alexander the great hero essay

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Beginnings of the Persian expedition

Asia minor and the battle of issus, conquest of the mediterranean coast and egypt, campaign eastward to central asia, invasion of india, consolidation of the empire.

Why is Alexander the Great famous?

What was alexander the great’s childhood like, how did alexander the great die, what was alexander the great like.

• What is imperialism in history?

Alexander the Great

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• Table Of Contents

Although king of ancient Macedonia for less than 13 years, Alexander the Great changed the course of history. One of the world’s greatest military generals, he created a vast empire that stretched from Macedonia to Egypt and from Greece to part of India. This allowed for Hellenistic culture to become widespread.

Alexander was the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus). From age 13 to 16 he was taught by the Greek philosopher Aristotle , who inspired his interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation. As a teenager, Alexander became known for his exploits on the battlefield.

While in Babylon , Alexander became ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout, and on June 13, 323, he died at age 33. There was much speculation about the cause of death, and the most popular theories claim that he either contracted malaria or typhoid fever or that he was poisoned.

While he could be ruthless and impulsive, Alexander was also charismatic and sensible. His troops were extremely loyal, believing in him throughout all hardships. Hugely ambitious, Alexander drew inspiration from the gods Achilles , Heracles , and Dionysus . He also displayed a deep interest in learning and encouraged the spread of Hellenistic culture.

Alexander the Great (born 356 bce , Pella, Macedonia [northwest of Thessaloníki, Greece]—died June 13, 323 bce , Babylon [near Al-Ḥillah, Iraq]) was the king of Macedonia (336–323 bce ), who overthrew the Persian empire , carried Macedonian arms to India , and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. Already in his lifetime the subject of fabulous stories, he later became the hero of a full-scale legend bearing only the sketchiest resemblance to his historical career.

He was born in 356 bce at Pella in Macedonia, the son of Philip II and Olympias (daughter of King Neoptolemus of Epirus ). From age 13 to 16 he was taught by Aristotle , who inspired him with an interest in philosophy , medicine , and scientific investigation , but he was later to advance beyond his teacher’s narrow precept that non-Greeks should be treated as slaves. Left in charge of Macedonia in 340 during Philip’s attack on Byzantium , Alexander defeated the Maedi, a Thracian people. Two years later he commanded the left wing at the Battle of Chaeronea , in which Philip defeated the allied Greek states, and displayed personal courage in breaking the Sacred Band of Thebes , an elite military corps composed of 150 pairs of lovers. A year later Philip divorced Olympias, and, after a quarrel at a feast held to celebrate his father’s new marriage, Alexander and his mother fled to Epirus, and Alexander later went to Illyria . Shortly afterward, father and son were reconciled and Alexander returned, but his position as heir was jeopardized.

In 336, however, on Philip’s assassination , Alexander, acclaimed by the army, succeeded without opposition. He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip’s murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. He then marched south, recovered a wavering Thessaly , and at an assembly of the Greek League of Corinth was appointed generalissimo for the forthcoming invasion of Asia , already planned and initiated by Philip. Returning to Macedonia by way of Delphi (where the Pythian priestess acclaimed him “invincible”), he advanced into Thrace in spring 335 and, after forcing the Shipka Pass and crushing the Triballi , crossed the Danube to disperse the Getae ; turning west, he then defeated and shattered a coalition of Illyrians who had invaded Macedonia. Meanwhile, a rumour of his death had precipitated a revolt of Theban democrats; other Greek states favoured Thebes , and the Athenians , urged on by Demosthenes , voted help. In 14 days Alexander marched 240 miles from Pelion (near modern Korçë , Albania ) in Illyria to Thebes. When the Thebans refused to surrender, he made an entry and razed their city to the ground, sparing only temples and Pindar ’s house; 6,000 were killed and all survivors sold into slavery . The other Greek states were cowed by this severity, and Alexander could afford to treat Athens leniently. Macedonian garrisons were left in Corinth , Chalcis , and the Cadmea (the citadel of Thebes).

From his accession Alexander had set his mind on the Persian expedition . He had grown up to the idea. Moreover, he needed the wealth of Persia if he was to maintain the army built by Philip and pay off the 500 talents he owed. The exploits of the Ten Thousand, Greek soldiers of fortune, and of Agesilaus of Sparta , in successfully campaigning in Persian territory had revealed the vulnerability of the Persian empire . With a good cavalry force Alexander could expect to defeat any Persian army. In spring 334 he crossed the Dardanelles , leaving Antipater , who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 men; he himself commanded about 30,000 foot and over 5,000 cavalry, of whom nearly 14,000 were Macedonians and about 7,000 allies sent by the Greek League. This army was to prove remarkable for its balanced combination of arms. Much work fell on the lightarmed Cretan and Macedonian archers, Thracians, and the Agrianian javelin men. But in pitched battle the striking force was the cavalry , and the core of the army, should the issue still remain undecided after the cavalry charge, was the infantry phalanx , 9,000 strong, armed with 13-foot spears and shields, and the 3,000 men of the royal battalions, the hypaspists. Alexander’s second in command was Parmenio , who had secured a foothold in Asia Minor during Philip’s lifetime; many of his family and supporters were entrenched in positions of responsibility. The army was accompanied by surveyors, engineers, architects, scientists, court officials, and historians; from the outset Alexander seems to have envisaged an unlimited operation.

After visiting Ilium ( Troy ), a romantic gesture inspired by Homer , he confronted his first Persian army, led by three satraps , at the Granicus (modern Kocabaş) River, near the Sea of Marmara (May/June 334). The Persian plan to tempt Alexander across the river and kill him in the melee almost succeeded; but the Persian line broke, and Alexander’s victory was complete. Darius ’s Greek mercenaries were largely massacred, but 2,000 survivors were sent back to Macedonia in chains. This victory exposed western Asia Minor to the Macedonians, and most cities hastened to open their gates. The tyrants were expelled and (in contrast to Macedonian policy in Greece) democracies were installed. Alexander thus underlined his Panhellenic policy, already symbolized in the sending of 300 panoplies (sets of armour) taken at the Granicus as an offering dedicated to Athena at Athens by “Alexander son of Philip and the Greeks (except the Spartans) from the barbarians who inhabit Asia.” (This formula, cited by the Greek historian Arrian in his history of Alexander’s campaigns, is noteworthy for its omission of any reference to Macedonia.) But the cities remained de facto under Alexander, and his appointment of Calas as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia reflected his claim to succeed the Great King of Persia. When Miletus , encouraged by the proximity of the Persian fleet, resisted, Alexander took it by assault, but, refusing a naval battle, he disbanded his own costly navy and announced that he would “defeat the Persian fleet on land,” by occupying the coastal cities. In Caria , Halicarnassus resisted and was stormed, but Ada , the widow and sister of the satrap Idrieus, adopted Alexander as her son and, after expelling her brother Pixodarus, Alexander restored her to her satrapy. Some parts of Caria held out, however, until 332.

In winter 334–333 Alexander conquered western Asia Minor, subduing the hill tribes of Lycia and Pisidia , and in spring 333 he advanced along the coastal road to Perga , passing the cliffs of Mount Climax, thanks to a fortunate change of wind. The fall in the level of the sea was interpreted as a mark of divine favour by Alexander’s flatterers, including the historian Callisthenes . At Gordium in Phrygia , tradition records his cutting of the Gordian knot , which could only be loosed by the man who was to rule Asia; but this story may be apocryphal or at least distorted. At this point Alexander benefitted from the sudden death of Memnon , the competent Greek commander of the Persian fleet. From Gordium he pushed on to Ancyra (modern Ankara ) and thence south through Cappadocia and the Cilician Gates (modern Külek Boğazi); a fever held him up for a time in Cilicia . Meanwhile, Darius with his Grand Army had advanced northward on the eastern side of Mount Amanus. Intelligence on both sides was faulty, and Alexander was already encamped by Myriandrus (near modern İskenderun , Turkey ) when he learned that Darius was astride his line of communications at Issus , north of Alexander’s position (autumn 333). Turning, Alexander found Darius drawn up along the Pinarus River. In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. The struggle turned into a Persian rout and Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander’s hands; the women were treated with chivalrous care.

From Issus Alexander marched south into Syria and Phoenicia , his object being to isolate the Persian fleet from its bases and so to destroy it as an effective fighting force. The Phoenician cities Marathus and Aradus came over quietly, and Parmenio was sent ahead to secure Damascus and its rich booty, including Darius ’s war chest. In reply to a letter from Darius offering peace, Alexander replied arrogantly, recapitulating the historic wrongs of Greece and demanding unconditional surrender to himself as lord of Asia. After taking Byblos (modern Jubayl) and Sidon (Arabic Ṣaydā), he met with a check at Tyre , where he was refused entry into the island city. He thereupon prepared to use all methods of siegecraft to take it, but the Tyrians resisted, holding out for seven months. In the meantime (winter 333–332) the Persians had counterattacked by land in Asia Minor—where they were defeated by Antigonus , the satrap of Greater Phrygia—and by sea, recapturing a number of cities and islands.

While the siege of Tyre was in progress, Darius sent a new offer: he would pay a huge ransom of 10,000 talents for his family and cede all his lands west of the Euphrates . “I would accept,” Parmenio is reported to have said, “were I Alexander”; “I too,” was the famous retort, “were I Parmenio.” The storming of Tyre in July 332 was Alexander’s greatest military achievement; it was attended with great carnage and the sale of the women and children into slavery . Leaving Parmenio in Syria, Alexander advanced south without opposition until he reached Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for two months, and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie. There is no basis for the tradition that he turned aside to visit Jerusalem .

In November 332 he reached Egypt . The people welcomed him as their deliverer, and the Persian satrap Mazaces wisely surrendered. At Memphis Alexander sacrificed to Apis , the Greek term for Hapi, the sacred Egyptian bull, and was crowned with the traditional double crown of the pharaohs ; the native priests were placated and their religion encouraged. He spent the winter organizing Egypt , where he employed Egyptian governors, keeping the army under a separate Macedonian command. He founded the city of Alexandria near the western arm of the Nile on a fine site between the sea and Lake Mareotis, protected by the island of Pharos, and had it laid out by the Rhodian architect Deinocrates. He is also said to have sent an expedition to discover the causes of the flooding of the Nile. From Alexandria he marched along the coast to Paraetonium and from there inland to visit the celebrated oracle of the god Amon (at Sīwah ); the difficult journey was later embroidered with flattering legends . On his reaching the oracle in its oasis , the priest gave him the traditional salutation of a pharaoh , as son of Amon; Alexander consulted the god on the success of his expedition but revealed the reply to no one. Later the incident was to contribute to the story that he was the son of Zeus and, thus, to his “deification.” In spring 331 he returned to Tyre, appointed a Macedonian satrap for Syria, and prepared to advance into Mesopotamia . His conquest of Egypt had completed his control of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast.

In July 331 Alexander was at Thapsacus on the Euphrates . Instead of taking the direct route down the river to Babylon , he made across northern Mesopotamia toward the Tigris , and Darius, learning of this move from an advance force sent under Mazaeus to the Euphrates crossing, marched up the Tigris to oppose him. The decisive battle of the war was fought on October 31, on the plain of Gaugamela between Nineveh and Arbela. Alexander pursued the defeated Persian forces for 35 miles to Arbela, but Darius escaped with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media .

Alexander now occupied Babylon , city and province; Mazaeus, who surrendered it, was confirmed as satrap in conjunction with a Macedonian troop commander, and quite exceptionally was granted the right to coin . As in Egypt, the local priesthood was encouraged. Susa , the capital, also surrendered, releasing huge treasures amounting to 50,000 gold talents; here Alexander established Darius’s family in comfort. Crushing the mountain tribe of the Ouxians, he now pressed on over the Zagros range into Persia proper and, successfully turning the Pass of the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes , he entered Persepolis and Pasargadae . At Persepolis he ceremonially burned down the palace of Xerxes , as a symbol that the Panhellenic war of revenge was at an end; for such seems the probable significance of an act that tradition later explained as a drunken frolic inspired by Thaïs , an Athenian courtesan. In spring 330 Alexander marched north into Media and occupied its capital. The Thessalians and Greek allies were sent home; henceforward he was waging a purely personal war.

As Mazaeus’s appointment indicated, Alexander’s views on the empire were changing. He had come to envisage a joint ruling people consisting of Macedonians and Persians, and this served to augment the misunderstanding that now arose between him and his people. Before continuing his pursuit of Darius, who had retreated into Bactria , he assembled all the Persian treasure and entrusted it to Harpalus , who was to hold it at Ecbatana as chief treasurer. Parmenio was also left behind in Media to control communications; the presence of this older man had perhaps become irksome.

In midsummer 330 Alexander set out for the eastern provinces at a high speed via Rhagae (modern Rayy , near Tehrān ) and the Caspian Gates, where he learned that Bessus , the satrap of Bactria, had deposed Darius. After a skirmish near modern Shāhrūd, the usurper had Darius stabbed and left him to die. Alexander sent his body for burial with due honours in the royal tombs at Persepolis.

Darius ’s death left no obstacle to Alexander’s claim to be Great King, and a Rhodian inscription of this year (330) calls him “lord of Asia”—i.e., of the Persian empire; soon afterward his Asian coins carry the title of king. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian , he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion westward, perhaps to modern Āmol , he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. He also accepted the surrender of Darius’s Greek mercenaries. His advance eastward was now rapid. In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern Herāt ). At Phrada in Drangiana (either near modern Nad-e ʿAli in Seistan or farther north at Farah ), he at last took steps to destroy Parmenio and his family. Philotas , Parmenio’s son, commander of the elite Companion cavalry, was implicated in an alleged plot against Alexander’s life, condemned by the army, and executed; and a secret message was sent to Cleander , Parmenio’s second in command, who obediently assassinated him. This ruthless action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander’s position relative to his critics and those whom he regarded as his father’s men. All Parmenio’s adherents were now eliminated and men close to Alexander promoted. The Companion cavalry was reorganized in two sections, each containing four squadrons (now known as hipparchies); one group was commanded by Alexander’s oldest friend, Hephaestion , the other by Cleitus , an older man. From Phrada, Alexander pressed on during the winter of 330–329 up the valley of the Helmand River , through Arachosia , and over the mountains past the site of modern Kābul into the country of the Paropamisadae, where he founded Alexandria by the Caucasus .

Bessus was now in Bactria raising a national revolt in the eastern satrapies with the usurped title of Great King. Crossing the Hindu Kush northward over the Khawak Pass (11,650 feet [3,550 metres]), Alexander brought his army, despite food shortages, to Drapsaca (sometimes identified with modern Banu [Andarab], probably farther north at Qunduz); outflanked, Bessus fled beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya ), and Alexander, marching west to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh [ Wazirabad ] in Afghanistan ), appointed loyal satraps in Bactria and Aria. Crossing the Oxus, he sent his general Ptolemy in pursuit of Bessus, who had meanwhile been overthrown by the Sogdian Spitamenes. Bessus was captured, flogged, and sent to Bactra, where he was later mutilated after the Persian manner (losing his nose and ears); in due course he was publicly executed at Ecbatana .

From Maracanda (modern Samarkand ) Alexander advanced by way of Cyropolis to the Jaxartes (modern Syrdarya), the boundary of the Persian empire. There he broke the opposition of the Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursued them into the interior. On the site of modern Leninabad ( Khojent ) on the Jaxartes, he founded a city, Alexandria Eschate, “the farthest.” Meanwhile, Spitamenes had raised all Sogdiana in revolt behind him, bringing in the Massagetai , a people of the Shaka confederacy. It took Alexander until the autumn of 328 to crush the most determined opponent he encountered in his campaigns. Later in the same year he attacked Oxyartes and the remaining barons who held out in the hills of Paraetacene (modern Tajikistan ); volunteers seized the crag on which Oxyartes had his stronghold, and among the captives was his daughter, Roxana . In reconciliation Alexander married her, and the rest of his opponents were either won over or crushed.

An incident that occurred at Maracanda widened the breach between Alexander and many of his Macedonians. He murdered Cleitus, one of his most-trusted commanders, in a drunken quarrel, but his excessive display of remorse led the army to pass a decree convicting Cleitus posthumously of treason . The event marked a step in Alexander’s progress toward Eastern absolutism, and this growing attitude found its outward expression in his use of Persian royal dress. Shortly afterward, at Bactra , he attempted to impose the Persian court ceremonial, involving prostration ( proskynesis ), on the Greeks and Macedonians too, but to them this custom, habitual for Persians entering the king’s presence, implied an act of worship and was intolerable before a human. Even Callisthenes , historian and nephew of Aristotle , whose ostentatious flattery had perhaps encouraged Alexander to see himself in the role of a god, refused to abase himself. Macedonian laughter caused the experiment to founder, and Alexander abandoned it. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections.

In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized command. If Plutarch ’s figure of 120,000 men has any reality, however, it must include all kinds of auxiliary services, together with muleteers, camel drivers, medical corps, peddlers, entertainers, women, and children; the fighting strength perhaps stood at about 35,000. Recrossing the Hindu Kush , probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander divided his forces. Half the army with the baggage under Hephaestion and Perdiccas , both cavalry commanders, was sent through the Khyber Pass , while he himself led the rest, together with his siege train, through the hills to the north. His advance through Swāt and Gandhāra was marked by the storming of the almost impregnable pinnacle of Aornos , the modern Pir-Sar, a few miles west of the Indus and north of the Buner River, an impressive feat of siegecraft. In spring 326, crossing the Indus near Attock, Alexander entered Taxila , whose ruler, Taxiles, furnished elephants and troops in return for aid against his rival Porus , who ruled the lands between the Hydaspes (modern Jhelum ) and the Acesines (modern Chenāb ). In June Alexander fought his last great battle on the left bank of the Hydaspes . He founded two cities there, Alexandria Nicaea (to celebrate his victory) and Bucephala (named after his horse Bucephalus , which died there); and Porus became his ally.

How much Alexander knew of India beyond the Hyphasis (probably the modern Beas ) is uncertain; there is no conclusive proof that he had heard of the Ganges . But he was anxious to press on farther, and he had advanced to the Hyphasis when his army mutinied, refusing to go farther in the tropical rain; they were weary in body and spirit, and Coenus, one of Alexander’s four chief marshals, acted as their spokesman. On finding the army adamant , Alexander agreed to turn back.

On the Hyphasis he erected 12 altars to the 12 Olympian gods, and on the Hydaspes he built a fleet of 800 to 1,000 ships. Leaving Porus, he then proceeded down the river and into the Indus, with half his forces on shipboard and half marching in three columns down the two banks. The fleet was commanded by Nearchus , and Alexander’s own captain was Onesicritus; both later wrote accounts of the campaign. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, pitiless slaughter; at the storming of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes ( Ravi ) River, Alexander received a severe wound which left him weakened.

On reaching Patala, located at the head of the Indus delta, he built a harbour and docks and explored both arms of the Indus, which probably then ran into the Rann of Kachchh . He planned to lead part of his forces back by land, while the rest in perhaps 100 to 150 ships under the command of Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, made a voyage of exploration along the Persian Gulf . Local opposition led Nearchus to set sail in September (325), and he was held up for three weeks until he could pick up the northeast monsoon in late October. In September Alexander too set out along the coast through Gedrosia (modern Baluchistan), but he was soon compelled by mountainous country to turn inland, thus failing in his project to establish food depots for the fleet. Craterus , a high-ranking officer, already had been sent off with the baggage and siege train, the elephants, and the sick and wounded, together with three battalions of the phalanx , by way of the Mulla Pass, Quetta , and Kandahar into the Helmand Valley ; from there he was to march through Drangiana to rejoin the main army on the Amanis (modern Minab) River in Carmania. Alexander’s march through Gedrosia proved disastrous; waterless desert and shortage of food and fuel caused great suffering, and many, especially women and children, perished in a sudden monsoon flood while encamped in a wadi. At length, at the Amanis, he was rejoined by Nearchus and the fleet, which also had suffered losses.

Alexander now proceeded farther with the policy of replacing senior officials and executing defaulting governors on which he had already embarked before leaving India. Between 326 and 324 over a third of his satraps were superseded and six were put to death, including the Persian satraps of Persis , Susiana, Carmania, and Paraetacene; three generals in Media , including Cleander , the brother of Coenus (who had died a little earlier), were accused of extortion and summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried, and executed. How far the rigour that from now onward Alexander displayed against his governors represents exemplary punishment for gross maladministration during his absence and how far the elimination of men he had come to distrust (as in the case of Philotas and Parmenio ) is debatable; but the ancient sources generally favourable to him comment adversely on his severity.

In spring 324 he was back in Susa , capital of Elam and administrative centre of the Persian empire; the story of his journey through Carmania in a drunken revel, dressed as Dionysus , is embroidered, if not wholly apocryphal. He found that his treasurer, Harpalus , evidently fearing punishment for peculation, had absconded with 6,000 mercenaries and 5,000 talents to Greece; arrested in Athens , he escaped and later was murdered in Crete . At Susa Alexander held a feast to celebrate the seizure of the Persian empire, at which, in furtherance of his policy of fusing Macedonians and Persians into one master race, he and 80 of his officers took Persian wives; he and Hephaestion married Darius ’s daughters Barsine (also called Stateira) and Drypetis, respectively, and 10,000 of his soldiers with native wives were given generous dowries.

This policy of racial fusion brought increasing friction to Alexander’s relations with his Macedonians, who had no sympathy for his changed concept of the empire. His determination to incorporate Persians on equal terms in the army and the administration of the provinces was bitterly resented. This discontent was now fanned by the arrival of 30,000 native youths who had received a Macedonian military training and by the introduction of Asian peoples from Bactria , Sogdiana , Arachosia , and other parts of the empire into the Companion cavalry ; whether Asians had previously served with the Companions is uncertain, but if so they must have formed separate squadrons. In addition, Persian nobles had been accepted into the royal cavalry bodyguard. Peucestas, the new governor of Persis , gave this policy full support to flatter Alexander; but most Macedonians saw it as a threat to their own privileged position.

The issue came to a head at Opis (324), when Alexander’s decision to send home Macedonian veterans under Craterus was interpreted as a move toward transferring the seat of power to Asia. There was an open mutiny involving all but the royal bodyguard; but when Alexander dismissed his whole army and enrolled Persians instead, the opposition broke down. An emotional scene of reconciliation was followed by a vast banquet with 9,000 guests to celebrate the ending of the misunderstanding and the partnership in government of Macedonians and Persians—but not, as has been argued, the incorporation of all the subject peoples as partners in the commonwealth. Ten thousand veterans were now sent back to Macedonia with gifts, and the crisis was surmounted.

In summer 324 Alexander attempted to solve another problem, that of the wandering mercenaries, of whom there were thousands in Asia and Greece, many of them political exiles from their own cities. A decree brought by Nicanor to Europe and proclaimed at Olympia (September 324) required the Greek cities of the Greek League to receive back all exiles and their families (except the Thebans), a measure that implied some modification of the oligarchic regimes maintained in the Greek cities by Alexander’s governor Antipater . Alexander now planned to recall Antipater and supersede him by Craterus , but he was to die before this could be done.

In autumn 324 Hephaestion died in Ecbatana , and Alexander indulged in extravagant mourning for his closest friend; he was given a royal funeral in Babylon with a pyre costing 10,000 talents. His post of chiliarch (grand vizier) was left unfilled. It was probably in connection with a general order now sent out to the Greeks to honour Hephaestion as a hero that Alexander linked the demand that he himself should be accorded divine honours. For a long time his mind had dwelt on ideas of godhead. Greek thought drew no very decided line of demarcation between god and man, for legend offered more than one example of men who, by their achievements, acquired divine status. Alexander had on several occasions encouraged favourable comparison of his own accomplishments with those of Dionysus or Heracles . He now seems to have become convinced of the reality of his own divinity and to have required its acceptance by others. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. The cities perforce complied, but often ironically: the Spartan decree read, “Since Alexander wishes to be a god, let him be a god.”

In the winter of 324 Alexander carried out a savage punitive expedition against the Cossaeans in the hills of Luristan. The following spring at Babylon he received complimentary embassies from the Libyans and from the Bruttians, Etruscans , and Lucanians of Italy; but the story that embassies also came from more distant peoples, such as Carthaginians, Celts , Iberians , and even Romans, is a later invention. Representatives of the cities of Greece also came, garlanded as befitted Alexander’s divine status. Following up Nearchus’s voyage , he now founded an Alexandria at the mouth of the Tigris and made plans to develop sea communications with India, for which an expedition along the Arabian coast was to be a preliminary. He also dispatched Heracleides, an officer, to explore the Hyrcanian (i.e., Caspian ) Sea. Suddenly, in Babylon , while busy with plans to improve the irrigation of the Euphrates and to settle the coast of the Persian Gulf , Alexander was taken ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout; 10 days later, on June 13, 323, he died in his 33rd year; he had reigned for 12 years and eight months. His body, diverted to Egypt by Ptolemy , the later king, was eventually placed in a golden coffin in Alexandria . Both in Egypt and elsewhere in the Greek cities he received divine honours.

No heir had been appointed to the throne, and his generals adopted Philip II ’s half-witted illegitimate son, Philip Arrhidaeus , and Alexander’s posthumous son by Roxana, Alexander IV , as kings, sharing out the satrapies among themselves, after much bargaining. The empire could hardly survive Alexander’s death as a unit. Both kings were murdered, Arrhidaeus in 317 and Alexander in 310/309. The provinces became independent kingdoms, and the generals , following Antigonus ’s lead in 306, took the title of king.

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Alexander the Great

By: History.com Editors

Updated: February 5, 2024 | Original: November 9, 2009

Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they’d follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. Though Alexander the Great died before realizing his dream of uniting a new realm, his influence on Greek and Asian culture was so profound that it inspired a new historical epoch—the Hellenistic Period.

Where Was Alexander the Great From?

Alexander III was born in Pella, Macedonia , in 356 B.C. to King Philip II and Queen Olympias—although legend had it his father was none other than Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods .

Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire .

At age 12, Alexander showed impressive courage when he tamed the wild horse Bucephalus, an enormous stallion with a furious demeanor. The horse became his battle companion for most of Alexander’s life.

When Alexander was 13, Philip called on the great philosopher Aristotle to tutor his son. Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander’s interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy.

Alexander was just 16 when Philip went off to battle and left his son in charge of Macedonia. In 338 B.C., Alexander saw the opportunity to prove his military worth and led a cavalry against the Sacred Band of Thebes—a supposedly unbeatable, select army made up entirely of male lovers—during the Battle of Chaeronea.

Alexander put his vigor and bravery on display, and his cavalry decimated the Sacred Band of Thebes.

Ancient Empires

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Alexander Becomes King

In 336 B.C., Alexander’s father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. Just 20 years old, Alexander claimed the Macedonian throne and killed his rivals before they could challenge his sovereignty.

He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. Once he’d cleaned house, Alexander left to follow in his father’s footsteps and continue Macedonia’s world domination.

Alexander appointed the general Antipater as regent and headed for Persia with his army. They crossed the Hellespont, a narrow strait between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and faced Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus River. Victory went to Alexander and the Macedonians.

Alexander then headed south and easily took the city of Sardes. But his army encountered resistance in the cities of Miletus, Mylasa and Halicarnassus. Under siege yet not beaten, Halicarnassus held out long enough for King Darius III, the newest Persian king, to amass a substantial army.

Gordian Knot

From Halicarnassus, Alexander headed north to Gordium, home of the fabled Gordian knot , a group of tightly-entwined knots yoked to an ancient wagon. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia.

As the story goes, Alexander took on the challenge but was unable to unravel the knot by hand. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph.

Battle of Issus

In 333 B.C., Alexander and his men encountered a massive Persian army led by King Darius III near the town of Issus in southern Turkey. Alexander’s forces were greatly outnumbered in men but not in experience or the determination for revenge and to claim Persia’s great wealth, much of it plundered.

As it became clear Alexander would win the Battle of Issus, Darius fled with what remained of his troops, leaving his wife and family behind. His mother, Sisygambis, was so upset she disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son.

By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leader—in fact, he never lost a battle in his life. He would build an empire on the back of his motto, “there is nothing impossible to him who will try.”

Battle of Tyre

Next, Alexander took over the Phoenician cities of Marathus and Aradus. He rejected a plea from Darius for peace and took the towns of Byblos and Sidon.

He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. But Alexander had no navy to speak of and Tyre was surrounded by water.

Alexander instructed his men to build a causeway to reach Tyre. All went well until they came within striking distance of the Tyrians. Again and again, Tyrian forces thwarted Alexander’s clever attempts to gain entry, and he realized he needed a strong navy to penetrate their defenses.

He amassed a large fleet, finally breached the city’s walls in July 332 B.C. and executed thousands of Tyrians for daring to defy him; many others were sold into slavery.

8 Surprising Facts about Alexander the Great

It's not always possible to separate fact and fiction about the famed ancient Macedonian ruler, but here are eight great takeaways from Alexander’s life.

Did Alexander the Great Arrange His Father’s Murder?

Philip II of Macedon's bodyguard—and former lover—wielded the knife. But 21‑year‑old Alexander, heir to the powerful king, quickly fell under suspicion.

Alexander Enters Egypt

After rejecting another peace offer from Darius, Alexander set out for Egypt . He was sidelined at Gaza, however, and forced to endure another lengthy siege. After several weeks, he took the town and entered Egypt where he established the city that still bears his name: Alexandria.

Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of supposed good counsel. Legends abound about what transpired at the oracle, but Alexander kept mum about the experience. Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity.

Alexander Becomes King of Persia

After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. Following fierce fighting and heavy losses on both sides, Darius fled and was assassinated by his own troops. It’s said Alexander was sad when he found Darius’s body and he gave him a royal burial.

Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. But another Persian leader, Bessus (also thought to be Darius’s murderer), had also claimed the Persian throne. Alexander couldn’t let the claim stand.

After relentless pursuit by Alexander, Bessus’s troops handed Bessus over to Ptolemy, Alexander’s good friend, and he was mutilated and executed. With Bessus out of the way, Alexander had full control of Persia.

Proskynesis

To gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. He began dressing like a Persian and adopted the practice of proskynesis, a Persian court custom that involved bowing down and kissing the hand of others, depending on their rank.

The Macedonians were less than thrilled with the changes in Alexander and his attempt to be viewed as a deity. They refused to practice proskynesis and some plotted his death.

Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed).

Alexander Kills Cleitus

In 328 B.C., Cleitus, another general and close friend of Alexander, also met a violent end. Fed up with Alexander’s new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements.

Pushed too far, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear, a spontaneous act of violence that anguished him. Some historians believe Alexander killed his general in a fit of drunkenness—a persistent problem that plagued him through much of his life.

Alexander struggled to capture Sogdia, a region of the Persian Empire that remained loyal to Bessus. The Sogdians found a refuge at the pinnacle of a rock and refused Alexander’s demand to surrender.

Not one to take “no” for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane.

As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. He married her despite her Sogdian heritage and she joined him on his journey.

Alexander Enters India

In 327 B.C., Alexander marched on Punjab, India. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. In 326 B.C., Alexander met King Porus of Paurava at the Hydaspes River.

Porus’s army was less experienced than Alexander’s, but they had a secret weapon—elephants. Even so, after a fierce battle in a raging thunderstorm, Porus was defeated.

One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. It’s unclear if he died from battle wounds or of old age, but Alexander named the city of Bucephala after him.

Alexander wanted to press on and attempt to conquer all of India, but his war-weary soldiers refused, and his officers convinced him to return to Persia. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli.

After recovering, he divided his troops, sending half of them back to Persia and half to Gedrosia, a desolate area west of the Indus River.

A Mass Wedding

In early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. He also took two more wives for himself.

The Macedonian army resented Alexander’s attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. But after Alexander took a firm stand and replaced Macedonian officers and troops with Persians, his army backed down.

To further diffuse the situation, Alexander returned their titles and hosted a huge reconciliation banquet.

How Did Alexander the Great Die?

By 323 B.C., Alexander was head of an enormous empire and had recovered from the devastating loss of his friend Hephaestion—who was also reputed to be one of Alexander’s homosexual male lovers.

Thanks to his insatiable urge for world supremacy, he started plans to conquer Arabia. But he’d never live to see it happen. Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he was poisoned. Either way, he never named a successor.

His death—and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard to create.

How Old Was Alexander the Great When He Died?

After surviving battle after fierce battle, Alexander the Great died in June 323 B.C. at age 32.

Why Was Alexander the Great ‘Great’?

Many conquered lands retained the Greek influence Alexander introduced, and several cities he founded remain important cultural centers even today. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period , from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced.

Alexander the Great. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Alexander the Great. Livius.org. Alexander the Great of Macedon Biography. Historyofmacedonia.org . Alexander of Macedonia. San Jose State University . Bucephalus. Ancient History Encyclopedia. The Battle of Issus. Livius.org. The Sacred Band of Thebes, from Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas . Fordham University . The Siege of Tyre (332 BCE). Livius.org.

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7 Reasons Alexander the Great Was, Well, Great

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When Alexander III of Macedon died in Babylon at just 32 years old, he ruled a territory that spanned three continents and covered nearly 2 million square miles (5 million square kilometers). Not only was he the king of his native Macedonia, but he was also ruler of the Greeks, the king of Persia and even an Egyptian pharaoh .

So, did he deserve the title Alexander the Great? Absolutely.

"It's hard to imagine another human being whose personal choices had an impact on more people's lives for many centuries than Alexander," says historian Elizabeth Carney, an Alexander scholar from Clemson University in South Carolina.

"Because of the decisions Alexander made, hundreds of thousands of people died, any number of political entities disappeared or were replaced. And perhaps most importantly, he helped launch this vast cultural enterprise that combined aspects of the Greek and Macedonian world with aspects of the various worlds he conquered."

With that in mind, here are some other big things about him.

• Aristotle Was His High School Teacher
• His Father Was Pretty Great Too
• Alexander Knew How to Crush a Rebellion
• He Stomped the Persian Empire
• He Was a Globalist
• Alexandria Became the Intellectual Capital of the World
• He May Have Been the World's First Action Hero

1. Aristotle Was His High School Teacher

OK, there was no such thing as high school in the fourth century B.C.E., but young Alexander was famously tutored from the ages of 14 to 16 by none other than Aristotle , one of the fathers of Western philosophy and arguably the greatest intellectual mind of Ancient Greece.

Aristotle would have been around 40 years old when he was hired by Alexander's powerful father Phillip II as a court philosopher. Aristotle, a student of Plato, wasn't yet a philosophical superstar and would have taught the prince science and math in addition to literature and philosophy.

What exactly was Aristotle's influence on the man Alexander would become? Historians can only guess. One clue is that Alexander loved the works of Homer and is rumored to have slept with a copy of "The Iliad." And Alexander didn't forget his geography lessons when he marched his army across the known world.

"Great advances in science, especially in geographical knowledge, were made as a result of Alexander's campaigns," wrote Michael Tierney in a 1942 study of Alexander and Aristotle , "and that they were possible is unquestionably due to Aristotle."

But both Tierney and Carney are unconvinced that Aristotle's political teachings on good government and good citizens shaped the way that Alexander operated as a leader.

"Is Alexander's political thinking affected by Aristotle?" asks Carney. "I would tend to say not at all."

2. His Father Was Pretty Great Too

The Kingdom of Macedonia was a political backwater before Alexander's father Phillip turned it into a military superpower. Tired of being pushed around by Greek city-states like Athens and Thebes, Phillip transformed the ragtag Macedonian army into a well-oiled fighting machine.

The pride of the Macedonian military was its well-trained cavalry and an unbreakable infantry formation called the Macedonian phalanx . Armed with elongated hunting spears called sarissas — 18-foot (5.5-meter) wooden poles with iron tips — Phillip's infantry would march in tight formations of eight men across and 16 deep. Each row would lower its spears in succession, impaling charging armies and horses.

When 20-year-old Alexander took the throne after Phillip was assassinated in 336 B.C.E., he inherited his father's army that had already crushed Macedonia's rivals on the Greek mainland and was rolling toward Persia.

Phillip is best remembered as the father of Alexander the Great, but Alexander may never have achieved his greatness if not for Phillip's huge head start. Historians still struggle to figure out who deserves the most credit for Macedonia's dominance.

"Rarely in history does somebody so able and famous have an equally able and famous successor," says Carney. "It makes it very hard to draw a line."

3. Alexander Knew How to Crush a Rebellion

After Phillip's death, several towns and territories under Macedonian control tried to break free. While young Alexander was busy getting the northern kingdoms of Thrace and Illyria back in line, the Greek leaders of Thebes heard a rumor that Alexander had actually been killed in battle.

No such luck. When Alexander received word that the Macedonian garrison in Thebes was under attack, he and his army flew to the fight, supposedly covering 300 miles (482 kilometers) in just 12 days . In the ensuing Battle of Thebes, Alexander decided to send a clear message. Anyone who crosses Macedonia will not only be defeated, but obliterated.

According to the Greek historian Diodorus of Sicily , 6,000 Theban soldiers and citizens were killed and 30,000 captured before the city was burned to the ground. He wrote:

The tactics were cruel, but the message was received. Alexander was the undisputed new ruler of the Greeks.

4. He Stomped the Persian Empire

The Persian Empire had ruled the Mediterranean for two centuries when Alexander marched his 50,000-man army across the Hellespont to face King Darius III, who reportedly commanded a total Persian army of more than 2.5 million men .

The pivotal battle came near the Persian town of Gaugamela, where Darius had the land flattened and cleared to give advantage to his horse-drawn chariots. The Persians numbered 250,000 at Gaugamela, a seemingly insurmountable five-to-one advantage over the Macedonians, but Darius ended up playing right into Alexander's hand.

In what's known as a "pawn sacrifice," Alexander sent in thousands of troops to draw Darius' resources to the right flank. The sacrificed troops were able to distract Darius long enough for Alexander to launch a cavalry attack through a weak link in the center of the Persian line. Darius turned and fled as the famed Macedonian cavalry, led by Alexander, steamrolled through the Persian defenses.

After Darius was murdered by one of his cousins (and his head presented to Alexander), Alexander was crowned the new king of all of Persia, extending the Macedonian empire from modern-day Israel through Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan.

5. He Was a Globalist

Alexander's conquests, not only of the Persian Empire, but also Egypt and parts of India, launched the Hellenistic period, during which elements of Greek culture and politics were spread throughout the vast Macedonian Empire.

Alexander wasn't a Greek nationalist, intent on imposing Greek customs on every land he conquered. Instead, he folded foreign customs and religious beliefs into the fabric of his growing empire, winning the loyalty of his newly conquered subjects. The result was a Greek-speaking network of trade and military power that ruled the Mediterannean and Near East for three centuries.

6. Alexandria Became the Intellectual Capital of the World

Alexander founded more than 70 cities during his eight-year, 11,000-mile (17,703-kilometer) march throughout the Middle and Near East, but none compared to the grandeur that was Alexandria in Egypt.

Although Alexander chose the spot for the coastal city that bore his name, he didn't design it nor live long enough to see it flourish. After Alexander's death, the Macedonian Empire was chopped into three and ruled by each of his generals. Egypt fell under the control of Ptolemy and became known as the Ptolemaic Dynasty.

The Ptolemies spoke Macedonian Greek and filled Alexandria with Greek-style public buildings, including the famous library, which once held an estimated 700,000 scrolls , the greatest repository of knowledge in the ancient world.

The brilliant Greek mathematicians Euclid and Eratosthenes called Alexandria home, and the Ptolemaic navy commanded a huge fleet that pushed Alexandria's discoveries out into the wider world.

When Alexander died suddenly in Babylon from a fever at just 32 years old, the Ptolemies intercepted his funeral procession on the way back to Macedonia and built a glass sarcophagus in Alexandria where subjects could pay tribute to Alexander's mummy for centuries.

7. He May Have Been the World's First Action Hero

Alexander's heroics were written up in a series of fictionalized adventure stories called the " Alexander Romance ", some of which date back to within a century of his death in 323 B.C.E.. Medieval versions are chock-full of sexy escapades, narrow escapes and colorful illustrations.

Next to the Bible and Quran, it's argued that the "Alexander Romance" traveled further and was translated into more languages than any other ancient collection of stories.

Fourteenth-century texts include the tale of Alexander exploring the ocean depths using a diving bell . But when Alexander settles on the ocean floor, his mistress double-crosses him, eloping with her lover and leaving him stranded in the deep.

For Carney, the popularity of the "Alexander Romance" reflects the enduring allure of this world-changing figure.

"Alexander grabbed people's imagination," says Carney. "That he was so young; that he wasn't defeated in a major battle; that things happened so quickly; he was such a risk taker and he went to all these places that seemed exotic."

Alexander's mother, Olympias, deserves credit for his rise to greatness, too. Greek historians report that she had several rival heirs to the throne murdered after Phillip's death.

Alexander The Great FAQ

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Alexander the great.

Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. His empire ushered in significant cultural changes in the lands he conquered and changed the course of the region’s history.

Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations

Photo of a marble bust of a man.

Photograph by Kenneth Garrett, National Geographic

Alexander the Great , also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia is known as one of the greatest generals in all history.

Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. in Pella, Macedonia, to King Philip II. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. When Alexander was a teenager, his father hired Aristotle to be his private tutor. He studied with Aristotle for three years and from Aristotle ’s teachings, Alexander developed a love of science, particularly of medicine and botany . Alexander included  botanists and scientists in his army to study the lands he conquered .

In 336 B.C.E., at age 20, Alexander became king of Macedonia when a political rival assassinated his father. Alexander began his reign by subduing rivals in the Greek and Macedonian regions. At a council of the League of Corinth, he was chosen as the commander of a military invasion of Asia. King Alexander began his invasion of the Middle East in 334 B.C.E. He spent most of his reign on a military campaign through northeast Africa and southwestern Asia.

Alexander built many new cities in the lands he conquered , including Alexandria in Egypt. He went on to conquer the lands of the Persian Empire, establishing more cities, and like Alexandria, often naming them after himself. His conquest continued through Asia until he reached the shores of the Ganga (Ganges) River in India. At this point, his army refused to continue further into India, exhausted and discouraged by heavy rains.

Alexander was 32 when he died in 323 B.C.E.

During his 13-year reign as the king of Macedonia, Alexander created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.

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Essay on Alexander the Great

Alexander, famous in history as Alexander the Great, was the son of Philip of Macedon. Macedon or Macedonia was a kingdom, situated up in the north of Greece. It was a mountainous country.

The Greeks from their plains looked upon the Macedonians as barbarians. But, like the Greeks, the Macedonians belonged to the Aryan race and regarded themselves as Greeks.

They were brave and sturdy and worked hard on their rocky soil to live.

Image Source: upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Alexander_the_Great_-_Wall_painting_in_Acre,_Israel.jpg

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When the Greek city states on the mainland of Greece were fighting among themselves and heading towards decline, Macedon became very powerful under a remarkable warrior named Philip. Philip became king in 359 B.C. and became ambitious enough to extend his power. The weakness of the city states gave him a golden opportunity. He raised a powerful army famous as the Macedonian Phalanx.

It was a new type of military force. The soldiers in the Phalanx stood shoulder to shoulder like solid walls, line after line. Each soldier covered his body by holding a huge shield in his left hand. In his right hand, he held a long spear. As the Phalanx advanced in that shape, their bodies were protected by shields from the enemy arrows, while then- long spears pierced the bodies of the enemies when they advanced to fight. On either side of the marching Phalanx, there were soldiers on horseback to attack the enemy. The Macedonian Phalanx presented an advanced art of warfare in Western military system.

Taking advantage of the weakness of the Greek city states, Philip of Macedon invaded them and destroyed their freedom. Ultimately, he became the supreme master of the entire Greek world. With unlimited ambition, Philip next prepared to invade the Persian Empire in the East. As he was about to march on his eastern expedition, he suddenly fell dead in hands of an assassin in the year 336 B.C.

Alexander, the son of Philip of Macedon, was only twenty years old when his father met his unexpected death. He was born in 356 B.C. As bold as his father and much more ambitious, young Alexander ascended the throne of Macedon and assured the waiting army that he would soon take up the invasion of the East. His generals and soldiers did not doubt the ability of their young monarch and his liking for battles.

Alexander’s mother Olympias had inspired her son from his childhood to become a great hero like the Greek heroes of the epics of Homer. In his romantic dream, he hoped of becoming a hero like the mythical Achilles.

When Alexander was only 13, his father appointed the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle as the tutor of the young prince. It was from that great teacher that Alexander got the vision of a wider world, a desire for knowing many subjects, and for discovering new things for sake of knowledge. Temperamentally, Alexander was proud, haughty, cruel revengeful and emotional. At the same time, his education made him enlightened and cultured. He was a curious mixture of bad and good qualities, vices and virtues.

From his early youth, Alexander received a good military training and showed his genius as a born soldier. When Philip was fighting his famous battle of Chaeronea to conquer Greece, the 18 year old Alexander assisted his father as the commander of the cavalry force and amazed the army by daring acts of heroism. The Macedonian soldiers since then regarded the young hero as a rare general and became devoted to him as their future leader. His energy, tact, courage and ability, as well as thirst for battles proved his worth as a prospective conqueror.

The death of king Philip brought to young Alexander his opportunity for greatness. His father had prepared the ground for his rise. He was now the undisputed leader of Macedon and Greece and the supreme commander of the Macedonian army to which were joined the Greek soldiers of the mainland. With everything ready, Alexander looked towards the East to undertake the mission of his father’s hopes.

Some of the Greek city states felt that the death of king Philip was the end of Macedonian supremacy. They, therefore, rose in revolt to regain independence. But Alexander was too strong for them. He taught a lesson to the revolting city states by destroying the city state of Thebes completely. All houses of that place were raged to ground except the house of a poet named Pindar and a few places of worship. As a demonstration of his anger, he slaughtered six thousand people of thebes. Many others were sold as slaves.

By such extreme cruelty, Alexander silenced the Greek city-states into submission. They were forced to accept him as their leader and subscribed soldiers to his army for the invasion of the East. As the leader of the Greek race Alexander at last proceeded towards the East in the year 334 B.C. His brief career as a world conqueror began.

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• Ancient History

Why Alexander was not so 'great': The horrific reality of history's most famous conqueror

Alexander the Great, a name synonymous with conquest and unparalleled leadership, has long been celebrated for his military achievements and the vast empire he built in a relatively short span of time.

Yet, like all historical figures, his legacy is controversial, and not all aspects of his reign are nothing short of tyrannical.

This article seeks to delve into the lesser-known side of Alexander, challenging the traditional narrative that paints him solely as a visionary leader and conqueror.

By examining the consequences of his military campaigns, his governance, and personal behavior, we aim to present a more nuanced view of a man who, for all his greatness, had his share of flaws and controversies. 

What everyone knows about Alexander the Great

Before Alexander's ascent to power, the Macedonian Empire had already begun to establish itself as a formidable force in the ancient world.

Under the leadership of King Philip II, Alexander's father, Macedonia had undergone significant military and administrative reforms.

By 338 BCE, Philip had successfully unified most of the city-states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony, following his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea.

This victory set the stage for the empire's expansion, with plans to invade the Persian Empire already in motion.

However, in 336 BCE, Philip's assassination led to a sudden change in leadership, thrusting the young Alexander into the limelight.

Alexander's early reign was marked by challenges, as he had to quell revolts and solidify his position as the rightful ruler.

By 334 BCE, having secured his base in Macedonia and Greece, he embarked on his ambitious campaign against the Persian Empire.

Over the next decade, his military genius was evident in battles such as Issus in 333 BCE and Gaugamela in 331 BCE, leading to the eventual fall of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.

Yet, while these conquests are often highlighted, the broader historical context reveals a world in flux, with various powers vying for dominance and a young king navigating the challenges of leadership, diplomacy, and warfare. 

The staggering toll of his military successes

Alexander's military campaigns, while undeniably showcasing his strategic acumen, came with significant costs and consequences for both the conquered and the conquerors.

As he pushed through Asia Minor, Egypt, Persia, and into India, the sheer scale of his conquests meant that vast regions were subjected to the upheavals of war.

Cities like Tyre and Thebes faced severe destruction, with the latter being razed in 335 BCE as a punitive measure, leading to the loss of countless lives and cultural heritage.

The human toll of these campaigns was immense. Not only did thousands of soldiers from both sides perish in battle, but civilians too bore the brunt of the war's aftermath.

Forced migrations, enslavements, and the disruption of local economies became commonplace in the wake of Alexander's victories.

For instance, after the Siege of Tyre in 332 BCE, much of the city's population was either executed or sold into slavery.

Furthermore, the rapid expansion of his empire posed significant administrative challenges.

While Alexander attempted to integrate the diverse cultures under his rule, often through policies of marriage and shared governance, these efforts were not always successful.

Revolts and uprisings were frequent, as regions struggled under the weight of Macedonian rule and the imposition of foreign customs.

Economically, the constant warfare drained the resources of the empire.

The need to maintain large armies, coupled with the destruction of infrastructure in conquered territories, meant that the economic stability of the region was often precarious. 

How quickly he turned on his own friends and allies

While Alexander was known to reward loyalty generously, instances of perceived betrayal or challenges to his authority were met with swift and often brutal responses.

One of the most notable incidents was the execution of Philotas, one of his trusted commanders and the son of Parmenion, a senior general.

Accused of conspiring against Alexander, Philotas was subjected to torture and subsequently executed in 330 BCE.

Following this, Alexander, perhaps out of fear of a wider conspiracy or as a precautionary measure, also ordered the assassination of Parmenion, despite his long-standing service to both Alexander and his father, Philip II.

Another significant event was the murder of Cleitus the Black in 328 BCE.

During a heated argument, fueled by alcohol, Cleitus, who had previously saved Alexander's life at the Battle of Granicus, criticized the king's adoption of Persian customs and accused him of forgetting his Macedonian roots. In a fit of rage, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear.

This impulsive act deeply affected Alexander, leading to profound remorse and mourning.

The Pages' Conspiracy, around 327 BCE, further highlighted Alexander's growing paranoia.

The alleged plot by the royal pages, the young nobles serving the king, led to the execution of the main conspirators, including Callisthenes, the court historian who had opposed the practice of proskynesis, a Persian court custom that Alexander had tried to introduce to his Macedonian court.

While these incidents paint a picture of a ruler increasingly distrustful of even his closest allies, it's also worth noting that Alexander had moments of magnanimity.

He often honored the families of fallen comrades and showed great respect to the likes of Ptolemy, Hephaestion, and other loyal officers.

However, as his empire expanded and the challenges of governance grew, the fine line between mistrust and necessary caution became increasingly blurred.

His alarmingly erratic and narcissistic behaviour

Alexander, for all his military genius and vision of a united empire, exhibited personal behaviors and character traits that have been subjects of criticism over the centuries.

One of the most frequently discussed aspects of his personality was his temper.

Impulsive and at times uncontrollable, his anger led to decisions that were both politically and personally costly.

The killing of Cleitus the Black, a close friend and officer, during a heated argument is a stark example of this impulsiveness.

While the act was one of immediate regret for Alexander, it underscored the volatile nature of his emotions.

His relationship with alcohol also raised concerns. Excessive drinking sessions were common, and many of his decisions, both personal and administrative, were influenced by his inebriated state.

Some historians speculate that alcohol might have played a role in exacerbating his temper and making some of his more controversial decisions.

Another significant character flaw was his growing sense of divinity.

Influenced by the cultures he conquered, especially the Egyptian and Persian traditions of deifying rulers, Alexander began to view himself as a god-like figure.

This behavior was not well-received by his Macedonian peers, leading to tensions within his inner circle.

Furthermore, as his conquests grew, so did his sense of paranoia. The execution of trusted officers like Philotas and the old general Parmenion, based on suspicions of conspiracy, highlighted a growing mistrust of even his closest allies.

This paranoia, coupled with his belief in his own divinity, created an environment where dissent was dangerous, and loyalty was constantly tested.

The impact on the cultures he conquered

Recognizing the vastness and diversity of his newly acquired territories, Alexander actively sought to amalgamate various cultures under a unified administrative system.

One of the most significant impacts was the spread of Hellenistic culture, a blend of Greek and local customs, traditions, and practices.

This process, known as Hellenization, saw the proliferation of Greek art, architecture, language, and philosophy across regions as diverse as Egypt, Persia, and parts of India.

Cities like Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, and Pergamon in Asia Minor became thriving centers of Hellenistic culture.

Greek became the lingua franca, facilitating communication and trade across vast distances. 

In regions like Persia, Alexander adopted a dual approach. He retained many of the existing administrative structures, understanding their efficiency in managing local affairs.

At the same time, he introduced Greek settlers and officials to ensure loyalty to his regime.

This melding of Macedonian and Persian governance was evident when he adopted Persian court customs and attire, a move that, while aiming to bridge cultures, often alienated his Macedonian compatriots.

However, this cultural diffusion came at a cost. As Hellenistic culture became dominant, many indigenous cultures and traditions faced the threat of being overshadowed or entirely erased.

In regions like Persia, a civilization with a rich history and its own sophisticated culture, the imposition of Greek customs often led to tensions.

While some local elites adopted Hellenistic ways to gain favor or better integrate into the new administrative setup, others resisted, leading to cultural clashes.

Furthermore, Alexander's policy of "fusion" sought to integrate the ruling Macedonians with the conquered populations.

He arranged mass weddings, most notably in Susa, where Macedonian soldiers were married to Persian women.

This was a symbolic gesture, aiming to create a new ruling class that combined both Macedonian and Persian elements.

However, these policies were not without challenges. In places like Bactria and Sogdiana (modern-day Afghanistan and parts of Uzbekistan), resistance to Macedonian rule was fierce, leading to prolonged conflicts.

Moreover, the establishment of Greek cities and colonies often meant the displacement of local populations.

These new cities, while marvels of Hellenistic architecture and planning, sometimes stood on the ruins of older, indigenous settlements.

The spread of Greek religious practices and pantheon also challenged local religious traditions, leading to syncretism in some cases but erasing certain local deities and rituals in others.

The introduction of foreign customs and officials in these regions often met with resentment, leading to revolts that Alexander had to suppress with force.

Why we rarely hear about these aspects of Alexander

The story of Alexander the Great, like many historical narratives, has been shaped by the perspectives of those who recorded it.

Over the centuries, his image has been molded, sometimes into that of a visionary leader and unparalleled military genius, and at other times, into a ruthless conqueror with unchecked ambitions.

The challenge for modern historians lies in sifting through these narratives to arrive at a more balanced understanding of the man and his legacy.

Much of what we know about Alexander comes from sources written centuries after his death.

Historians like Arrian, Plutarch, and Diodorus Siculus, while providing invaluable insights, relied on earlier works, many of which are now lost.

These accounts, influenced by the political and cultural contexts of their times, often oscillate between hagiography and criticism.

For instance, while Arrian's portrayal leans towards admiration, emphasizing Alexander's military prowess and leadership qualities, other accounts highlight his flaws, excesses, and instances of cruelty.

Furthermore, the Hellenistic world's narratives, from which many of our primary sources originate, had their own biases.

The political landscape post-Alexander was marked by rivalries among his successors, and the histories written during this period often reflected the vested interests of different Hellenistic dynasties.

The glorification or vilification of Alexander was, at times, a tool to legitimize or challenge the rule of these successor kingdoms.

In recent times, with the advent of new archaeological findings and a more critical approach to ancient texts, there has been a push to reevaluate Alexander's legacy.

This involves not only revisiting Greek and Roman sources but also exploring Persian, Indian, and other regional accounts to construct a more holistic picture.

Such endeavors highlight the importance of diverse perspectives in historical analysis, reminding us that history, far from being a fixed narrative, is a dynamic discourse shaped by time, place, and the storyteller's lens.

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Alexander the Great: A Case Study in Martial Leadership

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History is not predictable; in many ways it can take on a life of its own. But sometimes, an individual's sheer presence is enough to bend history to his will. One such individual was Alexander the Great . Through his conviction, vision, mental dexterity, oratory, and superb physical endurance he was able to shape destiny, for himself and for the lands he conquered.

Even from a young age, Alexander showed maturity beyond his youth. His ability to conceptualize, anticipate, and take risks, was evident in his many victories. He persevered in Sogdia and in the Makran, hostile regions with vicious climates. Alexander maintained remarkable poise and exhibited leadership when all hung in the balance. When he took an arrow through the chest and another in the leg, he pressed on – the wounds only spurred him on to fight harder.

BATTLE OF GRANICUS : A LEADER (AND LEGEND) IS BORN

Alexander's battle at Granicus River was the most crucial military event in his life. Why would Granicus be more significant than the siege of Tyre , or the monumental battle of Gaugamela ? At the time, Alexander was a young 22-year-old king and general. As far as the enemy was concerned, let alone his own men, Alexander was unproven in battle and faced a superior Persian force, headed by a seasoned military commander, Memnon of Rhodes . In addition to his lack of experience and questionable leadership skills, Alexander's army, before even meeting the Persians in battle, was already at a disadvantage. The Persians had scouted the area meticulously and sought the high ground on the east bank of the Granicus River. Fighting a superior Persian army commanded by an able general would prove a daunting venture. But Alexander, despite his youth, was decisive in his plan of attack and confident in his own ability. His brilliance lay in his bravado and daring charges; bold troop movements would allow him the opportunity to exploit openings in his enemies' ranks. His ability to read his opponent and adapt quickly to changing circumstances was uncanny. It was an invaluable tool that would be put to the test at the Granicus River and determine his status as a warrior king.

According to Guy Rogers (lecture, Thomas Edison State College, Trenton, NJ, Spring 2004), the bank would have been three to four meters high, which would be difficult for Alexander's men to traverse without taking heavy casualties. Moreover, the Persians could rush the crossing cavalry and annihilate them through sheer force. This contingency was the beginning of his prowess, so instead of an en masse movement across the river, an additional force would engage the Persians and make a pawn's sacrifice for Alexander and his men.

Amyntas and his cohort confronted the Persians while Alexander and his cohort swung around and penetrated the Persians from the flank. Alexander's intentions were realized when the Persians failed to engage the rest of his men with the same devastating force that they had unleashed on Amyntas. The situation for which Alexander had hoped opened up before his very eyes. Amyntas had given Alexander the opportunity and time to lead the Companion cavalry, Alexander's choicest warriors, into battle.

The Persian commander Mithridates met Alexander's assault and Alexander dealt with him like he would deal with many to come, he struck him in the face with a splintered spear. Alexander had killed a Persian commander in full sight of his men; a slight that would not go unanswered. Rhosaces and Spithridates, the brother of the slain Mithridates, pursued Alexander to finish the young upstart once and for all. Alexander was quick to react. He took the offensive against Rhosaces and gored him, but he inflicted a potentially fatal blow that left Alexander's scalp loosely intact. Disoriented and cleaved, Alexander did his best to get back to his men, all the while oblivious to Spithridates stalking close behind. As Spithridates came in for the kill, Cleitus cut him off and severed his shoulder from his body, thereby immobilizing the arm that held the scimitar that would have ended Alexander's great campaign before it had even begun.

It was a momentous victory, not because Alexander had been outnumbered two to one, which he was not, but because this was the battle which proved his ability as a capable commander and legitimated his rule as king. He had shown his men that he was a shrewd military commander and that he cared deeply for them. The 25 bronze statues commissioned by Alexander to Lysippus as grand memorials to brave Macedonians evidence this. Alexander also sent 3,000 suits of armor back to Athens with the inscription: "Alexander son of Philip and the Greeks, except the Spartans, from the barbarians who dwell in Asia."

But more importantly, Alexander laid the foundations of a relationship that would prove itself time and again until his death . After the battle, Alexander talked with many who had been wounded and asked them to tell him of their individual roles in the battle and how they received their wounds. By doing this, he formed an indestructible bond between him and his men. That bond would prove his greatest strength in the most trying times. Robin Lane Fox sums up Alexander's role in Granicus:

The bravery which bordered on folly never failed him in the front line of battle, a position which few generals since have considered proper; he set out to show himself a hero, and from the Granicus to Multan he left a trail of heroics which has never been surpassed and is perhaps too easily assumed among all his achievements. (495-496)

Sogdiana & the Sogdian rock

The hinterlands of the Persian Empire were remote and autonomous. They might even be said to be independent of Darius ' rule. After Darius' death, Alexander, the newly crowned “King of Asia” saw fit to reestablish dominion over this insufferable region called Sogdia. Even though this adventure cost him two years of his life, the loss of many men, and extreme hardship throughout the whole ordeal, Alexander was able to press these obstinate barons as only he could. One of the most notable sieges occurred at the 'Sogdian rock'. Here his men were asked to literally 'fly' before the local barons would submit. Alexander's men did fly and perched themselves on the top of an adjoining mountain in full view of the besieged, which frightened the locals into a quick surrender. The second rock was more inaccessible, and even though the baron Sisimithres did not know it, it was impregnable. He was coaxed into submission by the baron of the first Sogdian rock, Oxyartes. Alexander's daring feat led to his victory and he was given access to Sisimithres' largess, which included a large store of badly needed foodstuffs. Alexander's army would eat until their bellies were content; they had endured trials and hardships that left them little more than ghosts of their former selves. This was a welcome respite where they could enjoy the fruits of their labor – no matter how ephemeral. While his ambitions lay in conquering all who stood before him, Alexander was confronted with the prospect of leaving his newly won kingdom to his subordinates. This would not do. Alexander needed to secure his conquest by having an heir to pass his kingdom to. Oxyartes' daughter, the enchantress Roxane, was a likely, if not foolhardy, choice.

ALEXANDER'S GREATEST CHALLENGE – THE MAKRAN

According to Fox, "Not even the sum total of all the army's sufferings in Asia deserved to be compared with the hardships in Makran." (399) Makran was a wasteland if there ever was one. Between the accounts of Alexander's own officer, Nearchus, as well as the descriptive accounts of Fox and Green, a very uninviting picture is pieced together. Alexander's plans to invade India had been thwarted by the mutiny at Hyphasis. If he could not sate his ambitious desires in India, then he would return to the heart of the Persian Empire in grand style – through the Makran, the most infamous route to Mesopotamia . Queen Semiramis and King Cyrus are the only ones to have ever traversed it. Alexander saw this as a great opportunity to defy nature and fueled his mania to rival the feats of the gods. He was an adventurer and explorer at heart but knew he needed to be fully prepared to meet the challenges that lay ahead. He weighed historical reports with present intelligence and planned for most contingencies.

Still in the Punjab, Alexander assembled a fleet of ships that would accompany him by sea while he and his army traveled by land. Alexander was a dreamer; he believed he was fathered by a god and thought that no feat was impossible. But did he really know what he was getting himself and his men into by venturing into the Makran? Probably not, but his ingenuity and god-like example, a stellar feat under adverse conditions, must have been a great boost in morale for the men. If Alexander would even think of attempting such a gamble, then it must be possible. His men knew that whatever he conjured came to fruition. He had yet to know defeat, so why should this situation be any different?

Makran would be a "severe test", and probably this was the allure for Alexander. (Fox, 390) Knowing that others had attempted such a crossing and came out alive proved irresistible. He could not pass it up without surpassing such a feat. Throughout the journey, Alexander led by example even though he was suffering from a significant injury to his lung from an arrow back at Multan. One anecdote retold by Peter Green captures an inkling of the character of Alexander and the effects on morale are impressive:

Nevertheless, [Alexander] contrived to preserve his prestige and popularity by sharing the men's worst hardships. Once, when a helmetful of muddy water had been found for him in some nearby gully - but no more was to be had - he laughed, thanked the donor, and then tipped the water out into the sand. So extraordinary was the effect of this action that the water wasted by Alexander was as good as a drink from every man in the army. (434)

This gives us a glimpse into the enigmatic nature of Alexander, a man we can only hope to aspire to in times of hardship and a man we can only come to know through the eyes of those who knew him best.

Fox sums up Makran and Alexander's reasons for enduring it:

Makran was the ambition of men who wished to set a record and had nothing left to conquer but a landscape which Persia had left alone. The route was not merely difficult; it was the most hellish march that Alexander could possibly have chosen. But nobody opposed it. (403)

The most telling bit of information is the last sentence of that quote, "But nobody opposed it." Why did not anyone oppose it? The answer can be traced back to the River Granicus, where Alexander had won his men's loyalty and love for all time. He was the man everyone wanted to be and the man no one could refuse. At the end of their quest, they saw the "hill of Semiramis". It was a memorial for those who had come before and a relief to those who now passed by. "Semiramis' name greeted the survivors, so she could be said, for solace, to have gone through the desert too." (Fox, 402) But, in Alexander's defense, he did not come out with a mere twenty survivors but thousands.

REIMAGINING THE FUTURE: WHAT IF ALEXANDER HAD LIVED LONGER?

If Alexander had lived longer, he surely would have continued to indulge his thirst for conquering by going south into Arabia , north into the lands surrounding the Caspian, and West into North Africa . It is reasonable to assume that if he had lived, those countries would have been conquered in due time. Future campaigns had already been seriously considered and planned before his death in Babylon and were probably first conceived after Hephaestion 's death at Hamadan. If he could triumph over the greatest empire in the known world in under a decade as a neophyte, just think what he could do at the height of his power. If Alexander had lived to an age comparable to Parmenio's, the ancient world might have been far different from what is recorded in history textbooks.

If Alexander's past record tells us anything, it is that those who he conquered had little to fear if they accepted his rule. He traditionally incorporated others' beliefs and practices into his own and often pushed them to the forefront. There were many precedents to favor such actions. However, there was one thing that native peoples might have had to fear - relocation and migration. While they might be allowed to keep their customs and their religions, they might be asked to 'mix' with other ethnic groups, like Macedonians, Greeks, and Persians. This was one of Alexander's last wishes, so it may have been implemented somewhere down the line.

Alexander would have been his empire's greatest strength. Like Napoleon , his presence was worth 30,000 men. The loyalty of all his men would have been crucial – which may have ultimately been his Achilles heel. Palace intrigue plagued the Roman Emperors and as Alexander's empire grew, his would be no exception. The more his ambitions dictated him, the more he became a slave to his own desires.

Alexander slowly but surely moved his way to be seen as a god, not as a king. It is possible he would have ruled as Ptolemy did in Egypt . It is reasonable to suggest that eventually he would be revered by all as a living god, not just as a son of a god. He was already depicted as divine on coinage and in song. Eventually, Alexander's empire, upon his death, would have been left to either his son or his appointed successors. His successor, in order to keep everything in order, would have to possess some of Alexander's qualities, particularly his military prowess, magnetic personality, and persuasive manner, the army's loyalty being essential. The dissolution due to the lack of such an heir was evident after Alexander's death and took a generation to end.

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ALEXANDER REMEMBERED

This is the story of Alexander who traveled to the ends of the earth on a quest for conquest, glory, and a lasting fame that would surpass Achilles and the heroes of old. The idea to make the world his footstool was not a mere wish but a reality. Alexander knew that if he only thought of it, his men would see it through as long as he could win them over. Fox eloquently paints a stunning portrait of who Alexander was and continues to be in our hearts and minds:

He was famously generous and he loved to reward the same show of spirit which he asked of himself . . . Though he drank as he lived, sparing nothing, his mind was not slurred by excessive indulgence; he was not a man to be crossed or to be told what he could not do, and he always had firm views on exactly what he wanted. He was also a man of passionate ambitions, who saw the intense adventure of the unknown. He did not believe in impossibility; man could do anything, and he nearly proved it. Born in a half-world between Greece and Europe , he lived above all for the ideal of a distant past, striving to realize an age which he had been too late to share. (496-497)

Alexander has yet to be rivaled by man since his rule in the 4th century BCE. "Alexander's true genius", observes Green (488), "was as a field-commander: perhaps, taken all in all, the most incomparable general the world has seen." It is only a pity that Alexander did not have a Homer to record the greatness of his deeds and the guarded secrets of his heart. As Green concludes,

Yet his legend still lives; the proof of his immortality is the belief he inspired in others. That is why he remained greater than the measurable sum of his works; that is why, in the last resort, he will continue an insoluble enigma, to this and all future generations. (488)

If so, maybe we would hold in high esteem the hero of the classic Alexander the Great, instead of the heroes in the classic works of the Iliad and Odyssey . Alexander would have been delighted to rival the heroics of Achilles in a work retold from father to son through the generations. Thereby his memory and deeds would be remembered for all time.

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Bibliography

• Fox, R.L. Alexander the Great. Penguin, 2004.
• Green, P. Alexander of Macedon, 356-323 B.C. University of California Press, 2013.

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Alexander the Great: Hero or Villain

Alexander the Great was a king, commander, politician, explorer, and scholar. He was tutored by Aristotle and inherited his father’s kingdom of Macedonia, becoming king at a young age. Known as the greatest military leader of all time, he conquered different empires and learned about their cultures. He allowed people to continue practicing their religions even after they were conquered. However, he executed anyone who showed signs of conspiracy against him and destroyed cities, villages, and whole empires. He enslaved many women and children and his troops murdered and executed thousands of innocent people. While intelligent and powerful, Alexander’s actions make him more of a villain in many innocent people’s lives.

Alexander the Great, a king, commander, politician, explorer, and a scholar; a hero or a villain. Tutored by Aristotle himself in philosophy, politics, history, literature and medicine. Inherited his father’s, king Phillip II of Macedon, kingdom and became king of Macedonia. Alexander the great is called the greatest military leader of all time’ by many historians. While conquering different empires, Alexander learned about their cultures and spread their different ideas.

He became the leader of the Greeks, ‘overlord’ of the Asian Minor, Pharaoh of Egypt, and a king of Persia and Macedonia at the young age of 25. Alexander allowed people to continue practicing their religions even after they were conquered. After Alexander the Great Inherited his father’s kingdom, he executed anyone who showed sign of conspiracy against him. He conquered an enemy city called Thebes, enslaved the cities families and sold the women and children into slavery. Alexander then demolished every building in the city.

He moved onto Persia; who were the rivals of Macedonian. His troops took control of the Persian capital and destroyed all of their temples. Those Persian temples were part of their culture and way of life. Alexander learned about Buddhism from the Brahmins and then executed them. I believe Alexander the Great was a very intelligent and powerful man, but how he acted wasn’t so great. He destroyed and took over territories from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus River. His army enslaved many women and children and his troops murdered and executed thousands of innocent people.

Alexander army destroyed cities, towns, villages, and whole empires. When he ordered his troops to destroy the Persian temples, he destroyed a piece of Persian culture. My great-grandfather Is Iranian/ Persian, which makes me somewhat Persian. Alexander the Great played a big role as a villain In many innocent people’s lives.

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Alexander The Great: A Hero

Alexander the Great, born in 356 BC, is often celebrated as one of history's most remarkable military leaders. His legacy is deeply intertwined with his conquests and the vast empire he built, stretching from Greece to Egypt and into Asia. While his military prowess is widely acknowledged, the characterization of Alexander as a hero is a topic of ongoing debate among historians and scholars.

One of the key elements that contribute to Alexander's heroic status is his extraordinary military achievements. From a young age, Alexander demonstrated strategic brilliance and courage on the battlefield. He inherited the throne of Macedon at the age of 20, following the assassination of his father, King Philip II. Rather than succumbing to the instability that followed his father's death, Alexander swiftly asserted his authority and embarked on a campaign to expand his empire.

Throughout his conquests, Alexander displayed exceptional leadership qualities that inspired unwavering loyalty among his soldiers. He led his army through grueling campaigns across challenging terrain, from the mountains of Greece to the deserts of Persia. Despite facing formidable opponents and overwhelming odds, Alexander's tactical genius and decisive victories solidified his reputation as a military genius.

Beyond his military exploits, Alexander's legacy is also shaped by his cultural and political impact. He founded numerous cities, many of which bore his name, and promoted the spread of Greek culture and ideas throughout his empire. His vision of a unified, multicultural society laid the groundwork for the Hellenistic period, which witnessed a flourishing of art, science, and philosophy.

However, Alexander's legacy is not without controversy. His relentless pursuit of conquest resulted in immense suffering and loss of life, both among his own soldiers and the populations of the lands he conquered. His actions, such as the burning of Persepolis and the mass slaughter of civilians in cities like Tyre, have been condemned by modern observers as excessive and ruthless.

In conclusion, Alexander the Great's status as a hero is a complex and nuanced subject. While his military achievements and cultural legacy are undeniably impressive, his methods and the consequences of his actions raise important ethical questions. Ultimately, whether one views Alexander as a hero or a conqueror depends on one's perspective and interpretation of history.

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Alexander The Great: Why Did Historians Call Alexander The Great

Alexander the Great: Why Did Historians Call Him Great? Alexander the Great, one of history's most iconic figures, earned his title through a combination of military prowess, strategic brilliance, and visionary leadership. Historians have bestowed upon him the epithet "Great" for several reasons, each highlighting different aspects of his remarkable life and achievements. Firstly, Alexander's military conquests are unparalleled in ancient history. By the age of 30, he had established one of the largest empires the world had ever seen, stretching from Greece to Egypt and as far east as India. His tactical genius on the battlefield, coupled with his ability to inspire unwavering loyalty among his troops, allowed him to overcome seemingly insurmountable odds. Whether facing the Persian Empire or navigating the treacherous terrain of Central Asia, Alexander consistently demonstrated his mastery of warfare, earning the admiration of both allies and adversaries alike. Moreover, Alexander's vision for cultural and political unity further solidifies his legacy as a great leader. Unlike previous conquerors who sought merely to expand their territory, Alexander aimed to create a cohesive empire where Greek and Eastern cultures could coexist harmoniously. He encouraged intermarriage between his soldiers and local populations, promoted the adoption of Greek customs and language, and founded numerous cities – most notably Alexandria in Egypt – as centers of learning and commerce. This multicultural approach to governance laid the foundation for the Hellenistic Age, a period of cultural exchange and intellectual flourishing that endured long after his death. Additionally, Alexander's enduring impact on world history cannot be overstated. His conquests not only reshaped the geopolitical landscape of antiquity but also facilitated the spread of ideas, technologies, and trade routes across three continents. The fusion of Greek, Persian, and Indian influences during his reign laid the groundwork for future civilizations to flourish, shaping the course of Western civilization and beyond. In conclusion, historians rightly refer to Alexander the Great as one of the most influential and extraordinary figures in human history. His military achievements, visionary leadership, and enduring legacy have earned him a place among the pantheon of great leaders, leaving an indelible mark on the world that continues to resonate to this day....

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Alexander The Great : The Contributions Of Alexander The Great

Alexander the Great: The Contributions of Alexander Alexander the Great, a towering figure in ancient history, left an indelible mark on the world through his military conquests, visionary leadership, and cultural diffusion. Born in 356 BCE in Pella, Macedonia, Alexander ascended to the throne at the age of 20 following the assassination of his father, King Philip II. Over the course of his reign, Alexander embarked on an ambitious campaign to expand his empire, ultimately forging one of the largest empires in history. One of Alexander's most significant contributions lies in his military prowess and conquests. He inherited a formidable army from his father and transformed it into an unstoppable force through innovative tactics, strategic brilliance, and unwavering determination. His conquests stretched from Greece and Egypt in the west to India in the east, encompassing vast territories and diverse cultures. Alexander's military campaigns not only expanded the boundaries of his empire but also facilitated cultural exchange and the spread of Greek culture, known as Hellenism, throughout the conquered regions. Beyond his military achievements, Alexander played a pivotal role in promoting cultural exchange and intellectual advancement. As he ventured into the heart of the Persian Empire and beyond, Alexander encouraged the blending of Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian cultures, fostering an environment of cosmopolitanism and tolerance. He founded numerous cities, many of which bore his name, as centers of trade, commerce, and intellectual exchange. These cities served as crucibles of learning, where scholars, philosophers, and artists from diverse backgrounds congregated to exchange ideas and advance human knowledge. Furthermore, Alexander's legacy extends to his contributions in the fields of science, geography, and philosophy. He sponsored expeditions to explore the far reaches of his empire, leading to significant discoveries in geography and natural history. Alexander's patronage of scholars and thinkers, such as Aristotle, contributed to the preservation and dissemination of knowledge, laying the groundwork for future intellectual advancements. His conquests also facilitated the exchange of scientific and philosophical ideas between East and West, enriching both cultures and paving the way for the synthesis of diverse intellectual traditions. In conclusion, Alexander the Great's contributions reverberate through the annals of history, shaping the course of civilizations and leaving an enduring legacy of conquest, cultural diffusion, and intellectual enlightenment. His military exploits, promotion of cultural exchange, and patronage of learning have left an indelible mark on the world, earning him a place among the greatest leaders and visionaries of all time. Alexander's legacy serves as a testament to the transformative power of ambition, intellect, and human endeavor....

• Cultural Heritage and Preservation

Was Alexander The Great Destined For Greatness?

The question of whether Alexander the Great was destined for greatness is a complex and intriguing one. Born in 356 BC in the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, Alexander was the son of King Philip II and Queen Olympias. From an early age, he showed remarkable leadership qualities and a thirst for conquest. His destiny was undoubtedly shaped by the circumstances of his birth, his upbringing, and the opportunities presented to him. However, it was his own ambition, strategic genius, and charismatic personality that truly propelled him to greatness. Alexander's royal lineage undoubtedly played a significant role in shaping his destiny. As the son of a powerful king, he was heir to a kingdom that had already begun to expand its influence in the Greek world. His father, King Philip II, was a formidable military leader who had united the fractious Greek city-states under Macedonian rule. This provided Alexander with the resources and the platform to launch his own ambitious campaigns. In this sense, one could argue that Alexander was indeed destined for greatness by virtue of his royal birth. However, destiny alone does not account for the immense achievements of Alexander the Great. His upbringing and education also played a crucial role in shaping his character and ambitions. Under the tutelage of the philosopher Aristotle, he received a comprehensive education in literature, science, medicine, and philosophy. This broad intellectual foundation, coupled with his exposure to the military tactics and strategies of his father's court, equipped him with the skills and knowledge necessary to lead a vast empire. Alexander's personal qualities and innate abilities were equally instrumental in shaping his destiny. He possessed an exceptional charisma and charm that endeared him to his soldiers and subjects. His ability to inspire unwavering loyalty and devotion from his followers was a defining feature of his leadership. Furthermore, his strategic brilliance on the battlefield and his willingness to take bold risks set him apart as a military commander of unparalleled skill. These qualities, combined with an unyielding determination to carve out a vast empire, were crucial in propelling him to greatness. In conclusion, the question of whether Alexander the Great was destined for greatness is a multifaceted one. While his royal lineage and the circumstances of his birth undoubtedly paved the way for his ascension to power, it was ultimately his own ambition, intellect, and leadership that cemented his place in history. Alexander's unparalleled conquests, visionary leadership, and enduring legacy attest to the fact that he was not merely destined for greatness, but actively forged his own path to immortality....

Great Impact Of Alexander The Great

Alexander the Great, a towering figure in ancient history, left an indelible mark on the world through his military conquests, cultural diffusion, and political legacy. His unparalleled leadership skills, strategic prowess, and vision for empire-building shaped the course of history, influencing societies far beyond his lifetime. This essay delves into the multifaceted impact of Alexander the Great, highlighting his conquests, cultural diffusion, and enduring legacy. First and foremost, Alexander's military conquests reshaped the geopolitical landscape of the ancient world. From his early victories at the Battle of Granicus and the decisive triumph at Gaugamela to the legendary campaign in India, Alexander's military campaigns were marked by unparalleled success and audacity. His conquests extended the boundaries of the known world, forging one of the largest empires in history. The vast territories he conquered facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures, laying the groundwork for the Hellenistic period. Moreover, Alexander's conquests facilitated the diffusion of Greek culture, language, and philosophy throughout the regions he conquered. The establishment of Greek colonies, known as "Alexandrias," served as centers of Hellenistic culture and learning, fostering intellectual and artistic innovation. The spread of Greek language, known as Koine Greek, became the lingua franca of the eastern Mediterranean and beyond, facilitating communication and trade across diverse cultures. Beyond his military prowess and cultural diffusion, Alexander's political legacy left an enduring imprint on the world. His establishment of the Macedonian Empire laid the foundation for subsequent empires, including the Seleucid, Ptolemaic, and Antigonid dynasties. The administrative reforms he implemented, such as the adoption of Persian satraps and the integration of local elites into his administration, paved the way for effective governance and stability in his vast empire. In conclusion, the impact of Alexander the Great reverberates through the annals of history, shaping the course of civilizations and leaving an enduring legacy that transcends time. His military conquests, cultural diffusion, and political legacy transformed the ancient world, ushering in an era of Hellenistic civilization and influencing subsequent generations. As one of history's most celebrated figures, Alexander's legacy continues to inspire awe and admiration, serving as a testament to the enduring power of leadership, vision, and ambition....

• Colonialism
• History of the United States

To What Extent Was Alexander The Great Really Great

To What Extent Was Alexander The Great a Successful Military Leader? Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III of Macedon, is one of the most renowned military leaders in history. His conquests and influence on the ancient world have left a lasting legacy. When evaluating the extent of Alexander's greatness as a military leader, it's essential to consider his strategic brilliance, his ability to inspire loyalty, and the impact of his conquests. Firstly, Alexander's military success can be attributed to his strategic brilliance. He was a master tactician who was not afraid to take risks. One of his most famous military strategies was the use of the phalanx, a formation of infantry armed with long spears and shields, which he used to great effect in numerous battles. His ability to adapt to different terrains and enemy tactics showcased his strategic acumen. By incorporating innovative tactics and utilizing the terrain to his advantage, Alexander was able to outmaneuver his opponents and secure victories. Moreover, Alexander's leadership and ability to inspire loyalty were crucial to his military success. He led by example and was known for fighting alongside his soldiers, earning their respect and admiration. His charisma and vision inspired unwavering loyalty among his troops, who followed him into some of the most treacherous and challenging campaigns in history. This unwavering loyalty allowed Alexander to maintain a cohesive and disciplined army, essential for his conquests across vast territories. Additionally, the impact of Alexander's conquests cannot be understated. His military campaigns resulted in the spread of Greek culture and influence across the known world, a phenomenon known as Hellenization. Through his conquests, Alexander facilitated cultural exchange and the diffusion of knowledge, laying the foundation for the Hellenistic period. His conquests also led to the formation of a vast empire, uniting diverse regions under his rule and paving the way for future empires and dynasties. In conclusion, Alexander the Great's military leadership was characterized by strategic brilliance, the ability to inspire loyalty, and the far-reaching impact of his conquests. His innovative tactics, charismatic leadership, and enduring legacy make him a truly great military leader whose influence continues to be felt to this day. His conquests reshaped the ancient world and set a standard for military leaders throughout history. Alexander's military achievements undoubtedly mark him as one of the greatest military leaders of all time....

Alexander the Great and his Great Empire Essay

Throughout history, few figures have left as indelible a mark on the world as Alexander the Great. Born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia, Alexander ascended to the throne at the tender age of 20 following the assassination of his father, King Philip II. Despite his youth, Alexander quickly asserted himself as a formidable leader, embarking on a relentless campaign of conquest that would reshape the geopolitical landscape of the ancient world. One of Alexander's most remarkable achievements was the establishment of his vast empire, which stretched from Greece in the west to Egypt in the south and as far east as the Indus River in present-day Pakistan. This sprawling dominion, often referred to as the Hellenistic Empire, represented the culmination of Alexander's ambition and military prowess. At the heart of Alexander's empire was his vision of cultural and political unity. Unlike previous conquerors who sought to subjugate their subjects through force and coercion, Alexander espoused a more inclusive approach, embracing the diverse cultures and traditions of the lands he conquered. He encouraged intermarriage between Macedonians and native populations, promoted the spread of Greek language and culture, and established numerous cities bearing his name, known as Alexandria, as centers of learning and commerce. Central to Alexander's imperial project was his belief in the superiority of Greek civilization. He viewed himself as a divine figure, destined to spread Hellenism to the far corners of the earth. Yet, while Alexander's conquests undoubtedly brought Greek influence to vast swathes of territory, his empire was far from a monolithic entity. Instead, it was a mosaic of diverse peoples, languages, and cultures, each contributing to the rich tapestry of the Hellenistic world. Despite his ambitions, Alexander's empire was short-lived. Following his untimely death in 323 BC at the age of 32, his vast dominions were plunged into chaos as his generals vied for power. The once-unified empire fragmented into a patchwork of successor states, each ruled by a different faction of Alexander's former generals. Yet, while Alexander's empire may have been short-lived, its legacy endured for centuries to come. In conclusion, Alexander the Great's empire stands as a testament to the heights of human ambition and the enduring power of cultural exchange. Through his military conquests and visionary leadership, Alexander forged an empire that spanned three continents and laid the groundwork for the spread of Greek civilization. Though his empire may have crumbled in the wake of his death, its influence reverberated throughout the ancient world and continues to shape our understanding of history to this day....

Alexander the Great: What Made Him So Great

Alexander the Great: What Made Him So Remarkable Alexander the Great, a name that echoes through the annals of history, evokes images of conquest, bravery, and unparalleled leadership. Born in 356 BCE in the ancient kingdom of Macedonia, Alexander was destined for greatness from a young age. He was the son of King Philip II and Queen Olympias, inheriting a kingdom that laid the foundation for his extraordinary achievements. However, it was not merely his royal birthright that propelled him to legendary status, but a combination of innate qualities, strategic brilliance, and an insatiable thirst for glory. From his earliest days, Alexander exhibited exceptional intellect and ambition. Educated by Aristotle, one of the greatest minds of antiquity, Alexander developed a keen interest in philosophy, literature, and the arts, alongside mastering the art of warfare. This holistic education instilled in him a multifaceted perspective that would later shape his approach to governance and conquest. Unlike many rulers of his time, Alexander did not rely solely on brute force but understood the importance of diplomacy, cultural assimilation, and governance in maintaining an empire. One of the defining characteristics of Alexander's reign was his unwavering courage and determination on the battlefield. Time and again, he led his troops into seemingly impossible situations, inspiring them with his fearlessness and leading by example. His military strategies were innovative and adaptable, combining the strengths of various cultures and employing tactics that often caught his enemies off guard. Whether facing the formidable Persian Empire or traversing the treacherous terrain of Central Asia, Alexander's leadership remained resolute, earning him the loyalty and admiration of his soldiers. Beyond his military prowess, Alexander possessed a visionary zeal that transcended mere conquest. He dreamed of uniting the known world under one empire, fostering cultural exchange, and spreading the ideals of Hellenistic civilization. His vast empire became a melting pot of diverse cultures, religions, and ideas, laying the groundwork for centuries of cross-cultural exchange and development. Alexander's legacy extended far beyond the boundaries of his conquests, shaping the course of history and inspiring countless future leaders and conquerors. In conclusion, Alexander the Great's remarkable legacy can be attributed to a combination of factors, including his exceptional intellect, strategic acumen, courage, and visionary leadership. He defied the limitations of his time, forging an empire that stretched from Greece to India and leaving an indelible mark on human civilization. More than two millennia after his death, Alexander's name continues to evoke awe and admiration, a testament to the enduring power of his accomplishments and the enduring allure of his legend....

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DBQ Essay: How Great Was Alexander The Great?

Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III of Macedon, was one of the most successful military commanders in history. He was born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia, and became king at the young age of 20 after the assassination of his father, King Philip II. Alexander's military conquests stretched from Greece to Egypt to India, creating one of the largest empires the world had ever seen. But how great was Alexander the Great really? One of the key factors that contributed to Alexander's greatness was his military prowess. He was a brilliant strategist and tactician, known for his innovative tactics and ability to adapt to different situations on the battlefield. His army was well-trained and disciplined, and he led them to victory in numerous battles against much larger and more powerful enemies. From the Battle of Issus to the Siege of Tyre, Alexander's military campaigns were marked by decisive victories and strategic brilliance. Another aspect of Alexander's greatness was his vision and ambition. He was not content with simply conquering lands and expanding his empire; he also sought to spread Greek culture and civilization throughout the known world. This policy of Hellenization had a lasting impact on the regions he conquered, influencing art, architecture, language, and religion for centuries to come. Alexander's vision of a unified world under Greek influence was a bold and ambitious one, and it set him apart from other conquerors of his time. However, despite his military successes and grand vision, Alexander's legacy is not without controversy. His conquests were marked by brutality and bloodshed, and he was responsible for the deaths of thousands of people in his quest for power. His treatment of conquered peoples was often harsh, and his policies led to resentment and rebellion in many regions. Additionally, his early death at the age of 32 left his empire in chaos and led to a period of instability and conflict known as the Wars of the Diadochi. In conclusion, Alexander the Great was undeniably a remarkable figure in history, whose military achievements and vision for a unified world have left a lasting impact on the world. However, his legacy is a complex one, marked by both greatness and controversy. While his military prowess and ambition are undeniable, his methods and the consequences of his actions are still debated by historians to this day. Alexander's true greatness lies in his ability to inspire awe and admiration, while also raising important questions about the nature of power and conquest....

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Alexander The Great: a Rhetorical Analysis

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Published: Mar 20, 2024

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Rhetorical devices, impact and legacy.

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