cost analysis of co2 transportation case study in china

Cost analysis of CO 2 transportation: Case study in China

• Fang, Mengxiang
• Li, Hailong
• Hetland, Jens

CO 2 capture and storage (CCS) will have a significant impact on the cost of electricity production and costs in other potential applications. Hence, there is a need to identify and structure transportation alternatives in order to fill the gaps in knowledge of the cost of integrated capture, transport, and storage processes. As part of the EU China Cooperation project (COACH), a case of transporting 4,000 tonnes of CO 2 per day from GreenGen IGCC Project in Tianjin to Shengli Oilfield at a distance of 300 km in China has been outlined and subjected to parametric studies. The paper reveals the details of these cost analyses and results pertaining to three alternatives: a) pipeline transport, 43.13 RMB/tonne CO 2 (4.3 € /tonne CO 2 ), b) shipment, 45.79 RMB/tonne CO 2 (4.6 € /tonne CO 2 ), and c) railway tank wagon transport, 77.35 RMB/tonne CO 2 (7.7 € /tonne CO 2 ).

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CO2 capture and storage (CCS) will have a significant impact on the cost of electricity production and costs in other potential applications. Hence, there is a need to identify and structure transportation alternatives in order to fill the gaps in knowledge of the cost of integrated capture, transport, and storage processes. As part of the EU China Cooperation project (COACH), a case of transporting 4,000 tonnes of CO2 per day from GreenGen IGCC Project in Tianjin to Shengli Oilfield at a distance of 300km in China has been outlined and subjected to parametric studies. The paper reveals the details of these cost analyses and results pertaining to three alternatives: a) pipeline transport, 43.13 RMB/tonne CO2 (4.3 €/tonne CO 2), b) shipment, 45.79 RMB/tonne CO2 (4.6 €/tonne CO2), and c) railway tank wagon transport, 77.35 RMB/tonne CO 2 (7.7 €/tonne CO2). © 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

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Gao, L., Fang, M., Li, H., & Hetland, J. (2011). Cost analysis of CO2 transportation: Case study in China. In Energy Procedia (Vol. 4, pp. 5974–5981). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2011.02.600

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• State Key Laboratory of Clean Energy Utilization, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province, 310027, People’s Republic of China

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Carbon dioxide transport Mass flow rate Cost Pipeline Ship Railroad

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Cost Analysis of CO2 Transportation: Case Study in China

L Gao ， M Fang ， H Li ， J Hetland

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CO2 capture and storage (CCS) will have a significant impact on the cost of electricity production and costs in other potential applications. Hence, there is a need to identify and structure transportation alternatives in order to fill the gaps in knowledge of the cost of integrated capture, transport, and storage processes. As part of the EU China Cooperation project (COACH), a case of transporting 4,000tonnes of CO2 per day from GreenGen IGCC Project in Tianjin to Shengli Oilfield at a distance of 300km in China has been outlined and subjected to parametric studies. The paper reveals the details of these cost analyses and results pertaining to three alternatives: a) pipeline transport, 43.13 RMB/tonne CO2 (4.3 € /tonne CO2), b) shipment, 45.79 RMB/tonne CO2 (4.6 € /tonne CO2), and c) railway tank wagon transport, 77.35 RMB/tonne CO2 (7.7 € /tonne CO2).

Carbon dioxide transport Mass flow rate Cost Pipeline Ship Railroad

10.1016/j.egypro.2011.02.600

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Preliminary assessment of CO 2 transport and storage costs of promising source–sink matching scenarios in Guangdong province, China

• Research Paper
• Published: 17 August 2013
• Volume 9 , pages 115–126, ( 2014 )

Cite this article

• Bing Bai 1 ,
• Xiaochun Li 1 ,
• Yuping Yuan 1 ,
• Di Zhou 2 &
• Pengchun Li 2  

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Guangdong is the most economically developed province in China, which is a large CO 2 emitter and hence is faced with severe carbon reduction pressures. In this paper, a cost assessment methodology based on scenario analysis is presented. A CO 2 source and sink database was built at Guangdong after detailed investigations on the point sources and sedimentary basins. Fifteen transport and five storage scenarios were defined and studied, respectively. Cost estimates based on these scenarios show that during its lifetime, the costs of both transport and storage depend on the amount of CO 2 processed. More CO 2 being processed will bring down the unit costs of both transport and storage. However, it was observed that there is a cost inflection point between the storage amount of 35.2 and 52.8 Mt/year, which means that as the storage amount increases, the storage cost will first decrease and then increase. Source region S1 in Guangdong has been recommended for an early chance of CO 2 storage. Preliminary cost comparisons have shown that the results presented in this study are reasonable, but to improve the cost assessment accuracy of offshore CO 2 storage, a methodology based on a CO 2 storage design that can integrate local prices needs to be further developed.

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Acknowledgments

We acknowledge the financial support from the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) and Australia Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute (GCCSI) through the Guangdong CCS Readiness Project (GDCCSR).

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State Key Laboratory of Geomechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430071, China

Bing Bai, Xiaochun Li & Yuping Yuan

CAS Key Laboratory of Marginal Sea Geology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou, China

Di Zhou & Pengchun Li

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Bai, B., Li, X., Yuan, Y. et al. Preliminary assessment of CO 2 transport and storage costs of promising source–sink matching scenarios in Guangdong province, China. Acta Geotech. 9 , 115–126 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-013-0229-4

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Received : 24 January 2013

Accepted : 18 February 2013

Published : 17 August 2013

Issue Date : February 2014

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-013-0229-4

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• DOI: 10.1007/S11440-013-0229-4
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Preliminary assessment of CO2 transport and storage costs of promising source–sink matching scenarios in Guangdong province, China

• B. Bai , Xiaochun Li , +2 authors Pengchun Li
• Published 1 February 2014
• Environmental Science, Economics
• Acta Geotechnica

5 Citations

Co2 transport: design considerations and project outlook, conceptual design of multi-source ccs pipeline transportation network for polish energy sector, the special issue “underground storage of co2 and energy” in the framework of the 3rd sino-german conference in may 2013, carbon capture and storage in the coastal region of china between shanghai and hainan, 8 references, a preliminary assessment on co2 storage capacity in the pearl river mouth basin offshore guangdong, china, cost analysis of co2 transportation: case study in china, technical and economic characteristics of a co2 transmission pipeline infrastructure, [calculation of regional carbon emission: a case of guangdong province]., hydrogeological and numerical analysis of co2 disposal in deep aquifers in the alberta sedimentary basin, co2 underground storage costs as experienced at sleipner and weyburn, ipcc special report on carbon dioxide capture and storage, research report 2., related papers.

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A new cost estimate methodology for onshore pipeline transport of CO 2 in China

Pipeline transport of gas has several advantages and is also an attractive approach for CO 2 transport from the existing experience. The transport cost is a key index for people to make decisions on the selection of transport means of CO 2. However, the pipeline transport cost is obviously market sensitive and the existing cost models in USA, EU, etc. t be directly used in the cost evaluations in China. A localized assessment methodology for onshore pipeline transport cost is valuable. This paper developed a new cost estimate methodology for onshore pipeline transport of CO 2 amount 1.46Mt/y CO 2 , the transport costs are respectively 47.0 and 68.5 RMB/t. A comparison with existing research work in China was conducted , which showed the validity of the methodology presented.

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A New Cost Estimate Methodology for Onshore Pipeline Transport of CO2 in China

• December 2013
• Energy Procedia 37:7633-7638
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Green shipping corridors: Screening first mover candidates for China’s coastal shipping based on energy use and technological feasibility

August 9, 2024 | By: Xiaoli Mao, Yuanrong Zhou, Zhihang Meng and Hae Jeong Cho

Greenhouse gas emissions from the maritime sector are rising, conflicting with the climate goals of the Paris Agreement. This sector has struggled to transition to zero or near-zero emission fuels due to regulatory and financial barriers. To address these challenges, the concept of green shipping corridors (GSCs) has emerged, aiming to overcome financial obstacles and accelerate innovation in decarbonization technology.

This study investigates the feasibility of establishing GSCs for China’s coastal shipping. Researchers assess whether the ships could be powered by renewable hydrogen, methanol, ammonia, or batteries without the need to refuel en route. Three routes were identified as potential first mover candidates for GSCs. Finally, to understand the cost of enabling these routes, researchers analyzed demand and cost of renewable marine fuels for the first zero-emission vessels to be deployed on these routes (Table ES).

Figure . Traffic patterns for the three hypothetical zero-emission vessels on the GSC routes

Key findings:

• The technological feasibility of applying renewable marine fuels on China’s coastal shipping routes is high. The three first mover GSC routes analyzed could be served by ships running on renewable hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol without a need to refuel en route. Battery electric technology could be used for certain ships on shorter regional routes but currently has the lowest feasibility.    
• To enable the first ZEVs on these routes, 6,000 tonnes of ammonia or methanol, or 900 tonnes of renewable hydrogen need to be sourced. This would likely result in the need to supply 44-60 GWh of renewable electricity by 2030.   
• Policy guidelines are crucial for deploying more ZEVs in these corridors and achieving a meaningful reduction in greenhouse gases . The estimated cost of renewable hydrogen at the pump is $7.60/kg by 2030, significantly higher than conventional marine fuels. Reducing costs by 32% by 2050 w ill require substantial policy support to make GSCs viable on a larger scale.  

Table . Hypothetical activity for one zero-emission vessel on each GSC route, based on 2021 activity data

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• Analysis: China’s CO2 falls 1% in Q2 2024 in first quarterly drop since Covid-19

Lauri Myllyvirta

China’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions fell by 1% in the second quarter of 2024 in the first quarterly fall since the country re-opened from its “zero-Covid” lockdowns in December 2022.

The new analysis for Carbon Brief, based on official figures and commercial data, shows China remains on track for a decline in annual emissions this year.

This annual outlook depends on electricity demand growth easing in the second half of the year, as expected in projections from sector group the China Electricity Council .

However, if the latest trends in energy demand and supply continue – in particular, if demand growth continues to exceed pre-Covid trends – then emissions would stay flat in 2024 overall.

Other key findings from the analysis include:

• China’s energy demand grew by 4.2% year-on-year in the second quarter of 2024. This is slower than the growth seen in 2023 and in the first quarter of this year, but is still much higher than the pre-Covid trend.
• CO2 emissions from energy use and cement production fell by 1% in the second quarter. When combined with a sharp 6.5% increase in January-February and a monthly decline in March , there was a 1.3% rise in CO2 emissions across the first half of the year, compared with the same period in 2023.
• Electricity generation from wind and solar grew by 171 terawatt hours (TWh) in the first half of the year, more than the total power output of the UK in the same period of 2023.
• China’s carbon intensity – its emissions per unit of GDP – only improved by 5.5%, well short of the 7% needed to meet the country’s intensity target for 2025.
• This was despite a one-off boost from China’s hydropower fleet recovering from drought.
• Compared with a year earlier, the increase in the number of electric vehicles (EVs) on China’s roads cut demand for transport fuels by approximately 4%.
• Manufacturing solar panels, EVs and batteries was only responsible for 1.6% of China’s electricity consumption and 2.9% of its emissions in the first half of 2024.

A slew of recent policy developments, summarised below, hint at a renewed focus in Beijing on the country’s energy and climate targets.

Yet the precise timing and height of China’s CO2 emissions peak, as well as the pace of subsequent reductions, remain key uncertainties for global climate action.

First post-Covid fall in CO2

China’s CO2 emissions fell by 1% in the second quarter of 2024, the first quarterly fall since the country re-opened from zero-Covid, as shown in the figure below.

Within the overall total, power sector emissions fell by 3%, cement production fell by 7% and oil consumption by 3%.

The reduction in CO2 emissions was driven by the surge in clean energy additions, which is driving fossil fuel power into reverse. (See: Clean energy additions on track to top 2023 record.)

However, rapid energy demand growth in sectors such as coal-to-chemicals diluted the impact of changes in the electricity sector. (See: Rapid energy demand growth.)

Clean energy additions on track to top 2023 record

The additions of new clean power capacity in China have continued to boom this year.

China added 102 gigawatts (GW) of new solar and 26GW of wind in the first half of 2024, as shown in the figure below. Solar additions were up 31% and wind additions up 12% compared with the first half of last year, so China is on track to beat last year’s record installations.

As a result of the strong capacity growth – and despite poor wind conditions – solar and wind covered 52% of electricity demand growth in the first half of 2024 and 71% since March. (The fall in wind speeds can be seen from NASA MERRA-2 data averaged for all of China.)

Indeed, the increase in power generation from solar and wind reported by the National Energy Administration in the first half of the year, at 171 terawatt hours (TWh), exceeded the UK’s total electricity supply of 160TWh in the first half of 2023.

Rapid demand growth in January–February, at 11%, had outpaced even the clean energy additions. But combined with a rebound in hydropower generation, the increase in non-fossil electricity supply exceeded power demand growth in the March to June period.

These shifts are shown in the figure below, illustrating how clean power expansion started to exceed electricity demand growth in recent months, pushing coal and gas power into reverse.

After stopping the publication of capacity utilisation data by technology in May, the National Energy Administration released data in July on power generation by technology for renewable sources – solar, wind, hydro and biomass.

The NEA’s data shows renewable electricity generation covering 35% of demand in the first half of 2024 and growing 22% year-on-year. This is much higher than the previously-published National Bureau of Statistics numbers – which under-report wind and particularly solar power generation – but is closely aligned with estimates previously published by Carbon Brief .

In terms of other clean energy technologies, the production of electric vehicles, batteries and solar cells – the so-called “ new-three ” due to their recently acquired economic significance – continued to grow strongly in the first half of the year, at 34%, 18% and 37%, respectively.

This growth in production indicates strong demand from China and overseas. The growth of solar cell production halted in June, however.

Rapid energy demand growth

While clean technologies continue to surge in China, energy consumption has also continued to grow at a fast rate relative to GDP. This indicates that the energy-intensive growth pattern that China followed during zero-Covid is continuing.

In the second quarter of 2024, total energy consumption increased by 4.2%, while GDP grew by 4.7%, marking an energy intensity gain of only 0.5%. This energy demand growth is much faster than the pre-Covid trend.

China’s target is an annual improvement of 2.9%, a rate that was exceeded consistently until Covid-era economic policies shifted the country’s growth pattern. Economic growth during and after zero-Covid has been reliant on energy-intensive manufacturing industries.

The main structural drivers of recent energy consumption growth were the coal-to-chemicals industry, and industrial demand for power and gas.

The coal-to-chemicals industry produces petrochemical products from coal instead of oil, supporting China’s energy security goals but at a great cost to climate goals, as the coal-based production processes have far higher carbon footprints. 

China’s energy security drive and falling coal prices relative to oil prices have driven a boom in this industry. When coal supply was tight in 2022–23, the government was controlling coal use by the chemical industry to increase supply to power plants. As the coal supply situation has eased in 2024, this has enabled coal-to-chemicals plants to increase production, with coal consumption in the chemical industry growing 21% in the first half of the year.

Gas consumption increased 8.7% in the first half of the year, with industrial and residential gas consumption rising strongly, even as power generation from gas fell. Residential demand was driven up by extreme cold in the winter, however, rather than by structural factors.

On the flipside, the demand for oil products continued to fall, with a 3% drop in the second quarter that accelerated in the summer.

There are multiple factors driving the reduction: the shift to electric vehicles is contributing to the drop, with the share of EVs in cumulative vehicle sales over the past 10 years – an indicator of the mix of vehicles on the road – reaching 11.5% in June, up from 7.7% a year ago. This means that the increase in EVs cut the demand for transport fuels by approximately 4%.

The ongoing contraction in construction volumes, which is apparent in the fall in cement production, also affects oil demand, as the construction sector is a major source of demand for oil products for freight and machinery.

Another key driver is weak demand for oil as a petrochemical feedstock, which the rapidly increasing coal-to-chemicals production attempts to displace with the use of coal, albeit at a cost of increased CO2 emissions.

The contraction in construction volumes, caused by a slowdown in real estate that began in 2021, is weighing on the demand for cement and steel. Besides the direct effect of less real estate construction, local government revenues are dragged down by a fall in land sales, affecting their ability to spend on infrastructure construction.

These changes in demand for energy can been seen in the figure below, which shows contributions to the change in China’s CO2 emissions in the second quarter of this year.

While CO2 emissions did fall in the second quarter, the rate of CO2 intensity improvements fell short of the level needed to meet China’s 2025 carbon intensity commitment.

The country’s goal is to reduce emissions relative to GDP by 18% from 2020 to 2025, with progress until 2023 falling far short of the target.

As reported GDP growth slowed to 4.7% in the second quarter, and CO2 emissions fell by 1%, CO2 intensity improved by 5.5%, short of the 7% annual improvement needed in 2024-25 to get back on track.

Improvements are also easier to achieve this year than they will be in 2025, as the rebound of hydropower from the low availability in 2022–23 helps reduce emissions. This is a one-off tailwind that is not likely to be present in 2025.

One part of the energy-intensive industry that China has been relying on to drive economic growth is the manufacturing of clean energy technologies. In response, some commentators have exaggerated the CO2 impact of Chinese factories making solar panels, EVs and batteries.

In reality, however, the manufacturing of these goods was responsible for 1.6% of China’s electricity consumption and 2.9% of its emissions in the first half of 2024, based on calculations using publicly available data.

The same calculations show that their CO2 emissions and electricity consumption increased by approximately 27% in the same period, contributing a 0.6% increase in China’s total fossil CO2 emissions and 0.4% increase in electricity consumption.

Looking ahead to the rest of this year, energy consumption growth is expected to cool. The China Electricity Council projects electricity demand growth of 5% in the second half of the year, compared with 8.1% in the first half, and the National Energy Administration expects full-year gas demand growth to moderate to 6.5–7.7%, from 8.7% in the first half.

If these projections are accurate, then the continued growth of clean energy consumption would be sufficient to push China’s CO2 emissions into decline this year.

However, the faster-than-expected energy demand growth in the first half of the year dilutes the emission reductions from the country’s record clean energy additions, and adds uncertainty to whether China’s emissions will indeed fall in 2024 compared with 2023.

If the growth rates of energy demand, by fuel and sector, seen in the second quarter of this year continue into the third and fourth quarter, with similar continuity in the growth rates of non-fossil electricity generation, then China’s emissions would stay flat in 2024 overall.

Recent policy developments

Energy consumption growth could also be moderated by a renewed policy focus on energy and climate targets. In May of this year, the State Council, China’s top administrative body, issued an action plan on energy conservation and CO2 emission reductions in 2024–25.

This plan is notable both for the unusual time period, covering the last two years of the five-year plan period, and for its high-level nature – energy conservation would normally fall under the jurisdiction of the energy and environmental regulators, rather than the State Council.

This suggests that the government recognises the shortfall against the 2025 carbon intensity and energy intensity targets. The action plan calls for meeting both of these targets, and lists numerous measures to be undertaken in response.

Yet the plan did not set numerical targets for 2024 that would be consistent with meeting the 2025 targets, which could be seen as taking a hedged approach of pushing for more action but not guaranteeing that sufficient results will be achieved.

Another State Council plan , released in late July, calls for speeding up the creation of a “dual control system” to control total CO2 emissions and emissions intensity. (Historically, China has never set numerical targets for total CO2 emissions, only aiming to limit CO2 intensity.)

According to the July release, the 15th five-year plan will set a binding carbon intensity target in the 2026-30 period, in line with previous five-year plans. For the first time, there will also be a non-binding, “supplementary” target for China’s absolute emissions level in 2030. Then, for each of the following five-year periods, there will be a binding absolute emissions target.

After the shortfall against the 2025 intensity target, the 15th five-year plan period would need to set a demanding intensity target to fulfil China’s 2030 commitments under the Paris Agreement .

The most important political meeting of the year, the “ third plenum ” of the Central Committee of the Communist Party, took place in July. The readout of the meeting mentioned carbon emissions reduction for the first time, but did not signal a shift to stimulating consumption. This could have driven less emissions-intensive economic growth, reducing reliance on higher-carbon manufacturing or infrastructure expansion.

The key focus of the meeting was promoting “ new quality productive forces ”, meaning advanced manufacturing and innovation. In practice, this likely implies a continued emphasis on manufacturing, with the potential for the energy-intensive economic growth pattern to continue.

Another indication that carbon emissions are receiving more policy emphasis is that the government appears to have stopped permitting new coal-based steelmaking projects since the beginning of 2024.

Hundreds of coal-based “replacement” projects were permitted in previous years, preparing to replace up to 40% of China’s existing steelmaking capacity with brand-new furnaces.

The shift away from new coal-based capacity is consistent with China’s target of increasing the use of electric arc furnaces – but progress towards that target had been lagging .

On coal-fired power, the government issued a new policy on “ low-carbon transformation ” of coal plants, aiming to initiate “low-carbon” retrofitting projects of a batch of coal power plants in 2025, with the target of reducing the CO2 emissions of those plants 20% below the average for similar plants in 2023, and another batch in 2027 aiming for emission levels 50% below 2023 average.

Under this transformation plan, emissions reductions at targeted coal plants are supposed to be achieved by “co-firing” coal with either biomass or “green” ammonia derived from renewables-based hydrogen , or by adding carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS).

However, there are no targets for how many coal plants should be retrofitted, or what the incentives will be to do that, which will obviously determine the direct impact of this policy.

The impact could be small as biomass supply is limited, while the costs of ammonia and CCUS are high. For example, the International Energy Agency – among the more optimistic on power generation from biomass – sees its share rising from 2% in 2022 to 4.5% in 2035, if China meets its pledges on energy and climate IEA’s.

Furthermore, much of China’s coal-fired generation is already unprofitable, with almost half of the firms in the sector operating at a loss – even before taking on costly new measures.

The policy does however constitute Beijing’s first attempt at reconciling the recent permitting spree of new coal-fired power plants with its CO2 peaking goal for 2030, and looking for alternatives to early closure or under-utilisation of at least a part of the coal power fleet.

Prospects for a 2023 emissions peak and beyond

China’s emissions fell year-on-year in March and in the second quarter, as expected in my analysis for Carbon Brief last year.

Faster-than-expected growth in coal demand for the chemical industry, however, as well as industrial demand for power and gas, has diluted the emission reductions from the power sector, making the fall in emissions smaller than expected.

Nevertheless, China is likely still on track to begin a structural decline in emissions in 2024, making 2023 the peak year for CO2 emissions.

In order for this projection to bear out in reality, clean energy growth would need to continue and the expected cooling in energy demand growth in the second half of the year would need to materialise, with the new policy focus on energy savings and carbon emissions proving lasting.

The trends that could upset this projection include the economic policy focus on manufacturing, and the expansion of the coal-to-chemicals industry.

The surge in coal use for coal-to-chemicals is also a demonstration that even if power sector emissions begin to fall, as long as China’s climate commitments allow emissions to increase, there is the potential for developments that increase emissions in other sectors.

China has committed to updating its climate targets for 2030 and releasing new targets for 2035 early next year. These targets will be key in cementing the emissions peak and specifying the targeted rate of emission reductions after the peak – both of which have seismic implications for the global emissions trajectory and the level at which temperatures can be stabilised.

About the data

Data for the analysis was compiled from the National Bureau of Statistics of China, National Energy Administration of China, China Electricity Council and China Customs official data releases, and from WIND Information, an industry data provider.

Wind and solar output, and thermal power breakdown by fuel, was calculated by multiplying power generating capacity at the end of each month by monthly utilisation, using data reported by China Electricity Council through Wind Financial Terminal .

Total generation from thermal power and generation from hydropower and nuclear power was taken from National Bureau of Statistics monthly releases .

Monthly utilisation data was not available for biomass, so the annual average of 52% for 2023 was applied. Power sector coal consumption was estimated based on power generation from coal and the average heat rate of coal-fired power plants during each month, to avoid the issue with official coal consumption numbers affecting recent data. 

When data was available from multiple sources, different sources were cross-referenced and official sources used when possible, adjusting total consumption to match the consumption growth and changes in the energy mix reported by the National Bureau of Statistics for the first quarter and the first half of the year. The effect of the adjustments is less than 1% for all energy sources, and the conclusion that emissions fell in the second quarter holds both with and without this adjustment.

CO2 emissions estimates are based on National Bureau of Statistics default calorific values of fuels and emissions factors from China’s latest national greenhouse gas emissions inventory, for the year 2018. Cement CO2 emissions factor is based on annual estimates up to 2023.

For oil consumption, apparent consumption is calculated from refinery throughput, with net exports of oil products subtracted.

‘Critical turning point’ for coal poses risks for China’s state power firms, says report

分析：中国清洁能源发展使五月燃煤发电份额降至53%的历史低点

Analysis: China’s clean energy pushes coal to record-low 53% share of power in May 2024

Analysis: Monthly drop hints that China’s CO2 emissions may have peaked in 2023

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Multi-objective optimization of synergic perchlorate pollution reduction and energy conservation in china’s perchlorate manufacturing industry.

1. Introduction

2. methodology, 2.1. analysis of potassium perchlorate production system, 2.2. the multi-objective optimization model, 2.2.1. objectives, 2.2.2. constraints, 2.3. optimization method, 3.1. analysis of perchlorate production and discharging characteristics, 3.2. the model optimization results, 3.2.1. the algorithm performance verification results, 3.2.2. the optimal solutions, 3.3. decision strategy, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Process 1. Preparation of sodium chlorate by primary electrolysis
• Process 2. Preparation of sodium perchlorate by secondary electrolysis
• Process 3. Preparation of potassium perchlorate by double decomposition reaction

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Li, Y.; Wang, H.; Zhu, G. Multi-Objective Optimization of Synergic Perchlorate Pollution Reduction and Energy Conservation in China’s Perchlorate Manufacturing Industry. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 6924. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166924

Li Y, Wang H, Zhu G. Multi-Objective Optimization of Synergic Perchlorate Pollution Reduction and Energy Conservation in China’s Perchlorate Manufacturing Industry. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):6924. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166924

Li, Ying, Hongyang Wang, and Guangcan Zhu. 2024. "Multi-Objective Optimization of Synergic Perchlorate Pollution Reduction and Energy Conservation in China’s Perchlorate Manufacturing Industry" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 6924. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166924

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