelf life of food products (Table 1 ). On the other hand, the edible films are generally used for wrapping and packaging of food products; these films can be produced by wet (casting) and dry (extrusion) methods for food application [ 23 ]. The wet (casting) method is the most popular method on laboratory scale; on the other hand, the dry method (extrusion) is used to develop edible films at commercial scale. The properties of edible films depend on the density, rheological characteristic, surface tension, and food immersion speed of coating solution [ 12 , 13 ]. In the casting method, the coating solution is spread on a Teflon glass plate and dried using methods such as vacuum, air oven, tray dryer, and microwave, until the solvent has evaporated. The films are then subjected to further drying. Generally, the casting methods include 3 different steps including (i) solubilization of matrix with suitable solvent, (ii) casting, and (iii) drying [ 23 ]. The developed edible films using casting method should be free from imperfections, consistent, and without air bubbles. The wet (casting) method is a low-cost method, easy to manufacture edible films, and leads to improve molecular interaction between the matrix-matrix and matrix additives [ 210 ]. Furthermore, the extrusion (dry) method of film formation is a more efficient technology which takes a shorter time for film formation, is solvent-free, consumes less energy, and is easier to control mechanically when handling highly viscous matrixes as compared to the casting method [ 211 ]. Mostly, the application of edible packaging as wrapping has been used for the meat and meat-based products; therefore, the dipping method is mostly preferred for the application on fruits and vegetables to extend their shelf life for a longer period throughout the storage periods.

Application methods of edible coating on different food products

Effects of Edible Packaging (Coating/Film) on Food Products

Meat and meat products.

Nowadays, the demand of meat and meat-based products are increasing day by day due to the increased consumption around the world except Europe. The meat consumption has been remarked 346.16 million tons in 2018, worldwide, and it is expected that it will increase by 44% (453 MT) by the year of 2030 [ 246 ]. Meat is considered as an important source for the nutritional components such as protein, minerals, amino acids, fatty acids (oleic acid, linoleic and linolenic acid), vitamins (B 1 , B 2 , B 3 , and other B complex), and micronutrients [ 16 , 248 ]. The degradation of quality attributes of meat and meat products is influenced by the chemical, physical, and biological factors such as light, pH, air temperature, and microbial attack [ 249 ]. Several mechanisms such as lipid oxidation, rancidity, microbial spoilage, and enzymatic autolysis are the major factor for meat spoilage [ 250 ]. The higher level of oxygen level caused lipid oxidation, increased decay rate, and reduced the shelf life of meat and meat products [ 251 ]. Generally, the microbial population such as Salmonella typhimurium , S. aureus , E. coli , and Clostridium perfringens is responsible for the reducing quality attributes and reducing shelf life of meat and meat products [ 246 ]. The oxidation and enzymatic autolysis factors degrade the quality and organoleptic attributes of the meat and meat products by degradation of water holding capacity, textural properties, color, odor, degradation of lipids, proteins, pigments, carbohydrates, vitamins, and production of biogenic amines [ 252 ]. Therefore, due to highly perishable nature and wastage of the meat and meat products during processing, transporting, and exporting, there is a need of a proper packaging to overcome these problems. Generally, most of the non-biodegradable packaging produced from non-renewable source such as plastic, polyester, and nylon has been used to protect the meat and meat products [ 253 ]. Furthermore, due to increasing consumer demand for eco-friendly packaging to improve food safety and quality, edible packaging represents a potential approach for preserving meat and meat products for a longer time during storage [ 250 , 254 ]. Edible packaging based on renewable plant and animal-derived materials has the potential to protect the quality attributes and preserve the shelf life of meat and meat products by retarding water loss, gas transmission, and enzymatic autolysis, as well as inhibiting discoloration and microbial growth [ 250 ]. Many researchers have presented extension of the shelf life of meat and meat-based products using different edible packaging, i.e., films and coatings, during the storage period. Table 2 summarizes the effects of different types of edible packaging on the shelf life and quality attributes of the meat ad meat products. On the other hand, the rising demand and production of the meat and meat products are linked with the environmental degradation and health complications [ 255 ]. Therefore, the plant-based meat derived from pulses, grains, oils, and other plants can directly replace meat and meat products due to their ability to mimic taste and texture [ 256 ]. The production of plant-based meat helps in the environmental protection by reducing the emission of greenhouse gases and mitigating climate change [ 257 ].

Fruits and Vegetables

The fruits and vegetables play an important role in the human diet due to the presence of nutrient and phytochemical such as vitamins, proteins, minerals, fiber, carbohydrates, amino acids, phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and anthocyanin compounds [ 277 ]. The consumption of fruits and vegetables helps in the reducing the risk of disease such as cardiovascular, diabetes, stroke and others [ 278 ]. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 400 g of different fruits and vegetables should be consumed in a day for a better health [ 279 ]. However, postharvest management of fruits and vegetables during the supply chain and storage presents the biggest challenges for the food processing industry due to the perishable nature of most fruits and vegetables. Several types of factors such as physical, mechanical, chemical, and biological are responsible for the postharvest losses in fruits and vegetables; which lead to landfill and environmental pollution [ 280 ]. Therefore, the edible packaging is a sustainable ecofriendly approach to reduce the postharvest losses in fruits and vegetables by maintaining their shelf life, controlling gas exchange, and retarding moisture, respiration rate, ethylene biosynthesis, enzymatic browning, firmness, decay, aroma, and color loss due to semipermeable nature of the edible coating, which acts as a barrier against water vapor and gas transpiration [ 93 , 281 ]. Several researchers have confirmed that the application of edible packaging developed from polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids provides protection against mechanical, physical, chemical, and biological damages in fruits and vegetables during the supply chain and storage period [ 30 , 282 ]. Table 3 depicts the postharvest management of fruits and vegetables to extend their shelf life using different types of edible/active packaging around the world.

Dairy, Bakery, and Other Food Products

Dairy products, such as cheese, milk, and yoghurt, are considered as staple foods; they contain an excellent number of nutritional components such as carbohydrates, proteins, fibers, lipids, minerals, and vitamins [ 310 ]. Maintaining the shelf life of dairy-based products is a major challenge for the food industries and manufactures due to highly perishable nature. Apart from the physical factors, the mold spoilage is the major cause of the contamination in dairy products [ 311 ]. Edible packaging is the best way to allow maintenance of the quality attribute and shelf life for a longer time of dairy-based food products by reducing microbial load and minimizing oxidation [ 2 ]. Several researchers reported that the application of different biopolymer-based edible packaging with and without active agents has the potential to improve the shelf life of dairy-based food products by controlling the growth of harmful microorganism sand minimizing the rate of oxidation. For example, Desrizal et al. [ 312 ] extended the shelf life of brown seaweed dodol using chitosan and carrageenan-based edible coating by retarding the growth of mold count; the chitosan-based coating was found most effective as compared to carrageenan-based edible coating. On the other hand, various researchers have investigated the effects of edible coatings formulated using agar [ 313 ], whey protein with antimicrobial agents [ 314 ], chitosan [ 315 ], galactomannan [ 149 ], and sweet whey–based edible coatings [ 316 ] on different types of cheeses. They reported that the application of different types of edible coatings significantly improved the shelf life and sensory attributes of the cheese by maintaining the acidity, pH, taste, color, and firmness, reducing the growth of food-borne pathogens ( Listeria monocytogenes ) yeast and molds, minimizing the gas exchange, and reducing the weight loss.

On the other hand, flavor and firmness are the major factors, which indicate the acceptability of the bakery and bakery food products. The major problems of the shelf life reduction of bakery and other types of products are higher moisture content and water activity which attract mold and yeast growths during the storage period [ 311 , 317 ]. Edible packaging has the potential for improving the shelf life of the bakery and other types of food products by maintaining their firmness and organoleptic properties. Many researchers have applied different types of edible packaging to improve the shelf life of bakery food products. Table 4 summarizes the effects of edible packaging on the shelf life and quality or sensory attributes of the bakery products.

Challenges and Limitations for Edible Coating and Films

Edible coatings represent a highly promising avenue in the realm of sustainable and ecologically friendly food packaging solutions. Their potential lies in mitigating the environmental impact of traditional packaging materials, aligning with the global call for more sustainable practices. However, to fully harness the benefits of edible coatings, it is essential to acknowledge and effectively address the inherent limitations they present. By engaging in a comprehensive exploration of these constraints and offering inventive remedies, both researchers and the wider industry can collaboratively lay the groundwork for the widespread acceptance and integration of edible coatings into mainstream packaging practices. As the world increasingly prioritizes environmentally responsible approaches, surmounting these challenges takes on a pivotal role in facilitating a seamless and successful transition toward a future where sustainable packaging solutions are the norm rather than the exception. Despite, the advantage of edible packaging, there are some challenges associated with the production, storage, and use of edible packaging at commercial scale with maintained the consumer acceptability and food safety in terms of nutrition aspects and shelf life extension [ 325 ]. The major challenges of the biopolymers such as polysaccharide and protein-based edible films and coatings are poor in water and gas barrier properties. Therefore, the composite packaging with the addition of plasticizes, emulsifiers, and other components is one of the best solutions to improve the mechanical, barrier, and thermal resistance of biopolymer-based packaging [ 326 ]. On the other hand, the higher concentrations of biopolymers and active agents such as essential oils and plant extract also may have some negative impacts on the flavor of the produce, which directly affected the consumer acceptability. This is also related to the toxicity of the material. Moreover, the safety and regulations related to the use of active agent’s concentrations in edible coatings are very limited. Therefore, consumer awareness and regulations related to edible packaging and its benefits to the environment and consumers should be promoted by regulating agencies to overcome the consumer acceptance challenges at a commercial scale [ 280 , 327 ]. Several challenges are discussed below, along with possible solutions.

Regulatory Requirements

The development and implementation of safety standards, laws, and policies for the use of edible coating and nanomaterials in food packaging films require additional information from regulatory authorities like the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Union (EU) [ 118 ]. Before being employed for commercial reasons, edible coating materials must have safety certification since they come into close touch with food. The American FDA government agency must therefore deem the edible material to be generally recognized as safe (GRAS) before it may be used. Additionally, depending on the dosage, the usage of legal natural plant extracts and essential oils might cause certain allergic responses [ 3 , 328 ]. Therefore, appropriate measures must be put in place to regularly verify the toxicity and allergenicity of extracts and essential oils used in the manufacturing of edible coatings. So, the ingredients used to create edible coatings must be of food-grade quality, non-toxic, and processed with suitable sanitation. Therefore, the US Environmental Protection Agency financed research to produce pectin-based edible coatings that might improve the shelf life and quality of packaged foods [ 13 , 328 ]. According to the US FDA rules from 2006 and a European Directive from 1998, edible coatings are often classified as food additives, food coating ingredients, and food packaging materials. Fresh fruits and vegetables can be coated with edible coatings that are GRAS or authorized as food additives by the FDA. For example, the use of synthetic resins and modified resins for the edible coating of fruits and vegetables is regulated in accordance with US FDA and European legislative requirements. Food coating ingredients (FCI) are substances that are added to coating formulations as nanoparticles, antibacterial, antibrowning, antioxidant, and antifungal agents. Food contact articles (FCA) are coatings or films that are used for packaging, whereas food contact substances (FCS) are the materials used to make them [ 84 , 118 ]. The use of nanomaterials in food packaging films has generated a lot of attention. It promises the creation of food packaging with improved properties that assist in extending the shelf life of food goods. However, there is a pressing need for an established international body to supervise and control the use of nanomaterials in the food industry. According to plastic food contact materials, such as Regulation (EU) 10/2011, only nanoparticles or nanomaterials have been approved and specifically listed in the specification of Annex I of the rules that may be employed behind a functional barrier. Contrarily, Regulation 450/2009/EC integrated the general requirement for the safe use of active and intelligent packaging, which stated that active substances should either be directly incorporated into the packaging material [ 118 ].

Mechanical Strength

Edible coatings hold promise in extending the shelf life of food products; they sometimes exhibit variability in their mechanical strength and durability. This can raise concerns, particularly when juxtaposed against the robustness of conventional petroleum-based plastics. In order to overcome the current constraint, scientists and researchers are profoundly involved in the comprehensive exploration of methodologies aimed at fortifying the mechanical attributes of edible coatings. These efforts encompass the deliberate integration of various strategies, prominently including the amalgamation of diverse biopolymers as well as the incorporation of strengthening elements like nanomaterials. Through these innovative approaches, the overarching objective is to significantly amplify the overall structural robustness and lasting resilience of these coatings, ultimately paving the way for their more effective utilization and broader application in various industries.

Gas and Water Vapor Barrier Constraints

Edible coatings, although displaying commendable performance in certain aspects of maintaining food quality over time, can exhibit limitations in terms of their ability to effectively restrict the passage of gases and water vapor when contrasted with the capabilities of synthetic plastics. While these coatings derived from natural sources or edible materials offer advantages such as reduced environmental impact and potential health benefits, their inherent structure and composition might result in compromised gas and water vapor barrier properties, allowing for relatively higher permeability rates. In contrast, synthetic plastics, while less sustainable and often associated with environmental concerns, can outperform edible coatings in creating robust barriers against the ingress and egress of gases like oxygen and water vapor. This makes them more effective in prolonging the shelf life and preserving the quality of packaged foods. Consequently, the choice between these two preservation strategies involves a trade-off between environmental considerations, health aspects, and the imperative to maintain optimal food protection, prompting ongoing research to enhance the gas and water vapor barrier properties of edible coatings while retaining their overall advantages in sustainable food packaging. In the cutting-edge field of food technology, researchers are venturing deep into the realm of nanocomposites, a class of materials that combine nanoscale components to create innovative structures with remarkable properties. Their focus lies specifically in advancing the capabilities of edible coatings, which are applied to food surfaces to extend shelf life, preserve freshness, and enhance overall quality. This leap forward involves the strategic incorporation of nanomaterials possessing exceptional barrier properties into these coatings. By ingeniously integrating these nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles or nanofibers, into the edible coating’s composition, a transformational enhancement in their ability to thwart the infiltration of gases and impede the transmission of water vapor is achieved. This pioneering approach holds immense promise, potentially revolutionizing food preservation by creating a shield at the nanoscale level that effectively safeguards against external factors that degrade food quality, thus offering a substantial stride forward in food safety, sustainability, and reducing food waste.

Compatibility Challenges with Diverse Foods

Edible coatings, while promising, may encounter challenges in their universal applicability across a wide range of food products, primarily stemming from inherent disparities in texture, moisture content, and acidity among these products. The successful implementation of edible coatings to enhance preservation, appearance, and overall quality could potentially be hindered by the intricate interplay between the coating material and the diverse surfaces and compositions of different foods. Varied textures, ranging from crisp fruits to delicate baked goods, coupled with fluctuating moisture levels and varying levels of acidity in foods, present complexities that demand tailored coating solutions for optimal results. Achieving a seamless adaptation of edible coatings to this diverse array of food products necessitates a comprehensive understanding of the specific requirements and characteristics of each food item, which could lead to the development of customized coating formulations capable of effectively addressing the challenges posed by texture variations, moisture differentials, and acidity disparities. In order to overcome this challenge, researchers are actively investing their endeavors into the individualized modification of edible coating compositions, taking into account the distinct attributes exhibited by various types of food. This method of customization guarantees the optimal utilization of the advantages offered by these coatings, effectively spanning a diverse range of food items and their specific requirements.

Sensory Attributes

Edible coatings play a multifaceted role in the realm of food products, occasionally bringing about sensory modifications that intricately influence the taste, texture, and visual presentation of these consumables. These coatings, often composed of natural materials like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and other food-grade compounds, serve purposes beyond mere protection, extending to moisture retention, preservation, and even enhanced shelf life. However, their application can occasionally introduce perceptible alterations in the sensory experience of the food item. These changes might manifest as shifts in flavor perception, adjustments in the mouth feel or tactile sensation upon consumption, and even visible variations in the food’s overall appearance. While the primary intention is to improve the food’s quality, safety, and marketability, the potential for sensory transformations underscores the importance of meticulous formulation and application of edible coatings to strike a harmonious balance between functional benefits and the intrinsic sensory attributes of the final product. Innovators in the field of food technology are diligently focused on the enhancement of formulation parameters and the development of advanced application techniques, all aimed at achieving a significant reduction in the extent to which sensory attributes are altered during food processing. A strategic approach to preserving the intrinsic qualities of various food products involves the adoption of nearly transparent coatings that possess minimal flavor profiles. This deliberate choice of coatings, while maintaining a visually unobtrusive presence, contributes to the preservation of the innate characteristics and sensory experiences that consumers associate with these foods. By seamlessly integrating these innovations, the industry is poised to offer food items that not only boast extended shelf lives and improved processing efficiency, but also resonate with the authentic sensory appeal that consumers seek in their culinary experiences.

Ensuring Coating Shelf Life

Edible coatings, while offering various benefits such as extending the shelf life of perishable products and enhancing their visual appeal, can themselves face a potential limitation in the form of a limited shelf life. This inherent constraint in certain edible coatings could give rise to a notable concern, as their effectiveness in preserving the quality and freshness of the coated products might diminish as they age. The very attribute that makes these coatings advantageous could paradoxically become a drawback, impacting their ability to fulfil their intended purpose over an extended period. This underscores the need for careful consideration of the formulation and composition of edible coatings, taking into account not only their immediate benefits but also their long-term stability and viability. As researchers and manufacturers continue to innovate in the realm of edible coatings, addressing the challenge of maintaining their efficacy over time will be a crucial aspect of ensuring the consistent delivery of quality and freshness in coated products. To tackle this issue, experts are actively working on implementing cutting-edge preservation methods and refining packaging approaches to effectively counteract the potential infiltration of moisture and oxygen. By doing so, they aim to significantly prolong the lifespan of these coatings. These efforts involve the integration of innovative technologies and meticulous packaging designs that serve as barriers against the entry of moisture and oxygen, both of which are major contributors to the deterioration of coatings over time. This comprehensive approach not only ensures the integrity of the coatings during storage and transportation but also enhances their overall quality and durability. Through these advancements in preservation and packaging, experts are paving the way for coatings to maintain their efficacy and appeal for extended periods, ultimately benefiting industries reliant on these products.

Future Perspectives

Edible packaging coatings and films are effective strategies to maintain the quality and sensory attributes of different types of food products by reducing the weight loss, barrier against gas transmission, and water transpiration. The composite packaging is most desirable to maintain the quality attributes of food products as compared to edible coating prepared from single polymer due to excellent barrier properties against gas and water transpiration. Several types of methods have been used to develop composite packaging for food products, and each method has its own limitations. Therefore, the high-pressure homogenization technologies, such as microfluidization and ultrasonication, should be used to develop biopolymer-based edible packaging nanoformulations to improve their stability on the surface of food products for a longer period of time. There is a need for further research to identify the compatible biopolymers, their interactions with other ingredients such as plasticizers and emulsifiers, and to investigate their efficacy in improving the quality and sensory attributes of food products along with shelf life extension. The selection of coating method for the application on the variety of food products is also important for ensuring the applicability of materials on the surface of food products and their effects on food quality. Furthermore, most research and novel technologies require reducing the hygroscopic nature of plant-based biopolymers such as gums. In addition, the most suitable composition with other biopolymers and additives like active ingredients should be further explored in more details. Additionally, the application methods for edible coating on food products should also be explored further for their applicability, stability, and the cost of the coating formulations. Besides, the effects of high-pressure homogenization technologies on the properties of coating materials and applicability on the surface of food products require more detailed studies as well. The main focus of researchers should be on the recovery of biopolymers, such as cellulose, pectin, starch, proteins, hemicellulose, lignin, collagens, gelatin, chitin, agar, alginates, whey, and casein, from the different types of food waste and by-products obtained from different parts of fruits, vegetables, animals, and dairy-based products, and subsequently valorize them to develop biodegradable and safe coating for food products. Therefore, most of the by-products and biowastes (peels, seed, pomace, pulp, bagasse, skin, stones, husk, bran, corn cobs, fins, scales, muscles, viscera, shells, and other biomasses) can serve as valuable renewable sources for components of edible packaging. Specifically, food, agro-, and industrial substances based on polysaccharide, protein, or lipid, due to their high bioavailability, biodegradability, and/or nutritional value, can be effectively used for this purpose while also contributing to the reduction of waste disposal areas. In this context, plant-based substances like fruit and vegetable by-products and waste (peels, seeds, shells, etc.) could possess a high-commercial value and could be considered suitable candidates for this purpose. Their combination or composite edible packaging is something that overcomes traditional barrier or mechanical issues for this type of packaging compared to single-used biopolymers. This is also in line with most of the Sustainable Development Goals because the utilization of biowaste and by-products is a sustainable trend that has social, economic, and environmental impacts on the planet, meaning less pollution for air, soil, and water resources, which is good for planetary health; additionally, it offers health benefits for humans due to the potential functional and nutritive values of bioactives extracted from biowaste when combined with food.

Moreover, there are a limited number of studies available investigating the effectiveness of edible coatings in combination with other non-thermal preservation techniques like pulsed light, ultraviolet electromagnetic radiation like ultraviolet (UV-C), gamma irradiation on the quality attributes, and shelf life of food products. Therefore, further research is needed on the use of non-thermal preservation techniques coupled with edible coatings based on hurdle concepts to maintain the quality attributes of food products. From an engineering perspective, there is also a further need to develop the low-cost spraying machine at the lab scale for coating application on food products, especially for fruits, vegetable, and fresh cuts.

Edible packaging is an integral part of the sustainable packaging system. It aids to reduce the reliance on non-renewable resources. The efficacy and functional attributes of edible packaging materials are greatly reliant on the inherent properties of the film-forming materials. Biopolymers such as polysaccharides, lipids, and proteins derived from natural sources are used to develop edible coatings and films. Edible packaging (films and coatings) is substantial in extending the shelf life of food products. Therefore, composite materials such as binary and ternary edible packaging have even greater potential in maintaining the freshness, color, vitamins, minerals, firmness, and other nutritional and sensory attributes of food products. This might be possible due to barrier properties of the edible packaging against water transpiration and gas transmission. Furthermore, the incorporation of active agents such as essential oils and plant extracts can act as natural antimicrobial agents which inhibit the growth of harmful microorganism in food products. This study also concludes that the application of high-pressure homogenization techniques such as ultrasonication and microfluidization is effective in reducing the particle size of materials at the nanoscale, thereby improving the stability of packaging materials for a longer time period. Therefore, the replacement of traditional synthetic polymer-based coatings with biodegradable films should be emphasized as an extremely desired approach.

Availability of Data and Materials

Not applicable.

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Acknowledgements

The work was funded by The Department of Biotechnology, Government of India in project entitled “Use of non-toxic nanoformulations for prolonging shelf life and reduction of post-harvest loss of Khasi mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata) of North East India [BT/PR39789/ NER/95/1664/2020]”. Authors also would like to acknowleged National Institute of Food Technology Entrepreneurship and Management, Kundli, Sonepat, Haryana, India.

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Nishant Kumar, Jaishankar Prasad, Ajay Yadav, Ashutosh Upadhyay,  Neeraj,  Heena & Shweta Suri

Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, National Institute of Technology Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, Hamirpur, 177005, India

Agro Produce Processing Division, ICAR-Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, 462038, India

Department of Nanotechnology, North-Eastern Hill University (NEHU), East Khasi Hills, Shillong, Meghalaya, 793022, India

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Amity Institute of Food Technology (AIFT), Amity University, Uttar Pradesh, Noida, India

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All the authors contributed to the review conception and design. Literature search was performed by Nishant Kumar, Pratibha, Jaishankar Prasad, Ajay Yadav, Ashutosh Upadhyay, Neeraj, Shruti Shukla, Anka Trajkovska Petkoska, Heena, Shweta Suri, Małgorzata Gniewosz, and Marek Kieliszek. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Nishant Kumar, Jaishankar Prasad, and Pratibha, and all the authors revised and commented on subsequent versions. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Kumar, N., Pratibha, Prasad, J. et al. Recent Trends in Edible Packaging for Food Applications — Perspective for the Future. Food Eng Rev 15 , 718–747 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12393-023-09358-y

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Top 50 Fun Food Science Experiments

Welcome to our carefully curated compilation of the top 50 food science experiments especially created for curious students and budding young scientists.

Are you ready to embark on a mouth-watering journey where science meets deliciousness? We’ve handpicked a collection of fascinating experiments that will tickle your taste buds and ignite your curiosity.

Edible Food Science Experiments

Edible food science experiments offer a delicious and engaging way for students and teachers to explore scientific principles in a hands-on and memorable manner.

By combining the fascinating world of food with the principles of chemistry, biology, and physics, these experiments provide a unique avenue for learning.

1. Magical Color Changing Unicorn Noodles

Get ready to enter a world of whimsy and enchantment with this captivating food science experiment: “Magical Color Changing Unicorn Noodles!”.

Learn more: Magical Color-Changing Unicorn Noodles

2. Glow in the Dark Jello

Prepare to be amazed and mesmerized by the enchanting world of “Glow in the Dark Jello!” Calling all curious minds and lovers of luminescence, this food science experiment will take you on a journey into the realm of bioluminescence and chemistry.

Learn more: Glow in the Dark Jello

3. DIY Soil Layers

Get ready to dig deep into the fascinating world of soil science with this captivating food science experiment: “DIY Soil Layers.”

This hands-on project will take you on a journey of exploration as you unravel the intricate layers that make up the foundation of our planet’s biodiversity.

4. Solar Oven

By building and using a solar oven, students will unlock the secrets of heat transfer, insulation, and sustainability. Witness the incredible transformation of sunlight into cooking power as you prepare delicious snacks with the sun’s energy.

Learn more: Solar Oven ]

5. Oreo Moon phase

This experiment not only offers a delightful treat for your taste buds but also introduces you to the fascinating study of astronomy and celestial phenomena.

6. Lava Toffee

Get ready to ignite your taste buds and witness a molten spectacle with this thrilling food science experiment: “Lava Toffee!”.

Calling all daring confectionery explorers and lovers of sweet surprises, this hands-on experience offers a fusion of culinary creativity and scientific discovery.

7. Fizzy Lemonade

This experiment is your ticket to becoming a beverage alchemist as you explore the science behind creating the ultimate fizzy lemonade.

8. DIY Home-made Ice Cream in a Bag

“Homemade DIY Ice Cream in a Bag!” Calling all students with a passion for dessert and a curiosity for science, this is an experiment you won’t want to miss.

9. Turn Milk into Cheese

“Turn Milk into Cheese!” If you’ve ever wondered how that creamy goodness makes its way from the farm to your plate, this is your chance to unlock the secrets of cheese making.

Learn more: Turn Milk into Cheese

10. Bread in a Bag

This experiment not only allows you to explore the science behind bread fermentation and yeast activation but also provides an opportunity to develop essential kitchen skills and creativity.

11. Edible Water Bottle

This experiment not only provides a practical solution to the global plastic pollution problem but also introduces you to the principles of food science and sustainable packaging.

12. Home-made Butter

Prepare to be amazed as you transform a simple ingredient into a creamy, spreadable delight right in the comfort of your own kitchen.

By participating in this experiment, students will not only discover the mesmerizing process of butter making, but also gain a deeper understanding of the science behind it.

13. Rock Candy Geodes

This experiment offers a delectable treat for your taste buds and introduces you to the fascinating world of minerals and crystal formation.

14. Make a Fizzy Sherbet

Get ready for a fizzy and flavorful explosion with this exciting food science experiment: “Fizzy Sherbet!” Calling all taste adventurers and fizz enthusiasts, this experiment is sure to tickle your taste buds and ignite your curiosity.

Learn more: Make a Fizzy Sherbet

15. Meringue Towers

This experiment not only allows you to explore the science behind meringue’s unique texture and stability but also provides an opportunity to develop your creativity and precision in the kitchen.

Learn more: Meringue Towers

16. Mug Cake

Students, this is your chance to dive into the fascinating world of culinary chemistry as you explore the principles of ingredient ratios, microwave heat transfer, and the science behind cake rising.

Learn more: Magic Mug Cake

17. Apple Experiment

This experiment not only stimulates your senses but also encourages critical thinking, data analysis, and creativity. So, grab your lab coats, sharpen your taste buds, and let the apple experiment take you on a journey of scientific discovery.

18. Grape Molecule

This hands-on experience not only allows you to engage with the principles of chemistry and molecular structure but also stimulates your creativity as you craft your own grape molecule masterpiece.

Learn more: Grape Molecule

19. Kitchen Chemistry

Get ready to mix, bake, and discover the magic of chemistry in the kitchen with this exciting The Kitchen Chemistry Cake Experiment!.

Calling all aspiring bakers and science enthusiasts, this hands-on experience offers a delectable blend of culinary art and scientific exploration.

Learn more: Cake Experiment

20. Sugar on Snow

This experiment not only offers a delicious sensory experience but also teaches you about the principles of heat transfer and phase changes.

21. Fibonacci Lemonade

As you pour and observe the layers of the Fibonacci Lemonade forming, you’ll gain a deeper appreciation for the harmonious relationship between science and art.

Learn more: Fibonacci Lemonade

22. Edible Glass

By combining simple ingredients and a touch of creativity, you’ll transform ordinary kitchen materials into a stunning and edible glass-like creation.

Learn more: Edible Glass

23. Edible Igneous Rocks Experiment

As you shape and mold the ingredients into rock-like structures, you’ll gain a deeper understanding of the volcanic processes that shape our planet. So, grab your materials, don your lab coat, and let’s embark on this delectable geological adventure.

Non-Edible Food Science Experiments

Prepare for a non-edible food science adventure that will ignite your curiosity and challenge your scientific prowess! These experiments will unlock the secrets of chemical reactions, physical properties, and the wonders of scientific exploration.

24. Magnetic Cereal

Prepare to be magnetized by the captivating world of “Magnetic Cereal!” This fascinating food science experiment will take you on a journey of discovery as you explore the hidden magnetic properties of your favorite breakfast cereal.

Learn more: Magnetic Cereal

25. Lemon and Battery

As you observe the lemon-powered circuit in action, you’ll gain a deeper understanding of the science behind electrical conductivity and the role of acids in generating power.

Learn more: Lemon and Battery

26. Milk Swirl Experiment

Prepare to be mesmerized by the enchanting “Milk Swirl Experiment.” This captivating food science exploration will take you on a journey through the mysterious world of surface tension and molecular movement.

Learn more: Milk Swirl Experiment

27. Bouncy Egg

Get ready for an egg-citing and egg-ceptional food science experiment: “Bouncy Egg!” Prepare to witness the incredible transformation of a fragile egg into a resilient and bouncy marvel.

Learn more: Bouncy Egg

28. Extracting Strawberry DNA

Through this hands-on exploration, you’ll develop a deeper understanding of the structure and function of DNA, as well as the importance of DNA in all living organisms.

29. Lemon Volcano Experiment

Calling all budding scientists and lovers of all things sour, this lemon volcano experiment is sure to leave you awestruck.

Learn more: Lemon Volcano Experiment

30. Electric Cornstarch

As you observe the cornstarch mixture respond to the electric current, you’ll gain a deeper understanding of the properties of matter and the interactions between electricity and materials.

31. Pop Rock Science

This hands-on experience not only offers a delightful sensory experience but also allows you to explore the principles of gas production, pressure, and the science of effervescence.

Learn more: Pop Rock Science

32. Frost in a Can

By using simple household materials, you’ll create your very own mini frost chamber that will transform warm air into a breathtaking display of frost.

33. Hopping Corn

Get ready to witness a popping and colorful spectacle with this captivating Hopping Corn experiment. This hands-on experience combines the excitement of popcorn popping with a twist of chemical reaction.

Learn more: Hopping Corn

34. Digestive System Experiment

Using a plastic bag filled with water, bread, and calamansi juice, you’ll witness firsthand how our bodies break down and extract nutrients from our food.

This experiment visually represents the digestive process and introduces you to our digestive system’s intricate workings.

Candy Science Experiments

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The effect of food packaging elements on children’s food choices and intake: A systematic review

Alazne arraztio-cordoba.

1 Department of Management, Universidad Loyola Andalucia, Cordoba, Spain

Rafael A. Araque-Padilla

Maria jose montero-simo, cristian m. olarte-sanchez.

2 Loyola Behavioral Lab, Department of Psychology, Universidad Loyola Andalucia, Seville, Spain

Associated Data

Little can be added about the worldwide concern over the exponential increase in obesity and child overweight problems. Much of the unhealthy eating habits occur at the time of food choice. The enormous influence of marketing strategies in general, and packaging in particular, has been highlighted here. In this respect, public policies that tend to direct choices toward healthier options have been developed. However, the usefulness of such policies will depend on evidence of how different packaging elements can influence children. This systematic review (SR) aims to compile the knowledge available to date on the influence of packaging on food choices and eating behaviours in children. Methodologically, the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) guidelines have been followed to select papers. We also assessed the risk of bias in the studies analysed using the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale (NOS). The initial search strategy found 2,627 articles, although only 20 of them met the eligibility criteria. Data from the studies were extracted, categorised, and analysed. The results indicate that most of the packaging elements have some effect on children’s food choices or food intake. The use of Cartoon is the element with the most consistent evidence of influence. Despite the number of studies and public initiatives developed to promote this informative and persuasive element, less consistency has been found regarding the effect of Nutrition Labelling. Therefore, the results found should be considered by both governments and organisations when promoting public policies that work for the wellbeing of children.

Introduction

Marketing is present daily in many facets of our lives. Among its various objectives, it seeks, through different management techniques, to capture the desired target’s attention and interest to improve sales opportunities ( 1 ). This is true for food products aimed specifically at children ( 2 ). The food industry is one of the most active marketing tools, as it operates on a saturated and competitive market ( 3 ). For this reason, marketing is essential, as it is the primary differentiating element ( 4 , 5 ). Traditional mass media campaigns or the persuasive use of product packaging attract children’s attention ( 6 ). In particular, in continuous evolution and growth, the packaging strategy has become an element that reinforces the commercial appeal of food products aimed at children ( 4 , 7 ). In these cases, its use has been socially questioned when it comes to unhealthy products [according to the recommendations of the World Health Organization (WHO)], a category exceptionally dynamic in the use of commercial persuasion ( 8 , 9 ). This concern has to be understood in a global context of an alarming exponential increase in childhood obesity [38.9 million overweight children in 2020 ( 10 , 11 )], with serious doubts about the possible impact on the long-term health and full development of children.

Packaging has been studied in the literature to shed light on its possible impact on purchasing decisions. Thus, in the case of children, we find systematic reviews (SRs) where packaging is studied together with other marketing tools, such as advertising or product placement, according to its effect on eating behaviour ( 12 – 15 ). Previous, more specific reviews on the packaging either do not address its effect on children ( 16 ) or only analyse the effect of more visual marketing appeals ( 8 ). The review by Hallez et al. ( 17 ) analyses the effect of each packaging element on food choice and food intake, comparing children and adults. However, this is a separate analysis of each element without analysing what happens when elements of a different nature are combined in the same packaging.

This is precisely the main objective of this SR, to highlight the current knowledge on how the different packaging elements interact and how the effects of some elements can be annulled or enhanced in the presence of others. Especially if we find ourselves with elements of a very different nature, as in the case of the combination of persuasive or attractive elements versus more informative or dissuasive elements ( 13 ). This has led us to differentiate the elements to be studied between Nutrition Labelling and Marketing Techniques.

Nutrition Labelling is responsible for informing consumers about the nutritional properties of food. They were created to help consumers to make more healthy purchasing and consumption decisions, to avoid misleading labelling, to protect their health, and to ensure fair practices in the food trade ( 18 ). Addressing its informative appeal, we considered Front-of-pack Nutrition Labelling (FOPL) and the Nutrition FACTS Label (FACTS) as part of Nutrition Labelling. The FOPL is a type of graphic labelling intended to help consumers improve their understanding of nutritional information on food products [e.g., Traffic Light System (as Nutri-Score), Nutritional Warnings, Guideline Daily Amount, Reference Intake, or Health Star Rating System]. Furthermore, FACTS is information provided to the consumer about the nutritional profile of foods. It is generally quantitative and is intended to convey an understanding of the number of nutrients in a product ( 19 ).

Marketing Techniques are considered persuasive techniques used by the food industry to attract children’s attention, improve product recognition, and create a positive attitude toward the brand. Attending the scope of this study, we have considered as Marketing Techniques visual elements such as cartoons or characters, tie-ins with movies or TV shows, games and advergames, giveaways, child-appealing imagery or graphics, product shape, colour, products packaged explicitly for children, and serving suggestion image ( 16 ). Moreover, all types of Claims are considered Marketing Techniques, because, although they are not visual elements, they generate attractiveness to the product. Even if they are regulated by The Codex Alimentarius to protect consumers from false and misleading messages ( 20 ), the food industry makes voluntary use of them as an appealing element.

Taking into account all these different but complementary intentions of the packaging elements, the comparative and contrastive study of Marketing Techniques and Nutrition Labelling is therefore indispensable. Only by knowing how the different packaging elements interact with each other, and the effects of one on the other, we will be able to fully understand the real impact of products aimed at children. An impact that could affect the most vulnerable sector of the population misleading them to do unhealthy decisions.

To do so, is necessary to examine all the elements of packaging, covered in the previous literature, with the aim of finding out their effect on food choice and food intake. For this reason, this SR has as preliminary objective:

• (I) To find out the effect of each packaging element separately as discussed in the literature on children’s food choices and/or food intake, whether they are Marketing Techniques or Nutrition Labelling elements.

Moreover, to understand the interactions among elements, this SR pursues the following main research objective:

• (II) To find out the effect of different packaging elements in the presence of other types of elements on children’s food choices and/or food intake; and thus to see if the effect in isolation is modified in the presence of other packaging elements, especially when it comes to the interaction of elements that could generate some cognitive dissonance.

This will be done by reviewing systematically previous experimental articles, which allow the almost total control of the study variables according to the objective pursued, the identification of the cause-effect relationship, and the replicability and testability of the studies. In addition, these experiments should yield quantitative results to ensure that confirmatory effects can be obtained ( 21 ) and will be considered according to the methodological quality of their experimental procedures with the ultimate aim of yielding more reliable conclusions, avoiding heterogeneity, and guaranteeing the consistency of the results. These will be analysed with particular attention to possible risks of bias, something that has not been fully taken into account in other SRs on packaging.

The results will provide relevant information for policymakers, programme managers, and health professionals to design public policies aimed at a healthier diet for children.

This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) guidelines ( 22 , 23 ) (see Supplementary Tables 2 , 3 for PRISMA 2020 Checklist)”.

Eligibility criteria

The PICOS (Population, Intervention, Comparator, Outcome, Study design) eligibility criteria were as follows ( 24 ):

Participants must be children and adolescents <18 years old. Adults over 18 years of age are therefore excluded.

Type of study

The articles included those focussed on the packaging of food aimed at children, analysing its different elements as a whole or separately: Marketing Techniques on Packaging (e.g., Colour, Shape, Size, In-product Promotions, Celebrities, Claims as Nutrition Claims or other Claims) and Nutrition Labelling (e.g., FOPL and FACTS). Therefore, any study that analyses other marketing tools such as TV commercials or videos on digital platforms is excluded.

Comparators

The comparators took into account as inclusion criteria those focussed on evaluating the Marketing Techniques present on the Packaging of food products aimed at children: Outcome with neutral packaging, outcome toward a product with a given packaging element versus another, and outcome with or without intervention.

Two categories of outcomes were considered: (I) Food choice and (II) Food intake.

Study design

The study designs are experimental studies with or without intervention (randomised and non-randomised controlled, with a control group) that offer quantifiable results. For those studies with intervention, there is no fixed time of the action or follow-up period for the experimental and control groups. Those experiments that work with qualitative methodologies (e.g., Focus groups, interviews) are excluded from our study. The studies may have been conducted in the laboratory, field, or hybrids. Moreover, studies conducted on online platforms have also been taken into account.

No restriction was placed on the year of publication of the papers chosen. Nor are the studies restricted by geographic area or country income level. All papers included must have been written in English. Any publication other than a journal article (e.g., conference abstracts, web articles, editorials) is excluded.

Information sources and search strategy

The initial literature search was conducted in six databases in November 2021. The databases were as follows: MEDLine, Academic Search Ultimate, Business Source Ultimate, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, Web of Science.

The string of terms used for the paper search was as follows: (”food package*” OR “food label*”) OR (”nutrition label*” OR “nutrition fact*”) AND (child* OR “youth” OR “young” OR adolescent* OR school* OR preschool* OR teen*).

For each database, the search was configured to be performed on the abstracts of the articles (AB). Thus, this search was systematised to obtain a set of articles from which duplicates had to be eliminated. After this, two fundamental steps were followed to locate articles included in SR: Reading the title and abstract of the papers and then reading them in full. The first phase was carried out by AA-C, RG-C, and MS-T, and the second phase by AA-C and CO-S. The PICO structure considered the inclusion and exclusion criteria in both phases. Reading the title and abstract took approximately 1 month and was carried out independently and blindly by the reviewers. In comparing the results obtained, an agreement rate of 95% was reached. A disagreement review was required until a 100% agreement rate was reached. After this step, the potential full-text articles were searched for and read by AA-C and CO-S, again in a blinded and independent manner. This process took a month and a half. Pooling the results resulted in substantial agreement (kappa = 0.62, 95% CI 0.40–0.85). Disagreements were discussed to determine the total number of articles included in the SR.

Quality assessment

The tool used to evaluate the articles included in the SR was the Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale (NOS) ( 25 ); specifically, the tool created to evaluate Case-Control Studies. NOS uses three main categories to assess the studies: Selection, Comparability, and Exposure. Each category has a series of items accompanied by stars. The sum of the set of stars determines whether a study has a low risk of bias (>7 stars) or, conversely, a high risk of bias (<7 stars). To complete the results of the NOS tool, the free version of the Revman 5 software (Review Manager) developed by The Cochrane Collaboration was used to extract the Risk of bias graph, which helps to interpret the results quickly and visually.

Charting the data

After analysing the Risk of the articles, a standardised extraction of the relevant data from the included studies was performed. This data extraction was also carried out with the participation of the two reviewers (AA-C and CO-S), without conflicts. The extracted data were divided into two tables, the first with the key information of the studies and the second with the results. The extracted information is as follows:

• - General information and identifiers of the studies: (authors and year of publication).
• - Study population data: (sample size, target, median age, and region).
• - Study tools: (type of experimental design, nutritional value of the food, assessment tool, and existence of intervention).
• - Comparators of the study: (detail of the experimental groups, control groups, stimulus materials, Packaging Marketing Technique).
• - Outcomes of the study: (food choice and food intake and their effect).

Collating, summarising, and reporting the results

The main characteristics of the studies analysed have been synthesised in a table that summarises information about the sample sizes of the experiments, the regions of performance, the quality of the studies, the nutritional information of the foods, and the prevalence of these in the experiments, the type of experimental design, whether or not there is an intervention in the studies, the outcomes reported, and the packaging element analysed. This table provides a descriptive and global perspective of the results of this SR.

General description of the article selection

A total of 2,627 articles were initially extracted from the databases. After eliminating duplicates, 1,289 articles were eligible for reading by title and abstract. Of these, 64 articles were considered for a full reading. In the complete reading, 21 articles were found that did not meet the methodological requirements (lack of control group, qualitative experiments, or non-experimental procedures), and 7 articles were eliminated because their objective did not fit the one intended in this SR (they did not study packaging), 9 articles were eliminated because the population did not fit the PICO structure of our study (adults) and, finally, 10 articles were eliminated because the outcome did not correspond to food choice or food intake. A backward search of reference lists led us to include 3 more articles.

Finally, 20 studies met all the SR inclusion criteria. Figure 1 shows the PRISMA Flow diagram ( 23 ), which schematises this article’s process of obtaining the papers.

Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews (PRISMA) flow diagram of the included and excluded studies throughout the systematic review protocol ( 23 ).

Study characteristics

The key characteristics of the included studies are summarised in Figure 2 . The most relevant results are presented in the following paragraphs (see Supplementary Table 1 for further characteristics of included articles).

Key characteristics of the included studies.

Country, year, and experimental design of the studies

There are differences in the date of the studies (the range is from 2010 to 2020). The years with the most publications were 2014 ( 26 – 28 ) and 2019 ( 29 – 32 ), with an increasing trend in recent years. The regions where the studies were conducted are detailed below: North America: USA ( 29 , 33 – 39 ), Canada ( 40 ); Europe: UK ( 41 , 42 ), Belgium ( 32 , 43 ), Iceland ( 44 ); South America: Brazil ( 31 ), Guatemala ( 27 ), Uruguay ( 45 ); Australia ( 26 , 28 ), and Asia: Indonesia ( 30 ). In terms of experimental design, most of the articles present a Between-Subjects design (55% of the studies) ( 26 , 28 , 29 , 31 , 33 – 36 , 39 , 40 , 42 ); the rest present a Within-Subjects design (35%) ( 27 , 32 , 37 , 38 , 43 – 45 ); a single article presents a Mixed-measures design ( 41 ) and another a quasi-experimental design ( 30 ). Six studies are experiments with intervention. These interventions were educational, and their main objective was to teach children about nutrition and healthy eating habits. Three of them are focussed on instructing children to read and interpret Nutrition Labelling properly and to get them to make an appropriate and autonomous choice of the foods they will acquire and consume ( 29 , 30 , 36 ). One of them, using short nutrition lessons and different marketing techniques such as colour, cartoons, and promotions, tries to encourage children to consume fruits and vegetables ( 35 ). Another one focussed on how counter-advertising teaches children about healthy food choices ( 26 ). The last one teaches children key aspects of nutrition and physical activity ( 39 ).

Nutritional quality of food products

The nutritional quality of the foods present in the experimental procedures of the studies has been categorised into low, mixed and high nutritional value, according to WHO recommendations ( 46 ). Thus, low nutritional value products are highly processed, with ingredients that contribute to the intake of saturated fats, sodium, and sugars (e.g., sweets, sweet drinks, snacks, or cereals). A total of 40% of the studies analyse products exclusively with a low nutritional value. Furthermore, 55% of the articles studied foods with both low (unhealthy) and high nutritional value (healthy). These articles are referred to as mixed nutritional value. Only one study uses foods with high nutritional value, which are products that are recommended by the WHO to follow a healthy diet (water, bread, fruit juice, yoghurt, and carrots) ( 44 ).

Risk of bias

A total of 65% of the studies included in this SR show a low risk of bias in terms of Selection, Comparability, and Exposure (see Table 1 and Figure 3 ). A high risk of bias was found in six studies ( 31 , 35 , 37 – 40 , 44 ) which will be considered when analysing them because of the possible inconsistency of their effects and the heterogeneity of their results.

Quality appraisal studies.

Risk of bias graph.

Main findings

In the following section, the results of the selected studies will be shown. We will develop the results about the different packaging elements, considering the quality of the studies, the nutritional value of the foods they accompany, and their effectiveness on food choice and food intake in children (see Table 2 for the key results of included studies).

Key results of included studies.

Packaging elements analysed

A total of 73,53% of the packaging elements analysed in this study correspond to Marketing Techniques on Packaging, compared to 26,47% of Nutrition Labelling. The Marketing Techniques on Packaging found in the studies, according to their prevalence, are: Cartoon ( 27 , 33 , 35 , 37 , 41 , 44 , 45 ), Nutrition Claims ( 26 , 28 , 38 , 39 , 45 ), Serving Suggestion Image ( 32 , 42 , 43 ), Branded Packaging ( 35 , 40 ), Colour ( 35 , 40 ), Celebrities ( 28 ), In-product Promotions ( 34 ), Premium Offers ( 28 ), Product Name ( 33 ), Health Claim ( 39 ), and General Claim ( 39 ). For Nutrition Labelling, FOPL —especially Traffic Light System ( 29 – 31 , 45 ), Nutritional Warnings ( 31 ), Guideline Daily Amount ( 45 ), and one of them, with an undetermined type ( 36 )— followed by FACTS ( 30 , 36 ) stands out. In the experimental design of the articles, these elements are studied in some cases in isolation and others in comparison with other elements. In the case of Cartoons, they are analysed in isolation in 57.14% of the cases ( n = 4), compared to 42.86% in combination. Promotions and FACTS appear in isolation in half of the articles in which they are analysed ( n = 1). In the case of FOPL, they are analysed in isolation in 40% of the articles reviewed ( n = 5), and Nutrition Claims in 40% of the cases ( n = 2). Elements such as Branded Packaging, Colour, Celebrities, and Product Name are analysed in combination with other packaging elements in all the articles in which they are included. The Serving Suggestion Image is the only element not studied in combination with other packaging elements.

Considering all the packaging elements together we observe that the most prevalent is the Cartoon, licenced or unlicensed, being present in 35% of the articles reviewed (57.14% with a low risk of bias). The following most prevalent elements are FOPL, present in 25% of the articles (80% with a low risk of bias), and Nutrition Claims, present in 25% of the articles too (75% with a low risk of bias). It is worth mentioning that FOPL has been studied with different presentation formats, for example, between Traffic Light Systems with other formats such as Guideline Daily Amount and Nutritional Warnings ( n = 7 but in 5 studies).

Cartoon has been studied in 28.57% of cases in foods with low nutritional value, compared to 40% in the case of FOPL and 60% in the case of Nutrition Claims.

Elements effectiveness asset across studies

We will begin by analysing the evidence found regarding the effect of Marketing Techniques on Packaging and then focus on Nutrition Labelling.

Within Marketing Techniques on Packaging, specifically in the case of Cartoons, we can state that the evidence of their effects is consistent, as all studies find a positive influence of Cartoons on both food choice and food intake ( 27 , 33 , 35 , 37 , 41 , 44 , 45 ). However, most of the articles have focussed on food choice ( n = 6) ( 27 , 33 , 37 , 41 , 44 , 45 ) and 67% of them have a low risk of bias ( 27 , 33 , 41 , 45 ), supporting the consistency of the results. On the other hand, the results for food intake should be taken with caution, as they have a high risk of bias, and no studies are considered in this SR to contrast these findings.

Only one comparative analysis of the Cartoon with other packaging elements has been found. This is the case of Lapierre et al. ( 33 ), which compares it with the Product Name. Their results conclude that Cartoons have a more significant influence on children’s food choices. There are also no conclusive effects on the greater or lesser power of Cartoons according to the healthiness of the food. Although Roberto et al. ( 37 ), found evidence of a greater effect of Cartoons on unhealthy foods versus healthy foods, the study suffers from a high risk of bias.

For the Nutrition Claims, there is evidence that it favours children’s food choices, but not as consistently as in the case of Cartoons. Although more studies have been found that demonstrate its effectiveness ( n = 4) ( 26 , 28 , 38 , 39 ), most of them with a low risk of bias. There is also a study with high methodological quality that fails to demonstrate these effects ( 45 ). On the other hand, no evidence has been found on the influence of Nutrition Claims on food intake.

Regarding the Serving Suggestion Image, all the studies demonstrate its effectiveness in children’s food intake ( 32 , 42 , 43 ). As those studies have a low risk of bias ( n = 3), we can confirm the consistency of these results. There are no studies that demonstrate its effectiveness in food choice.

As far as Branded Packaging is concerned, no solid results have been found on its effects on food choice or food intake in children. Of the two studies with a high risk of bias, one shows its effectiveness on food choice ( 40 ), and the other fails to prove its effect on food intake ( 35 ). Given the scarcity of scientific evidence with high methodological quality to support these results, we cannot conclude the influence of this element. Similar conclusions were reached with the results for Colour. This packaging element seems to affect food choice and food intake in children. Still, both studies demonstrating this have a high risk of bias, which is evidence of the heterogeneity of these results ( 35 , 40 ). In a comparative study between Branded Packaging and Colour and their impact on food choice, Elliott et al. ( 40 ) found greater Colour effectiveness than Branded Packaging. However, this study also presents a high risk of bias, so its results should be taken with caution due to their possible inconsistency.

On the other hand, there is also an effect of Celebrities, specifically Sports Celebrities, on food choice in boys, although the same effect could not be demonstrated in girls ( 28 ). No studies have been found that prove their effectiveness on food intake.

In the case of Promotions, and with the caution of the low number of studies found, we can determine, with certain reliability thanks to the low risk of bias of the studies ( n = 2), that they have no effect on food choice in children ( 28 , 34 ).

Regarding Product name, there is evidence of high methodological quality that supports its effect on food choice, but in a limited way with only one study in this respect ( 33 ).

With regard to Nutrition Labelling, some inconsistency has been found in the results of the articles using FOPL. While two articles with high methodological quality found a positive impact on food choice in children ( 29 , 30 ), another two, one of them with high methodological quality ( 45 ), and another with a high risk of bias ( 31 ) did not find a significant impact on food choice. However, it seems to help, if the children have more excellent knowledge about the product’s healthiness. The only article, which also presents a low risk of bias, indicates that the FOPL does not affect children’s food intake ( 36 ). Consequently, with these results it is difficult to establish a significant influence of this packaging element, therefore more research is needed on this element. This is of great relevance if we consider that its implementation in packaging is recommended by the European Commission (EC) ( 47 ). Regarding FACTS, there is evidence of an effect on children’s food choices in only one article with a low risk of bias ( 30 ). The same does not happen with its impact on food intake since the study that tests them does not yield conclusive results ( 36 ). The article by Retno ( 30 ) compares the effect of FOPL and FACTS, where the effect of the former type of labelling is greater than the latter type. However, the children in this study are adolescents (mean = 16). More experiments should be carried out to corroborate this with younger children.

Some studies show an analysis of possible important variables; sociodemographic (Income, Gender, Age, and BMI), intervention (counter-advertising or training) and healthiness of a product (sugar) which contribute to moderate the results found. Regarding sociodemographic variables, gender has been found to have a moderating effect in studies on Sports Celebrities. In the study by Dixon et al. ( 28 ) a higher probability of choice is evidenced in boys versus girls. The Body Mass Index (BMI) also produces a moderating effect on the influence of Branded Packaging. This effect increases food intake as the child’s BMI increases ( 35 ). However, this last finding should be reviewed with caution due to the high risk of bias in the study. Conversely, income does not moderate the effect of the packaging elements analysed (Nutrition Claims, FOPL, or Cartoons) ( 45 ). Neither does age in the case of FOPL ( 29 ). Furthermore, product healthiness has been found to have a moderating effect on studies observing the effects on Serving Suggestion Image. In 2/3 of the studies (with low risk of bias), the less healthy the product was, the more effect on food intake Serving Suggestion Image has.

We can point out the intervening variables that both moderate the effect of some packaging elements. In the case of counter-advertising, these mediate the impact of the Nutrition Claims; the more significant the presence of counter-advertising, the lower the impact of the Nutrition Claims ( 26 ). In this case, the counter-advertising was intended to help the child not to choose unhealthy foods, even though they were packaged with Nutrition Claims. About the training, we have been able to determine, thanks to several studies, that it produces a moderating effect on FOPL and that the more training (through health lessons, for example), the greater the children’s understanding of this element of the packaging ( 29 , 30 , 35 , 36 ).

The present SR established a series of research objectives that aimed to synthesise the existing evidence on (I) The effect of each packaging element separately on children’s food choices and/or food intake, whether they are Marketing Techniques or Nutrition Labelling elements and (II) The comparative effect of packaging elements (Marketing Techniques and Nutrition Labelling) on children’s food choices or food intake. The findings obtained will be discussed below.

Firstly, it should be noted that there is little scientific evidence on the effect of different packaging elements on food choice and, especially, food intake in children. The relatively low number of studies becomes even more pronounced when we focus on particular packaging elements, as not all of them have received the same attention. Furthermore, this evidence is sometimes at high risk of bias, leading to inconsistencies in the results. However, it should be noted that in our study, 65% of the studies have a low risk of bias, which allows us, with the necessary caution, to draw some conclusions with a certain degree of robustness.

We can conclude with more consistency, due to their greater prevalence in the studies, the effect of three packaging elements: Cartoon, FOPL, and Nutrition Claims, albeit to varying degrees. As stated above in the results, the presence of Cartoon has been the most studied and on which there are more solid conclusions. In this sense, all the studies reviewed highlight a direct influence on children’s food choices and food intake. In the latter case, there is only one piece of evidence with a high risk of bias. More doubtful is the influence that FOPL and Nutrition Claims may have, with contrary evidence in both cases; although, in the case of FOPL, there are more studies where no effect on food choice and food intake is found. In analysing the evidence for FOPL and Nutrition Claims, it is necessary to consider a moderating element of their results: the knowledge transmitted to the child about the nutritional properties of the product.

Considering the results, we found certain similarities with the SR by Smith et al. ( 15 ), Hallez et.al. ( 17 ), and Elliot et al. ( 8 ), but also certain discrepancies. Our study agrees that the Cartoon is the most prevalent and clearly effective element. Elliot et al. ( 8 ), do not show results on the effectiveness of elements such as FOPL, FACTS, or Nutrition Claims, but they concluded that children pay more attention to them than to Cartoon. Our review cannot shed light on this since we do not have any study comparing the influence of these elements. Hallez et al. ( 17 ), with little evidences, seem to intuit the scarcity of the effect of FOPL on food choice and food intake in children. In our study, we found more evidence that seems to support these findings.

The low prevalence of the other packaging elements analysed makes us cautious with the conclusions reached in different studies. Elements such as Colour, the use of Celebrities, Branded Packaging, Serving Suggestion Image, and Product Name seem to have a positive influence on food choice. However, it is necessary to have a greater number of evidence and to improve, in some cases, the methodological quality of the studies. Elliot et al. ( 8 ), also mention their effectiveness, although with little methodological precision in the case of some elements such as Colour and Branded Packaging. The use of Promotions and Serving Suggestion Images deserve a separate mention. Considering the scarce evidence found, all the articles that analyse Promotions are conclusive about their lack of impact on children’s food choices. And, in the case of Serving Suggestion Image, and concurring with the findings of Hallez et al ( 17 ), we can conclude that Serving Suggestion Image has an effect on children’s food choices, especially in healthier foods.

Another problem related to the second objective of our work is the lack of comparative studies between the different packaging elements. The evidence found so far does not allow us to conclude the overall effect of other packaging elements. That is, in the presence of different elements, which are the ones that define the child’s choices or which combination of them is the most influential.

The deficiency of comparative studies was also pointed out by Elliot et al. ( 8 ), highlighting the lack of certainty regarding which is the most relevant packaging element in the presence of others since it seems not to have been able to analyse comparisons of effectiveness between various elements, nor the full spectrum of existing ones. Finally, the authors reflect on the incomplete image of the power of packaging in current literature, fundamentally due to the study of the elements in isolation.

The results obtained allow us to support some of the policies developed by the EU on the recommendations for the use of Nutrition Labelling and Nutrition Claims [Regulation (EU) No. 1169/2011 of the European Parliament and of the Council (25 October 2011) on the provision of food information to consumers, amending Regulations (EC) No 1924/2006 and (EC) No 1925/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council, and repealing Commission Directive 87/250/EEC, Council Directive 90/496/EEC, Commission Directive 1999/10/EC, Directive 2000/13/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council, Commission Directives 2002/67/EC and 2008/5/EC and Commission Regulation (EC) No 608/2004 ( 48 ), or Commission Regulation (EU) No 1047/2012 of 8 November 2012 amending Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 with regard to the list of Nutrition Claims ( 49 )]. The experimental studies analysed do not allow us to conclude on the effectiveness of this type of element on packaging to promote healthier eating in children. On the one hand, experimental studies on the influence of such elements show contradictory results. There is no consistent evidence of their impact. On the other hand, we do not know how Nutrition Labelling influences the presence of other Marketing Techniques on Packaging, which may introduce dissonant information. There is evidence about their attractiveness for children’s choices. Finally, it seems that the effectiveness of Nutrition Labelling and Nutrition Claims is conditioned by prior nutritional knowledge or induced by the opinions of other influential actors for children. The effect of Nutrition Labelling may likely be shallow in less vulnerable families with lower educational levels or less exposed to social media.

Finally, with all the limitations and caveats noted above, we have some evidence, on how the use of different Marketing Techniques on Packaging improves the attractiveness of products. So far, as indicated above, most of these techniques have been used for products of low nutritional value. It might therefore be suggested that these techniques could also be used to encourage the choice of other healthier products through a more attractive packaging design.

The study presented here has the strength of having assessed the risk of bias in the studies analysed. The risk assessment has been considered to draw conclusions. However, the difficulty in finding statistical data (such as effect sizes) in the studies reviewed, as well as their heterogeneity in terms of the results provided, has not allowed us to propose a meta-analysis of the study, which would have allowed a statistical comparison of the results obtained in the different studies.

Additionally, the present review has the strength of having focussed on studying the comparative effects between Marketing Techniques on Packaging and Nutrition Labelling on children’s food choices and food intake, offering an innovative perspective of analysis that addresses the reality of children’s food packaging. Nevertheless, the results above show the need to increase the number of experimental studies in the field. Especially in that combined way, allowing comparative results about how the various elements behave in the presence of others. Even more, if these elements generate cognitive dissonance between them. The scarcity of experimental studies on issues of great social relevance is striking.

Furthermore, is necessary to improve the number and methodological quality of articles that study elements such as Colour or the use of Celebrities, given their social relevance. In the case of Colour, because of its importance for the food industry when designing the packaging of its products, as shown in content analysis and other research ( 50 – 54 ). And in the case of Celebrities, due to their significant increase in recent years, becoming a relevant phenomenon worldwide ( 55 ).

Finally, developing more experiments with food intake outcomes is needed in this area of research.

The number of articles in this study have been published in recent years with an increasing trend, which leads us to intuit the relevance of the subject. This is not surprising since it has been demonstrated that the different packaging elements are one of the obesogenic factors contributing to the increase in childhood obesity worldwide ( 4 , 56 ). It is necessary to study them to continue understanding how they influence children’s food choices and food intake and, in general, their consumption and eating habits, trying to mitigate their effects with short-, medium- and long-term actions by governments and responsible organisations.

Previous SR such as Smith et al. ( 15 ), Hallez et.al ( 17 ), and Elliot et al. ( 8 ) have addressed more or less directly the influence of packaging on children’s food choices and food intake. The work presented here extends and complements those previous studies. Based on experimental studies and considering their methodological quality, this SR provides a global perspective of the effect of Marketing Techniques on Packaging and Nutrition Labelling on children’s food choices and food intake.

The results show differences in the influence of different packaging elements on children’s food choices. It has been shown that most of the Marketing Techniques on Packaging and Nutrition Labelling affect children, where the Cartoon takes precedence over the other elements. However, most studies deal with the analysis of packaging elements in isolation. Few comparative studies allow us to conclude these elements’ influence when combined with others. As discussed above, more studies in this direction are needed. The results obtained can be of high scientific rigour thanks to the risk analysis of the articles used in this study.

Of particular interest is the lack of consistency in the studies found on the effect of Nutrition Labelling on children’s choice and intake, beyond the improvement in children’s knowledge of the product’s level of safety. Without new evidence, it is difficult to conclude the effectiveness of tools promoted and developed for some years by public authorities.

With its limitations, this work systematises the contrasting evidence on the power of influence of one of the marketing variables that has been pointed out as one of the causal factors of unhealthy eating habits in children. The results may be helpful for policymakers, programme managers, and health professionals when designing public policies aimed at improving children’s health and quality of life, seeking to prevent problems such as overweight and obesity, which are a real scourge in our times.

Author contributions

AA-C, RA-P, and MM-S contributed to the conceptualisation and methodology of this research. AA-C and CO-S had searched for studies on databases and collaborated for peer review. AA-C had drafted the manuscript and prepared the figures and tables with the RA-P, MM-S, and CO-S assistance and supervision. All authors have contributed to the development of the article, writing, editing, read, and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Rocio García-Calabres and María Sánchez Trueba for their support and help in their work in the first phase of article filtering by reading the title and abstract.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnut.2022.998285/full#supplementary-material

Contact: +49 203 3639 9955 | Email: [email protected]

Cloudification of  Production Engineering   for Predictive Digital Manufacturing

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Experiment 7 – Simulation and improving food packaging with the objective of waste reduction

Experiment description.

The problem that TreValli Cooperlat faced was related to an unforeseen stop on the production lines, due to a sudden breakdown of one conveyor or to a machine along the lines that goes out of service. In such case, for some dairy products, there was a 5 minute timeframe to solve the problem and restart the line. In case they were unable to solve the issue in time, the whole line has to be stopped and in the worst case everything that was currently inside the filling machine had to be disposed.

To ease the possibility of covering the majority of the possible error cases the team decided to execute a simulation for each error case simultaneously. The main goal of the experiment was to help the end user to identify potentials to extend the 5 minute timeframe as much as possible to avoid wasting the material.

To achieve this goal, the realtime simulation software industrialPhysics was used to simulate the error cases simultaneously and independently from each other.

Technical Impact

For TreValli Cooperlat, a sharp predictive maintenance helps to have better results. Being impossible to prevent all the failures, the aim is to minimize the reaction time of the maintenance team. We also want to foreseen if a failure can be solved in the time span in which some devices help to keep the production running or if it is mandatory to stop the filling machine.

Economic Impact

The food industry is often based on highly automated and very fast machineries. For the dairy industry the main issue is that the products usually processed are “alive”: this means that both a raw product and a treated product (for instance heat treated) have a certain timespan in which they have to be worked and packaged. Should a problem arise anywhere in the production line, the product can deteriorate and in the worst case scenario, has to be disposed. The expectation from the project is the possibility of having a deeper knowledge of the behaviour of the production plant, turned into a reduction of the food waste due to unnecessary stoppages of the production lines.

EXPERIMENT 7 OUTCOME With this experiment TreValli Cooperlat has gained a deeper knowledge in the reaction time that is necessary to stay within to solve any issue that may arise during the production. This can help to keep the production lines running, avoiding stoppages of the filling machines hence, reducing the unnecessary waste of food.

Experiment 7 final outcome video

"CloudiFacturing technology and the software developed by our ISV Machineering contributed to improve our perception on the importance of knowing the right approach to shorten the reaction time in case a problem arises"

Tommaso Colafrancesco, Head of Engineering, TreValli Cooperlat.

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Study looks at benefits of reusable take-out food containers

By Denise Spranger School for Environment and Sustainability

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In the effort to reduce plastic waste in the restaurant industry — single-use takeout containers, specifically — University of Michigan researchers compared the lifetime environmental impacts of single-use and reusable food containers.

Their findings support the idea that the number of times a reusable takeout container gets used is a key factor impacting its sustainability performance.

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Depending on the single-use container being replaced, the study found that the reusable alternatives — which initially use more energy and generate more climate-altering greenhouse gases — can break even with single-use containers after four to 13 uses.

“Reducing the quantity of single-use plastics in the restaurant industry by implementing reusable takeout container systems has the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and save on energy, water and cost. Our study found that reusable containers can outperform single-use in all impact categories,” said study author Greg Keoleian, director of the Center for Sustainable Systems at the School for Environment and Sustainability.

The study, published online Jan. 5 in the journal Resources, Conservation & Recycling, reports that on a global scale, plastic production has accelerated dramatically over the past decades — leading to a sharp increase in plastic waste.

In the United States alone, more than 90 times the 1960 amount of plastic municipal solid waste was generated in 2018. Single-use packaging contributes millions of tons of plastic waste to that total each year.

In addition to the number of times that a reusable container is reused and the material type, the U-M study also found that customer behavior will be a significant factor in sustainability performance.

“If 5% of customers make trips by vehicle solely to return used containers, the reusable system has higher life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions than the single use,” said study co-author Christian Hitt, a dual-degree graduate student and Center for Sustainable Systems research assistant.

“We also looked at the water usage of at-home cleaning of the containers,” Hitt said. “Excessive washing can tip the balance against the primary energy impacts of reusable containers.”

According to the study, education will be key in counteracting these potential downsides by encouraging customer best practices. Informational labels on containers, signage in restaurants, employee dialogue with customers and online information are a few educational tools the study recommends.

Convenience can also play a part. City-scale systems with common containers across multiple restaurants may prove advantageous, as customers can return containers to different locations, decreasing the likelihood of customer travel for the sole purpose of container return.

As a base for their model, the researchers studied the pilot program for returnable takeout containers launched by the nonprofit organization Live Zero Waste in Ann Arbor. The program, Ann Arbor Reduce, Reuse, Return, is now in its second pilot phase and was implemented in partnership with the city of Ann Arbor’s A2ZERO carbon neutrality plan.

The research, which was supported by a Morgan Stanley Plastics Waste Reduction Research and Fellowship award, concludes that a reusable container system — as part of a circular economy strategy — offers the chance for significant benefits over time, if customers can be effectively educated to adopt sustainable behaviors.

In addition to Hitt and Keoleian, Center for Sustainable Systems research assistant Jacob Douglas was a co-author of the journal article.

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A Place Where It Snows All Summer

At a factory in western New York, the holiday décor brand Buffalo Snow has been manufacturing blizzards for almost 40 years.

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By Callie Holtermann

Photographs and Video by Scott Gable

Reporting from Depew, N.Y.

• Aug. 11, 2024

On an 80-degree Friday afternoon in July, at a factory just outside Buffalo, it was snowing.

But this was not your run-of-the-mill frozen water vapor.

This snow started as a 400-pound roll of plastic film, which was fed into a steel drum lined with blades that thrashed the material into particles the size of popcorn kernels. The shredded bits then drifted down a turquoise chute into a cardboard box, forming a soft white mound of what looked like freshly fallen snow.

The process was handled by workers in the Flakes Department, one of several teams at the factory in Depew, where the holiday decoration brand Buffalo Snow has been manufacturing blizzards annually since the 1980s.

Natural snow, an indelible part of wintertime scenery, has in many places been in short supply lately because of rising temperatures. When Old Man Winter fails, Buffalo Snow, one of the few companies manufacturing fake snow in the United States, can help conjure a wintry atmosphere with a 24-ounce bag of downy snow (about $6), or a sparkling white Christmas tree skirt (about $3).

Buffalo Snow’s artificial snow is made from plastic materials contorted to various degrees of softness and sparkle. Its products can be found on shelves at Walmart and Michael’s stores, at malls’ North Pole setups, in department stores’ holiday windows and on movie sets: According to The Buffalo News, the snow was used in “Home Alone.”

Around every corner of the two-story factory were heaps of soft white fluff, as if thousands of Build-A-Bears had exploded in unison.

Piles of white polyester were traveling down conveyor belts as part of the garnetting process, in which a series of machines with rhyming names — hopper, doffer, lapper — teased the fibers into an airy web of floss.

Across the factory floor, polyethylene sheets were being pulverized into flakes.

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New Biological Pathway May Explain BPA Exposure, Autism Link

Patrice Wendling

August 13, 2024

Higher prenatal exposure to the chemical bisphenol A (BPA) is associated with a greater risk for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in men, potentially via the disruption of a key enzyme in the developing brain.

BPA is a potent endocrine disruptor found in polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins and has been banned by the US Food and Drug Administration for use in baby bottles, sippy cups, and infant formula packaging.

"Exposure to BPA has already been shown in some studies to be associated with subsequent autism in offspring," lead researcher Anne-Louise Ponsonby, PhD, The Florey, Heidelberg, Australia, said in a statement.

"Our work is important because it demonstrates one of the biological mechanisms potentially involved. BPA can disrupt hormone-controlled male fetal brain development in several ways, including silencing a key enzyme, aromatase, that controls neurohormones and is especially important in fetal male brain development. This appears to be part of the autism puzzle," she said.

Brain aromatase, encoded by CYP19A1 , converts neural androgens to neural estrogens and has been implicated in ASD. Postmortem analyses of men with ASD also show markedly reduced aromatase activity.

The findings were published online on August 7 in Nature Communications .

New Biological Mechanism

For the study, the researchers analyzed data from the BIS in 1067 infants in Australia. At age 7-11 years, 43 children had a confirmed ASD diagnosis, and 249 infants with Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) data at age 2 years had an autism spectrum problem score above the median.

The researchers developed a CYP19A1 genetic score for aromatase activity based on five single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with lower estrogen levels. Among 595 children with prenatal BPA and CBCL, those with three or more variants were classified as "low aromatase activity" and the remaining were classified as "high."

In regression analyses, boys with low aromatase activity and high prenatal BPA exposure (top quartile > 2.18 µg/L) were 3.5 times more likely to have autism symptoms at age 2 years (odds ratio [OR], 3.56; 95% CI, 1.13-11.22).

The odds of a confirmed ASD diagnosis were six times higher at age 9 years only in men with low aromatase activity (OR, 6.24; 95% CI, 1.02-38.26).

The researchers also found that higher BPA levels predicted higher methylation in cord blood across the CYP19A1 brain promoter PI.f region ( P = .009).

To replicate the findings, data were used from the Columbia Centre for Children's Health Study-Mothers and Newborns cohort in the United States. Once again, the BPA level was associated with hypermethylation of the aromatase brain promoter PI.f ( P = .0089).

In both cohorts, there was evidence that the effect of increased BPA on brain-derived neurotrophic factor hypermethylation was mediated partly through higher aromatase gene methylation ( P = .001). 

To validate the findings, the researchers examined human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cell lines and found aromatase protein levels were more than halved in the presence of BPA 50 µg/L ( P = .01).

Additionally, mouse studies showed that male mice exposed to BPA 50 µg/L mid-gestation and male aromatase knockout mice — but not female mice — had social behavior deficits, such as interacting with a strange mouse, as well as structural and functional brain changes.

"We found that BPA suppresses the aromatase enzyme and is associated with anatomical, neurological, and behavioral changes in the male mice that may be consistent with autism spectrum disorder," Wah Chin Boon, PhD, co-lead researcher and research fellow, also with The Florey Institute, said in a statement.

"This is the first time a biological pathway has been identified that might help explain the connection between autism and BPA," she said.

"In this study, not only were the levels of BPA higher than most people would be exposed to but in at least one of the experiments, the mice were injected with BPA directly, whereas humans would be exposed via food and drink," observed Oliver Jones, PhD, MSc, professor of chemistry, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. "If you ingest the food, it undergoes metabolism before it gets to the bloodstream, which reduces the effective dose."

Jones said further studies with larger numbers of participants measuring BPA throughout pregnancy and other chemicals the mother and child were exposed to are needed to be sure of any such link. "Just because there is a possible mechanism in place does not automatically mean that it is activated," he said.

Ponsonby pointed out that BPA and other endocrine-disrupting chemicals are "almost impossible for individuals to avoid" and can enter the body through plastic food and drink packaging, home renovation fumes, and sources such as cosmetics.

Fatty Acid Helpful? 

Building on earlier observations that 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10HDA) may have estrogenic modulating activities, the researchers conducted additional studies suggesting that 10HDA may be effective as a competitive ligand that could counteract the effects of BPA on estrogen signaling within cells.

Further, among 3-week-old mice pups prenatally exposed to BPA, daily injections of 10HDA for 3 weeks showed striking and significant improvements in social interaction. Stopping 10HDA resulted in a deficit in social interaction that was again ameliorated by subsequent 10HDA treatment.

"10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid shows early indications of potential in activating opposing biological pathways to improve autism-like characteristics when administered to animals that have been prenatally exposed to BPA," Boon said. "It warrants further studies to see whether this potential treatment could be realized in humans."

Reached for comment, Jones said "the human studies are not strong at all," in large part because BPA levels were tested only once at 36 weeks in the BIS cohort.

"I would argue that if BPA is in the urine, it has been excreted and is no longer in the bloodstream, thus not able to affect the child," he told Medscape Medical News . "I'd also argue that a single measurement at 36 weeks cannot give you any idea of the mother's exposure to BPA over the rest of the pregnancy or what the child was exposed to after birth."

The study was funded by the Minderoo Foundation, the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia, the Australian Research Council, and numerous other sponsors. Boon is a co-inventor on "Methods of treating neurodevelopmental diseases and disorders" and is a board member of Meizon Innovation Holdings. Ponsonby is a scientific advisor to Meizon Innovation Holdings. The remaining authors declared no competing interests.

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