literature review on conflict management styles

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Conflict Management: A Literature Review and Study

PMID: 30514033

"Management of conflict is extremely important for the effective functioning of organizations and for the personal, cultural, and social development of individuals. The manner in which the conflict is managed can cause more tension in the situation rather than the conflict itself. " This literature review analyzes five modes to dealing with conflict along two dimensions of behavior: compet- ing (assertive and uncooperative), accommodating (unassertive and cooperative), avoiding (unassertive and uncooperative), compromising (falls into the middle), and collaborat- ing (assertive and cooperative). " In a study, technologists preferred a cooperating conflict management style when feelings have not yet esca- lated, and a compromising conflict management style after the conflict has become heated. The study also showed education.level did not have any effect on their preferred conflict management styles.

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Article contents

Managing conflict for effective leadership and organizations.

Dean Tjosvold , Dean Tjosvold Department of Management, Lingnan University
Alfred S. H. Wong Alfred S. H. Wong Department of Management, Lingnan University
and Nancy Yi Feng Chen Nancy Yi Feng Chen Department of Management, Lingnan University
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190224851.013.240
Published online: 28 August 2019

Leaders and employees deal with conflict as they collaborate in the everyday life of organizations and as they confront crises. Depending how they manage conflict, they can frustrate employees and provoke customer complaints but also stimulate their relationships and decision-making. The possibilities of constructive conflict are significant and documented, but the challenges to making conflict constructive are significant too. The practice of defining conflict as a win-lose battle has obscured ways of managing conflict constructively. Fortunately, researchers have developed concepts and findings that can help managers and employees manage conflict. A first step is developing a useful, unconfounded definition of conflict. Deutsch proposed that conflict occurs when there are incompatible activities. Team members are in conflict as they argue for different options for a decision.

Deutsch also theorized that how people believe their goals are related very much affects their interaction, specifically their conflict management. They can conclude that their goals are cooperative (positively related), competitive (negatively related), or independent. People with cooperative goals believe that as one of them moves toward attaining goals, that helps others achieve their goals. In competition, people conclude that their goals are negatively related and only one can succeed in the interaction. In independence, one person ‘s success neither benefits nor harms the others’ success. Researchers have found that the nature of the cooperative or competitive relationship between protagonists has a profound impact on their mutual motivation to discuss conflicts constructively. Cooperative and competitive methods of handling conflict have consistent, powerful effects on constructive conflict. Team members with cooperative goals engage in open-minded discussions where they develop and express their opposing positions, including the ideas, reasons, and knowledge they use to support their positions. They also work to understand each other’s perspectives. They are then in a position to combine the best of each other’s ideas and create effective resolutions of conflict that they are both committed to implement. Teams that rely on cooperative, mutual benefit interaction ways of managing conflict and avoid competitive, win-lose ways been found to use conflict to promote high quality decisions, to stimulate learning, and to strengthen their work relationships. What has an impact on constructive conflict is not so much the occurrence, amount, or type of conflict but how leaders and employees approach and handle their conflicts, specifically, the extent to which their discussions are cooperative and open-minded.

incompatible activities
mutual benefit conflict
win–lose conflict
constructive conflict
open-minded discussions

Conflict is pervasive and greatly affects leadership and teamwork, the very drivers of organizations (Blake & Mouton, 1964 ; Jehn, 1995 ; Johnson, 2015 ). Conflict is part of the everyday life of organizations in making decisions, handling customer complaints, and managing performance; conflict is also part of dealing with dramatic events such as acquisitions, strikes, and bankruptcies. Conflicts have both constructive and destructive sides. Conflicts can sabotage alliances and relationships, but effectively managed conflict vitalizes partnerships and invigorates interpersonal bonds. Conflict challenges leaders and teammates and engages them in the full range of experiences that organizations offer.

Research on how to manage conflict is critical to understanding relationships and organizations as well as how to make them effective. Leaders and employees must learn to live with conflict; they have to deal with and resolve the many conflicts that threaten to divide them and frustrate joint progress.

We often blame conflict for our frustrations and give it power over us. We think that if we only had less conflict, our lives would be happy and productive. The goal is to be conflict-free, or at least to keep our conflicts minor and forgettable. However, how we approach and handle conflict greatly affects whether it is constructive or destructive. It’s not so much having conflict or how much conflict we have that matters, but what is critical is how we manage our conflict that affects whether it is constructive or destructive.

Constructive conflict occurs when protagonists conclude that the benefits of their conflict management outweigh the costs; they believe that their investments made in handling conflict will pay off (Deutsch, 1973 ). The costs and wasteful investments of destructive conflict are typically well recognized. Angry feelings leave relationships fragmented and joint work stalled; both people and productivity suffer (Averill, 1983 ).

However, conflicts can have very constructive effects, so useful that we may hesitate to call them conflicts. Through discussing opposing ideas in conflict, protagonists can deepen their understanding of their own ideas as they defend their views (Tjosvold, Wong, & Chen, 2014a ). They can also listen to and understand the views of their protagonists; they put themselves in each other’s shoes. They open the possibility of combining the best ideas to create new solutions. In addition to enriching their learning, they can appreciate each other’s feelings, motives, and commitments, making their joint life more personal and richer.

The possibilities of constructive conflict are significant and documented, but the challenges to making conflict constructive are significant too. Managing conflict constructively may sound straightforward, and it can be. But making conflict constructive often tests us intellectually, emotionally, and interpersonally. Managing conflict constructively gives a lot, but it takes a lot.

This article has six sections. Conflict has been defined in confounded ways so that popular stereotypes have interfered with practice and research. The first section defines conflict as incompatible activities that may or may not have opposing goals. Arguing that what has an impact on constructive conflict is not the occurrence or amount of conflict but how we approach and handle conflict, the second section proposes that open-minded discussion and cooperative goals are key conditions to making conflict constructive. The third section reviews research on task and relationship conflict that suggests that these types of conflict can be managed. The fourth section reviews how constructive conflict can strengthen leadership and thereby very much contribute to the relationship between employees and managers. Then research on how conflict can be managed across cultural boundaries is discussed. The sixth and final part suggests how training can strengthen constructive conflict, leadership, and organizations.

Understanding Conflict

Researchers typically have not considered defining conflict critical for understanding it; indeed, they have tended to define conflict by including several notions (Barki & Hartwick, 2004 ; Rahim, 1992 ). However, popular definitions have tended to define conflict in terms of opposing goals and interests. This definition of conflict has greatly frustrated research progress in identifying the many ways conflict can constructively contribute to individual learning and organizational performance. Defining conflict as incompatible actions, we propose, is a much more solid foundation for research than defining conflict as opposing interests.

Conflict as Opposing Interests

Traditionally, conflict is defined in terms of opposing interests involving scarce resources and goal divergence and frustration (e.g., Pondy, 1967 ). Defining conflict as opposing interests is consistent with the prevalent assumption that conflict involves not only differences but is win–lose and reinforces the popular thinking that conflict is typically dealt with harshly and competitively. For many people, conflict is a win–lose battle over goals that they want to win, not lose.

However, defining conflict as opposing interests frustrates effective operations and measures. Conflict is confused with win–lose ways to manage it. For example, the Interpersonal Conflict at Work Scale measures conflict with such items as “people do nasty things to me at work” (Spector & Bruk-Lee, 2008 ). This item measures a competitive, win–lose way to manage conflict, not conflict itself.

The popular assumption that conflict is competitive and a fight over opposing interests underscores the difficulties of measuring conflict with items including the term “conflict” in them. For example, research scales that measure types of conflict, such as task and relationship conflict, typically include the term “conflict.” Including the word conflict is likely to contribute to the common finding that both relationship and task conflicts contribute to team ineffectiveness (De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ; DeChurch, Mesmer-Magnus, & Doty, 2013 ; Tjosvold, Law, & Sun, 2006 ). Conceptual and operational definitions of conflict should help us appreciate both the constructive as well as the destructive sides of conflict and should avoid confounding conflict with popular confusions and stereotypes.

Conflict as Opposing Activities

Deutsch ( 1973 ) proposes that conflict occurs when there are incompatible activities (Tjosvold et al., 2014a ). Team members are in conflict when they argue for different options for a team decision as they perform actions that interfere with each other’s actions. They express their various reasons for the joint action their team should take. Different parties arguing for their different positions are incompatible actions that block each person from getting their option accepted; they are in conflict.

They may express their views to reflect that they have cooperative goals as well as conflicting activities. They argue for their favored option as they put forth their reasons for this option. They may defend their preferred position vigorously and conduct additional research to support their option. They want team members to consider their proposed option seriously. Their goal with protagonists is a cooperative one, however: they want to make the best decision for the team as a whole.

Alternatively, team members may have opposing goals when they argue for different options; they are in competition as well as in conflict. They argue that their option must be accepted and other options should be rejected. They express their arguments for their favored option in win–lose ways. Only one option can be accepted and it should be theirs.

Expressing one’s view can be done both cooperatively and competitively. Studies indicate that these different ways of expressing one’s options often have dramatic effects on the dynamics and outcomes of conflict (Tjosvold et al., 2014a ).

Approaches to Conflict

This article argues that research on how team members manage and deal with their conflicts very much contributes to understanding and developing constructive conflict. It is not so much the frequency, amount, and type of conflict as it is how team members discuss and work out their conflicts. Cooperative and competitive methods of handling conflict have been found to have consistent, powerful effects on constructive conflict.

Researchers recognize the value of a contingency perspective that holds that managers and employees should have alternative ways to deal with a conflict so that they can select the one most useful and appropriate in their situation (Rahim, 1992 ; Thomas, 1976 ). Pretending that there is no conflict and avoiding discussing conflict are useful in some situations, but generally conflict avoidance is not useful, indeed is often destructive (De Dreu & Van Vianen, 2001 ; Friedman, Chi, & Liu, 2006 ; Liu, Fu, & Liu, 2009 ; Lovelace, Shapiro, & Weingart, 2001 ; Ohbuchi & Atsumi, 2010 ). Without direct discussion and action, conflicts seldom disappear by themselves; they can fester and intensify, becoming more complex and destructive (Bacon & Blyton, 2007 ; Eisenhardt, Kahwajy, & Bourgeois, 1997 ; Nemeth & Owens, 1996 ).

This section argues that studies conducted using different theoretical frameworks together indicate that open-minded discussion between protagonists results in constructive outcomes in many situations (Johnson, 2015 ; Tjosvold et al., 2014a ). In open-minded discussions, protagonists develop and express their opposing positions, including the ideas, reasons, and knowledge they use to support their positions. They also work to understand each other’s perspectives. They are then in a position to combine the best of each other’s ideas and create effective resolutions of conflict that they are both committed to implement.

This section further proposes that cooperative relationships, but not competitive ones, are an effective foundation for open-minded discussion and constructive conflict. These relationships orient protagonists to identify and express their own ideas and proposals. They trust that others will try to understand their ideas and positions accurately (Hempel, Zhang, & Tjosvold, 2009 ). They feel they can rely upon each other to use these views to promote each other’s benefit. Their concerns that others will use their ideas and positions against them are minimized. They recognize that they can all gain from the conflict as each protagonist’s goals are promoted.

Open-Minded Discussion

Open-mindedness is the willingness to actively search for evidence against one’s favored beliefs and ideas and to weigh such evidence impartially and fully (Baker & Sinkula, 1999 ; Cegarra-Navarro & Sánchez-Polo, 2011 ; Mitchell, Nicholas, & Boyle, 2009 ; Sinkula, Baker, & Noordewier, 1997 ). Open-minded discussion occurs when people together seek to understand each other’s ideas and positions, consider each other’s reasoning for these positions impartially, and work to integrate their ideas into mutually acceptable solutions.

In open-minded discussion, protagonists express their own views directly to each other, listen and try to understand each other’s positions and arguments, and work to combine their ideas into new agreements acceptable to all. They are open with their own views, open to those of others, and open to new solutions to resolve the conflict. Evidence indicates that these aspects of openness are reinforcing and together constitute open-minded discussion (Johnson, 2015 ; Tjosvold, 1990a ; Tjosvold, Dann, & Wong, 1992 ; Tjosvold & Halco, 1992 ).

Survey items to measure open-mindedness give a specific understanding of open-mindedness (Chen, Liu, & Tjosvold, 2005 ; Wong, Tjosvold, & Yu, 2005 ). These items include: (a) express our own views directly to each other, (b) listen carefully to each other’s opinions, (c) try to understand each other’s concerns, and (d) work to use each other’s ideas. These items are typically strongly correlated with each other and the scale has high reliability.

Open-mindedness in conflict is inherently interpersonal as people act and react to each other. It takes two to have a conflict and it takes two to manage conflict. One protagonist can make bold, persistent, and skilled actions that encourage an otherwise closed-minded protagonist to discuss conflict open-mindedly. Generally, though, open-mindedness by all protagonists is needed to make conflict constructive. Evidence also suggests that protagonists develop similar levels of open-mindedness; one protagonist’s open-mindedness encourages others to be open (Tjosvold, 1990a ; Tjosvold et al., 1992 ; Tjosvold & Halco, 1992 ). Conflicts are more likely to be constructively managed when protagonists discuss their views directly and integrate them into solutions.

Researchers have used various terms to characterize the nature of discussion that results in constructive outcomes. These terms have their own historical roots, emphasize difference aspects of interaction, and provide various ways to measure and operationalize the interaction. These concepts and their operations help us understand the nature of open-minded discussion.

Open-Mindedness Research

Research conclusions are more fully understood and deserve more confidence when various researchers using different operations and samples develop consistent findings. Conflict researchers have used a variety of terms and operations to investigate open-mindedness. We propose that, although these terms are not identical, their differences should not obscure the considerable agreement among conflict researchers that open-minded discussion contributes to resolving conflicts in many situations. The operations of these terms further suggest the similarity of the concepts to open-minded discussion.

Integrative negotiation research provides indirect support that open-minded discussion is a foundation for developing constructive conflict. This research has examined the conditions that develop the creative process by which bargainers discover superior new options for both parties than those currently under consideration (Follett, 1940 ). Walton and McKersie ( 1965 ) propose that this integration is more likely when protagonists consider several issues simultaneously, consider the issues as problems to be solved, freely exchange accurate and credible information about their interests, avoid win–lose behaviors, and argue their own position unless and until they are convinced otherwise.

Experimental integrative negotiation researchers have argued similarly that problem solving interaction characterized by full information exchange results in mutually beneficial solutions (Pruitt & Carnevale, 1993 ; Pruitt, Carnevale, Ben-Yoav, Nochajski, & Van Slyck, 1983 ; Pruitt & Lewis, 1975 ). The operations to measure this problem solving interaction include asking for valid information, requesting information about the other’s interests, giving truthful information, showing interest in the other bargainer’s welfare, and proposing mutual concessions. Integrated negotiators challenge each other’s original ideas, dig into these positions to identify each other’s underlying interests, endure the uncertainty of not finding a quick solution, and are only satisfied with solutions that promote the interests of all.

De Dreu and colleagues have drawn upon integrative negotiation research to develop the motivated information processing approach (De Dreu, 2007 ; De Dreu, Koole, & Steinel, 2000 ; De Dreu, Nijstad, & van Knippenberg, 2008 ). This research also proposes and measures constructive interaction in conflict in terms of problem solving and information exchange. The extent to which protagonists engage in thorough, systematic processing of information was found to induce them to question perceptions that one protagonist can achieve their interests only to the extent that others cannot achieve their own; challenging this trade-off in turn results in more accurate assessments and more integrative agreements (De Dreu et al., 2000 ).

Conflict management styles researchers propose five alternative approaches to dealing with conflict (Rahim, 1983 , 1995 ; Thomas, 1976 ; Van de Vliert & Kabanoff, 1990 ). Although arguing that all five can be useful in some circumstances, these researchers have concluded that the collaborative conflict management style, at times supplemented with other styles, is constructive under a wide range of conditions (Van de Vliert, Euwema, & Huismans, 1995 ; Van de Vliert, Nauta, Giebels, & Janssen, 1999 ). Research on collaborative conflict management styles and experiments on negotiation support that being open with one’s own views as well as being open to other ideas and integrating them contribute to constructive conflict (Pruitt & Carnevale, 1993 ).

Diverse researchers have found that open-minded discussion contributes to resolving conflicts within and between organizations (Johnson, Johnson, & Tjosvold, 2006 ; Tjosvold, 1985 ). Conflict involves incompatible actions, specifically the intellectual aspects of proposing and reconciling opposing ideas that temporarily disrupt reaching a resolution. Fortunately, research by various scholars supports that open-minded discussion very much contributes to effective conflict management.

Cooperative Relationships for Open-Minded Discussion

When do protagonists discuss their conflicts open-mindedly? Researchers have theorized that the nature of the relationship between protagonists has a profound impact on their mutual motivation to discuss conflicts open-mindedly. Open-minded discussions occur when both participants are motivated to work together to manage their conflicts constructively.

Theory of Cooperation and Competition

Deutsch ( 1948 , 1973 ) theorized that how people believe their goals are related very much affects their interaction and thereby their outcomes. They can conclude that their goals are cooperative (positively related), competitive (negatively related), or independent. People with cooperative goals believe that as one of them moves toward attaining goals, that helps others achieve their goals. In competition, people conclude that their goals are negatively related and only one can succeed in the interaction. In independence, one person’s success neither benefits nor harms the others’ success.

Deutsch ( 1973 ) further proposed that cooperative goals are a useful way to understand when protagonists are able to manage their conflicts constructively. Both survey and experimental studies confirm that with cooperative goals, managers and employees discuss their differences directly and open-mindedly (Alper, Tjosvold, & Law, 1998 ; Poon, Pike, & Tjosvold, 2001 ; Schei & Rognes, 2003 ; Tjosvold, 1988 ). Teams are considered cooperative to the extent that members rate that their goals go together (Alper et al., 1998 ); they are considered competitive to the extent that members rate that they favored their own goals over the goals of others (Alper et al., 1998 ); teams are considered independent to the extent that members rate that one member’s success is unrelated to the success of their teammates (Alper et al., 1998 ). Competitive and independent goals have been found to lead to conflict avoidance or to conflict escalation or both (Alper, Tjosvold, & Law, 2000 ; Tjosvold et al., 2001 ). Protagonists with cooperative goals promote each other’s benefit because doing so is to their own advantage.

Protagonists typically have mixed interdependencies as well as more “pure” cases. Galinsky and Schweitzer ( 2015 ) note that social relationships contain both competitive and cooperative aspects. This co-opetition has been thought to leave protagonists more flexibility in how they manage conflict (Landkammer & Sassenberg, 2016 ).

Antecedents to Open-Mindedness

A key dynamic of having positively related goals of cooperation is that by helping others reach their goals, one also reaches one’s own goals. In cooperation, people promote their own goals and others’ goals simultaneously. Researchers have used other theoretical frameworks to capture this idea of positively related goals where self-interests are mutual in that promoting one’s self-interest promotes the self-interest of the others. Researchers have used the dual concerns and pro-social motivation to capture positively related self-interests.

In dual concerns, theorists have proposed that conflict participants can be committed to promoting others’ interests as well as their own (Thomas, 1976 , 1992 ). Rahim and Bonoma ( 1979 ) and Rahim ( 1983 , 1992 ) built upon Blake and Mouton’s ( 1964 ) managerial grid. Concern for self describes the extent to which people attempt to satisfy their own interests. The second dimension describes the extent to which people want to satisfy the concerns of others (Rahim & Bonoma, 1979 ). High concern for self and high concern for others resemble cooperative goals. Dual concerns occur when protagonists are motivated by their own interests and outcomes: they are willing to assert themselves to get what they want and they are also motivated to promote their partners’ interests and outcomes.

Dean Pruitt and other integrative negotiation researchers have also developed the dual concerns model (Pruitt & Carnevale, 1993 ; Pruitt et al., 1983 ; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ). Here protagonists committed to the interests of the other as well as themselves discuss conflict open-mindedly where they are only satisfied with solutions that promote the interests of both.

Motivational and social value orientation theory (Kelley & Schenitzki, 1972 ; McClintock, 1977 ; Messick & McClintock, 1968 ; Van Lange & Kuhlman, 1994 ) also found that preference for both self and other promotes constructive conflict (De Dreu & Van Lange, 1995 ; De Dreu, Weingart, & Kwon, 2000 ). Social motives refer to preferences for outcomes to the self and other: pro-social, pro-self, and competitive negotiators differ in attaching a positive, zero, or negative weight to the other’s outcomes, respectively (De Dreu & Boles, 1998 ; De Dreu & McCusker, 1997 ; Van Lange, 1999 ).

Pro-social protagonists choose options that maximize joint outcomes; protagonists are pro-self if they select options where their own outcomes are higher than the other, and they are classified as competitive if they choose options that maximize the differences between the two, that is, their own outcomes are much better than the other’s outcomes. Pro-social motivation has been found to develop the open-minded exchange of information that results in constructive conflict (De Dreu, Weingart, et al., 2000 ; Nauta, De Dreu, & Van der Vaart, 2002 ).

Researchers have developed the dual concerns model, pro-social and pro-self social motivation, and cooperative goals as theoretical perspectives to understand relationships that promote constructive conflict (De Dreu, Weingart, et al., 2000 ; Deutsch, 1973 ; Pruitt & Rubin, 1986 ; Rahim & Bonoma, 1979 ). This section argues that these different terms obscure fundamental agreement that the commitment to promoting each other’s goals facilitates open-minded discussion.

Managers and employees of course do not always discuss their differences open-mindedly and, according to the contingency perspective, under certain conditions it would be inappropriate and dysfunctional to do so. Commitments to competitive and independent goals are apt to lead to closed-minded discussions with an emphasis on promoting one’s own interests without concern for the ideas and aspirations of the other. Indeed, with competitive goals they are apt to actively frustrate each other’s goals as they understand this is a way of promoting their own.

This article refers to cooperative relationships as underlying open-minded discussion. Previous research has directly tested whether cooperative relationships promote open-mindedness, providing both experimental and survey data (Deutsch, 1973 ). Research has demonstrated both the causal relationship that cooperative goals promote open-mindedness and survey evidence that supports that cooperative relationships support open-minded discussion in a wide variety of organizational situations (Tjosvold et al., 2014a ). In addition, many social psychologists and other social scientists have developed our understanding of cooperation and competition (Deutsch, 1973 ; Deutsch, Coleman, & Marcus, 2011 ).

Conflict Type Research

For more than two decades, organizational researchers have distinguished types of conflict and argued that the type of conflict determines how constructive the conflict is (Jehn, 1997 ; Jehn, Greer, Levine, & Szulanski, 2008 ). Whether the conflict is about getting tasks done or about the quality of relationships between protagonists, conflict type is thought to determine whether conflict is constructive or destructive. Theorizing on the role of conflict types has stimulated considerable research by many investigators.

Research findings on conflict types supports the traditional view that high levels of conflict disrupt teamwork, and refines this idea by indicating that this proposition is especially true when these conflicts are relationship-based. Relationship conflicts, as measured by such items as how much friction, tension, and personality conflict are in the team, have been found to make conflict destructive (Jehn, 1994 ; Jehn et al., 2008 ). Reviews of literature, including several meta-analyses, have consistently found that relationship conflicts correlate with low levels of team productivity (Choi & Sy, 2010 ; De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ; DeChurch et al., 2013 ).

These results have straightforward practical implications for leaders and team members in reducing relationship conflict. Given the heavy reliance on correlational findings, it can be more cautiously concluded that relationship conflicts are signs of destructive conflict and are unlikely to contribute to constructive conflict. Researchers have, however, sought to identify boundary conditions that minimize the negative impact, and unlock the positive impact, of relationship conflict (Thiel, Harvey, Courtright, & Bradley, 2017 ).

Whereas relationship conflicts disrupt, it has been proposed that conflicts over tasks contribute to group performance (Jehn, 1997 ; Jehn et al., 2008 ). However, findings do not consistently support this theorizing that task conflict strengthens group performance (Choi & Sy, 2010 ; De Dreu & Weingart, 2003 ; DeChurch et al., 2013 ). The inconsistent effects of task conflict indicate that expressing diverse views can be useful but not consistently. It appears that expressing opposing views must be done skillfully to contribute to constructive conflict, but task conflict theory does not directly suggest the conditions under which expressing opposing views contributes to constructive conflict.

Managing Task and Relationship Conflict

Researchers have worked to document the conditions that determine whether task and relationship conflict are constructive or destructive. For example, some evidence suggests that task conflict is apt to be more productive when it is in moderate amounts, is not closely related to relationship conflict, and when the outcomes are financial performance and decision quality rather than overall performance (De Dreu, 2006 ; de Wit, Greer, & Jehn, 2012 ; Farh, Lee, & Farh, 2010 ; Mooney, Holahan, & Amason, 2007 ; Shaw et al., 2011 ).

Several studies show that relationship conflict can hinder teams from capitalizing on the potential positive value of task conflict (de Jong, Song, & Song, 2013 ; de Wit, Jehn, & Scheepers, 2013 ; Shaw et al., 2011 ). Research has found that relationship conflicts encourage a competitive approach to managing conflict by leading people to make forceful demands, overstate their position to get their way, and in other ways treat conflict as a win–lose contest (Tjosvold et al., 2006 ). In contrast, to the extent that protagonists had few relationship conflicts, they resolved their conflicts in ways that supported mutual benefit; specifically, they encouraged a “we are in it together” attitude, sought a solution useful for all members, combined their best ideas, and treated conflict as a mutual problem to solve (de Jong et al., 2013 ; de Wit et al., 2013 ; Shaw et al., 2011 ).

Research suggests that how task and relationship conflicts are discussed, not just the amount of them, affects their constructiveness (DeChurch et al., 2013 ; Maltarich, Kukenberger, Reilly, & Mathieu, 2018 ; Rispens, Greer, Jehn, & Thatcher, 2011 ; Tekleab, Quigley, & Tesluk, 2009 ; Todorova, Bear, & Weingart, 2014 ). Recent studies have found that task conflict can be constructive when discussed open-mindedly and skillfully (Bradley, Klotz, Postlethwaite, & Brown, 2013 ; Chun & Choi, 2014 ; Humphrey, Aime, Cushenbery, Hill, & Fairchild, 2017 ; Jiang, Zhang, & Tjosvold, 2012 ; Tekleab et al., 2009 ). Teams with members with high levels of openness as a personality characteristic were found to have constructive task conflict (Bradley et al., 2013 ; de Jong et al., 2013 ). Overall, evidence indicates that open-minded discussion contributes to making both relationship and task conflict constructive (Gibson & Callister, 2010 ; Lau & Cobb, 2010 ; Tjosvold, 2002 ; Tjosvold & Su, 2007 ; Weingart, Behfar, Bendersky, Todorova, & Jehn, 2015 ).

Conflict Management for Leadership

Leadership has long been considered a key contributor to effective organizations. Much of the power of organizations is that they motivate and coordinate the work of many people; for that to happen, managers must lead employees. Without leadership, employees may fail to face up to difficulties, allow problems to simmer, and just go through the motions. Research indicates that to have effective leadership, managers and employees must make conflict constructive (Chen et al., 2005 ; Chen & Tjosvold, 2007 , 2013 ; Chen, Tjosvold, Huang, & Xu, 2011 ; Hui, Wong, & Tjosvold, 2007 ).

Conflict management research is updating our understanding of what it takes to be an effective leader and how to develop it. Studies indicate that by developing constructive conflict, managers can improve the quality of their leader relationships with employees. Managers can then orient and train employees so that they discuss their various ideas and improve the quality of their decision-making and their overall teamwork. Researchers have demonstrated that leaders can be effective by adopting various leadership styles; recent studies show that constructive conflict is very much needed to make these leadership styles effective.

Conflict for Quality Leadership Relationships

Leadership has long been thought to be “situational” in that the actions effective leaders take depend upon the situation; they monitor the situations and decide upon effective actions in the situation (Stogdill, 1974 ). In addition, though, researchers have found that successful leaders are consistent across many situations in that they develop quality relationships. Considerable research has found that successful leaders have quality relationships (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995 ). It’s not so much that managers have the “right” personal skills and characteristics but that they have high quality relationships with employees that help them influence employees and increase their productivity. With these relationships, leaders are able to engage employees, strengthen their teamwork, and in other ways convince them to contribute effectively to the organization.

Less recognized is that leaders and employees cannot allow frustrations to brew; they need to manage their conflicts to develop quality relationships (Chen & Tjosvold, 2007 ; Chen, Tjosvold, & Su, 2005 ; Tjosvold, Poon, & Yu, 2005 ). An important reason why quality relationships are useful is because they promote constructive conflict that in turn results in employee involvement and performance (Chen & Tjosvold, 2013 ; Tjosvold, Hui, & Law, 1998 ). Otherwise, relationship conflicts are apt to undermine team productivity as they allow frustrations to fester (Chen et al., 2005 ; Chen & Tjosvold, 2007 ; Tjosvold et al., 2005 ). Leaders need to manage their conflicts to reduce relationship conflicts and develop and maintain quality relationships.

Conflict for Making Decisions

Leaders have traditionally been thought to make tough decisions and then use their power to implement them. But this is a misleading notion. Studies by diverse researchers have documented the contribution of conflict to making decisions (Amason, 1996 ; Anderson, 1983 ; Cosier, 1978 ; George, 1974 ; Gruenfeld, 1995 ; Mason & Mitroff, 1981 ; Mitchell et al., 2009 ; Peterson & Nemeth, 1996 ; Salas, Rosen, & DiazGranados, 2010 ; Schweiger, Sandberg, & Ragan, 1986 ; Somech, Desivilya, & Lidgoster, 2009 ; Tetlock, Armor, & Peterson, 1994 ; Tjosvold, Wedley, & Field, 1986 ; Wong, Ormiston, & Tetlock, 2011 ). Through conflict, conventional thinking is challenged, threats and opportunities identified, and new solutions forged. Discussing opposing views has been found to give teams the confidence to take calculated risks where they also are prepared to recover from their mistakes; with this preparation, they innovate (Tjosvold & Yu, 2007 ). Even in a crisis, leaders are typically more effective when they seek out diverse views (Tjosvold, 1984 , 1990b ). Rather than making tough decisions alone, effective leaders are oriented toward promoting the conditions and relationships for open-minded discussion of opposing views among colleagues and employees. They develop constructive conflict that helps employees make and implement decisions as a team.

Conflict to Implement Leadership Styles

Researchers have argued that managers can be effective by adopting leadership styles such as transformational, servant, and productivity and people values (Eisenbeiss, van Knippenberg, & Boerner, 2008 ; Xu & Thomas, 2011 ). Less appreciated is that these styles are effective by promoting constructive conflict. Recent studies have demonstrated that to be successful in applying these styles, leaders develop constructive conflict.

Transformational leaders are expected to stimulate superior performance by appealing to employees’ higher aspirations (Bass, 2006 ). For example, they were found highly motivated not by unilaterally directing employees but by helping them manage their conflicts cooperatively and constructively (Zhang, Cao, & Tjosvold, 2011 ). This constructive conflict in turn resulted in high team performance in a sample of independent business groups. In a related study, government officials who exercised transformational leadership promoted cooperative conflict management that in turn resulted in strong government–business partnerships (Wong, Wei, & Tjosvold, 2014 ).

Leaders who value people and productivity have long been thought to be effective leaders, but the dynamics by which these values have beneficial effects have only recently been documented. In a study of international joint ventures (Wong, Wei, Yang, & Tjosvold, 2017 ), results support the idea that productivity and participation values strengthen the partners’ beliefs that their goals are cooperatively related, which in turn reduces free riding and promotes performance; in contrast, competitive goals appear to promote free riding and obstruct joint performance. The results have practical implications by showing that developing cooperative goals can strengthen the benefits of productivity and participation values.

Working in diverse organizations in India, team leaders indicated their people and productivity values and team members rated their open-minded discussion and their effectiveness and performance (Bhatnagar & Tjosvold, 2012 ). Structural equation analysis suggested that productivity values promoted open-minded discussion and thereby team effectiveness and productivity. Productivity-oriented team leaders challenge their teams to make high quality decisions and induce them to discuss issues open-mindedly, which in turn helps teams be effective (Bhatnagar & Tjosvold, 2012 ).

Servant leaders, as they emphasize service to others, team consensus, and the personal development of individuals, have been thought to lay the groundwork for cooperative conflict management in customer service teams (Wong, Liu, & Tjosvold, 2015 ). This constructive conflict helps team members resolve issues and in other ways effectively coordinate with each other; this coordination in turn helps these teams serve their customers. Findings indicate that to the extent that they have servant leaders, teams are able to discuss their disagreements, frustrations, and difficulties directly and work out solutions for the benefit of the team and its customers. These results provide support that improving the capacity to discuss opposing views open-mindedly can be a useful means for servant leaders to enhance teamwork and customer service in China and perhaps in other countries as well.

Ethical leaders want to act justly themselves but they also want employees to be committed to ethical principles and to act morally (Eisenbeiss, 2012 ; Mayer, Aquino, Greenbaum, & Kuenzi, 2012 ). A recent study indicates that effective ethical leaders and their employees engage in open-minded, cooperative conflict management where they express their ideas, work to understand each other, integrate their ideas, and apply their resolutions. Through this constructive conflict management, they work out arrangements that help them act effectively and morally in their situation as they also develop trusting, high quality relationships with each other. Ethical leaders and their employees were found to avoid competitive conflict involving trying to impose one’s own ideas and resolutions on others. Results also confirm that effective leaders develop high quality relationships that help them influence employees as well as to be open and influenced by them (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995 ).

Researchers have identified a number of styles that have been shown to help leaders be effective. Although they are developed from diverse leadership theories, studies have found that constructive conflict, in particular cooperative open-minded discussion, is an important mediator of successful implementation of these leadership styles, whether they be transformational leadership, valuing people and productivity, servant, or ethical leadership. Managers can use different leadership styles to encourage constructive conflict that empowers them to lead effectively.

Cultural Differences

Theories of conflict management that can be applied in diverse cultures are increasingly relevant. In the global marketplace, many managers and employees must handle conflicts that cross cultural boundaries. Team members increasingly have diverse cultural backgrounds, even when all operations are in one country. Many managers have to work with suppliers and customers who are from other cultures and live in other countries. Research has shown that open-mindedness and cooperative relationships develop constructive conflict in organizations even when protagonists are from both Western and Eastern cultures (Chen, Tjosvold, & Pan, 2010 ; Tjosvold, Wu, & Chen, 2010 ; Tjosvold, Wong, & Chen, 2014a ).

Research on conflict management has developed our understanding of the impact of cultural values, in particular collectivism and individualism. Western cultures have traditionally been thought to support open discussion of conflict consistent with their emphasis on individuals with their rights and proclivity to express their views. Eastern cultures have been considered collectivist where there is deference to their groups and leaders. Some studies support this traditional thinking. People from the West have indicated more preference for open handling of conflict, whereas those from the East prefer reticence (Kirkbride, Tang, & Westwood, 1991 ).

However, research suggests that this reasoning needs updating. Recent studies indicate that collectivist values induce open-minded discussion whereas individualistic values promote conflict avoidance. Collectivist values have been found in experiments to strengthen cooperative relationships that in turn promote open-minded discussion between individuals from collectivist and individualistic cultures (Chen et al., 2010 ; Tjosvold, Wu, et al., 2010 ; Tjosvold, Wong, & Chen, 2014a ). Collectivist culture team members were found to believe their goals are cooperative and that they are expected to work effectively with each other, and they sought to and actually understood opposing arguments and combined ideas for integrated decisions.

Studies confirm that cooperative and competitive approaches to managing conflict, although developed from theory in the West, apply to organizations in collectivist China as well (Chen et al., 2011 ). Indeed, findings challenge stereotypes that Chinese culture and leadership are highly conflict-negative. Chinese people are not rigidly committed to conflict avoidance but have been found to manage conflict cooperatively and openly. Chinese collectivism, social face, and other values can be applied in ways that aid direct, open, cooperative conflict management (Tjosvold, Wong, & Chen, 2014b ).

Cooperative conflict management can also guide the strengthening of cross-cultural interaction. Bond ( 2003 ) and Smith ( 2003 ) argue that cross-cultural researchers, in addition to the tradition of documenting cultural value differences, should study the relationship and interaction between culturally diverse people to identify how they work together effectively. Recent studies show that diverse people can work together when they manage their conflicts cooperatively (Chen et al., 2010 ; Chen & Tjosvold, 2007 , 2008 ; Chen, Tjosvold, & Wu, 2008 ).

While the “genotype” (the underlying conceptual structure of the theory of cooperation and competition) appears to be similar, the “phenotypes” (how the theory is manifested in particular situations) often are not (Lewin, 1938 ). In particular, the actions that develop cooperative goals and communicate an attempt to discuss conflicts open-mindedly may be quite different in China than in North America, as may the general levels of cooperative goals and conflict. However, diverse people can use research to develop a common understanding and platform for how they can manage conflict cooperatively and productively (Tjosvold & Leung, 2003 ).

Training Teams

Employees, managers, and executives are more effective when they manage important conflicts open-mindedly and cooperatively. Research suggests that, when they study cooperative, open-minded conflict, plan how to approach their own conflicts, and reflect on their experiences, managers and employees are more effective at managing conflict and more productive (Lu, Tjosvold, & Shi, 2010 ; Tjosvold et al., 2014a ).

A software company in Beijing used a cooperative team workshop and two months of follow-up of team feedback and reflection to develop open-minded conflict management (Lu et al., 2010 ). More than 150 employees from all the teams in the company participated in the workshop and the follow-up activities.

They had already organized cooperative teams to work on projects and satisfy customers. At the workshop, these groups studied the theory and reviewed the research in order to appreciate the value for them and their organization of strengthening cooperative, open-minded approaches to managing their conflicts. They decided that they wanted to improve their conflict management. They met regularly to assess their current level of cooperative conflict and developed plans for managing their conflicts more constructively. They practiced in their teams, met regularly to assess their current level of cooperative conflict, and developed plans for managing their conflicts more constructively. They reflected on their experience managing conflict within and between teams with consultants, and developed concrete ways to improve their conflict management.

Findings confirmed that open-minded discussion and cooperative relationships are a valuable basis upon which teams can strengthen their conflict management, collaboration among teams, and contributions to their organization. The training was found to heighten cooperative goals, develop open-minded discussion of conflicts, foster creativity within and between cultures, and produce higher group confidence and productivity.

Human resource personnel can apply conflict management findings by initiating professional development teams for managers and employees (Tjosvold & Tjosvold, 2015 ). They realize that becoming more effective requires the encouragement, feedback, and support of others. In these teams, managers and employees study cooperative, open-minded conflict management, reflect on their current experiences, and develop concrete ways to strengthen and practice conflict management skills. They remember not to expect perfection but to focus on reflecting on their experiences to improve.

Managers and employees confront a great variety of conflicts. With persistent pressures for them to rely on each other’s resources and to work together as a team, they are likely to encounter increasingly difficult conflicts that spread across organizational and national boundaries. Yet they are expected to resolve them quickly. Theory and research such as that referred to in this article helps to focus our efforts to manage even our complex conflicts constructively. We have learned from research that we can profitably strengthen our cooperative relationships and discuss our conflicts open-mindedly. Our conflicts will not disappear, but we can engage our partners so that we manage our conflicts and work together to get things done.

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The Effect of Leadership on Conflict Management

First Online: 01 January 2015

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literature review on conflict management styles

Evren Erzen 2 &
Yasir Armağan 3

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The effect of leadership on conflict management was examined in this meta-analytic study. A total of 485 research studies were identified as a result of a literature review, out of which 32 were included in the meta-analysis. The 32 research studies were compiled to obtain a sample size of 6,838 subjects. The analytic results of a random effects model showed that leadership has a small-magnitude, significant effect on conflict management . In the study, none of a set of variables, including the sample group , leadership style , publication type or year of publication , was found to be a moderator.

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A systematic review and meta-analysis: leadership and interactional justice

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Erzen, E., Armağan, Y. (2015). The Effect of Leadership on Conflict Management . In: Karadağ, E. (eds) Leadership and Organizational Outcomes. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-14908-0_14

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Eur J Investig Health Psychol Educ

Leadership and Conflict Management Style Are Associated with the Effectiveness of School Conflict Management in the Region of Epirus, NW Greece

Elisavet chandolia.

1 Graduate MEd Program Hellenic Open University, 26500 Patra, Greece; rg.pae.ca@172501dts

2 Directorate of Secondary Education of Arta, 47100 Arta, Greece

Sophia Anastasiou

3 Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ioannina, 45500 Ioannina, Greece

There are few options available for school managers who wish to effectively tackle school conflicts. The aim of the present work was to assess the issue of school conflict, its sources, and the effectiveness of different conflict management styles in Secondary Education school units in Greece. Teachers (n = 128) from twelve randomly selected schools in the region of Epirus, NW Greece, participated in the present work. Teachers’ views on their school Principals’ leadership style as well as the sources, the type(s), and the severity of conflict in their school unit were surveyed. Conflict appeared to be a frequent issue in schools. Frequent sources of conflict included interpersonal and organizational parameters. School leaders exhibited a range of conflict management styles. Compromise and Collaborative styles were frequently observed, followed by Smoothing and Forcing . Avoidance was less frequently exhibited by school leaders. The transformational and transactional leadership styles exhibited were equally effective in successful conflict resolution, whereas a laissez-faire leadership style was not. The results indicate that leadership and conflict management style can be associated with the effectiveness of conflict management.

1. Introduction

School leaders have a significant role in responding to the rising demands of modern society for effective school management [ 1 ]. They may adopt different leadership styles, and this can be a critical parameter for the success of school and its leadership [ 2 ]. In this context, school Principals are a key parameter in ensuring growth, goal achievements, and corporate success [ 3 ]. School leaders are expected to perform complex tasks and act both as managers and leaders. Their role includes: support to teachers, students and parents; liaising with parents and other stakeholders [ 4 ]. This range of tasks, complexity and multidimensional role can be described as the art of leading [ 5 , 6 ]. The art of leadership is crucial for a school to be effective under its particular internal and external school variables, including parents’ and society’ expectations, teachers’ workload and school climate including the culture of change and innovation [ 6 , 7 , 8 ].

Leadership can be described according to several theories and different leadership styles that can be grouped accordingly, including: trait theories, behavioral theories, situational theories, contingency theories, transactional leadership, transformational leadership, empowerment leadership, authentic leadership, strategic leadership, symbolic leadership, servant leadership and innovative leadership. School Principals may exhibit a range of leadership styles according to the national educational systems’ policies, their personality traits, values, experiences and skills, as well as the particular issues and environmental parameters of their school unit [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. In fact, effective leaders can adapt their leadership style depending on the context and situation of their school unit [ 8 , 12 , 13 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ].

The significant role of school leaders in Greece is confirmed by the reported effects of leadership style on school climate, students’ achievements, and teachers’ job satisfaction [ 8 , 12 , 17 , 18 ].

The Greek educational system is characterized by a highly hierarchical structure with limited opportunities for creativeness and initiatives for school Principals. The Greek Ministry of Education is the main decision-making center responsible for the formulation of key educational policies and control. It decides on almost all the issues concerning the allocation of funds, school operation, and human resources management policies such as teachers’ appointments and transfers. As a result of this top-down hierarchical structure, school leaders in Greece perform in a bureaucratic system with limited power and funds at the school level [ 4 , 8 , 10 ]. Nevertheless, even in a centralized educational system, school Principals have a decisive role in school management with significant effects on teachers and pupils. School leaders can be creative and inspirational, having an impact on several school parameters. Furthermore, school leaders may be required to perform under far from ideal conditions, to handle difficult situations and explore various ways in resolving conflicts and maximizing the potential outcome of their schools [ 13 , 19 ].

One issue that school leaders are expected to handle successfully in their units is the issue of school conflict . Conflict is a natural phenomenon in organizations as a result of interactions among people. Managers can handle conflict according to their personality skills, organizational settings and the context of the conflict. Successful management intervention may not eliminate conflicts, but is expected that managers will increase the positive rather than the negative outcomes of conflicts in an organization. For example, conflict can lead to the exchange of ideas, modernization and adaptation needed for organizational success. It can also have dramatically negative effects on the workplace, sometimes augmented by conflict-generating parameters such as poor communication and differences in views, values and priorities in an organization [ 20 ]. In other words, conflict will always be an issue for management and conflict management can make a difference in terms of the consequences of conflict for the individual as well as the organization [ 21 , 22 ].

Irrespective of the educational system or organizational parameters, conflict may result from differences of opinion, values, and feelings in the workplace [ 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 ]. As in any organization, school leaders are expected to handle situations of conflict in their school unit. It is anticipated that school leaders will determine how to address or minimize tensions in their schools based on their training and skills. Conflict in schools can be augmented by personal or organizational parameters [ 24 ]. Leaders set the tone for conflict management through their leadership styles. Their work experience and perceptions can moderate their priorities, strategies and style during conflict management [ 24 , 25 ].

Leaders may have different leadership styles and different conflict management styles. A review of the relevant literature reveals that there are a few options available for school managers who wish to tackle a school conflict and these can be grouped into five different approaches [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 ]: Avoidance, Compromising, Collaborating-Integrating, Forcing-Competing, Smoothing-Accommodating.

Avoidance is a managing conflict style whereby an individual does not succeed in/avoids adequately addressing a conflict but instead postpones, withdraws, or sidesteps. In most cases, individuals will tend to avoid conflict due to fear of getting involved in the dispute or they may lack the confidence in their managing conflict skills [ 26 ].

Compromising is a conflict managing approach aimed at finding a solution that is mutually acceptable and expedient and partially satisfies both the involved parties [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 ].

The Collaborating-Integrating approach entails making an effort of working with the other individual in searching for a solution that fully addresses the issue at hand, satisfying all the involved parties. It includes identification of the underlying concerns of one’s opponent and finding the alternatives for meeting the interests of each party [ 21 , 22 , 29 , 30 ].

Adopting a Forcing-Competing approach entails pushing one’s opinion at the expense of others and maintaining active resistance to the action of the other person. The forcing technique is used in situations whereby one needs to fight for ones’ rights/opinion, resisting pressure or aggression [ 17 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 31 ].

The Smoothing-Accommodating style accommodates concerns of ‘others first’ instead of giving one’s own interests top priority. The smoothing technique is appropriate when it is crucial to provide a relief that is temporal from conflict and/or when the problem is not meaningful to one person compared to others [ 21 , 22 , 32 ].

Several parameters can increase the likelihood of a school conflict. For example, a recent study in Primary Education units in Greece exhibited different possibilities of potential school conflicts according to the level of urbanization and the adoption of a constructive conflict management approach by school leaders [ 24 ]. A school leader may not intervene with the teaching process if, for example, the school exhibits significant educational outcomes. On the contrary, in a situation of low students’ performance, a school leader may give priority in the teaching processes or in reducing students’ aggressiveness as a prerequisite for both improving educational outcomes and teachers’ job satisfaction and commitment. School leaders and teachers must find ways to successfully resolve school conflicts. Furthermore, school leaders and teachers are expected to work with students in developing their understanding concerning conflict.

The role of school leader is also crucial in handling conflicts between teachers or between teachers and parents. A competent leader can identify the conflict management strategy appropriate for each case and recognize which conflict management qualities and skills or solution strategy is most suitable for each situation [ 32 ]. Leaders set the tone for conflict management through their leadership styles.

Successful school leaders are expected to develop their leadership skills, including conflict management skills, which will aid in achieving positive outcomes in their school unit, including effective conflict resolution, ensuring that relationships with the other staff members and/or the school community involved in a conflict are not adversely affected [ 33 ].

There is some evidence to suggest that certain leadership traits can be associated with particular conflict management styles [ 20 , 34 ]. For example, a transformational leader may attempt to inspire teachers in successful conflict resolution. Contrary to transformational leadership, a laissez-faire leadership style can be consistent with the Avoidance conflict management strategy as passive leadership is characterized by avoiding dealing with a problem. It has been argued that laissez-faire leadership will ignore conflicts and this will increase conflicts in the work place, for example, conflicts among co-workers [ 15 , 27 ].

The aim of the present work was to investigate the frequency of school conflicts in relation to the leadership and conflict management style exhibited by school Principals. The hypothesis is that the effectiveness of conflict management will vary according to leadership style and conflict management style.

2. Materials and Methods

The random number generator function of Microsoft excel was used to randomly select twelve (12) Secondary Education school units in the region of Arta, Epirus, NW Greece. Prior to the distribution of the questionnaires, approval from school Principals of the Secondary Education school units that participated in the present research work was obtained, teachers were informed about the purpose of the research, and their consent to participate in the study was obtained. The research protocol was approved as a graduate research project of Mrs Chandolia and was conducted in accordance with the guidelines of the Hellenic Open University, and further approval of the ethics committee was not required.

Questionnaires (n = 150) were distributed during Spring, 2019. The return rate was 85.33% (n = 128). This sample corresponds to 26.66% of teachers and 36.36% of school units in the region.

The first part of the questionnaire included general questions related to demographic and personal factors such as: gender, age, marital status, teaching experience, etc.

Additionally, teachers’ views on the leadership style of their school Principals as well as the sources, type(s), and severity of conflict in their school unit were surveyed using previously used questionnaires adopted and validated for use in Greece.

2.1. Sources and Frequency of Conflict and Conflict Management Style

Teachers’ perceptions regarding the frequency (7 items) and sources (7 items) of school conflict and conflict management style (10 items) were surveyed using a questionnaire previously used in relevant research in Greek schools that was reported to provide satisfactory internal consistency and reliability [ 24 , 26 ]. The questionnaire was used to measure five conflict management modes: Avoiding , Compromising , Collaborating , Forcing-Competing , and Smoothing-Accommodating . Teachers were asked to respond using a five point Likert scale: (0 = never, 1 = rarely, 2 = sometimes, 3 = often and 4 = very often).

2.2. Leadership Style

The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ, 5X-Short) of Bass et al. [ 27 ], adapted into the Greek language by Magoulianitis [ 29 ] was used so as to assess transformational and transactional leadership behavior. MLQ’s five transformational, three transactional, one laissez-faire, and the three outcome scales were included: (i) The transformational scales: inspirational motivation, idealized influence (behaviors), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and individualized consideration, (ii) the transactional scales: contingent reward, management-by-exception, and management-by-exception passive, (iii) laissez-faire is used as a non-leadership contrast to transformational and transactional leadership approaches, and (iv) the three outcome criteria: followers’ extra effort, the effectiveness of leader’s behavior, and followers’ satisfaction with their leader.

The questionnaire contained 39 items which were used to assesses the presence or absence of various leadership styles using a five points scale (0 = never; 1 = rarely; 2 = sometimes, 3 = often; 4 = very often). Data were analyzed with SPSS (version 14.01), normality tests (Shapiro Wilk test) were performed to confirm if data were normally distributed, and significance of differences was evaluated with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Tukey’s post-hoc tests.

The demographic characteristics of the teachers who participated in the present work are presented in Table 1 . Most of the teachers were above 40 years-old and about half of them had professional experience of over 16 years serving in their school unit.

Demographic characteristics of the teachers (n = 128) who participated in the current survey.

Characteristic	n	Percentage %
Age
≤ 30	3	2.3
30–40	33	25.8
40–50	57	44.5
> 50	35	27.3
Gender
♀	73	57
♂	55	43
Work Experience
≤ 5	8	6.3
5–15	58	45.3
15–25	47	36.7
> 25	15	11.7
Years serving in the current school unit
≤ 5	70	54.7
5–15	46	35.9
15–25	8	6.3

The descriptive statistics and Cronbach’s reliability for the transformational and transactional components of the MLQ are presented in Table 2 . The rating of School Principals ranged between 3.05 and 3.54 for the transformational leadership style and between 2.63 and 3.55 for the transactional leadership style, exhibiting high scores compared to the laissez-faire leadership.

Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) factors of teachers’ perceptions of their School Principal’s leadership characteristics. Significant differences (Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) post-hoc tests, p < 0.05) between the scores of different leadership characteristics are indicated with at least one different letter.

	Mean	Cronbach’s α
Idealized influence (attributed)	3.54 ± 1.11a	0.88
Idealized influence (behavior)	3.41 ± 0.87a	0.66
Inspirational motivation	3.38 ± 1.00a	0.88
Intellectual stimulation	3.31 ± 1.01a	0.85
Individualized consideration	3.05 ± 0.91a	0.64
Contingent reward	3.55 ± 0.90a	0.77
Management-by-exception (active)	3.22 ± 0.65a	0.68
Management-by-exception (passive)	2.63 ± 1.01bc	0.80
Laissez-faire leadership	2.00 ± 1.07c	0.88

Tukey’s honestly significant difference (HSD) post-hoc tests showed collective preferences towards: Idealized influence (attributed); idealized influence (behavior); inspirational motivation; intellectual stimulation; individualized consideration; contingent reward, and management-by-exception (active). The least frequently perceived leadership traits were management-by-exception (passive) and laissez-faire leadership.

The presence of different leadership styles was assessed according to the scores of teachers’ answers (0 = never; 1 = rarely; 2 = sometimes, 3 = often; 4 = frequently). A score above 3 indicates that a particular leadership style was often or frequently exhibited. A score between 2 and 3 indicates that a particular leadership trait was sometimes used.

3.1. Analysis of the Leadership

Teachers’ perceptions of their Principal’s leadership style ( Figure 1 ) indicate that their Principal frequently used transformational or transactional leadership styles, whereas a passive leadership style was less frequently exhibited (Tukey’s HSD post-hoc tests, p < 0.01).

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Teachers’ perceptions of the leadership style of their Principal.

In order to examine differences by school size, two groups were established on the basis of the distribution of the data and the effect of school size on the leadership style exhibited was investigated by comparing “small school units” with “large school units”. “Small” group of schools included units with less than 11 teachers serving, which is about three times smaller than the national average for schools in Greece. Schools with about triple the number of teachers were considered as “large” school units in the present work.

A statistical comparison between the leadership style of “small” and “large” school units is presented in Table 3 . Compared to small school units, larger schools scored significantly higher (t-test, p < 0.05) on the transformational leadership style. The reverse was exhibited on the laissez-faire leadership style, where small schools exhibited significantly higher ( p < 0.05) scores. There was no significant difference between small and large school units in the scores of transactional leadership styles.

Comparison of leadership style exhibited in small school units (≤10 teachers serving, n = 7) and large school units (>30 teachers serving, n = 3).

Small School Units	Large School Units	Tuckey’s Test
2.69 ± 1.21	3.39 ± 0.77	= 0.039
3.07 ± 0.53	3.39 ± 0.66	NS = 0.227
3.11 ± 1.11	2.28 ± 0.94	= 0.035

3.2. Frequency of Conflicts

Teachers’ perceptions on the frequency of conflicts in their school units are presented in Figure 2 . The frequency of conflict occurring in schools was assessed according to the scores of teachers’ answers (0 = never; 1 = rarely; 2 = sometimes, 3 = often; 4 = frequently). A score above 3 indicates an often/frequent occurrence of school conflict. A significant number of teachers (38.28%) reported an often/frequent occurrence of conflict in their school.

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Teachers’ perceptions of the frequency of conflicts exhibited in their school units.

3.3. Sources of School Conflicts

Teachers’ perceptions on the sources of school conflict was assessed according to the scores of their answers (0 = never; 1 = rarely; 2 = sometimes, 3 = often; 4 = frequently) on a range of possible sources: interpersonal conflict; structural organizational weakness; poor organizational communication; limited availability of resources; introduction of changes and innovations; leadership style ( Figure 3 ).

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Teachers’ perceptions of the sources of conflict exhibited in their school units.

A score above 3 indicates a high likelihood of a particular source of conflict compared to a score between 2 and 3, which indicates a low likelihood of a particular source of conflict.

There was no significant difference (ANOVA) between the scores of different sources of conflict, indicating that all of them were possible contributing factors in school conflict: interpersonal conflict (3.23); structural organizational weakness (2.99); poor organizational communication (2.88); limited availability of resources (2.84); leadership style (2.61); introduction of changes and innovations (2.48).

3.4. Conflict Management Styles

Teachers’ perceptions of their school leader’s conflict management style was assessed according to the scores of their answers (0 = never; 1 = rarely; 2 = sometimes, 3 = often; 4 = frequently) for different conflict management styles. A score above 3 indicates that a particular conflict management style was frequently used by school leaders, a score between 2 and 3 indicates that a particular conflict management was not frequently used by school leaders ( Figure 4 ).

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Teachers’ perceptions of their school leader’s conflict management style.

Compromise (3.63) and Collaborative (3.63) styles were often/frequently used, followed by Smoothing (3.20), Forcing (3.05), and Avoidance (2.05), which were often and sometimes exhibited by school leaders. Statistical analysis (Tukey’s HSD post-hoc tests, p < 0.05) indicated that, compared to the other conflict management styles, Avoidance exhibited significantly lower scores, indicating that this conflict management style was less frequently exhibited by school leaders.

Teachers’ perceptions on the effectiveness of different leadership styles was assessed according to the scores of their answers for the successful resolution of school conflicts and the leadership style of their school leader. Scores ranged from 0 (unsuccessful) to 4 (very successful). The results are graphically presented in Figure 5 . A score above 3 indicates that a particular leadership style was often/frequently associated with successful conflict resolution. Statistical analysis (ANOVA, p < 0.05) indicated that transformational and transactional leadership exhibited an effect on conflict resolution, with equally higher effectiveness in successful (indicated by scores > 3) conflict resolution compared to laissez-faire leadership style (Tukey’s HSD post-hoc tests, p > 0.01), which was reported as less effective in conflict management.

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Object name is ejihpe-10-00034-g005.jpg

Perceived Leadership style and likelihood of successful resolution of school conflicts according to teachers. Scores range from 0 (unsuccessful) to 4 (successful). Lines represent different leadership styles: Transformational (solid line with black squares), transactional (dotted line with grey squares), laissez-faire (dashed line with white squares) and the effectiveness of their leader in handling school conflicts.

Teachers’ perceptions on the effectiveness of different conflict management styles was assessed according to the scores of their answers for the frequency of conflicts in their school and the conflict management style of their school leader. Scores ranged from 1 ( rare/low frequency of conflicts) to 4 ( very frequent occurrences of school conflicts). The results are graphically presented in Figure 6 . A score above 3 indicates that a particular conflict management style was often/frequently associated with an increased likelihood of conflicts. Statistical analysis (ANOVA) indicated that Smoothing and Forcing had no effect on the likelihood of conflict occurring in a school unit. Compromising and Collaborative conflict management styles had a significant effect (Tukey’s HSD post-hoc tests, p > 0.05) with a reduced frequency of conflicts, whereas Avoidance was associated with a significantly increased frequency of conflicts (Tukey’s HSD post-hoc tests, p > 0.05). There was no significant difference between the scores of the transformational and transactional leadership styles, whereas the laissez-faire leadership style was significantly less frequently exhibited (Tukey’s HSD post-hoc tests, p < 0.01).

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Object name is ejihpe-10-00034-g006.jpg

Conflict management style and frequency of school conflicts according to teachers’ perceptions. Lines represent different conflict management styles: Smoothing (solid line with black triangles), Compromising (dotted line with black triangles), Collaborative (solid line with black squares), Avoidance (solid line with white squares), Forcing (solid line with white triangles). Scores range from 1 (rare conflicts) to 4 (very frequent occurrences of school conflicts).

4. Discussion

The results of the present work support the hypothesis that the effectiveness of school conflict management may vary according to leadership style and conflict management style. The perceptions of teachers indicate that school conflict is a frequent issue and that a range of leadership styles and conflict management styles may be exhibited by School Principals.

Greece has a highly centralized educational system with several sources of school conflicts often being generated by the centralized top-down decision and communication system. There is a limited number of similar research works for Secondary Education School Units in the region of Epirus in Greece.

The results indicate that conflict is a frequent problem, and conflict frequency and conflict resolution may vary. The results provide some evidence about the significant role of school leaders and on the effectiveness of school leaders’ conflict management in Greece and can be used to identify possible weaknesses in the current settings in respect to conflict management.

Leadership and conflict management styles are contributing parameters for the effectiveness of any organization. Effective leadership is crucial for the overall success of any organization, ensuring its growth and long term performance.

Competent leaders should lead, inspire and identify the appropriate conflict management strategy as well as the conflict management qualities and skills or solution strategies most suitable for each situation [ 35 ]. In the same manner, school leaders have to decide how to address school conflicts using different strategies, as discussed by Saiti [ 24 ].

4.1. Leadership Style

The teachers who participated in the present research work considered transformational and transactional leadership as being most frequently exhibited by their school leaders, whereas laissez-faire was significantly less frequently exhibited ( Figure 1 ). This is in agreement with other studies in Greece that reported similar results [ 17 , 18 ]. In fact, transformational and transactional leadership styles may coexist, with school leaders adopting their style according to the particular situations they encounter [ 27 ].

In the present study, the perceived leadership style varied according to school size, with transformational leadership being exhibited in larger schools, whereas the laissez-faire leadership style was exhibited more frequently in small schools. Transactional leadership style was equally frequently used in the small and large school units.

There is some evidence to suggest that school size may affect leadership style [ 33 ]. Contributing factors for this size effect may be: differences between urban and suburban external environments, school size, teachers’ perceptions and values [ 36 ].

Environmental factors, such as school size or school culture, can contribute to the leadership style differences observed in the present work [ 37 ]. For example, school climate may vary according to school size [ 38 ], in turn, school climate and leadership style may change according to school size [ 39 ]; transformational leadership is found to be associated with a constructive school culture, whereas transactional leadership is associated with a defensive culture [ 40 , 41 ].

4.2. Frequency of School Conflicts

Conflict appeared to be a frequent issue concerning the schools in the present work ( Figure 2 ). Among the frequent sources of conflict were identified: interpersonal conflict; structural organizational weakness; poor organizational communication; limited availability of resources; leadership style and introduction of changes and innovations. These results are in agreement with previously published reports on the contribution of personal and organizational factors for school conflicts in Greece and other countries [ 24 , 42 , 43 ].

4.3. Conflict Management Styles

According to the perceptions of the teachers’ who participated in the present work, their school leaders exhibited a range of conflict management styles. Compromise and Collaborative styles were frequently observed, followed by Smoothing and Forcing . Avoidance was less frequently exhibited by school leaders. Compromising and Collaborative styles were included in the prevailing conflict management styles exhibited by school leaders, contributing to creating a constructive and effective conflict management style adopted by school leaders in Greece [ 24 ]. Forcing and Avoidance may have undesired effects on school functions and climate and are therefore less popular [ 42 ].

A negative effect of Avoidance was also exhibited in the effectiveness of conflict management in the present work. Teachers perceived Avoidance as the least effective conflict management style, providing further justification for the low popularity of this conflict management style observed in the present work.

4.4. Effectiveness of the School Leaders in Conflict Management

Apart from the differences in conflict management style, differences were also observed in teachers’ perceptions about the frequency of conflicts and the leadership styles of Principals in their schools. The results of the present work indicate that the school Principals’ leadership style had significant influence on effective conflict management.

Transformational and transactional leadership styles were perceived by teachers as equally effective in successful conflict resolution, whereas the laissez-faire leadership style was not. These results are in agreement with previous reports on the inferiority of the laissez-faire leadership style and the expected benefits of transformational leadership on effective school management [ 16 , 17 , 18 ].

Leaders set the tone for conflict management through their leadership styles. Principals’ work experience and how they perceive power both influence their strategies during conflict management.

Experienced transformational school Principals choose conflict management strategies that ensure relationships are not destroyed and that relations with other members of staff or the school community involved in conflict management do not get affected negatively [ 33 ].

Transformational leadership is popular and frequently adopted by school leaders in Greece. The benefits of this style include innovation and creativity. Transformational school leaders can create a synergistic environment that motivates and enhances collaboration towards change. A transformational leader can help conflicting groups work together towards their common goals by providing encouragement and support, creating an environment that releases tensions, and professionally handles disruptive behavior.

School Principals who perceive themselves as transformational leaders prefer collaboration as the best and most frequent strategy of conflict management. Transformational leadership tends to encourage flexibility and creativity with an emphasis on critically questioning the set policies, evaluating strategies, and gaining effective performance [ 44 ].

Transactional leadership is also a frequently observed leadership style in Greek schools. This style can be effective in a highly centralized setting as in the case of the educational system in Greece. Transactional leaders can be successful in maintaining consistency with a plethora of national laws, circulars, and guidelines given by the Ministry of Education. An effective leader can identify the conflict management strategy that is appropriate for each case and recognize which conflict management qualities and skills or solution strategy is most suitable for each situation [ 32 ].

Leadership style can affect school innovation and pupils’ performance [ 45 ], school climate, and teachers’ satisfaction [ 12 ] and consequently has direct and indirect effects on the sources of school conflicts.

4.5. Practical Recommendations

There are several challenges that school leaders in Greece face. Training in human resources management skills may have potential benefits on several parameters of effective school management, including motivation and job satisfaction, students’ success, team building, and commitment [ 46 , 47 , 48 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , 53 ].

5. Conclusions

The results of the present work indicate that leadership and conflict management style was associated with the effectiveness of conflict management. The sample reflected a range of leadership and conflict management styles but it is difficult to derive causal relationships from a cross-sectional study. Further investigation is required to confirm a possible direct or indirect effect of leadership and conflict management styles on effective conflict management.

In-service or pre-service training of school Principals in human resources management skills, including leadership and conflict management, can aid in improving the efficiency of leaders in Greek schools. The expected benefits of effective conflict management extend to other interacting parameters. Effective conflict management can create conditions that will improve school climate, teachers’ job satisfaction and commitment and school performance.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, E.C. and S.A.; Data curation, E.C.; Project administration, S.A.; Supervision, S.A.; Writing—original draft, E.C.; Writing—review & editing, S.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Conflict Management: A Literature Review and Study

Conflict Management, Forthcoming

9 Pages Posted: 2 Dec 2023 Last revised: 22 Dec 2023

Lingayas Vidyapeeth

Samriti mahajan.

Date Written: June 6, 2022

Conflict management is critical for the proper running of organisations as well as for individual personal, cultural, and social growth. Teamwork that is dysfunctional, patient satisfaction that is low, and employee turnover are all bad results. Conflict resolution skills training has been shown to improve teamwork, productivity, and patient and employee satisfaction in studies. The manner in which the issue is handled, rather than the conflict itself, might add to the tension in the situation. By this paper we want to understand the importance of conflict resolution and management, recognize skill sets applicable to conflict management and the study also showed education level did not have any effect on their preferred conflict management styles.

Keywords: conflict, conflict management, conflict management skill, conflict resolution

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Urvashi Rawat (Contact Author)

Lingayas vidyapeeth ( email ), do you have a job opening that you would like to promote on ssrn, paper statistics, related ejournals, social sciences education ejournal.

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Corpus ID: 247582438

Literature Review on Conflict Management: A critical study

Dr. Ani Smriti , Mr. Rajesh Kumar
Published 2021
Sociology, Business

54 References

Interpersonal conflict and its management in information system development, impact of individualism and collectivism on managing conflicts at work: evidence from public sector banks in sri lanka, culture and conflict management: a theoretical framework, conflict and conflict management, do conflict management styles affect group decision making evidence from a longitudinal field study, maximizing the benefits of task conflict: the role of conflict management, the importance of conflict in work team effectiveness, patterns of organizational conflict., toward a theory of managing organizational conflict, the virtue and vice of workplace conflict: food for (pessimistic) thought, related papers.

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Please note you do not have access to teaching notes, ten years of conflict management studies: themes, concepts and relationships.

International Journal of Conflict Management

ISSN : 1044-4068

Article publication date: 4 July 2008

The purpose of this paper is to map the intellectual structure of conflict management studies and to investigate the key themes, concepts, and their relationships of conflict management literature in the past decade.

Design/methodology/approach

Citation and co‐citation analysis and social network analysis were used to trace the development path of conflict management research. The data were collected by searching the SSCI databases, based on 556 journal articles which were published between 1997 and 2006, and their cited references were analyzed and profiled.

The paper shows that conflict management literature focuses on three key themes: workplace conflict and conflict management styles, cultural differences in conflict management, and conflict management in practice. In addition, research on group conflict and work performance has gained momentum in recent years.

Originality/value

The intellectual structure of conflict management literature has received little attention in spite that a large number of studies have been done on conflict management. This paper will expose researchers to a new way of profiling key themes and their relationships in conflict management area, which will help academia and practitioners understand better contemporary conflict management studies.

Conflict management
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Ma, Z. , Lee, Y. and Yu, K. (2008), "Ten years of conflict management studies: themes, concepts and relationships", International Journal of Conflict Management , Vol. 19 No. 3, pp. 234-248. https://doi.org/10.1108/10444060810875796

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Leadership & Conflict Management: A Review of the Literature

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Excerpt] In this article we look at the traditional approach to workplace conflict, the evolution of conflict management, criticism of this process by progressive and traditional critics, and then consider whether they can be reconciled by taking what we call a strategic view of conflict management in the workplace. This view calls for an alignment between the goals of the conflict management system and the overarching nature of the organization in which that system is implemented. The management of conflict, according to this approach, should complement the organization's strategic posture and existing structures. We maintain that the level of fit between an organization's conflict management philosophy and its strategic goals and objectives dictates whether the conflict management system will enhance or hinder key stakeholder outcomes.

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This article reviews the conflict literature, first examining the causes of conflict, its core process, and its effects. Subsequently, we probe into conflict escalation (and de-escalation), contexts, and conflict management. When examining this last topic, we note that conflict can be managed by the disputants themselves, by managers, or by other third parties. In conclusion we suggest directions for future research and provide recommendations for practicing managers.

iorzua emmanuel

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Purpose: Conflict management indicates in the first instance the perspective of the so called ―third party (a mediator, conflict advisor, conflict manager, or supervisor), which is called to help, or engages itself after its own incentive, in order to assists to both conflict parties (and eventually one of them). One can speak about conflict dealing also when during the conflict both parties look for a consensual solution, without asking for an external assistance. The forms of approaching and dealing with conflicts could be of very different nature. Methodology: The research was purely qualitative. Desktop literature review was conducted. Critical analysis of the literature was conducted. Findings: The study found out that most strategies incorporate a range of peaceful measures like negotiations, mediation or facilitation, as well as coercive measures as military, political or economic sanctions including the threat with them (power mediation). While latter measures usually are of...

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The conflict has always been present among people. It arises at the level of human relationships and has a specific form of expression, according to its evolutionary stage. Because of the fact that people are part of an organization, they bring the conflict with themselves. Any attempt of efficiently managing an organization without taking into account the fact that organizational

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When looking at the dictionary of the Turkish Language Institution, the words; disagreement, confrontation, conflict and antgoism seems as war (TDK, 2015). In the language used in current and academic studies in terms of English, the word "conflict" is not exactly named in Turkish language. Conflict has been seen to be counteracted in the form of conflict, contradiction, disagreement, friction, controversy (Gümüşeli, 1994). Forced conflicts are of an opposite meaning with negative expressions which overturns the balances that the employee creates in the institutional environment during conflicts, and force the employee to balance again (Başaran, 1991). The first meaning that the concept of conflict generally refers to negativities such as fighting, war, fighting in organizations. For this reason, extraordinary efforts are being made to ensure that the feelings of unity and solidarity between the individuals and the organizations are dominant in the societies. However, conflict is constantly present both in society and in nature. Conflict should not be mentioned with always negative expressions in organizations. If conflicts are well organized and managed within the organization, the quality of the organization may increase (Fleetwood, 1987, p.6).

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Leadership and Conflict Management Style Are Associated with the Effectiveness of School Conflict Management in the Region of Epirus, NW Greece

Sophia Anastasiou

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Sources and Frequency of Conflict and Conflict Management Style

2.2. Leadership Style

3.1. Analysis of the Leadership

3.2. Frequency of Conflicts

3.3. Sources of School Conflicts

3.4. Conflict Management Styles

4. Discussion

4.1. Leadership Style

4.2. Frequency of School Conflicts

4.3. Conflict Management Styles

4.4. Effectiveness of the School Leaders in Conflict Management

4.5. Practical Recommendations

5. Conclusions

Author Contributions

Conflicts of Interest

Conflict Management: A Literature Review and Study

Lingayas Vidyapeeth

Urvashi Rawat (Contact Author)

Conflict & Dispute Resolution eJournal

Literature Review on Conflict Management: A critical study

54 References

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