research paper size bond paper

Understanding the Sizes of Bond Paper

Short bond paper size.

Short bond paper, often used for a variety of purposes including academic tasks and office documents, typically measures 8.5 inches by 11 inches, or 215.9 mm x 279.4 mm.

Long Bond Paper Size

Long bond paper, on the other hand, is slightly longer and measures 8.5 inches by 13 inches, or 215.9 mm x 330.2 mm. It should not be confused with legal-size paper, which is 8.5 inches by 14 inches.

Comparing Bond Paper Sizes

Setting Paper Size in Word and Google Docs

Microsoft word.

Whether you are drafting an essay or creating a report, setting up your document to the correct paper size is crucial. In Microsoft Word , to set up a long bond paper size, you can click on the “Page Layout” tab, then the “Size” button, and choose the 8.5″ x 13″ size from the list.

Google Docs

In Google Docs , you can adjust the paper size by clicking on “File” and then “Page setup” in a new or existing document. In the “Page Setup” dialog, you can select the appropriate paper size.

Uses of Bond Paper

Bond paper is a versatile material that finds widespread use in various sectors. Here are some of its most common uses:

• Printing : Bond paper’s smooth texture and durability make it ideal for everyday printing tasks.
• Letterheads and Official Documents : Owing to its high-quality appearance and feel, bond paper is often used for letterheads and official documents.
• Drawing : Uncoated bond paper is perfect for everyday drawing, as its lack of coating provides a less porous surface for the inks, leading to sharper text and images.

Origins of Bond Paper

The history of bond paper is as interesting as its uses. The name “bond paper” comes from its original use for creating government bonds , hence the term “bond”.

Interestingly, the standard size of bond paper is 17 by 22 inches, and it is often sold in a 20-pound weight. This refers to the weight of a 500-sheet ream of this size. However, before the paper is sold to consumers, it’s cut to the standard letter size of 8.5 by 11 inches.

It’s also worth noting that there’s a variety of bond paper known as “ rag paper ,” which is more durable and cloth-like, distinguishing it from the regular wood-pulp variety.

Whether it’s for printing your next report or crafting a stunning piece of art, bond paper is a versatile and reliable choice. Understanding its different sizes, uses, and the history behind it can help you appreciate this essential everyday material even more.

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Thesis / dissertation formatting manual (2024).

• Filing Fees and Student Status
• Submission Process Overview
• Electronic Thesis Submission
• Paper Thesis Submission
• Formatting Overview
• Fonts/Typeface
• Pagination, Margins, Spacing
• Paper Thesis Formatting
• Preliminary Pages Overview
• Copyright Page
• Dedication Page
• Table of Contents
• List of Figures (etc.)
• Acknowledgments
• Text and References Overview
• Figures and Illustrations
• Using Your Own Previously Published Materials
• Using Copyrighted Materials by Another Author
• Open Access and Embargoes
• Copyright and Creative Commons
• Ordering Print (Bound) Copies
• Tutorials and Assistance
• FAQ This link opens in a new window

Length and binding

UCI places no limit to the length of a thesis or dissertation.

However, for manuscripts submitted on paper, the Library's binding process limits thickness to 2.25" maximum. If your manuscript exceeds that thickness, divide it into two volumes of roughly equivalent thickness; make the split between two chapters. For identification purposes, make one exact copy of your title page and table of contents on 100% cotton paper to include in the second volume. Remember that your manuscript can be printed only on one side of each manuscript page.

Paper quality

For manuscripts submitted on paper, you must use 8.5" x 11", 20-24 pound, white, 100% cotton bond paper for the final version of the thesis/dissertation. Please consult with the University Archives prior to printing your manuscript to ensure that you are using the appropriate paper.

Oversized materials

For paper submissions, If your material does not lend itself to reduction, or if reduction to an 8.5" x 11" page necessitates more than a 50% reduction in the image size of the text, you may use 11" x 17" paper. The maximum dimensions of pages which may be bound into the manuscript are 17" by 22" (width by length). If only one dimension of a chart or similar material is oversized, the other dimension must conform to the size of a regular typewritten page (8.5" x 11").

If you use oversized pages, they must be folded to the 8.5" x 11" manuscript size with pleat-like folds. In order to avoid its being bound into the spine of the book and therefore not able to be unfolded by the reader, no fold should fall closer than .5" to the left edge of the manuscript.

Handwritten marks

Use only black, permanent, non-smearing ink for handwritten symbols or formulas, drawings, diacritical marks, etc. Black ink images reproduce the best. Blue inks vary widely in their reproducibility, from intense to nonexistent.

Photographs

Photographs used as pages of the manuscript must conform to the established page size and margin requirements. Light-weight photographic papers are strongly recommended; medium-weight photographic paper may be used if no alternative is available.

Alternatively, photographs printed on photographic paper (no heavier than medium weight) may be mounted with 3M Positional Mounting Tissue/Adhesive or a spray mount (3M Photo Mount or "Perma Mount"), available from photography stores. Mount photographs on the same 100% cotton paper used for the rest of your manuscript. Material may not be attached by using paper clips, staples, adhesive tape (single- or double-sided), or ordinary glue.

Computer-generated photographic pages or photocopied photographic pages produced with a high-quality, high-contrast copy machine (in either black-and-white or color) are acceptable alternatives to photographs. Use the same 100% cotton paper used for the rest of your manuscript, if possible.

For doctoral dissertations, high-contrast black-and-white photographs are recommended, as they produce the best results on microfilm. While color photographs may be used, they will be microfilmed in black and white and are likely to have insufficient contrast to be fully legible on microfilm.

Electronic appendices in paper submissions

Electronic or audiovisual data may be included as appendices in paper submissions. Your committee should agree that the information contained in the appendices is of such a character that a medium other than text is necessary. For paper submissions, electronic or audiovisual data should be submitted as follows. The following media may be utilized:

• Audiovisual material, such as, slides, videotape, videodisk, compact disk, cassette tape, or audiotape
• Electronic files, such as floppy disk or compact disk

When including such media as part of your manuscript, when submitting your manuscript on paper, you must submit two copies, each in its own cover or case.

For electronic files, you must also provide sufficient information to enable a reader to select the proper equipment on which to access your data. Instructions must be included in your thesis/dissertation in the section discussing the data and how to use it, and must include the following information:

• The minimum hardware on which the file will run
• Software requirements
• Operating system
• Amount of memory required
• Any required or recommended peripherals

Include the electronic or audiovisual appendix in your table of contents. For identification purposes, the label affixed to the media covers or cases must include the following information:

• Thesis/dissertation title
• Degree title, followed by the year earned
• University of California, Irvine
• Section/chapter of manuscript (e.g. Appendix I)
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13.1 Formatting a Research Paper

Learning objectives.

• Identify the major components of a research paper written using American Psychological Association (APA) style.
• Apply general APA style and formatting conventions in a research paper.

In this chapter, you will learn how to use APA style , the documentation and formatting style followed by the American Psychological Association, as well as MLA style , from the Modern Language Association. There are a few major formatting styles used in academic texts, including AMA, Chicago, and Turabian:

• AMA (American Medical Association) for medicine, health, and biological sciences
• APA (American Psychological Association) for education, psychology, and the social sciences
• Chicago—a common style used in everyday publications like magazines, newspapers, and books
• MLA (Modern Language Association) for English, literature, arts, and humanities
• Turabian—another common style designed for its universal application across all subjects and disciplines

While all the formatting and citation styles have their own use and applications, in this chapter we focus our attention on the two styles you are most likely to use in your academic studies: APA and MLA.

If you find that the rules of proper source documentation are difficult to keep straight, you are not alone. Writing a good research paper is, in and of itself, a major intellectual challenge. Having to follow detailed citation and formatting guidelines as well may seem like just one more task to add to an already-too-long list of requirements.

Following these guidelines, however, serves several important purposes. First, it signals to your readers that your paper should be taken seriously as a student’s contribution to a given academic or professional field; it is the literary equivalent of wearing a tailored suit to a job interview. Second, it shows that you respect other people’s work enough to give them proper credit for it. Finally, it helps your reader find additional materials if he or she wishes to learn more about your topic.

Furthermore, producing a letter-perfect APA-style paper need not be burdensome. Yes, it requires careful attention to detail. However, you can simplify the process if you keep these broad guidelines in mind:

• Work ahead whenever you can. Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” includes tips for keeping track of your sources early in the research process, which will save time later on.
• Get it right the first time. Apply APA guidelines as you write, so you will not have much to correct during the editing stage. Again, putting in a little extra time early on can save time later.
• Use the resources available to you. In addition to the guidelines provided in this chapter, you may wish to consult the APA website at http://www.apa.org or the Purdue University Online Writing lab at http://owl.english.purdue.edu , which regularly updates its online style guidelines.

General Formatting Guidelines

This chapter provides detailed guidelines for using the citation and formatting conventions developed by the American Psychological Association, or APA. Writers in disciplines as diverse as astrophysics, biology, psychology, and education follow APA style. The major components of a paper written in APA style are listed in the following box.

These are the major components of an APA-style paper:

Body, which includes the following:

• Headings and, if necessary, subheadings to organize the content
• In-text citations of research sources
• References page

All these components must be saved in one document, not as separate documents.

The title page of your paper includes the following information:

• Title of the paper
• Author’s name
• Name of the institution with which the author is affiliated
• Header at the top of the page with the paper title (in capital letters) and the page number (If the title is lengthy, you may use a shortened form of it in the header.)

List the first three elements in the order given in the previous list, centered about one third of the way down from the top of the page. Use the headers and footers tool of your word-processing program to add the header, with the title text at the left and the page number in the upper-right corner. Your title page should look like the following example.

The next page of your paper provides an abstract , or brief summary of your findings. An abstract does not need to be provided in every paper, but an abstract should be used in papers that include a hypothesis. A good abstract is concise—about one hundred fifty to two hundred fifty words—and is written in an objective, impersonal style. Your writing voice will not be as apparent here as in the body of your paper. When writing the abstract, take a just-the-facts approach, and summarize your research question and your findings in a few sentences.

In Chapter 12 “Writing a Research Paper” , you read a paper written by a student named Jorge, who researched the effectiveness of low-carbohydrate diets. Read Jorge’s abstract. Note how it sums up the major ideas in his paper without going into excessive detail.

Write an abstract summarizing your paper. Briefly introduce the topic, state your findings, and sum up what conclusions you can draw from your research. Use the word count feature of your word-processing program to make sure your abstract does not exceed one hundred fifty words.

Depending on your field of study, you may sometimes write research papers that present extensive primary research, such as your own experiment or survey. In your abstract, summarize your research question and your findings, and briefly indicate how your study relates to prior research in the field.

Margins, Pagination, and Headings

APA style requirements also address specific formatting concerns, such as margins, pagination, and heading styles, within the body of the paper. Review the following APA guidelines.

Use these general guidelines to format the paper:

• Set the top, bottom, and side margins of your paper at 1 inch.
• Use double-spaced text throughout your paper.
• Use a standard font, such as Times New Roman or Arial, in a legible size (10- to 12-point).
• Use continuous pagination throughout the paper, including the title page and the references section. Page numbers appear flush right within your header.
• Section headings and subsection headings within the body of your paper use different types of formatting depending on the level of information you are presenting. Additional details from Jorge’s paper are provided.

Begin formatting the final draft of your paper according to APA guidelines. You may work with an existing document or set up a new document if you choose. Include the following:

• Your title page
• The abstract you created in Note 13.8 “Exercise 1”
• Correct headers and page numbers for your title page and abstract

APA style uses section headings to organize information, making it easy for the reader to follow the writer’s train of thought and to know immediately what major topics are covered. Depending on the length and complexity of the paper, its major sections may also be divided into subsections, sub-subsections, and so on. These smaller sections, in turn, use different heading styles to indicate different levels of information. In essence, you are using headings to create a hierarchy of information.

The following heading styles used in APA formatting are listed in order of greatest to least importance:

• Section headings use centered, boldface type. Headings use title case, with important words in the heading capitalized.
• Subsection headings use left-aligned, boldface type. Headings use title case.
• The third level uses left-aligned, indented, boldface type. Headings use a capital letter only for the first word, and they end in a period.
• The fourth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are boldfaced and italicized.
• The fifth level follows the same style used for the previous level, but the headings are italicized and not boldfaced.

Visually, the hierarchy of information is organized as indicated in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” .

Table 13.1 Section Headings

A college research paper may not use all the heading levels shown in Table 13.1 “Section Headings” , but you are likely to encounter them in academic journal articles that use APA style. For a brief paper, you may find that level 1 headings suffice. Longer or more complex papers may need level 2 headings or other lower-level headings to organize information clearly. Use your outline to craft your major section headings and determine whether any subtopics are substantial enough to require additional levels of headings.

Working with the document you developed in Note 13.11 “Exercise 2” , begin setting up the heading structure of the final draft of your research paper according to APA guidelines. Include your title and at least two to three major section headings, and follow the formatting guidelines provided above. If your major sections should be broken into subsections, add those headings as well. Use your outline to help you.

Because Jorge used only level 1 headings, his Exercise 3 would look like the following:

Citation Guidelines

In-text citations.

Throughout the body of your paper, include a citation whenever you quote or paraphrase material from your research sources. As you learned in Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , the purpose of citations is twofold: to give credit to others for their ideas and to allow your reader to follow up and learn more about the topic if desired. Your in-text citations provide basic information about your source; each source you cite will have a longer entry in the references section that provides more detailed information.

In-text citations must provide the name of the author or authors and the year the source was published. (When a given source does not list an individual author, you may provide the source title or the name of the organization that published the material instead.) When directly quoting a source, it is also required that you include the page number where the quote appears in your citation.

This information may be included within the sentence or in a parenthetical reference at the end of the sentence, as in these examples.

Epstein (2010) points out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Here, the writer names the source author when introducing the quote and provides the publication date in parentheses after the author’s name. The page number appears in parentheses after the closing quotation marks and before the period that ends the sentence.

Addiction researchers caution that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (Epstein, 2010, p. 137).

Here, the writer provides a parenthetical citation at the end of the sentence that includes the author’s name, the year of publication, and the page number separated by commas. Again, the parenthetical citation is placed after the closing quotation marks and before the period at the end of the sentence.

As noted in the book Junk Food, Junk Science (Epstein, 2010, p. 137), “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive.”

Here, the writer chose to mention the source title in the sentence (an optional piece of information to include) and followed the title with a parenthetical citation. Note that the parenthetical citation is placed before the comma that signals the end of the introductory phrase.

David Epstein’s book Junk Food, Junk Science (2010) pointed out that “junk food cannot be considered addictive in the same way that we think of psychoactive drugs as addictive” (p. 137).

Another variation is to introduce the author and the source title in your sentence and include the publication date and page number in parentheses within the sentence or at the end of the sentence. As long as you have included the essential information, you can choose the option that works best for that particular sentence and source.

Citing a book with a single author is usually a straightforward task. Of course, your research may require that you cite many other types of sources, such as books or articles with more than one author or sources with no individual author listed. You may also need to cite sources available in both print and online and nonprint sources, such as websites and personal interviews. Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.2 “Citing and Referencing Techniques” and Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provide extensive guidelines for citing a variety of source types.

Writing at Work

APA is just one of several different styles with its own guidelines for documentation, formatting, and language usage. Depending on your field of interest, you may be exposed to additional styles, such as the following:

• MLA style. Determined by the Modern Languages Association and used for papers in literature, languages, and other disciplines in the humanities.
• Chicago style. Outlined in the Chicago Manual of Style and sometimes used for papers in the humanities and the sciences; many professional organizations use this style for publications as well.
• Associated Press (AP) style. Used by professional journalists.

References List

The brief citations included in the body of your paper correspond to the more detailed citations provided at the end of the paper in the references section. In-text citations provide basic information—the author’s name, the publication date, and the page number if necessary—while the references section provides more extensive bibliographical information. Again, this information allows your reader to follow up on the sources you cited and do additional reading about the topic if desired.

The specific format of entries in the list of references varies slightly for different source types, but the entries generally include the following information:

• The name(s) of the author(s) or institution that wrote the source
• The year of publication and, where applicable, the exact date of publication
• The full title of the source
• For books, the city of publication
• For articles or essays, the name of the periodical or book in which the article or essay appears
• For magazine and journal articles, the volume number, issue number, and pages where the article appears
• For sources on the web, the URL where the source is located

The references page is double spaced and lists entries in alphabetical order by the author’s last name. If an entry continues for more than one line, the second line and each subsequent line are indented five spaces. Review the following example. ( Chapter 13 “APA and MLA Documentation and Formatting” , Section 13.3 “Creating a References Section” provides extensive guidelines for formatting reference entries for different types of sources.)

In APA style, book and article titles are formatted in sentence case, not title case. Sentence case means that only the first word is capitalized, along with any proper nouns.

Key Takeaways

• Following proper citation and formatting guidelines helps writers ensure that their work will be taken seriously, give proper credit to other authors for their work, and provide valuable information to readers.
• Working ahead and taking care to cite sources correctly the first time are ways writers can save time during the editing stage of writing a research paper.
• APA papers usually include an abstract that concisely summarizes the paper.
• APA papers use a specific headings structure to provide a clear hierarchy of information.
• In APA papers, in-text citations usually include the name(s) of the author(s) and the year of publication.
• In-text citations correspond to entries in the references section, which provide detailed bibliographical information about a source.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Understanding Bond Paper: Origins, Features, Uses and Buying Guide

Ever found yourself standing in an office supply store, staring at the reams of paper with a puzzled look? You’re not alone. The world of paper types can be confusing, especially when terms like ‘bond paper’ are thrown around. But don’t worry, you’re about to unravel this mystery.

Bond paper, despite its rather fancy name, is a staple in most offices and homes. But what exactly is it, and why is it so widely used? If you’ve ever wondered about this, you’re in the right place. This article will shed light on the ins and outs of bond paper, its unique characteristics, and its various uses. So buckle up and get ready for a deep dive into the world of bond paper.

Key Takeaways

• Bond paper is a high-quality, durable paper type originally used for printing bond or debt certificates. It is heavier, stronger, and more resilient than regular paper, making it ideal for professional documents such as business letterheads, reports, and resumes.
• A key characteristic of bond paper is its basis weight. This refers to the weight of 500 sheets (a ream) of 17×22-inch paper, measured in pounds (lbs). The weight of bond paper typically ranges from 20 to 32 lbs, with a higher weight signifying increased thickness and sturdiness.
• The versatility of bond paper is evident in its wide range of uses, from student notebooks and large scale banners, to important business documents. It’s particularly favored for inkjet and laser printers due to its smooth surface, which allows for clear text and detailed images.
• Bond paper is used heavily across academic, commercial, and home applications. In academic settings, it’s preferred for student notebooks, assignments, and so on. Commercially, it’s used for meeting notes, reports, presentations, etc. At home, it’s often used for printing needs like invitations or homemade business cards.
• Unique features of bond paper include high tensile strength, superior printing quality, versatility, good ink absorption and drying properties, and availability in different weights and sizes. This selection of features gives better results across various printing applications.
• Choosing the right bond paper involves considering the paper size, weight, finish, printer compatibility, and product quality. Generally, lighter bond paper is used for general office work, while heavier bond paper is better suited for formal documents and presentations.
• Recyclability and sustainable sourcing are significant environmental advantages of using bond paper. A high percentage of post-consumer waste is used in its production, and it helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
• The pros and cons of using bond paper revolve around its superior printability, enhanced durability, wide usability, cost considerations, printer compatibility issues, lack of waterproofing, and limited options for creative prints.

What is Bond Paper: A Brief Overview

In the realm of paper, bond paper holds a significant position. Originally, it found its use in printing bond or debt certificates, hence the moniker. Created with durability in mind, bond paper exhibits higher-end characteristics that set it apart from regular paper. It’s heavier, stronger, and more resilient, making it ideal for documents that require a professional touch – think business letterheads, resumes or official reports.

Understanding the guts of bond paper also exposes you to its key feature – its basis weight, a crucial parameter indicating a paper’s density, typically defined in pounds (lbs). For bond paper, you usually see weights like 20, 24, or 32 lbs. This figure simply implies the weight of 500 sheets (a ream) of 17×22-inch paper. Unsurprisingly, as the weight increases, so does the thickness and sturdiness, fostering a more tangible sense of quality.

Beyond its physical properties, let’s touch on bond paper’s versatility that plays out in its multitude of uses. Bond paper doesn’t confine itself to the corporate document sphere . It’s a chameleon in the printing world, assuming varied roles. Used from student notebooks to large scale banners, bond paper proves its adaptability, testifying its ubiquity in our daily lives.

However, here’s the kicker – in printing terms, it’s the paper grade of choice for inkjet and laser printers. Why? Its formation process ensures a smooth surface, optimal for clear text and sharp, detailed images, enhancing the overall print output quality.

In essence, the strength, versatility, and printing benefits encapsulate bond paper’s identity. A ubiquitous choice across various sectors, bond paper forms an integral part of our paper-driven tasks, ensuring a seamless journey between ideation and execution.

The Broad Spectrum of Bond Paper Uses

Honing in on its practical applications, you’ll find bond paper ubiquitous in a host of industries and purposes. While its classic usage in business-related printings, like letterheads and resumes, stands out, the paper’s uses diverge significantly, taking center stage in countless scenarios.

Diving into specifics, the core arenas where bond paper finds substantial usage can be broadly itemized into three categories: academic use, commercial use, and home use.

Academic Use

In the realm of academia, bond paper is an evident presence. Think of student notebooks and art sketchbooks; bond paper forms the very essence of these academic tools. Handing out syllabi, assignments, and laboratory manuals usually exploits bond paper’s potential due to its durability and print clarity.

Commercial Use:

On the commercial front, bond paper embraces a plethora of uses. Meeting notes, quarterly reports, presentations, and contract drafts all feature bond paper. It’s a mainstay in most office environments and it’s easy to grasp why. Its high tensile strength negates the possibility of rupture during binding or manual handling, lending to its commercial popularity.

Lastly, in the realm of domestic use, bond paper is usually the go-to choice for home printing needs. Whether it’s crafting birthday invitations, printing out itinerary plans, or producing homemade business cards, bond paper’s smooth surface enables superior print quality.

Each of these arenas illustrate the innumerable uses of bond paper, attributing to its ubiquitous presence. Its versatility hones in on providing durability and superior print quality, inevitably making bond paper a favored selection and essentially completing the transition from idea to output. In the next section of this article, we’ll delve into the factors to consider while purchasing bond paper to help you set your print requirements sail smoothly.

Features that Distinguish Bond Paper

When selecting bond paper, consider its distinguishing features to achieve the best printing results. Unlike other paper types, bond paper possesses unique attributes that enhance its performance across various applications.

• High Tensile Strength: Bond paper boasts excellent tensile strength, enabling it to withstand the strain of handling and printing. By virtue of its high strength, the paper remains intact, showing no signs of tearing or warping during intense operations.
• Superior Printing Quality: The texture and composition of bond paper contributes to its print quality. It leaves a lasting impression by producing vibrant and crisp prints, making it ideal for delivering professional documents.
• Versatility of Use: Bond paper’s appeal extends to its versatility. It handles different printing jobs with ease, serving well in commercial, educational, and residential settings alike.
• Good Absorption and Drying Properties: Bond paper absorbs ink efficiently and dries quickly, reducing the chance of smudging and ensuring that printed documents retain their pristine condition.
• Availability in Different Weights and Sizes: Catering to varied user needs, bond paper comes in a broad range of weights and sizes. Heavier weights offer higher durability, while different sizes facilitate customized printing needs.

For adept usage of bond paper and preservation of these attributes, store it in a cool, dry environment, free from direct sunlight. Always use high-quality ink for printing on bond paper to maximize its drying and absorption properties.

Understanding these features empowers you to make informed choices when purchasing bond paper. It can guide you in selecting the perfect paper weight and size for your specific needs and ensure that the final product is of the highest quality possible. Remember, successful utilization of bond paper lies in appreciating and harnessing its unique features for your desired printing results.

Buying Guide: Choosing the Right Bond Paper

When you’re in the market for bond paper, consider several factors to facilitate a high-quality print job. These include paper size, weight, and finish, to ensure compatibility with your specific project or printer.

1. Consider the Paper Size. Bond paper comes in various dimensions; the choice depends on your project requirements. For instance, the common sizes for bond paper are letter (8.5″ x 11″), legal (8.5″ x 14″), and ledger or tabloid (11″ x 17″).

2. Evaluate the Paper Weight. Bond paper weight, measured in pounds (lbs), directly affects the paper’s feel and durability. It ranges from 20lbs to over 100lbs. Lighter bond papers (20-24 lbs) work well for general office use, while heavier ones (28-32 lbs and over) suit presentations and formal documents.

3. Assess the Paper Finish. Bond paper offers different finishes such as wove, laid, embossed or linen. Each finish affects the paper’s look and feel; choose accordingly based on your project needs.

4. Check Printer Compatibility. Not all bond papers suit all printers. Confirm that your selected bond paper supports your printer model. For example, inkjet printers need bond paper with higher absorbency; on the other hand, laser printers work best with heat-resistant bond paper.

5. Ascertain Product Quality. The quality of bond paper influences the print quality and, by extension, the final look of your project. Look for features such as brightness, opacity, and archival qualities by reviewing the product specifications.

Remember, the right bond paper enhances a project, communicates professionalism, and ensures long-lasting results. Therefore, make smart choices when buying bond paper, keeping these factors as your guiding principles.

Role of Bond Paper in Sustainable Environment

Continuing from the significance of knowing bond paper characteristics and purchasing aspects, let’s delve into the environmental considerations. Foremost, bond paper’s role in supporting a sustainable environment relates closely to recycling and sustainable sourcing.

Specifically, bond paper gets a thumbs up for being highly recyclable. Unlike some paper types with special coatings or treatments that hinder recycling, it clears the hurdle with ease. In practice, it means it has a high likelihood of being reused, reducing the need for raw materials, primary production, and, by extension, the environmental damage connected with these processes.

Additionally, bond paper production often includes a certain proportion of post-consumer waste. What’s more, some reputable bond paper producers go an extra mile, incorporating into their manufacturing processes pulp sourced responsibly from certified forests. It implies a significant reduction in failed environmental sustainability attempts, as deforestation is mitigated, and sustainable forestry practices are enhanced.

Moreover, with reference to greenhouse gases, bond paper production has shown improvements in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions over the years, as a result of modern technological advancements and industry efforts. Though not entirely greenhouse gas-free, bond paper producers make an effort to significantly reduce the carbon footprint of their operations.

Apart from these, it’s worth noting that bond paper’s durability gives it an environment-friendly edge. Given its robustness, bond paper effectively reduces waste, as needs for replications due to damaged or worn-out print jobs are minimized.

While aiming for high-quality print jobs, one can rest assured that they are also contributing to environmental sustainability by simply opting for bond paper. Therefore, continue to consider purchasing quality bond paper, and in doing so, you’ll not only have professional print outcomes but also play your role in fostering a viable environment.

Pros and Cons of Using Bond Paper

Using bond paper boasts undeniable benefits, but it’s not without a few drawbacks. These advantages and disadvantages greatly influence the decision to utilize bond paper.

Advantages of Bond Paper

• Superior Printability: Bond paper assures exceptional print results. It provides a smooth and stable surface for ink application, which amplifies clarity and sharpness in printed materials such as documents, brochures, and stationery.
• Enhanced Durability: Understandably, Bond paper’s strength and longevity are major selling points. It resists tears, withstands handling, and remains intact over time, ensuring the preservation of printed contents.
• Diverse Usability: Bond paper’s versatility accommodates a wide range of uses. Its availability in various sizes, weights, and finishes makes it suitable for different printing needs.
• Environmental Friendliness: As highlighted earlier, the production of bond paper aligns with sustainable practices, and it’s typically recyclable and biodegradable, thereby minimizing environmental impacts.

Disadvantages of Bond Paper

Despite the multitude of benefits, here are some limitations to consider.

• Cost Considerations: High-quality bond paper tends to be more expensive than regular or multi-purpose paper, which could pose a challenge for budget-strained users.
• Printer Compatibility: Though bond paper works with most printers, specific high-gloss and heavyweight variants may experience issues with certain printer types.
• Not Waterproof : Unlike some specialty papers, bond paper lacks water resistance. Exposure to liquid can damage or distort its contents.
• Limited Creative Options: While bond paper offers a professional look and feel, it might not be the best choice for creative or colourful prints due to its inherent white or off-white color and minimal texture.

In decision making, weigh these pros and cons, and choose wisely. Your choice impacts the quality of your prints, budget management, and even your environmental footprint.

Bond Paper: Beyond the Office Supply

Delving deeper into the realm of bond paper, it’s evident that this versatile medium transcends its common perception simply as an office supply staple. It branches out with applications extending far beyond regular office needs.

Its superior printability makes it a worthy contender for an array of applications. High-quality collateral materials, such as brochures and flyers, benefit from the use of bond paper. With its crisp printing ability, it gives color and text a sharp, professional look.

Its adaptability to diverse usability comes to the forefront when considering teaching tools. Educational resources like arts and crafts materials, flashcards, and charts leverage bond paper’s ability to withstand handling.

Its dimensional stability allows for precise layouts in architectural and engineering blueprints. Dimensions remain unchanged, despite changes in moisture or temperature, making it a valuable asset in the field of precision drafting.

However, bond paper grapples with a few setbacks. Cost becomes a significant consideration for businesses on a tight budget. It’s pricier than standard copy paper, and for mass printing exercises, expenses can pile up.

Printer compatibility surfaces as another concern. Not all printers accept heavier bond paper, adding an extra layer of complexity to the selection process.

The absence of water resistance, too, presents an issue. Exposure to moisture can result in ink bleeding or paper distortion, which might be a drawback for outdoor promotional materials or humid environments.

Lastly, the creative space with bond paper isn’t as broad. Lacking the flexibility and texture variations of other specialty papers might bottleneck more innovative printing projects.

Despite a few limitations, bond paper establishes itself as a viable choice beyond the realm of office supplies. Its versatility, superior printability, and sturdy attributes position it as a preferred choice in specific fields. But remember, it’s essential to consider its challenges – cost, printer compatibility, moisture resistance, and limited creativity – to make an informed decision.

So, you’ve journeyed through the ins and outs of bond paper. You’ve seen its strengths in durability and print quality, its eco-friendly nature, and its broad applications from brochures to blueprints. You’ve also taken note of its challenges, like cost, printer compatibility, and limited creative options. But remember, every type of paper has its pros and cons. The key is to understand your specific needs and weigh them against these factors. When used right, bond paper can be more than just an office staple – it can be the secret weapon in your print arsenal. Just remember to keep its limitations in mind and you’ll be set to make the most of this versatile paper.

What is bond paper?

Bond paper is a high-quality durable writing paper. It is known for its excellent printability, versatility, and eco-friendly characteristics. It is used in various applications beyond simple office supplies such as brochures, flashcards, and architectural blueprint layouts.

What are the factors to consider when buying bond paper?

When buying bond paper, size, weight, and finish are important considerations. These factors can determine the paper’s suitability for different applications.

How versatile is bond paper?

Bond paper is extremely versatile. It can be used to create collateral materials like brochures, as an educational tool in the form of flashcards, and for precise layouts in architectural blueprints, among other uses.

What challenges does bond paper usage face?

Despite its many benefits, bond paper does pose certain challenges. These include cost considerations, limited compatibility with some printers, lack of water resistance, and certain constraints on creative options.

Why is bond paper considered a valuable choice?

Despite its limitations, bond paper is considered a valuable choice due to its superior printability and adaptability. However, its usage requires careful consideration of these constraints, especially in specific fields.

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Bond Paper: Everything You Need to Know About Printer Paper

If you’re someone who is looking for up-to-date information regarding bond paper and printing processes, then this article is for you. Read on to learn everything that you need to know about different kinds of printer paper. 

What Is Bond Paper? 

If you have not encountered any, there will be times when you will want to print something on a sheet of paper that’s not as flimsy as “normal” 20# printer paper (think: copy paper). For example, if you want to print a door sign, DIY birthday card, or something else along these lines, you are going to need a material that will need to hold up. 

Bond paper comes in many different weights (thicknesses), and the heavier the weight, the thicker the paper. For example, you would not  print a poster  on a normal sheet of copy paper. Rather, you would use a material like heavy weight bond paper to ensure that the document stays intact. 

Is There a Difference Between Bond Paper and Normal Copy Paper? 

The easy answer is no – your “normal copy paper” is traditionally 20# bond paper. You probably use 8.5×11 sheets in your standard home or office printer, so the this paper that we sell is basically the same material (just available in large sheets or as rolls).

Is Bond Paper the Same as Cardstock? 

When someone wants to print something on stronger rolls of paper than normal copy paper, they will generally turn to use cardstock—a much more popular option than bond paper. Those who are oblivious to different kinds of printer paper might conclude that they are one and the same thing. However, these two types of paper are quite different from each other. 

The main difference between cardstock and this paper has to do with the weight and thickness of each type of paper. Cardstock generally weighs about 250 g/m while bond paper weighs only around 60 g/m. Of course, you can find bond paper that weighs more than this—but this is a general consensus. 

Thickness is also a differentiating factor between cardstock and bond paper rolls. It is common knowledge that cardstock is one of the thickest types of printer paper. However, that does not render the question, “Is this paper thicker than cardstock?” irrelevant. 

Cardstock is indeed thicker than even 20-pound paper . Not only is it thicker, but it’s also rigid and—as we’ve mentioned earlier—heavier. 

Now, card stock is typically too thick to make as a large format paper roll. It will just be too thick to run through your plotter/printer. If you are looking for a thick paper that is close-ish to card stock, think about trying a 46# coated paper .

Is this Paper the Same as A4 Paper? 

This question is like comparing apples to oranges. A4 refers to the dimensions of the paper, whereas this paper is an actual type of paper constructed to be significantly more durable than normal printer paper. So technically speaking, you can have an executive letter printed on A4 bond paper. These two types of paper are not the same exact thing, but they can be combined. Bond paper refers to the structure of the paper, while A4 refers to the size of the paper (A4 dimensions are 210 x 297 mm). 

What Is Banner Paper? 

Banner is actually not a type of paper, it is a smooth “scrim vinyl”. The tiny threads in the vinyl are woven in a plaid-like pattern, and the more threads, the stronger the banner. Essentially, banner material is that which is used to make—as is apparent in the name—banners such as signs, billboards, and the like.  Banner is going to last longer and be much more tear-resistant that bond paper.

Where Can I Find the Best Printer Paper? 

Some people think that they can just run to their local department store and pick up rolls of printer paper and/or bond paper. However, that is certainly not where you will find the best printer paper on the market. Plotter Paper Guys sells most wide-format printer media that you might need. Head on over to Plotter Paper Guys today and pick up all of the media that you need for your printer. You won’t be disappointed!

For more helpful information like this article, visit the Plotter Paper Guys’ blog . 

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What are the recommended paper size requirements for printing professional documents (Plain A4/Letterhead/Bond Paper)?

Recently I came across one of my friend's experiences while he was under his notice period with the HR manager of the company. I need an HR professional's advice or people with good knowledge on the same.

Here is the incident:

The relieving letter and the experience certificates were printed out on a normal, low-quality A4 sized paper , and that's not even on a pre-printed company letter pad (Letterhead).

Many of his friends working in other firms abroad and local, advised him it's better to get it printed on the company Letterhead using bond excel papers .

Can anyone working in the HR provide some recommendations regarding this?

• professionalism
• human-resources
• relieving-letter
• documentation

• @StephanBranczyk given many posts on here about relieving letters, then India is most likely... –  Solar Mike Commented Dec 31, 2019 at 6:23
• 2 A country tag maybe helpful here. –  Nimesh Neema Commented Jan 2, 2020 at 9:12

In many of the cases, these documents are provided as soft-copies, and not necessarily in a printed version.

In my experience, what matters is the authenticity of the document, since this is not to serve as a proper legal document per se (rather, an informational one), it really does not matter what type of material is used for a printed copy.

If and when challenged / inquired (example: background check), it should be possible to establish the correctness of the information - that's all matters.

You must log in to answer this question.

Not the answer you're looking for browse other questions tagged professionalism human-resources india relieving-letter documentation ..

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What Is Bond Paper?

Bond paper is common in homes and offices

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Bond paper is a durable paper that is suitable for electronic printing and use in office machines, including copiers and network and desktop printers. People typically use it for letterhead, stationery, business forms, and a variety of documents produced with inkjet and laser printers. For example, many of the invoices you receive in the mail are printed on bond paper.

Paper Size and Weight

Bond paper has a basic size of 17x22 inches and, usually, a basis weight of 20 pounds. A paper's basis weight is determined by the weight of 500 sheets of paper at its basic size. In the case of 20-pound bond paper, 500 sheets of 17x22 inch bond paper weigh 20 pounds. Even when the large sheet is cut down to other sizes, including the frequently used 8.5x11 inch size, it is still referred to as 20-pound paper.

Even though 20-pound bond is the most common weight, bond paper comes in other weights that range from 16-pound to 36-pound. The higher the number, the heavier and thicker the sheet of paper. It also comes in various sizes, although the standard letter page size, 8.5x11 inches, is the most common. It is also available in legal size, which is 8.5x14 inches, and 11x17 inch tabloid size, among other dimensions.

Paper Quantities

Erasability, excellent absorption, and rigidity characterize bond paper. The bond paper sold in office supply stores typically comes in letter-sized reams of 500 sheets, sold individually or by the case. White is the most common color, but bond papers come in pastels, neon brights, and other assorted colors.

Smaller packs of specialty bond paper with designs or special finishes usually are available in smaller packs of 50 to 100 sheets. Frequently, these are sold for use as do-it-yourself letterhead or flyers. Also suitable for use as a writing paper, bond papers come in a variety of finishes and textures, including cockle, laid, linen, and wove.

Other Paper Specifications

Other specifications found on bond paper packages are its brightness, whether it is coated or uncoated, and whether it is watermarked. The majority of bond paper used in home and office environments is uncoated and not watermarked.

A paper's brightness measures the amount of reflectance of a specific wavelength of blue light. Brightness is measured on a scale of 0 to 100 — the higher the number, the brighter the paper. In other words, 95 bright paper reflects more light and appears brighter than an 85 bright paper.

Coated vs. Uncoated

Coated paper restricts the amount of ink that is absorbed and how the ink bleeds into the paper. This is desirable for sharp and complex images because the ink stays on top of the paper and does not wick or bleed, which reduces the sharpness of the printed material. Uncoated paper is generally not as smooth as coated paper and tends to be more porous. Uncoated paper is usually used for letterhead, envelopes, and printed material.

Watermarked Paper

Watermarked paper has a faint identifying image or pattern in the paper that appears as various shades of lightness or darkness when viewed. When you hold the paper up to the light, you can see an identifying mark or brand coming through the paper.

When it comes to stationery, a watermark seems elegant and sophisticated. Paper currency is usually printed on watermarked paper as an anti-counterfeiting measure.

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• Types of Research Designs
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Introduction

Before beginning your paper, you need to decide how you plan to design the study .

The research design refers to the overall strategy and analytical approach that you have chosen in order to integrate, in a coherent and logical way, the different components of the study, thus ensuring that the research problem will be thoroughly investigated. It constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and interpretation of information and data. Note that the research problem determines the type of design you choose, not the other way around!

De Vaus, D. A. Research Design in Social Research . London: SAGE, 2001; Trochim, William M.K. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

General Structure and Writing Style

The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible . In social sciences research, obtaining information relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence needed to test the underlying assumptions of a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe and assess meaning related to an observable phenomenon.

With this in mind, a common mistake made by researchers is that they begin their investigations before they have thought critically about what information is required to address the research problem. Without attending to these design issues beforehand, the overall research problem will not be adequately addressed and any conclusions drawn will run the risk of being weak and unconvincing. As a consequence, the overall validity of the study will be undermined.

The length and complexity of describing the research design in your paper can vary considerably, but any well-developed description will achieve the following :

• Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection, particularly in relation to any valid alternative designs that could have been used,
• Review and synthesize previously published literature associated with the research problem,
• Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem,
• Effectively describe the information and/or data which will be necessary for an adequate testing of the hypotheses and explain how such information and/or data will be obtained, and
• Describe the methods of analysis to be applied to the data in determining whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.

The research design is usually incorporated into the introduction of your paper . You can obtain an overall sense of what to do by reviewing studies that have utilized the same research design [e.g., using a case study approach]. This can help you develop an outline to follow for your own paper.

NOTE: Use the SAGE Research Methods Online and Cases and the SAGE Research Methods Videos databases to search for scholarly resources on how to apply specific research designs and methods . The Research Methods Online database contains links to more than 175,000 pages of SAGE publisher's book, journal, and reference content on quantitative, qualitative, and mixed research methodologies. Also included is a collection of case studies of social research projects that can be used to help you better understand abstract or complex methodological concepts. The Research Methods Videos database contains hours of tutorials, interviews, video case studies, and mini-documentaries covering the entire research process.

Creswell, John W. and J. David Creswell. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2018; De Vaus, D. A. Research Design in Social Research . London: SAGE, 2001; Gorard, Stephen. Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Leedy, Paul D. and Jeanne Ellis Ormrod. Practical Research: Planning and Design . Tenth edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2013; Vogt, W. Paul, Dianna C. Gardner, and Lynne M. Haeffele. When to Use What Research Design . New York: Guilford, 2012.

Action Research Design

Definition and Purpose

The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially an exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried out [the "action" in action research] during which time, pertinent observations are collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies are carried out, and this cyclic process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of [or a valid implementation solution for] the problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations.

What do these studies tell you ?

• This is a collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in work or community situations.
• Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research outcomes rather than testing theories.
• When practitioners use action research, it has the potential to increase the amount they learn consciously from their experience; the action research cycle can be regarded as a learning cycle.
• Action research studies often have direct and obvious relevance to improving practice and advocating for change.
• There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.

What these studies don't tell you ?

• It is harder to do than conducting conventional research because the researcher takes on responsibilities of advocating for change as well as for researching the topic.
• Action research is much harder to write up because it is less likely that you can use a standard format to report your findings effectively [i.e., data is often in the form of stories or observation].
• Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.
• The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of action [e.g. change] and research [e.g. understanding] is time-consuming and complex to conduct.
• Advocating for change usually requires buy-in from study participants.

Coghlan, David and Mary Brydon-Miller. The Sage Encyclopedia of Action Research . Thousand Oaks, CA:  Sage, 2014; Efron, Sara Efrat and Ruth Ravid. Action Research in Education: A Practical Guide . New York: Guilford, 2013; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 18, Action Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Gorard, Stephen. Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the Social Sciences . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Kemmis, Stephen and Robin McTaggart. “Participatory Action Research.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000), pp. 567-605; McNiff, Jean. Writing and Doing Action Research . London: Sage, 2014; Reason, Peter and Hilary Bradbury. Handbook of Action Research: Participative Inquiry and Practice . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2001.

Case Study Design

A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful for testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is a useful design when not much is known about an issue or phenomenon.

• Approach excels at bringing us to an understanding of a complex issue through detailed contextual analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their relationships.
• A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies and rely on a variety of sources to investigate a research problem.
• Design can extend experience or add strength to what is already known through previous research.
• Social scientists, in particular, make wide use of this research design to examine contemporary real-life situations and provide the basis for the application of concepts and theories and the extension of methodologies.
• The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.
• A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing reliability or to generalize the findings to a wider population of people, places, or things.
• Intense exposure to the study of a case may bias a researcher's interpretation of the findings.
• Design does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect relationships.
• Vital information may be missing, making the case hard to interpret.
• The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem being investigated.
• If the criteria for selecting a case is because it represents a very unusual or unique phenomenon or problem for study, then your interpretation of the findings can only apply to that particular case.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 4, Flexible Methods: Case Study Design. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Greenhalgh, Trisha, editor. Case Study Evaluation: Past, Present and Future Challenges . Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing, 2015; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Stake, Robert E. The Art of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 1995; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Theory . Applied Social Research Methods Series, no. 5. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2003.

Causal Design

Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of research is used to measure what impact a specific change will have on existing norms and assumptions. Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.

Conditions necessary for determining causality:

• Empirical association -- a valid conclusion is based on finding an association between the independent variable and the dependent variable.
• Appropriate time order -- to conclude that causation was involved, one must see that cases were exposed to variation in the independent variable before variation in the dependent variable.
• Nonspuriousness -- a relationship between two variables that is not due to variation in a third variable.
• Causality research designs assist researchers in understanding why the world works the way it does through the process of proving a causal link between variables and by the process of eliminating other possibilities.
• Replication is possible.
• There is greater confidence the study has internal validity due to the systematic subject selection and equity of groups being compared.
• Not all relationships are causal! The possibility always exists that, by sheer coincidence, two unrelated events appear to be related [e.g., Punxatawney Phil could accurately predict the duration of Winter for five consecutive years but, the fact remains, he's just a big, furry rodent].
• Conclusions about causal relationships are difficult to determine due to a variety of extraneous and confounding variables that exist in a social environment. This means causality can only be inferred, never proven.
• If two variables are correlated, the cause must come before the effect. However, even though two variables might be causally related, it can sometimes be difficult to determine which variable comes first and, therefore, to establish which variable is the actual cause and which is the  actual effect.

Beach, Derek and Rasmus Brun Pedersen. Causal Case Study Methods: Foundations and Guidelines for Comparing, Matching, and Tracing . Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2016; Bachman, Ronet. The Practice of Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice . Chapter 5, Causation and Research Designs. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press, 2007; Brewer, Ernest W. and Jennifer Kubn. “Causal-Comparative Design.” In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 125-132; Causal Research Design: Experimentation. Anonymous SlideShare Presentation; Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 11, Nonexperimental Research: Correlational Designs. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007; Trochim, William M.K. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006.

Cohort Design

Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social sciences, a cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time involving members of a population which the subject or representative member comes from, and who are united by some commonality or similarity. Using a quantitative framework, a cohort study makes note of statistical occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united by same or similar characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being investigated, rather than studying statistical occurrence within the general population. Using a qualitative framework, cohort studies generally gather data using methods of observation. Cohorts can be either "open" or "closed."

• Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of Los Angeles] involve a population that is defined just by the state of being a part of the study in question (and being monitored for the outcome). Date of entry and exit from the study is individually defined, therefore, the size of the study population is not constant. In open cohort studies, researchers can only calculate rate based data, such as, incidence rates and variants thereof.
• Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into a clinical trial] involve participants who enter into the study at one defining point in time and where it is presumed that no new participants can enter the cohort. Given this, the number of study participants remains constant (or can only decrease).
• The use of cohorts is often mandatory because a randomized control study may be unethical. For example, you cannot deliberately expose people to asbestos, you can only study its effects on those who have already been exposed. Research that measures risk factors often relies upon cohort designs.
• Because cohort studies measure potential causes before the outcome has occurred, they can demonstrate that these “causes” preceded the outcome, thereby avoiding the debate as to which is the cause and which is the effect.
• Cohort analysis is highly flexible and can provide insight into effects over time and related to a variety of different types of changes [e.g., social, cultural, political, economic, etc.].
• Either original data or secondary data can be used in this design.
• In cases where a comparative analysis of two cohorts is made [e.g., studying the effects of one group exposed to asbestos and one that has not], a researcher cannot control for all other factors that might differ between the two groups. These factors are known as confounding variables.
• Cohort studies can end up taking a long time to complete if the researcher must wait for the conditions of interest to develop within the group. This also increases the chance that key variables change during the course of the study, potentially impacting the validity of the findings.
• Due to the lack of randominization in the cohort design, its external validity is lower than that of study designs where the researcher randomly assigns participants.

Healy P, Devane D. “Methodological Considerations in Cohort Study Designs.” Nurse Researcher 18 (2011): 32-36; Glenn, Norval D, editor. Cohort Analysis . 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2005; Levin, Kate Ann. Study Design IV: Cohort Studies. Evidence-Based Dentistry 7 (2003): 51–52; Payne, Geoff. “Cohort Study.” In The SAGE Dictionary of Social Research Methods . Victor Jupp, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), pp. 31-33; Study Design 101. Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library. George Washington University, November 2011; Cohort Study. Wikipedia.

Cross-Sectional Design

Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time dimension; a reliance on existing differences rather than change following intervention; and, groups are selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation. The cross-sectional design can only measure differences between or from among a variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than a process of change. As such, researchers using this design can only employ a relatively passive approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

• Cross-sectional studies provide a clear 'snapshot' of the outcome and the characteristics associated with it, at a specific point in time.
• Unlike an experimental design, where there is an active intervention by the researcher to produce and measure change or to create differences, cross-sectional designs focus on studying and drawing inferences from existing differences between people, subjects, or phenomena.
• Entails collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, cross-sectional research is focused on finding relationships between variables at one moment in time.
• Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in the sample rather than seeking random sampling.
• Cross-section studies are capable of using data from a large number of subjects and, unlike observational studies, is not geographically bound.
• Can estimate prevalence of an outcome of interest because the sample is usually taken from the whole population.
• Because cross-sectional designs generally use survey techniques to gather data, they are relatively inexpensive and take up little time to conduct.
• Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar except in one specific variable can be difficult.
• Results are static and time bound and, therefore, give no indication of a sequence of events or reveal historical or temporal contexts.
• Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships.
• This design only provides a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possibility that a study could have differing results if another time-frame had been chosen.
• There is no follow up to the findings.

Bethlehem, Jelke. "7: Cross-sectional Research." In Research Methodology in the Social, Behavioural and Life Sciences . Herman J Adèr and Gideon J Mellenbergh, editors. (London, England: Sage, 1999), pp. 110-43; Bourque, Linda B. “Cross-Sectional Design.” In  The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods . Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Tim Futing Liao. (Thousand Oaks, CA: 2004), pp. 230-231; Hall, John. “Cross-Sectional Survey Design.” In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods . Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 173-174; Helen Barratt, Maria Kirwan. Cross-Sectional Studies: Design Application, Strengths and Weaknesses of Cross-Sectional Studies. Healthknowledge, 2009. Cross-Sectional Study. Wikipedia.

Descriptive Design

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.

• The subject is being observed in a completely natural and unchanged natural environment. True experiments, whilst giving analyzable data, often adversely influence the normal behavior of the subject [a.k.a., the Heisenberg effect whereby measurements of certain systems cannot be made without affecting the systems].
• Descriptive research is often used as a pre-cursor to more quantitative research designs with the general overview giving some valuable pointers as to what variables are worth testing quantitatively.
• If the limitations are understood, they can be a useful tool in developing a more focused study.
• Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important recommendations in practice.
• Appoach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
• The results from a descriptive research cannot be used to discover a definitive answer or to disprove a hypothesis.
• Because descriptive designs often utilize observational methods [as opposed to quantitative methods], the results cannot be replicated.
• The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on instrumentation for measurement and observation.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 5, Flexible Methods: Descriptive Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Given, Lisa M. "Descriptive Research." In Encyclopedia of Measurement and Statistics . Neil J. Salkind and Kristin Rasmussen, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2007), pp. 251-254; McNabb, Connie. Descriptive Research Methodologies. Powerpoint Presentation; Shuttleworth, Martyn. Descriptive Research Design, September 26, 2008; Erickson, G. Scott. "Descriptive Research Design." In New Methods of Market Research and Analysis . (Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, 2017), pp. 51-77; Sahin, Sagufta, and Jayanta Mete. "A Brief Study on Descriptive Research: Its Nature and Application in Social Science." International Journal of Research and Analysis in Humanities 1 (2021): 11; K. Swatzell and P. Jennings. “Descriptive Research: The Nuts and Bolts.” Journal of the American Academy of Physician Assistants 20 (2007), pp. 55-56; Kane, E. Doing Your Own Research: Basic Descriptive Research in the Social Sciences and Humanities . London: Marion Boyars, 1985.

Experimental Design

A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies an experimental group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to the experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and more measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control, randomization, and manipulation.

• Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing, it allows researchers to answer the question, “What causes something to occur?”
• Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.
• Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative explanations and to infer direct causal relationships in the study.
• Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.
• The design is artificial, and results may not generalize well to the real world.
• The artificial settings of experiments may alter the behaviors or responses of participants.
• Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are needed.
• Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of ethical or technical reasons.
• Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to experimentally designed studies.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 7, Flexible Methods: Experimental Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Chapter 2: Research Design, Experimental Designs. School of Psychology, University of New England, 2000; Chow, Siu L. "Experimental Design." In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 448-453; "Experimental Design." In Social Research Methods . Nicholas Walliman, editor. (London, England: Sage, 2006), pp, 101-110; Experimental Research. Research Methods by Dummies. Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno, 2006; Kirk, Roger E. Experimental Design: Procedures for the Behavioral Sciences . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013; Trochim, William M.K. Experimental Design. Research Methods Knowledge Base. 2006; Rasool, Shafqat. Experimental Research. Slideshare presentation.

Exploratory Design

An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are few or no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to predict an outcome . The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when research problems are in a preliminary stage of investigation. Exploratory designs are often used to establish an understanding of how best to proceed in studying an issue or what methodology would effectively apply to gathering information about the issue.

The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:

• Familiarity with basic details, settings, and concerns.
• Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.
• Generation of new ideas and assumptions.
• Development of tentative theories or hypotheses.
• Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
• Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research questions.
• Direction for future research and techniques get developed.
• Design is a useful approach for gaining background information on a particular topic.
• Exploratory research is flexible and can address research questions of all types (what, why, how).
• Provides an opportunity to define new terms and clarify existing concepts.
• Exploratory research is often used to generate formal hypotheses and develop more precise research problems.
• In the policy arena or applied to practice, exploratory studies help establish research priorities and where resources should be allocated.
• Exploratory research generally utilizes small sample sizes and, thus, findings are typically not generalizable to the population at large.
• The exploratory nature of the research inhibits an ability to make definitive conclusions about the findings. They provide insight but not definitive conclusions.
• The research process underpinning exploratory studies is flexible but often unstructured, leading to only tentative results that have limited value to decision-makers.
• Design lacks rigorous standards applied to methods of data gathering and analysis because one of the areas for exploration could be to determine what method or methodologies could best fit the research problem.

Cuthill, Michael. “Exploratory Research: Citizen Participation, Local Government, and Sustainable Development in Australia.” Sustainable Development 10 (2002): 79-89; Streb, Christoph K. "Exploratory Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Albert J. Mills, Gabrielle Durepos and Eiden Wiebe, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 372-374; Taylor, P. J., G. Catalano, and D.R.F. Walker. “Exploratory Analysis of the World City Network.” Urban Studies 39 (December 2002): 2377-2394; Exploratory Research. Wikipedia.

Field Research Design

Sometimes referred to as ethnography or participant observation, designs around field research encompass a variety of interpretative procedures [e.g., observation and interviews] rooted in qualitative approaches to studying people individually or in groups while inhabiting their natural environment as opposed to using survey instruments or other forms of impersonal methods of data gathering. Information acquired from observational research takes the form of “ field notes ” that involves documenting what the researcher actually sees and hears while in the field. Findings do not consist of conclusive statements derived from numbers and statistics because field research involves analysis of words and observations of behavior. Conclusions, therefore, are developed from an interpretation of findings that reveal overriding themes, concepts, and ideas. More information can be found HERE .

• Field research is often necessary to fill gaps in understanding the research problem applied to local conditions or to specific groups of people that cannot be ascertained from existing data.
• The research helps contextualize already known information about a research problem, thereby facilitating ways to assess the origins, scope, and scale of a problem and to gage the causes, consequences, and means to resolve an issue based on deliberate interaction with people in their natural inhabited spaces.
• Enables the researcher to corroborate or confirm data by gathering additional information that supports or refutes findings reported in prior studies of the topic.
• Because the researcher in embedded in the field, they are better able to make observations or ask questions that reflect the specific cultural context of the setting being investigated.
• Observing the local reality offers the opportunity to gain new perspectives or obtain unique data that challenges existing theoretical propositions or long-standing assumptions found in the literature.

What these studies don't tell you

• A field research study requires extensive time and resources to carry out the multiple steps involved with preparing for the gathering of information, including for example, examining background information about the study site, obtaining permission to access the study site, and building trust and rapport with subjects.
• Requires a commitment to staying engaged in the field to ensure that you can adequately document events and behaviors as they unfold.
• The unpredictable nature of fieldwork means that researchers can never fully control the process of data gathering. They must maintain a flexible approach to studying the setting because events and circumstances can change quickly or unexpectedly.
• Findings can be difficult to interpret and verify without access to documents and other source materials that help to enhance the credibility of information obtained from the field  [i.e., the act of triangulating the data].
• Linking the research problem to the selection of study participants inhabiting their natural environment is critical. However, this specificity limits the ability to generalize findings to different situations or in other contexts or to infer courses of action applied to other settings or groups of people.
• The reporting of findings must take into account how the researcher themselves may have inadvertently affected respondents and their behaviors.

Historical Design

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute a hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.

• The historical research design is unobtrusive; the act of research does not affect the results of the study.
• The historical approach is well suited for trend analysis.
• Historical records can add important contextual background required to more fully understand and interpret a research problem.
• There is often no possibility of researcher-subject interaction that could affect the findings.
• Historical sources can be used over and over to study different research problems or to replicate a previous study.
• The ability to fulfill the aims of your research are directly related to the amount and quality of documentation available to understand the research problem.
• Since historical research relies on data from the past, there is no way to manipulate it to control for contemporary contexts.
• Interpreting historical sources can be very time consuming.
• The sources of historical materials must be archived consistently to ensure access. This may especially challenging for digital or online-only sources.
• Original authors bring their own perspectives and biases to the interpretation of past events and these biases are more difficult to ascertain in historical resources.
• Due to the lack of control over external variables, historical research is very weak with regard to the demands of internal validity.
• It is rare that the entirety of historical documentation needed to fully address a research problem is available for interpretation, therefore, gaps need to be acknowledged.

Howell, Martha C. and Walter Prevenier. From Reliable Sources: An Introduction to Historical Methods . Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001; Lundy, Karen Saucier. "Historical Research." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods . Lisa M. Given, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 396-400; Marius, Richard. and Melvin E. Page. A Short Guide to Writing about History . 9th edition. Boston, MA: Pearson, 2015; Savitt, Ronald. “Historical Research in Marketing.” Journal of Marketing 44 (Autumn, 1980): 52-58;  Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction . Chapter 16, Historical Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007.

Longitudinal Design

A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated observations. For example, with longitudinal surveys, the same group of people is interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time and to relate them to variables that might explain why the changes occur. Longitudinal research designs describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a type of observational study sometimes referred to as a panel study.

• Longitudinal data facilitate the analysis of the duration of a particular phenomenon.
• Enables survey researchers to get close to the kinds of causal explanations usually attainable only with experiments.
• The design permits the measurement of differences or change in a variable from one period to another [i.e., the description of patterns of change over time].
• Longitudinal studies facilitate the prediction of future outcomes based upon earlier factors.
• The data collection method may change over time.
• Maintaining the integrity of the original sample can be difficult over an extended period of time.
• It can be difficult to show more than one variable at a time.
• This design often needs qualitative research data to explain fluctuations in the results.
• A longitudinal research design assumes present trends will continue unchanged.
• It can take a long period of time to gather results.
• There is a need to have a large sample size and accurate sampling to reach representativness.

Anastas, Jeane W. Research Design for Social Work and the Human Services . Chapter 6, Flexible Methods: Relational and Longitudinal Research. 2nd ed. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999; Forgues, Bernard, and Isabelle Vandangeon-Derumez. "Longitudinal Analyses." In Doing Management Research . Raymond-Alain Thiétart and Samantha Wauchope, editors. (London, England: Sage, 2001), pp. 332-351; Kalaian, Sema A. and Rafa M. Kasim. "Longitudinal Studies." In Encyclopedia of Survey Research Methods . Paul J. Lavrakas, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 440-441; Menard, Scott, editor. Longitudinal Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002; Ployhart, Robert E. and Robert J. Vandenberg. "Longitudinal Research: The Theory, Design, and Analysis of Change.” Journal of Management 36 (January 2010): 94-120; Longitudinal Study. Wikipedia.

Meta-Analysis Design

Meta-analysis is an analytical methodology designed to systematically evaluate and summarize the results from a number of individual studies, thereby, increasing the overall sample size and the ability of the researcher to study effects of interest. The purpose is to not simply summarize existing knowledge, but to develop a new understanding of a research problem using synoptic reasoning. The main objectives of meta-analysis include analyzing differences in the results among studies and increasing the precision by which effects are estimated. A well-designed meta-analysis depends upon strict adherence to the criteria used for selecting studies and the availability of information in each study to properly analyze their findings. Lack of information can severely limit the type of analyzes and conclusions that can be reached. In addition, the more dissimilarity there is in the results among individual studies [heterogeneity], the more difficult it is to justify interpretations that govern a valid synopsis of results. A meta-analysis needs to fulfill the following requirements to ensure the validity of your findings:

• Clearly defined description of objectives, including precise definitions of the variables and outcomes that are being evaluated;
• A well-reasoned and well-documented justification for identification and selection of the studies;
• Assessment and explicit acknowledgment of any researcher bias in the identification and selection of those studies;
• Description and evaluation of the degree of heterogeneity among the sample size of studies reviewed; and,
• Justification of the techniques used to evaluate the studies.
• Can be an effective strategy for determining gaps in the literature.
• Provides a means of reviewing research published about a particular topic over an extended period of time and from a variety of sources.
• Is useful in clarifying what policy or programmatic actions can be justified on the basis of analyzing research results from multiple studies.
• Provides a method for overcoming small sample sizes in individual studies that previously may have had little relationship to each other.
• Can be used to generate new hypotheses or highlight research problems for future studies.
• Small violations in defining the criteria used for content analysis can lead to difficult to interpret and/or meaningless findings.
• A large sample size can yield reliable, but not necessarily valid, results.
• A lack of uniformity regarding, for example, the type of literature reviewed, how methods are applied, and how findings are measured within the sample of studies you are analyzing, can make the process of synthesis difficult to perform.
• Depending on the sample size, the process of reviewing and synthesizing multiple studies can be very time consuming.

Beck, Lewis W. "The Synoptic Method." The Journal of Philosophy 36 (1939): 337-345; Cooper, Harris, Larry V. Hedges, and Jeffrey C. Valentine, eds. The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis . 2nd edition. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2009; Guzzo, Richard A., Susan E. Jackson and Raymond A. Katzell. “Meta-Analysis Analysis.” In Research in Organizational Behavior , Volume 9. (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1987), pp 407-442; Lipsey, Mark W. and David B. Wilson. Practical Meta-Analysis . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2001; Study Design 101. Meta-Analysis. The Himmelfarb Health Sciences Library, George Washington University; Timulak, Ladislav. “Qualitative Meta-Analysis.” In The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Analysis . Uwe Flick, editor. (Los Angeles, CA: Sage, 2013), pp. 481-495; Walker, Esteban, Adrian V. Hernandez, and Micheal W. Kattan. "Meta-Analysis: It's Strengths and Limitations." Cleveland Clinic Journal of Medicine 75 (June 2008): 431-439.

Mixed-Method Design

• Narrative and non-textual information can add meaning to numeric data, while numeric data can add precision to narrative and non-textual information.
• Can utilize existing data while at the same time generating and testing a grounded theory approach to describe and explain the phenomenon under study.
• A broader, more complex research problem can be investigated because the researcher is not constrained by using only one method.
• The strengths of one method can be used to overcome the inherent weaknesses of another method.
• Can provide stronger, more robust evidence to support a conclusion or set of recommendations.
• May generate new knowledge new insights or uncover hidden insights, patterns, or relationships that a single methodological approach might not reveal.
• Produces more complete knowledge and understanding of the research problem that can be used to increase the generalizability of findings applied to theory or practice.
• A researcher must be proficient in understanding how to apply multiple methods to investigating a research problem as well as be proficient in optimizing how to design a study that coherently melds them together.
• Can increase the likelihood of conflicting results or ambiguous findings that inhibit drawing a valid conclusion or setting forth a recommended course of action [e.g., sample interview responses do not support existing statistical data].
• Because the research design can be very complex, reporting the findings requires a well-organized narrative, clear writing style, and precise word choice.
• Design invites collaboration among experts. However, merging different investigative approaches and writing styles requires more attention to the overall research process than studies conducted using only one methodological paradigm.
• Concurrent merging of quantitative and qualitative research requires greater attention to having adequate sample sizes, using comparable samples, and applying a consistent unit of analysis. For sequential designs where one phase of qualitative research builds on the quantitative phase or vice versa, decisions about what results from the first phase to use in the next phase, the choice of samples and estimating reasonable sample sizes for both phases, and the interpretation of results from both phases can be difficult.
• Due to multiple forms of data being collected and analyzed, this design requires extensive time and resources to carry out the multiple steps involved in data gathering and interpretation.

Burch, Patricia and Carolyn J. Heinrich. Mixed Methods for Policy Research and Program Evaluation . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2016; Creswell, John w. et al. Best Practices for Mixed Methods Research in the Health Sciences . Bethesda, MD: Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences Research, National Institutes of Health, 2010Creswell, John W. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2014; Domínguez, Silvia, editor. Mixed Methods Social Networks Research . Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2014; Hesse-Biber, Sharlene Nagy. Mixed Methods Research: Merging Theory with Practice . New York: Guilford Press, 2010; Niglas, Katrin. “How the Novice Researcher Can Make Sense of Mixed Methods Designs.” International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches 3 (2009): 34-46; Onwuegbuzie, Anthony J. and Nancy L. Leech. “Linking Research Questions to Mixed Methods Data Analysis Procedures.” The Qualitative Report 11 (September 2006): 474-498; Tashakorri, Abbas and John W. Creswell. “The New Era of Mixed Methods.” Journal of Mixed Methods Research 1 (January 2007): 3-7; Zhanga, Wanqing. “Mixed Methods Application in Health Intervention Research: A Multiple Case Study.” International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches 8 (2014): 24-35 .

Observational Design

This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a control group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. There are two general types of observational designs. In direct observations, people know that you are watching them. Unobtrusive measures involve any method for studying behavior where individuals do not know they are being observed. An observational study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical and practical difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research project.

• Observational studies are usually flexible and do not necessarily need to be structured around a hypothesis about what you expect to observe [data is emergent rather than pre-existing].
• The researcher is able to collect in-depth information about a particular behavior.
• Can reveal interrelationships among multifaceted dimensions of group interactions.
• You can generalize your results to real life situations.
• Observational research is useful for discovering what variables may be important before applying other methods like experiments.
• Observation research designs account for the complexity of group behaviors.
• Reliability of data is low because seeing behaviors occur over and over again may be a time consuming task and are difficult to replicate.
• In observational research, findings may only reflect a unique sample population and, thus, cannot be generalized to other groups.
• There can be problems with bias as the researcher may only "see what they want to see."
• There is no possibility to determine "cause and effect" relationships since nothing is manipulated.
• Sources or subjects may not all be equally credible.
• Any group that is knowingly studied is altered to some degree by the presence of the researcher, therefore, potentially skewing any data collected.

Atkinson, Paul and Martyn Hammersley. “Ethnography and Participant Observation.” In Handbook of Qualitative Research . Norman K. Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1994), pp. 248-261; Observational Research. Research Methods by Dummies. Department of Psychology. California State University, Fresno, 2006; Patton Michael Quinn. Qualitiative Research and Evaluation Methods . Chapter 6, Fieldwork Strategies and Observational Methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2002; Payne, Geoff and Judy Payne. "Observation." In Key Concepts in Social Research . The SAGE Key Concepts series. (London, England: Sage, 2004), pp. 158-162; Rosenbaum, Paul R. Design of Observational Studies . New York: Springer, 2010;Williams, J. Patrick. "Nonparticipant Observation." In The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods . Lisa M. Given, editor.(Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008), pp. 562-563.

Philosophical Design

Understood more as an broad approach to examining a research problem than a methodological design, philosophical analysis and argumentation is intended to challenge deeply embedded, often intractable, assumptions underpinning an area of study. This approach uses the tools of argumentation derived from philosophical traditions, concepts, models, and theories to critically explore and challenge, for example, the relevance of logic and evidence in academic debates, to analyze arguments about fundamental issues, or to discuss the root of existing discourse about a research problem. These overarching tools of analysis can be framed in three ways:

• Ontology -- the study that describes the nature of reality; for example, what is real and what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?
• Epistemology -- the study that explores the nature of knowledge; for example, by what means does knowledge and understanding depend upon and how can we be certain of what we know?
• Axiology -- the study of values; for example, what values does an individual or group hold and why? How are values related to interest, desire, will, experience, and means-to-end? And, what is the difference between a matter of fact and a matter of value?
• Can provide a basis for applying ethical decision-making to practice.
• Functions as a means of gaining greater self-understanding and self-knowledge about the purposes of research.
• Brings clarity to general guiding practices and principles of an individual or group.
• Philosophy informs methodology.
• Refine concepts and theories that are invoked in relatively unreflective modes of thought and discourse.
• Beyond methodology, philosophy also informs critical thinking about epistemology and the structure of reality (metaphysics).
• Offers clarity and definition to the practical and theoretical uses of terms, concepts, and ideas.
• Limited application to specific research problems [answering the "So What?" question in social science research].
• Analysis can be abstract, argumentative, and limited in its practical application to real-life issues.
• While a philosophical analysis may render problematic that which was once simple or taken-for-granted, the writing can be dense and subject to unnecessary jargon, overstatement, and/or excessive quotation and documentation.
• There are limitations in the use of metaphor as a vehicle of philosophical analysis.
• There can be analytical difficulties in moving from philosophy to advocacy and between abstract thought and application to the phenomenal world.

Burton, Dawn. "Part I, Philosophy of the Social Sciences." In Research Training for Social Scientists . (London, England: Sage, 2000), pp. 1-5; Chapter 4, Research Methodology and Design. Unisa Institutional Repository (UnisaIR), University of South Africa; Jarvie, Ian C., and Jesús Zamora-Bonilla, editors. The SAGE Handbook of the Philosophy of Social Sciences . London: Sage, 2011; Labaree, Robert V. and Ross Scimeca. “The Philosophical Problem of Truth in Librarianship.” The Library Quarterly 78 (January 2008): 43-70; Maykut, Pamela S. Beginning Qualitative Research: A Philosophic and Practical Guide . Washington, DC: Falmer Press, 1994; McLaughlin, Hugh. "The Philosophy of Social Research." In Understanding Social Work Research . 2nd edition. (London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2012), pp. 24-47; Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy . Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, Stanford University, 2013.

Sequential Design

• The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and the sampling schedule.
• Due to the repetitive nature of this research design, minor changes and adjustments can be done during the initial parts of the study to correct and hone the research method.
• This is a useful design for exploratory studies.
• There is very little effort on the part of the researcher when performing this technique. It is generally not expensive, time consuming, or workforce intensive.
• Because the study is conducted serially, the results of one sample are known before the next sample is taken and analyzed. This provides opportunities for continuous improvement of sampling and methods of analysis.
• The sampling method is not representative of the entire population. The only possibility of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chooses to use a very large sample size significant enough to represent a significant portion of the entire population. In this case, moving on to study a second or more specific sample can be difficult.
• The design cannot be used to create conclusions and interpretations that pertain to an entire population because the sampling technique is not randomized. Generalizability from findings is, therefore, limited.
• Difficult to account for and interpret variation from one sample to another over time, particularly when using qualitative methods of data collection.

Betensky, Rebecca. Harvard University, Course Lecture Note slides; Bovaird, James A. and Kevin A. Kupzyk. "Sequential Design." In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), pp. 1347-1352; Cresswell, John W. Et al. “Advanced Mixed-Methods Research Designs.” In Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research . Abbas Tashakkori and Charles Teddle, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2003), pp. 209-240; Henry, Gary T. "Sequential Sampling." In The SAGE Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods . Michael S. Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman and Tim Futing Liao, editors. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004), pp. 1027-1028; Nataliya V. Ivankova. “Using Mixed-Methods Sequential Explanatory Design: From Theory to Practice.” Field Methods 18 (February 2006): 3-20; Bovaird, James A. and Kevin A. Kupzyk. “Sequential Design.” In Encyclopedia of Research Design . Neil J. Salkind, ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010; Sequential Analysis. Wikipedia.

Systematic Review

• A systematic review synthesizes the findings of multiple studies related to each other by incorporating strategies of analysis and interpretation intended to reduce biases and random errors.
• The application of critical exploration, evaluation, and synthesis methods separates insignificant, unsound, or redundant research from the most salient and relevant studies worthy of reflection.
• They can be use to identify, justify, and refine hypotheses, recognize and avoid hidden problems in prior studies, and explain data inconsistencies and conflicts in data.
• Systematic reviews can be used to help policy makers formulate evidence-based guidelines and regulations.
• The use of strict, explicit, and pre-determined methods of synthesis, when applied appropriately, provide reliable estimates about the effects of interventions, evaluations, and effects related to the overarching research problem investigated by each study under review.
• Systematic reviews illuminate where knowledge or thorough understanding of a research problem is lacking and, therefore, can then be used to guide future research.
• The accepted inclusion of unpublished studies [i.e., grey literature] ensures the broadest possible way to analyze and interpret research on a topic.
• Results of the synthesis can be generalized and the findings extrapolated into the general population with more validity than most other types of studies .
• Systematic reviews do not create new knowledge per se; they are a method for synthesizing existing studies about a research problem in order to gain new insights and determine gaps in the literature.
• The way researchers have carried out their investigations [e.g., the period of time covered, number of participants, sources of data analyzed, etc.] can make it difficult to effectively synthesize studies.
• The inclusion of unpublished studies can introduce bias into the review because they may not have undergone a rigorous peer-review process prior to publication. Examples may include conference presentations or proceedings, publications from government agencies, white papers, working papers, and internal documents from organizations, and doctoral dissertations and Master's theses.

Denyer, David and David Tranfield. "Producing a Systematic Review." In The Sage Handbook of Organizational Research Methods .  David A. Buchanan and Alan Bryman, editors. ( Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2009), pp. 671-689; Foster, Margaret J. and Sarah T. Jewell, editors. Assembling the Pieces of a Systematic Review: A Guide for Librarians . Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2017; Gough, David, Sandy Oliver, James Thomas, editors. Introduction to Systematic Reviews . 2nd edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications, 2017; Gopalakrishnan, S. and P. Ganeshkumar. “Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis: Understanding the Best Evidence in Primary Healthcare.” Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care 2 (2013): 9-14; Gough, David, James Thomas, and Sandy Oliver. "Clarifying Differences between Review Designs and Methods." Systematic Reviews 1 (2012): 1-9; Khan, Khalid S., Regina Kunz, Jos Kleijnen, and Gerd Antes. “Five Steps to Conducting a Systematic Review.” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 96 (2003): 118-121; Mulrow, C. D. “Systematic Reviews: Rationale for Systematic Reviews.” BMJ 309:597 (September 1994); O'Dwyer, Linda C., and Q. Eileen Wafford. "Addressing Challenges with Systematic Review Teams through Effective Communication: A Case Report." Journal of the Medical Library Association 109 (October 2021): 643-647; Okoli, Chitu, and Kira Schabram. "A Guide to Conducting a Systematic Literature Review of Information Systems Research."  Sprouts: Working Papers on Information Systems 10 (2010); Siddaway, Andy P., Alex M. Wood, and Larry V. Hedges. "How to Do a Systematic Review: A Best Practice Guide for Conducting and Reporting Narrative Reviews, Meta-analyses, and Meta-syntheses." Annual Review of Psychology 70 (2019): 747-770; Torgerson, Carole J. “Publication Bias: The Achilles’ Heel of Systematic Reviews?” British Journal of Educational Studies 54 (March 2006): 89-102; Torgerson, Carole. Systematic Reviews . New York: Continuum, 2003.

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• Academic essay overview
• The writing process
• Structuring academic essays
• Types of academic essays
• Academic writing overview
• Sentence structure
• Academic writing process
• Improving your academic writing
• Titles and headings
• APA style overview
• APA citation & referencing
• APA structure & sections
• Citation & referencing
• Structure and sections
• APA examples overview
• Commonly used citations
• Other examples
• British English vs. American English
• Chicago style overview
• Chicago citation & referencing
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• College essay overview
• Application
• How to write a college essay
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• Definitions
• Dissertation overview
• Dissertation structure & sections
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• Graduate school overview
• Application & admission
• Study abroad
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• Parts of speech
• Punctuation
• Methodology overview
• Analyzing data
• Experiments
• Observations
• Inductive vs. Deductive
• Qualitative vs. Quantitative
• Types of validity
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• Types of research studies
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Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 High Quality is Essential
• 3  100 g/m² Color Copy Premium Paper 
• 4 Top Quality Thesis Printing 

High Quality is Essential

The more brilliantly and true the reproduction of the colors, the better the quality of the content of your bachelor’s thesis. And in turn, this has a positive influence on the examiner! It is not only the appearance, but also the feel of the paper for thesis printing that plays such a crucial role in getting a good grade. You know the feeling of holding strong, smooth paper in your hands? High value is expressed not only for contracts and important documents, but also in the paper for thesis printing and binding.

Also searched:   Thesis printing and binding

What paper should I print my thesis on?

There are different types and qualities of papers used for printing work, depending on what needs to be printed. Some examples of these paper types are the 80 g/m², 100 g/m² and 120 g/m² papers. At BachelorPrint, we use the 100 g/m² premium paper as our standard for printing. This is because it is of very high quality, robust, and feels nice between the fingers when flipping through pages. Regardless of which type of paper you choose, the print time and cost efficiency of your thesis won’t be changed.

What is the difference between 100g/m² and 120g/m² paper?

The 100g/m² and 120g/m² papers are both used in the printing of high-quality academic writing projects. While they are both of very high quality, the 120g/m² paper is thicker and better for double-sided printing than the 100gm/² paper. As such, the 120g/m² paper is preferred for theses, dissertations and final papers as it is robust and won’t be bent so easily. However, the 100g/m² premium paper is used as a standard and comes at no extra printing and binding cost , unlike in copy shops.

Should my thesis be printed double sided?

When printing a thesis, it is important to produce something of very high quality. Often, it is recommended to print theses double-sided due to the volume of pages they have. However, it is also very important to use the 120g/m² paper for theses in order to avoid seeing through the pages to the other side of the paper. Paired with an elegant leather binding and robust paper for printing, your thesis will be of the highest quality.

What are the types of binding for thesis paper?

There are many different types of binding and which one you choose depends on the importance of the academic writing work you are printing a binding. A bachelor’s thesis or master’s thesis is very important, therefore we always recommend these to be bound using leather binding. However, if you want to hand in your thesis with an application or need it for storage purposes only, other types of binding such as thermal binding or spiral binding would be sufficient.

How much does it cost to print thesis?

Several factors influence the cost of printing and binding a thesis. These factors include but are not limited to:

• How many copies are required
• Which types of binding you choose
• How many pages the thesis has

To save money, you can pick and choose different bindings for each copy of your thesis.

Printing Your Thesis With BachelorPrint

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 100 g/m² Color Copy Premium Paper 

“The 100 g/m² Color Copy premium paper for thesis printing […] was specially developed to produce a particular brilliance and value.”

There are very cheap paper grades, the airy and rough quality of which can be seen with the naked eye. Touching the paper for the first time usually confirms this first impression. It just feels cheap, and it is even less fun to hold the paper in your hands longer, let alone deal with the written content. These are normally low-cost papers with a paper thickness of 80g/m².

It’s hardly surprising that the currently advertised printing prices are the lowest we’ve ever seen. But you get what you pay for, and this reflects the quality of the paper for thesis printing.

There are, however, paper types that exhibit a high quality thanks to their greater paper thickness and smooth surface. These papers include, for example, 100g/m² Color Copy premium paper  for thesis printing. This paper has been specially developed to produce a particular brilliance and value. These factors play a special role, in particular in theses.

BachelorPrint   has specifically addressed the requirements of students and graduates and thus only uses 100g/m² Color Copy paper for thesis printing. Together with leather binding, particularly with a premium suede cover, your bachelor’s thesis, master’s thesis, or doctoral thesis will stand head and shoulders above the rest!

Top Quality Thesis Printing 

Using the highest quality paper for thesis printing is worthless if the printer’s performance is limited or inferior. Only with powerful brand printers, such as those produced by multi award winning manufacturer Xerox, is the highest print quality achieved, which you can’t only see, but also feel! To make sure that graduates are convinced of the paper quality before printing, they can, of course, come in and feel the 100g/m² Color Copy premium paper  in their hands.

“Only with high performance brand printers […] can the highest print quality be achieved”

Only when you, the customer, are 100% convinced of the paper for thesis printing, the print quality and our service, have we done our job. And we’re looking forward to it!

After the printing of your bachelor’s thesis, Mmster’s thesis or dissertation, the right binding should also be chosen. We’ll give you the support you need to prepare your academic work through the experience and know-how we’ve acquired over many years. Just ask us. We wish you luck!

At BachelorPrint , the 100g/m² paper is the standard paper used for thesis printing.  However, if you have a bachelor’s thesis, master’s thesis, PhD thesis or dissertation with a very high page count, we recommend you use the 120g/m² premium paper for thesis printing and have the paper printed on both sides. In doing so, you will save space and the page limit for leather binding is then not exceeded. Thanks to the thickness of the paper for thesis printing, you can’t see the text on the other side.

I printed 3 copies of my PhD thesis and got 1 copy for free. The quality of...

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APA 7th ed. Style Guide

• Formatting Your Paper
• In-text Citations
• Textual Works
• Data Sets, Software, Tests
• Audiovisual Media
• Online Media

Formatting guidelines and sample papers are found in chapter 2 of the APA 7th edition Publication Manual

Sample papers.

You can find sample papers from Purdue OWL's website, APA 7th edition Publication Manual, or APA style website.

• APA Style Student Paper with Annotations in the Comments A Word Document featuring an APA 7th edition Style Student Paper that includes annotations as comments.
• APA Style Professional Paper with Annotations in Comments A Word Document featuring an APA 7th edition Style Professional Paper that includes annotations as comments.
• Purdue OWL Sample Papers

General Formatting Guidelines

Follow these guidelines throughout your paper:

• Double space text
• Header for student and professional papers includes the page number in the upper right hand corner
• Single space after ending punctuation
• Font size and style: Times New Roman 12 pt, Arial 11 pt, Calibri 11 pt, or Georgia 11 pt
• Use the same font type and size throughout the paper (exceptions for figure images, computer code, and footnotes - see 2.19 in APA Manual)
• Margins: 1 inch on all sides
• Left align paragraphs and leave ragged (uneven) margins on the right
• Indention: use 0.5 inch indention for the first line of every paragraph (use tab key for consistency)

Formatting Title Page

The 7th edition Publication Manual for APA introduced the student and professional papers. The major difference between these two types of papers is found on the title page. Please, see the guidelines below for formatting the title page of your document. Also note, follow your professors' guidelines for formatting the title page.

General Title Page Guidelines:

• Double space
• The title should summarize the main idea and be focused/succinct (avoid unnecessary words)
• Title written in title case (the first letter of each word is capitalized), bold, centered, and positioned in the upper half of the title page
• Use the author(s) first name, middle initial, and last name as the author's byline

Student Papers:

• title of the paper
• name of the author(s)
• author affiliation (department and institution name)
• course number and name 
• instructor name
• assignment due date (i.e. November 4, 2020)
• page number (in the header)

Professional Papers:

• author affiliation
• author note
• running head (abbreviated title) - Flush with left margin and written in all capital letters

Formatting Headings

Follow this format for headings (see 2.27 of the Publication Manual for additional details):

Level 1 headings are written in bold title case and aligned to the center. The text begins as a new paragraph.

Level 2 headings are written in bold title case and aligned flush to the left. The text begins as a new paragraph.

Level 3 headings are written in bold, italicized title case, and aligned flush to the left. The text begins as a new paragraph.

Level 4 headings are written in bold title case, indented from the left, and end with a period. The text begins after the period and continues like a regular paragraph.

Level 5 headings are written in bold, italicized title case, indented from the left, and end with a period. The text begins after the period and continues like a regular paragraph.

Formatting Reference List

The following are guidelines for formatting your reference list:

• Start on a new page after the last page of text
• Label the page Reference(s) with a capitalized R, written in bold and centered
• Double space all entries
• Use hanging indent for reference entries (first line of the reference is flush with left margin, subsequent lines are indented 0.5 inches)
• Order alphabetically (see chapter 9 section 44-49 for additional instructions on entry order)
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How Thick is a Paper: Guide to Paper Thickness and Weight

Paper thickness refers to the distance between the two opposite surfaces of a sheet of paper, usually measured in thousandths of an inch or millimeters. On the other hand, paper weight refers to the mass of paper per unit area, typically expressed in pounds or grams per square meter (gsm).

Understanding paper thickness and weight is essential for anyone who works with paper, including printers, designers, and publishers. Knowing the paper’s thickness and weight can help determine its suitability for specific printing processes, such as offset or digital printing, and can also influence the paper’s handling, durability, and cost.

In this article, I will provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of paper thickness and weight, and the importance of choosing the right paper for different purposes. By the end of the article, readers should be able to determine the appropriate paper thickness and weight for their printing and packaging needs.

What Is Paper Thickness?

Paper thickness refers to the distance between the two opposite surfaces of a sheet of paper. It is typically measured in thousandths of an inch (mil or pt) or in millimeters (mm).

Measuring paper thickness can be done using a micrometer or a caliper, which allows for accurate and precise measurements. The paper is placed between the measuring jaws of the micrometer or caliper, and the thickness is recorded.

In the United States, paper thickness is often expressed in thousandths of an inch, with a standard sheet of printer paper, also known as bond paper, being around 4 mils thick. In other countries, such as Europe and Australia, paper thickness is measured in microns, with a standard sheet of printer paper being around 100 microns thick.

Different paper types have varying thicknesses, depending on their intended use and quality. Here are some common paper thicknesses for different paper types:

Printer paper or bond paper: 4-6 mils (0.1-0.15 mm)

Business cards : 12-16 mils (0.3-0.4 mm)

Greeting cards : 12-24 mils (0.3-0.6 mm)

Posters : 8-12 mils (0.2-0.3 mm)

Magazines : 2-4 mils (0.05-0.1 mm)

Textbook paper : 3-4 mils (0.08-0.1 mm)

Cover stock : 8-14 mils (0.2-0.4 mm)

Photo paper : 8-12 mils (0.2-0.3 mm)

Cardboard : 30-60 mils (0.8-1.5 mm)

Understanding Paper Thickness for Printing

Understanding paper thickness is crucial when it comes to printing. Different printing processes and printers require different paper thicknesses to achieve optimal results.

Here are some general guidelines for paper thickness for different printing purposes:

• Digital Printing: 

Digital printers use toner or ink to produce images on paper. These printers are typically designed to handle a range of paper thicknesses, from thin copy paper to heavy cardstock. However, some digital printers may have limitations in terms of paper weight, so it is important to consult the printer’s specifications or consult with a professional to ensure the paper is suitable.

• Recommended paper thickness for digital printing : 20-28 lb bond (75-105 gsm) for text, 80 lb cover (215 gsm) for covers, and 100 lb cover (270 gsm) for heavy covers.
• Offset Printing: 

Offset printing is a traditional printing process that uses ink to transfer an image from a metal plate to a rubber sheet, which is then pressed onto the paper. This process requires a specific paper thickness to achieve optimal ink transfer and image quality.

• Recommended paper thickness for offset printing : 60-80 lb text (90-135 gsm) for text, 100 lb cover (270 gsm) for covers, and 130 lb cover (350 gsm) for heavy covers.
• Letterpress Printing: 

Letterpress printing is a traditional printing process that uses a raised image or text plate to press ink into the paper. This process requires a specific paper thickness to achieve optimal image quality and impression depth.

• Recommended paper thickness for letterpress printing : 80-110 lb cover (215-300 gsm) for covers, and 110-220 lb cover (300-600 gsm) for heavy covers.
• Inkjet Printing: 

Inkjet printers use liquid ink to produce images on paper. These printers are designed to handle a range of paper thicknesses, but some models may have limitations in terms of paper weight, so it is important to consult the printer’s specifications or consult with a professional to ensure the paper is suitable.

• Recommended paper thickness for inkjet printing : 20-28 lb bond (75-105 gsm) for text, 80 lb cover (215 gsm) for covers, and 100 lb cover (270 gsm) for heavy covers.

Importance of Paper Thickness for Packaging

Paper thickness is an important consideration when it comes to packaging. The thickness of the paper can affect the durability and protection of the product inside. Here are some general guidelines for paper thickness for different packaging purposes:

• Boxes: 

Boxes are typically made from corrugated cardboard, which consists of an outer layer, an inner layer, and a fluted middle layer. The thickness of the paper used in each layer can vary, depending on the intended use and the weight of the product being packaged.

• Recommended paper thickness for boxes : The fluted middle layer is typically 1/8 to 3/16 inch (3-5 mm) thick, while the outer and inner layers can vary from 30-90 lb (50-150 gsm) depending on the weight of the product.
• Bags: 

Paper bags are often used for retail packaging and can be made from a variety of paper thicknesses, depending on the size and weight of the product being packaged.

• Recommended paper thickness for bags : 30-50 lb (50-80 gsm) for small items, 50-70 lb (80-110 gsm) for medium items, and 70-90 lb (110-150 gsm) for larger items.
• Wrapping Paper: 

Wrapping paper is often used to wrap gifts or protect products during shipping. The thickness of the paper can vary, depending on the fragility of the product being packaged.

• Recommended paper thickness for wrapping paper : 20-30 lb (30-50 gsm) for lightweight items, 30-40 lb (50-65 gsm) for medium-weight items, and 40-50 lb (65-80 gsm) for heavy items.

Paper Weight

Paper weight is typically measured by weighing a ream (500 sheets) of paper that is a standard size for the specific paper type. The weight of the ream is then divided by the total area of the paper to determine the weight per square meter or pound.

The units used to measure paper weight varies depending on the location. In the United States, paper weight is typically measured in pounds (lb) while in other parts of the world, including Europe and Asia, it is measured in grams per square meter (gsm).

Here are some general guidelines for common paper weights for different paper types:

• Copy Paper: 

Standard copy paper is typically 20 lb (75 gsm), which is suitable for most printing and copying needs.

• Cardstock: 

Cardstock is a heavier paper commonly used for invitations, cards, and other printed materials that require more durability. It ranges from 65 lb (176 gsm) to 110 lb (300 gsm), with heavier weights used for more formal and high-quality printing.

• Newsprint : 

Newsprint is a lightweight, inexpensive paper used for newspapers and other low-cost printed materials. It typically ranges from 30 lb (48.8 gsm) to 35 lb (56.9 gsm).

• Glossy Paper: 

Glossy paper is a coated paper with a shiny finish that is commonly used for printing photos and other high-quality images. It ranges from 60 lb (163 gsm) to 100 lb (271 gsm), with heavier weights used for higher-quality printing.

Understanding Paper Weight for Printing

Paper weight is an important consideration when choosing paper for printing. The weight of the paper can affect the quality and durability of the printed product. Here are some general guidelines for paper weight for different printing purposes:

• Standard Printing: 

For everyday printing and copying, a standard weight of 20 lb (75 gsm) is suitable for most printers.

• Professional Printing: 

For professional printing and marketing materials, a heavier weight is typically used to give a more high-quality feel. Cardstock is often used for this purpose, ranging from 65 lb (176 gsm) to 110 lb (300 gsm).

Inkjet printers can handle a variety of paper weights, but thicker papers may require adjustments to the printer settings. Heavier paperweights, such as 100 lb (271 gsm) glossy paper, are commonly used for printing high-quality photos.

• Laser Printing: 

Laser printers can handle heavier paper weights than inkjet printers. For laser printing, a standard weight of 24 lb (90 gsm) is suitable, while heavier weights up to 110 lb (300 gsm) can also be used for high-quality printing.

Determining Paper Thickness and Weight

There are several tools and methods used to determine the paper’s thickness and weight.

Here are some commonly used tools and procedures:

• Micrometer : A micrometer is a tool used to measure the thickness of the paper. It works by using a calibrated screw to apply pressure to the paper and measure the thickness in microns or mils.
• Weighing Scale : A weighing scale is used to measure the weight of paper. A ream of paper is weighed, and the weight is divided by the total area of the paper to determine the weight per square meter or pound.
• Caliper : A caliper is a tool used to measure the thickness of the paper. It works by using a sliding jaw to measure the distance between the top and bottom of the paper.

Procedure for Measuring Paper Thickness:

• Place the paper on a flat surface and smooth it out to remove any wrinkles or creases.
• Using a micrometer or caliper, apply pressure to the paper and measure the thickness at several different points. Take an average of the measurements to determine the paper’s thickness.

Procedure for Measuring Paper Weight:

• Weigh a ream of paper (usually 500 sheets) using a weighing scale.
• Calculate the total area of the paper by multiplying the length and width of a single sheet.
• Divide the weight of the ream by the total area of the paper to determine the weight per square meter or pound.

How thick is a micron of paper?

A micron is a unit of measurement equal to one-thousandth of a millimeter. The thickness of paper can vary depending on its type and weight, but a typical copy of the paper is around 100 microns or 0.1 millimeters thick. Therefore, a single sheet of paper is about 0.1 microns thick. 

How thin is paper?

The thickness of paper can vary widely depending on the type and intended use. Generally, paper thickness ranges from about 0.05 millimeters (mm) for tissue paper to 0.3 mm or more for cardstock or cardboard. However, some specialized types of paper, such as Bible paper, can be as thin as 0.02 mm.

How can I determine the thickness of a paper?

To determine the thickness of a paper, you can use a micrometer or caliper. Smooth out the paper on a flat surface and apply pressure to it with the tool. Measure the thickness at several different points and take an average to determine the paper’s thickness.

How does paper weight affect print quality?

Paper weight can have a significant impact on print quality. A heavier paper weight can give a more professional and high-quality feel to printed materials. It can also improve the durability of the printed product, as heavier papers are less likely to tear or crease.

What is the difference between paper thickness and weight?

Paper thickness and weight are two different measurements of paper. Paper thickness refers to the distance between the top and bottom of the paper, typically measured in microns or mils. Paper weight refers to the mass or heaviness of the paper, typically measured in grams per square meter or pounds.

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Complete Guide for Long Bond Paper Size: Dimension, Types, Uses

What Is Bond Paper and What Is It Used for?

Bond Paper gets its name because it was initially made for government bond documents, but you can now use it for many other documents. It is durable and high-quality, weighing 90 g/m 2(24 pounds), 75 g/m 2(20 pounds), and 60 g/m 2(16 pounds). It is similar to bank papers but heavier and more solid than them.

Long bond paper or standard bond paper is suitable for writing, drawing, and printing letters, invoices, and business files. They are often used in office machines. This paper is made of cotton fibers (20% - 100%). Usually, the bond paper is uncoated, but it can be coated as well. Then, what’s the long bond paper size if you want to use it? The answer comes next.

What Is the Size of Long Bond Paper?

The most used long bond paper size in CM, inches, millimeters, and pixels are as follows:

Since the long bond paper is longer than the standard A4 paper size, it is suitable for printing long and multi-page documents. This size is best for inkjet and laser printers.

• The legal long bond paper size measures 8.5 inches × 14 inches or (21.6 cm x 35.6 cm). It’s frequently used for legal documents such as contracts, but few people use it very much now.
• The letter bond paper size is 8.5 inches x 11 inches or 21.6 cm x 27.9 cm. Office and academic documents often use this paper size.
• A3 bond paper size in cm (International) is 29.7 cm x 42.0 cm and 11.7 inches x 16.5 inches. Posters, diagrams, and large format printing prefer it.

The length of long bond paper makes it the top choice when printing documents that need more space and contain much content. Printing charts or graphs in the size will give you a professional look and feel.

Long Bond Paper VS A4 VS Legal Paper

Here is a simple comparison table of the three types of paper. Browse it to learn why long bond paper is a reliable choice.

How to Make Long Bond Paper in Word

After figuring out the size of long bond paper in cm or other units, you must wish to set the size in your Word document. Especially when you need to use the size in printing or sharing the document with others, you can print two pages on one large sheet to save paper consumption and cost. Look at how to add long bond paper size in Word in Printer.

Step 1: Open a Word document and go to Layout > Size > More Paper Sizes ;

Step 2: Choose the Paper tab in the Page Setup dialog box, and enter the paper width as 8.5 inches and height as 13 inches;

Step 3: Click OK , and then you can print the pages in normal long bond paper size in the MS Word document.

How to Print Long Bond Paper in PDF

If you ever saved a document as a PDF, you may need to edit the PDF to make the pages in Long Bond Paper size. Use the SwifDoo PDF editor. It allows you to change the bond paper size in a PDF file without converting the file back to the original format. It allows you to customize the page dimensions by typing the width and height values and crop or enlarge pages in one click.

How to print a PDF file in a long bond paper:

Step 1: Drop your PDF into the SwifDoo PDF app;

Step 2: Choose Page > Page Setup from the top menu bar;

Step 3: Choose a standard size like A3 or select the Custom option to set the width to 215.9 mm (8.5 inches) and height to 330.2 mm (13 inches);

Step 4: Click OK to resize the PDF pages and navigate to SwifDoo > Print to print the PDF to a long bond paper.

Once you’ve obtained your long bond paper PDF files, you can modify or add any text, images, hyperlinks, and other elements or objects to them. It can compress and add backgrounds to your PDF as well.

Simple Methods to Increase PDF Size with Offline and Online Software

Here are two simple methods to increase PDF size instantly. You can change the PDF page size or add content to the PDF using a desktop app or an online tool.

Reading this article enables you to quickly master and understand the bond paper size long in CM, inches, or other units and the usage of the paper size. You should think carefully about your needs and choose the size that suits you best to facilitate your work and professionalism. If you have only the PDF version of your file to be resized to that dimension, take SwifDoo PDF for a try.

Q：How do I add the long bond paper size in Excel?

Charlotte has been in the software industry for 8+ years. She works for AWZWARE now as a passionate writer. She is good at providing simple guides to use various video, office and entertainment software. Charlotte also recommends many other useful tools to make your work and life easier. A food lover too.

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• Research Paper Format | APA, MLA, & Chicago Templates

Research Paper Format | APA, MLA, & Chicago Templates

Published on November 19, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on January 20, 2023.

The formatting of a research paper is different depending on which style guide you’re following. In addition to citations , APA, MLA, and Chicago provide format guidelines for things like font choices, page layout, format of headings and the format of the reference page.

Scribbr offers free Microsoft Word templates for the most common formats. Simply download and get started on your paper.

APA |  MLA | Chicago author-date | Chicago notes & bibliography

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Table of contents

Formatting an apa paper, formatting an mla paper, formatting a chicago paper, frequently asked questions about research paper formatting.

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in APA Style are as follows:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial.
• Set 1 inch page margins.
• Apply double line spacing.
• If submitting for publication, insert a APA running head on every page.
• Indent every new paragraph ½ inch.

Watch the video below for a quick guide to setting up the format in Google Docs.

The image below shows how to format an APA Style title page for a student paper.

Running head

If you are submitting a paper for publication, APA requires you to include a running head on each page. The image below shows you how this should be formatted.

For student papers, no running head is required unless you have been instructed to include one.

APA provides guidelines for formatting up to five levels of heading within your paper. Level 1 headings are the most general, level 5 the most specific.

Reference page

APA Style citation requires (author-date) APA in-text citations throughout the text and an APA Style reference page at the end. The image below shows how the reference page should be formatted.

Note that the format of reference entries is different depending on the source type. You can easily create your citations and reference list using the free APA Citation Generator.

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The main guidelines for writing an MLA style paper are as follows:

• Use an easily readable font like 12 pt Times New Roman.
• Use title case capitalization for headings .

Check out the video below to see how to set up the format in Google Docs.

On the first page of an MLA paper, a heading appears above your title, featuring some key information:

• Your full name
• Your instructor’s or supervisor’s name
• The course name or number
• The due date of the assignment

Page header

A header appears at the top of each page in your paper, including your surname and the page number.

Works Cited page

MLA in-text citations appear wherever you refer to a source in your text. The MLA Works Cited page appears at the end of your text, listing all the sources used. It is formatted as shown below.

You can easily create your MLA citations and save your Works Cited list with the free MLA Citation Generator.

Generate MLA citations for free

The main guidelines for writing a paper in Chicago style (also known as Turabian style) are:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman.
• Use 1 inch margins or larger.
• Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center.

Chicago doesn’t require a title page , but if you want to include one, Turabian (based on Chicago) presents some guidelines. Lay out the title page as shown below.

Bibliography or reference list

Chicago offers two citation styles : author-date citations plus a reference list, or footnote citations plus a bibliography. Choose one style or the other and use it consistently.

The reference list or bibliography appears at the end of the paper. Both styles present this page similarly in terms of formatting, as shown below.

To format a paper in APA Style , follow these guidelines:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial
• Set 1 inch page margins
• Apply double line spacing
• Include a title page
• If submitting for publication, insert a running head on every page
• Indent every new paragraph ½ inch
• Apply APA heading styles
• Cite your sources with APA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a reference page at the end

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style are as follows:

• Use an easily readable font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Include a four-line MLA heading on the first page
• Center the paper’s title
• Use title case capitalization for headings
• Cite your sources with MLA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a Works Cited page at the end

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in Chicago style are to:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Use 1 inch margins or larger
• Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center
• Cite your sources with author-date citations or Chicago footnotes
• Include a bibliography or reference list

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, January 20). Research Paper Format | APA, MLA, & Chicago Templates. Scribbr. Retrieved September 19, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/research-paper-format/

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Elements of a Poster

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Your poster should include these elements:

• Author(s), with affiliations and emails

If your poster is a representation of a research study, you will want to include the following sections:

• Introduction or objective
• Conclusions and/or discussion
• Acknowledgements

If your poster is a representation of an event or other kind of project, you may want to forego formal abstract sections in favor of the 5 Ws:

• Who (introduce the author, organization, or community)
• What (what did you do? how did you do it?)
• Where (where did you do it?)
• When (when did it take place?)
• Why (what are the outcomes, implications, or future possibilities?)

To change the size in Powerpoint:

• Go to the Design tab and choose "Slide Size" (it's on the right size of the ribbon)
• Choose "Custom Slide Size"
• Change "Slides sized for:" to "Custom"
• Fill in your desired width and height. 

Click the View tab to see checkboxes that will allow you to turn on the Ruler, Grid, and Guides (click the image below to see a screenshot).

Ruler : Allows you to see the dimensions of your slide. You'll see a vertical and horizontal ruler.

Grid : By default, the gridlines are 1 inch apart. Right click in white space of your poster to get more options for spacing. This enables precise alignment.

Guides : By default, you'll get one horizontal and one vertical guide placed in the center of your poster. Right click on a guide to add more guidelines, or to delete one. You can use Guides to invisibly define columns of your poster, margins, and more. This gives you manual control, alternatively, you can use Smart Guides (see below).

Smart Guides : Powerpoint has a built-in system for showing you alignment as you move objects around. The video below demonstrates what Smart Guides look like.

Once you've got your slide layout set, you'll want to start creating Shapes and Text Boxes. Here are some tips and tricks for working with objects:

• Use Ctrl+D to duplicate any object.
• Then you can format them all at once, identically!
• You can also group them, for easier movement and alignment (right click to see the Group option).

Most posters are landscape (horizontal) orientation. The title/author(s) will be across the top, with 3–4 columns below that contain the rest of the poster elements. Make sure you leave plenty of white space in your design—a poster crammed full of text and images is very difficult to read.

Here is an example of a 2 column poster layout using the 5 Ws for headings (who, what, where, when, and why):

Use the links below to download this template and other similar templates in two sizes: 24x36 and 36x48. These templates include a variety of placeholder elements for photos and figures.

• 2 column Powerpoint template, size 24x36
• 3 column Powerpoint template, size 24x36
• 3 column Powerpoint template, size 36x48
• 4 column Powerpoint template, size 36x48

Below are some additional web resources where you can search for templates. Keep in mind that you may need adjust the size of a template for your own poster. Alternatively, you can use the resources on this page to design your own layout in Powerpoint.

• David Geffen School of Medicine poster templates Although this is labeled for the sciences, the information can be used in many disciplines.
• Penn State poster template
• PhD Posters
• MakeSigns.com poster templates
• The body of your poster should have a minimum 24 point font . Viewers should be able to read your smallest text from a few feet away.
• The title of your poster should have a 50+ font size, depending on the size of your poster and the length of the title.
• Do not use all uppercase letters for the title or body of the poster.
• Avoid using more than 2 or 3 different fonts in one poster.
• Stick with basic fonts like Times New Roman or Georgia for serif, or Arial or Helvetica for sans-serif. Avoid elaborate, difficult-to-read, or cartoon-like fonts.

• In general, left-align your text boxes (with the possible exception of your title and any image captions). Avoid centering the text on your whole poster.
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• Last Updated: Nov 9, 2023 2:31 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.ucla.edu/posters

All Formats

Table of Contents

Research paper sizes standard, research paper sizes for print, research paper sizes for ms word, research paper sizes for apple pages, research paper sizes for google docs, research paper sizes faqs, research paper sizes.

A number of learning institutions are quite particular with their requirements regarding research paper sizes and formats. This is to ensure uniformity and consistency not just in its content but writers should also use the right orientation, margin size, and layout.

Letter Size

What paper size should a research paper be?

What is the structure of a research paper, what is the layout of a research paper, what is the average length of a research paper, what are the dimensions of a research paper, what is the proper margin for a research paper, what font size is used for a research paper, how long is a mini-research paper, what is the spacing for a research paper, what font style is best for a research paper, what is the minimum page of a research paper, how many pages should a research paper have, what is an apa format, how long should the introduction section be in a research paper, more in documents.

Dissertation Research Paper Template

Undergraduate term paper template, graduate research paper template, journal article research paper template, conference research paper template, academic literature research paper template, capstone project research paper template, comparative analysis research paper template, book review research paper template, market research paper template.

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