chemistry research paper format

Scientific Methodology: Structure of a Research Paper e.g. Chemistry

• Structure of a Research Paper e.g. Biology
• Structure of a Research Paper e.g. Chemistry
• Tips : Writing Science Papers
• Citation Indexes

Scientific research papers usually follow a standard format which is logical, has an easy to understand structure, and which reflects “the scientific method of deductive reasoning: define the problem, create a hypothesis, devise an experiment to test the hypothesis, conduct the experiment, and draw conclusions.”  (ACS Style Guide, Chap 2,  p. 19).

Note: When writing a research paper, the sections may follow a different format and procedure for the different science disciplines. The format may also be varied by the specific journal which is publishing a research article.

Chemistry Research Paper Outline

                                                       Writing a Chemistry Research Paper

*   Atlernative titles: Experimental, Experimental Section, Theoretical Analysis,

     or Materials & Methods.

** The Discussion and Conclusion are often combined into one section.

• << Previous: Structure of a Research Paper e.g. Biology
• Next: Tips : Writing Science Papers >>
• Last Updated: Dec 7, 2022 3:22 PM
• URL: https://library.viu.ca/c.php?g=208204

• Careers at VIU
• International Students
• Programs and Courses
• Nanaimo (Main Campus)
• Parksville-Qualicum Centre
• Powell River
• Administration
• Admission Requirements
• Dual Credit
• Financial Aid and Awards
• Graduate Programs
• Online Education
• Registration
• Transfer Students

Student Life

• Student Housing
• Campus Recreation
• Campus Store
• Food Services
• Health and Wellness
• Services for Students
• VIU Mariners Athletics
• Campus Information
• tiwšɛmawtxʷ (Powell River)

• Accreditation
• Emergency Information

CHEM 2800: Intro to Research Chemistry

Writing a scientific paper.

• Effective Presentations
• Lab Notebook
• Lab Safety for Chemists
• Ethics in Research
• RefWorks This link opens in a new window
• CAS - SciFinder

Writing a scientific research paper may seem like a daunting task, but with a little bit of practice and review of sound examples, you will be well on your way.  Such writing usually follows a standard format with simple structure that is both logical and easy to understand. This standard format is important as it reflects "the scientific method of deductive reasoning: define the problem, create a hypothesis, devise an experiment to test the hypothesis, conduct the experiment, and draw conclusions." ( ACS Style Guide ). 

In this page, we will examine the various components of the research paper including: the title ,  abstract , introduction , materials and methods , results , discussion , conclusion , and the bibliography of works cited.

Structure of the Research Paper

• Introduction
• Materials & Methods

The Title reflects the keywords and main concepts in your paper in a very succinct manner.  The title should be short and meaningful such that is accurate and clear to the reader. "The title serves two main purposes: to attract the potential audience and to aid retrieval and indexing. Therefore, include several keywords. The title should provide the maximum information for a computerized title search." ( ACS Style Guide ).

The Abstract is a concise summary of the key concepts, scope, findings and conclusions of the paper and should briefly state the purpose of your research. Important note: the abstract is typically the last element written for of your research writing so as to accurately reflect the full content of the research.  " Although an abstract is not a substitute for the article itself, it must be concise, self-contained, and complete enough to appear separately in abstract publications." (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2, p. 21)

The Introduction gets right to the heart of the matter. It clearly outlines the problem/hypothesis you investigated and the compelling reason for completing the research. The introduction should review the relevant background research literature published on this topic and how it relates to your current research. According the ACS Style Guide, the introduction should "state how your work differs from or is related to the work previously published, " as well as "demonstrate the continuity from the previous work to yours." (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2, p. 22).

Now is the time for detail! The Materials and Methods (aka "Experimental") section of the research paper is a thorough explanation of the experimental procedures and processes employed in gathering data and to test your hypothesis.  Strong detail here is crucial so that other scientists may repeat and replicate your research work.  In this section, you should include a descriptive list of:

• Materials and apparatus used during experimentation,
• Type(s) of controls and how they were established, 
• Key processes and methods employed, and
• If applicable, establish where or under what conditions the study was conducted.

To ensure completeness in this section, it is best to consult the specific requirements presented within a particular style guide or review a publisher's format preferences. It should be noted that this section may also be called the "Experimental Methods" or "Theoretical Basis"  section depending the type of research conducted or publisher preferences. (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2, p. 22).

Structure of the Research Paper Continued

The  Results  section is a summary of the data that was collected. In this section you will:

• Discuss variables (independent & dependent), controls, samples sizes, etc.
• Summarize the statistical analysis used to understand the raw data 
• Utilize tables, graphs, equations and figures to appropriately display data to provide visual clarity

This section should accurately reflect the statistical treatment of the data and should serve as visual, mathematical summary of the aggregate data. Do not present the raw data.  ( ACS Style Guide ).

The  Discussion  section is where you will review the results objectively and begin to define the implications of the results in light of the original purpose of the research and the current knowledge in the subject area under study. This is also the place in which you identify the limitations of the research work. "The purpose of the discussion section is to interpret and compare the results.... was the problem resolved?, what has been contributed?" (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2, p. 23). 

The  Conclusion  section is a complimentary partner of the discussion section and seeks to put the interpretation of the results into greater context of the original problem and includes suggestions for future research.  Be careful however, "do not repeat discussion points or include irrelevant material. Conclusions should be based on the evidence presented." (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2, p. 23-24). 

Finally, in most research work, the written article concludes with a summary of the main points of the research as well as an acknowledgement of individuals, organizations and funders critical to the success and support of the research. Be generous here, especially as this is your opportunity to thank those who helped you complete the difficult work that went into your research.

For most students, the  Bibliography of References  (or Works Cited) is often one of the most under attended and considered sections.  A wise student will pay considerable attention to this section and will invest significant time early in the investigative process to organize, annotate and refine this body of sources. A well attended bibliography will serve as the foundation and academic mortar which holds together your own research.  In this section of your writing, you will appropriately credit the supporting work by all  authors (scientists, researchers and organizations) whose efforts served to reinforce and inform your own work.

Make sure to pay careful attention to the specific format style required to credit authors both as in-text citations and in the concluding bibliography. "The accuracy of the references is the [publishing] author’s responsibility. Errors in references are one of the most common errors found in scientific publications and are a source of frustration to readers."  (ACS Style Guide, 3rd Ed. - Chap. 2., p. 24). For further insight and detail, see the page on  Citation Help  or create an account directly with a reference manager like  RefWorks or Zotero .

ACS Style Guide

• The Scientific Research Paper: Effective Scholarly Communication In this chapter, the different types of book and journal presentations are described, along with the components of the standard format for reporting original research.
• The Editorial Process Publishing a manuscript, whether intended for a journal or a book, is a process. It has four stages: the draft manuscript, manuscript review, the final manuscript, and processing of accepted manuscripts. This chapter provides an overview of each of these stages as they evolve in scientific, technical, and medical (STM) publishing.
• Effective Writing Style & Word Usage Every writer has a personal style, but all good writing tends to observe guidelines and conventions that communicate meaning clearly and exactly to readers. Scientific writing, in particular, must be precise and unambiguous to be effective. This chapter presents guidelines for correct sentence structure and word usage.
• Peer Review Process Peer review is a process used by scientific publications to assist editors in evaluating manuscripts, particularly for scientific merit. Editors of peer-reviewed books and journals send manuscripts to several reviewers and request their opinions on originality and scientific importance of the topic, the quality of the work performed, and the appropriateness for the specific journal.
• References This chapter presents style conventions for citing references within a manuscript and for listing complete reference citations. Many of the references in the examples were created to illustrate a style point under discussion; they may not be real references.

Preparing Your Article to Publish

• << Previous: Home
• Next: Effective Presentations >>
• Last Updated: Aug 5, 2024 9:18 AM
• URL: https://libguides.cedarville.edu/chem2800

•   Library Hours Servicios en Español   Databases   Research Guides   Get Help My Account CCC Home myClackamas
• myClackamas
• Research Guides
• Servicios en Español
• CCC Library
• Science, Technology, Engineering + Math (STEM)
• APA (7th ed.) resources
• Course Reserves (textbooks)
• Article databases and eJournals
• eBook databases
• Streaming video databases
• CCC Library Catalog
• Search tips and strategies

APA 7th edition manual

Apa 7 citation examples, missing elements - apa 7, apa 7 paper formatting basics, apa 7 document templates, more apa 7th ed. resources.

• Academic tutoring
• Job and career resources

This guide will introduce you to APA 7 citations, both for the References page of your paper and in-text citations. It is offered in multiple file formats below. 

• Citation Examples - APA 7 - Word Document
• Citation Examples - APA 7 - PDF

This guide will tell you exactly what to do if your resource is missing a citation element. Can't find the author, publication date, page numbers, or something else? Use this guide to find out what to do! This guide is offered in multiple formats below. ​​​​​​​

• Missing Elements - APA 7 - Word Document
• Missing Elements - APA 7 - PDF
• Typed, double-spaced paragraphs.
• 1" margins on all sides.
• Align text to the left.
• Choose one of these fonts: 11-point Calibri, 11-points Arial, 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode, 12-point Times New Roman, 11-point Georgia, 10-point Computer Modern.
• Include a page header (also known as the "running head") at the top of every page with the page number.
• APA papers are broken up into sections. Check with your instructor for their expectations.
• In general, headings and title are centered.

APA 7th edition recognizes two kinds of paper formats - student papers (undergraduate students) and professional research papers (graduate students and professionals). At Clackamas CC, you will use the student paper formatting conventions.

You don't have to format a paper from scratch! Download this APA-formatted document template as a Word document or Google document. Save it, erase the existing text, and type your text right into the template. Learn how to format a paper in APA format by reading the contents of the template. The References page has been formatted with hanging indents.

• Download & edit: APA Word document template Microsoft Word document template to save a copy of and type into. To edit it, save a copy to your desktop or Clackamas Office 365 account. Includes tips on how to format a paper in APA. Last updated Feb. 2020.
• Download & edit: Pages document template If you need this template in Pages, email [email protected]
• View Only: Sample APA student paper (7th ed.) This sample student paper includes descriptions of indentations, margins, headers, and other formatting conventions (APA, 2020).
• APA Style (APA.org) APA's site answers all the basic questions about APA 7th edition and gives sample "student" and "professional" papers. This will help you with document format, in-text citations, the References list, and various stylistics.
• << Previous: Search tips and strategies
• Next: Academic tutoring >>
• Last Updated: Apr 25, 2024 10:24 AM
• URL: https://libguides.clackamas.edu/chemistry

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts

AIP and formatting

Acceptance in principle (aip).

Once peer review is completed and the editor is satisfied that any concerns raised by the reviewers have been suitably addressed, the paper is accepted ‘in principle’ (AIP). The editor will send detailed instructions to ensure that the paper contains all the information required for publication and meets our standards for the reporting of data and code. 

A high priority of  Nature Chemistry  is that all papers are accessible to non-specialists; manuscripts are subject to substantial editing to achieve this goal. After acceptance, a copy editor and an art editor may make further changes to ensure that the text and figures are readable and clear to those outside the field, and that papers conform to our house style. 

Once your manuscript has been accepted in principle for publication, you will need to format it according to the guidelines below. Addressing these requirements at this stage will ensure your manuscript has a smoother path to publication.

FORMATTING REQUIREMENTS  

• Document type
• Colour charges
• Acknowledgements
• Extended data figures
• Source data 
• Supplementary Information
• New structures
• Gene nomenclature
• Chemical and biological nomenclature and abbreviations
• Cover artwork
• Characterization of chemical and biomolecular materials
• Deposition of chemical compound information to PubChem
• Graphical abstract  

1 – Document type

Please submit your manuscript in either Word or TeX/LaTeX format. We do not accept PDFs for final submissions.

We accept all standard fonts; however, please note Symbol font should be used for Greek characters.

To submit a TeX/LaTeX file, please use any of the standard class files such as article.cls, revtex.cls or amsart.cls.

All textual material should be provided as a single file in default Computer Modern fonts. 

Please avoid non-standard fonts and packages and remove all personal macros before submitting. 

For graphics, we recommend graphicx.sty. 

Please use numerical references only for citations, and include the references within the manuscript file itself.  

If you wish to use BibTeX, please copy the reference list from the .bbl file, paste it into the main manuscript .tex file, and delete the associated \bibliography and \bibliographystyle commands. 

Before submission, please ensure that the complete .tex file compiles successfully on your own system with no errors or warnings. 

There is no need to spend time visually formatting the manuscript: our style will be imposed automatically when the paper is prepared for publication.

For further guidelines on TeX/LaTeX, please visit https://www.springernature.com/gp/authors/campaigns/latex-author-support where you can download the Springer Nature LaTeX template.

2 – Tables

Please include tables at the end of your text document. 

Complex tables can be submitted as a separate Excel file. 

Tables that include statistical analysis of data should describe their standards of error analysis and ranges in a table legend.

Tables that feature chemical structures should be included at the end of the text document and the native ChemDraw file(s) should be supplied separately as .cdx files.

3 – Figures

Effective figure preparation will enhance the readability of your manuscript – our  image preparation guidelines  will help you to produce effective publication-quality figures. In addition, please consider the following important requirements:  

All figures must be cited in sequence within the main article text in the form Fig. 1, Fig. 2.

Figure panels should be prepared at a minimum resolution of 300 dpi and saved at a maximum width of 180 mm.  

Use a 5–7 pt san serif font for standard text labelling and Symbol font for Greek characters. 

Use scale bars, not magnification factors, and include error bars where appropriate. 

Do not flatten labelling or scale/error bars onto images – uneditable or low-resolution images are two of the most common reasons for delay in manuscript preparation.  

• Figure legends

Include a brief title for each figure with a short description of each panel cited in sequence. 

Ensure the legend does not exceed the word limit of the article type.

Avoid methodological detail.

Use verbal cues to describe keys, eg. "open red triangles", not visual cues or symbols.

Include a description of centre values (median or average) and all error bars and how they were calculated.  Give an indication of sample size (n number), state the statistical test used and provide P values.

Chemical structures

Chemical structures should be produced using ChemDraw or a similar program. Figures containing chemical structures should be submitted according to our  image preparation guidelines . Authors using ChemDraw should make use of our  journal template , submitting the final files at 100% as .cdx files. Creating molecules within or copying them into the template will ensure that most of our journal style points are followed. For more information, please see our  Chemical Structures Style Guide .

Stereo images

Stereo diagrams should be presented for divergent 'wall-eyed' viewing, with the two panels separated by ∼5.5 cm. In the final accepted version of the manuscript, stereo images should be submitted at their anticipated final size.

Copyright Permission

You are responsible for obtaining permission to publish any figures or illustrations that are protected by copyright, including figures published elsewhere and pictures taken by professional photographers. Incomplete permission information may delay publication of your manuscript, as we cannot publish images without appropriate permission. If submitting figures created using BioRender, please confirm whether you own a full licence to publish or a free trial plan. 

Advance Online Publication

Nature Chemistry  provides Advance Online Publication (AOP) of research articles, which benefits authors with an earlier publication date and allows our readers access to published papers before they appear in a journal issue. Note that papers published online are definitive and may be altered only through the publication of a formal correction, so authors should make every effort to ensure that they check proofs carefully. All AOP articles are given a unique digital object identifier (DOI) number, which can be used to cite the paper before issue publication. Follow this link for  details about advance online publication .

4 – Colour charges (print journals only)

Charges apply for authors of primary subscription content who wish to publish figures in colour in Nature Portfolio print journals. For further details please email  editorial enquiries .

5 – References

References should be numbered sequentially in the following order:

• Data Availability Section
• Extended data

Only one publication is given for each reference. 

Research objects (such as conference abstracts, numbered patents, datasets, protocols and code) that have been assigned a DOI are included in the reference list. 

Unpublished meeting abstracts, papers in preparation and papers under review or in press without an available preprint should not appear in the reference list. Instead, they should be mentioned in the text with a list of authors (or initials if any of the authors are co-authors of the present contribution). 

URLs for web sites should be cited parenthetically in the main text, not in the reference list.

Grant details and acknowledgments are not permitted as numbered references. 

Footnotes are not supported.

For long-form manuscripts such as Articles, Letters, Review Articles, Perspectives and Progress Articles, titles of cited articles are required.

Eigler, D. M. & Schweizer, E. K. Positioning single atoms with a scanning tunnelling microscope.  Nature  344, 524–526 (1990).

For shorter article types such as Commentaries or News & Views, titles of cited articles are not included.

Iijima, S.  Nature  354, 56–58 (1991).

For book citations, the publisher is required.

Jones, R. A. L.  Soft Machines: Nanotechnology and Life  Ch. 3 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2004).

Data and code may be cited in the reference list if they have been assigned DOIs and should include authors, title, publisher (repository name) and DOI expressed as a URL.

Hao, Z., AghaKouchak, A., Nakhjiri, N. & Farahmand, A. Global Integrated Drought Monitoring and Prediction System (GIDMaPS) data sets. figshare  http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.853801  (2014).

To cite a preprint

Example: 

Babichev, S. A., Ries, J. & Lvovsky, A. I. Quantum scissors: teleportation of single-mode optical states by means of a nonlocal single photon. Preprint at https://arXiv.org/quant-ph/0208066 (2002).

6 – Methods

Methods should be subdivided by short, bold headings referring to methods used. We encourage the inclusion of specific subsections; for example Statistics, Reagents or Animal models. If additional references are included, numbering should continue from the end of the last reference in the main paper (see section 5 References). Any Methods-only references should accompany the additional Methods at the end of the paper.

Authors are encouraged to deposit the step-by-step protocols used in their study to  Protocol Exchange . Protocols deposited by the authors should be mentioned in the Methods section and added to the reference list. 

7 – Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements should be brief and avoid thanking anonymous referees and editors. Grant or contribution numbers may be acknowledged. Dedications are not permitted unless for someone directly involved with the research who for some reason is not an author.

8 – Extended data figures

Extended Data figures are display items that provide essential background to the data presented in the main paper. 

A maximum of 10 Extended Data display figures is permitted. 

Extended Data figures are not copy-edited or styled by Nature Chemistry ; for this reason, please follow journal style as closely as possible when preparing these figures. 

Figures can be multi-paneled, if necessary, and should be sized such that they will fit on a single PDF page.

Legends for Extended Data figures should be prepared as for main figures and should be included in the ‘Inventory of Supporting Information’ document. 

All Extended Data figures must be referred to as discrete items at an appropriate place in the main text.

9 – Source Data

We encourage you to provide source data for your figures whenever possible. Full-length, unprocessed gels and blots must be provided as source data for any relevant figures, and should be provided as individual PDF files for each figure containing all supporting blots and/or gels with the linked figure noted directly in the file. Statistics source data should be provided in Excel format, one file for each relevant figure, with the linked figure noted directly in the file.  For imaging source data, we encourage deposition to a relevant repository due to size constraints.

10 – Supplementary information

Supplementary information is published as supplied to   Nature Chemistry . Please ensure that it is presented clearly and succinctly in a logical order, and that terminology conforms with the rest of the paper. Once your paper is in production, Supplementary Information can only be replaced to correct significant scientific errors.

Requirements for Supplementary Information

Each item should be designated as either Supplementary Equation, Discussion, Notes, Figure, Table, Video, Audio, Data or Software, and all except Notes should be numbered sequentially. This numbering should be separate from that used for items appearing either in the main article or in the Extended Data.   

Supplementary Figures should be used only for cases when the use of Extended Data to report these findings is not appropriate. Each Supplementary Figure should fit, along with its legend, on a single PDF page. Authors are encouraged to be selective in including other types of supplementary information.

Supplementary Figures, Tables and Videos should have a title and a caption that follow the guidelines for display items in the main text.

We encourage all methodological information to be included in the main text but if additional information is needed, e.g. for algorithm description, step-by-step protocol, compound synthesis and characterization, they can be included as a Supplementary Note.  

Refer to each piece of supplementary information at least once within the text of either the main article or its Methods, at the appropriate point(s). Be sure to include the word "Supplementary" each time one is mentioned and cite them in sequence. 

Please submit supplementary text, figures, simple tables or data, and associated legends within a single combined PDF file. For complex tables or data (larger than an A4 PDF page) we recommend combining all tables on separate tabs within one Excel workbook named ‘Supplementary Tables’ or ‘Supplementary Data’ as appropriate. We also accept tables and data as .csv files. We accept most commonly used audio and video formats, and supplementary software should be submitted within a .zip or .tar archive file.

11 – New structures

Manuscripts reporting new structures should contain a table summarizing structural and refinement statistics. Templates for such tables describing  cryo-EM ,  NMR  and  X-ray crystallography  data are available. To facilitate assessment of the quality of the structural data, a stereo image of a portion of the electron density map (for crystallography papers) or of the superimposed lowest energy structures (>10; for NMR papers) should be provided with the submitted manuscript. If the reported structure represents a novel overall fold, a stereo image of the entire structure (as a backbone trace) should also be provided. For cryo-EM structures, a representative micrograph showing individual particles should be provided in the submission.

12 – Gene nomenclature

Authors should use approved nomenclature for gene symbols, and use symbols rather than italicized full names (Ttn, not titin). Please consult the appropriate nomenclature databases for correct gene names and symbols. A useful resource is  Entrez Gene . Approved human gene symbols are provided by HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee (HGNC), e-mail: [email protected]; see also  http://www.genenames.org . Approved mouse symbols are provided by The Jackson Laboratory, e-mail: [email protected]; see also  www.informatics.jax.org/mgihome/nomen .

For proposed gene names that are not already approved, please submit the gene symbols to the appropriate nomenclature committees as soon as possible, as these must be deposited and approved before publication of an article.

Avoid listing multiple names of genes (or proteins) separated by a slash, as in 'Oct4/Pou5f1', as this is ambiguous (it could mean a ratio, a complex, alternative names or different subunits). Use one name throughout and include the other at first mention: 'Oct4 (also known as Pou5f1)'.

13 – Chemical and biological nomenclature and abbreviations

When possible, authors should refer to chemical compounds and biomolecules using systematic nomenclature, preferably using  IUPAC   and IUBMB rules. Standard chemical and biological abbreviations should be used. Unconventional or specialist abbreviations should be defined at their first occurrence in the text.

14 – Equations

Equations and mathematical expressions should be provided in the main text of the paper. Equations that are referred to in the text are identified by parenthetical numbers, such as (1), and are referred to in the manuscript as "equation (1)".

15 – Cover artwork

Authors of accepted papers are encouraged to submit images related to their research for consideration as an issue cover once their paper is assigned to an issue. Cover images are selected for their scientific interest and aesthetic appeal. Please upload good quality image files along with a clear and concise legend explaining the image content.

16 – Characterization of chemical and biomolecular materials

Nature Chemistry is committed to publishing the highest-quality research. Manuscripts submitted to the journal will be held to rigorous standards with respect to experimental methods and characterization of new compounds. Authors must provide adequate data to support their assignment of identity and purity for each new compound described in the manuscript. Authors should provide a statement confirming the source, identity and purity of known compounds that are central to the scientific study, even if they are purchased or resynthesized using published methods.

A. Chemical identity

Chemical identity for organic and organometallic compounds should be established through spectroscopic analysis. Standard peak listings (see formatting guidelines below) for 1 H NMR and proton-decoupled 13 C NMR should be provided for all new compounds. Other NMR data should be reported ( 31 P NMR, 19 F NMR, etc.) when appropriate. For new materials, authors should also provide mass spectral data to support molecular weight identity. High-resolution mass spectral (HRMS) data are preferred. UV or IR spectral data may be reported for the identification of characteristic functional groups, when appropriate. Melting-point ranges should be provided for crystalline materials. Specific rotations may be reported for chiral compounds. Authors should provide references, rather than detailed procedures, for known compounds, unless their protocols represent a departure from or improvement on published methods.

B. Combinatorial compound libraries

Authors describing the preparation of combinatorial libraries should include standard characterization data for a diverse panel of library components.

C. Biomolecular identity

For new biopolymeric materials (oligosaccharides, peptides, nucleic acids, etc.), direct structural analysis by NMR spectroscopic methods may not be possible. In these cases, authors must provide additional evidence of identity based on sequence (when appropriate) and mass spectral characterization. Detailed characterization of standard oligonucleotide reagents (for example, primers) for molecular biology experiments is not required.

D. Biological constructs

Authors should provide sequencing or functional data that validates the identity of their biological constructs (plasmids, fusion proteins, site-directed mutants, etc.) either in the manuscript text or the Methods section, as appropriate.

E. Sample purity

Evidence of sample purity is requested for each new compound. Methods for purity analysis depend on the compound class. For most organic and organometallic compounds, purity may be demonstrated by high-field 1 H NMR or 13 C NMR data, although elemental analysis (±0.4%) is encouraged for small molecules. Quantitative analytical methods including chromatographic (GC, HPLC, etc.) or electrophoretic analyses may be used to demonstrate purity for small molecules and polymeric materials.

F. Spectral data

Detailed spectral data for new compounds should be provided in list form (see below) in the Methods section or Supplementary Methods. Figures containing spectra generally will not be published as a manuscript figure unless the data are directly relevant to the central conclusions of the paper. Authors are encouraged to include high-quality images of spectral data for key compounds in the Supplementary Information. Specific NMR assignments should be listed after integration values only if they were unambiguously determined by multidimensional NMR or decoupling experiments. Authors should provide information about how assignments were made in a general Methods section.

Example format for compound characterization data. mp: 100–102 °C (lit. ref 99–101 °C); TLC (CHCl 3 :MeOH, 98:2 v/v): R f = 0.23; [α] D = -21.5 (0.1 M in n -hexane); 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl 3 ): δ 9.30 (s, 1H), 7.55–7.41 (m, 6H), 5.61 (d, J = 5.5 Hz, 1H), 5.40 (d, J = 5.5 Hz, 1H), 4.93 (m, 1H), 4.20 (q, J = 8.5 Hz, 2H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 1.25 (t, J = 8.5 Hz, 3H); 13C NMR (125 MHz, CDCl 3 ): δ 165.4, 165.0, 140.5, 138.7, 131.5, 129.2, 118.6, 84.2, 75.8, 66.7, 37.9, 20.1; IR (Nujol): 1765 cm -1 ; UV/Vis: λ max 267 nm; HRMS (m/z): [M]+ calcd. for C 20 H 15 C l2 NO 5 , 420.0406; found, 420.0412; analysis (calcd., found for C 20 H 15 C l2 NO 5 ): C (57.16, 57.22), H (3.60, 3.61), Cl (16.87, 16.88), N (3.33, 3.33), O (19.04, 19.09).

G. Crystallographic data for small molecules

Manuscripts reporting new structures of small molecules from crystallographic analysis should be accompanied by a standard crystallographic information file (.cif) and a structural figure with probability ellipsoids should be included in the main supplementary information file. The structure factors for each structure should also be submitted, preferably embedded in the main .cif file, although they may be provided as a separate .hkl and/or .fcf file. Use of the 2014 version of the program SHELXL, which embeds the structure factors information in the main .cif file, is encouraged. The structure factors and structural output must be checked using IUCr's CheckCIF routine and a PDF copy of the output included with the submission, explaining any A- or B-level alerts. Crystallographic data for small molecules should be submitted to the Cambridge Structural Database and the deposition number referenced in the manuscript. Full access must be provided on publication.

H. NMR and cryo-EM data

Manuscripts reporting new structures from NMR or cryo-EM data should contain a table summarizing structural and refinement statistics. Templates for such tables describing cryo-EM or NMR are available. For NMR structures, to facilitate assessment of the quality of the structural data, a stereo image of a portion of the electron density of the superimposed lowest energy structures (>10) should be provided with the submitted manuscript. If the reported structure represents a novel overall fold, a stereo image of the entire structure (as a backbone trace) should also be provided. For cryo-EM structures, a representative micrograph showing individual particles should be provided in the submission.

I. Solar cells

Research manuscripts related to photovoltaic cells that are sent for external review should include certain experimental details as detailed in our reporting summary for solar cell manuscripts . This summary will be made available to editors and reviewers during manuscript assessment and will be published with all accepted manuscripts.

J. Small-molecule high-throughput screening data

Manuscripts reporting high-throughput screens of small-molecule libraries should include a supplementary information table summarizing the assay, library, screen and post-screen analysis. A template and instructions for preparing the high-throughput screening table are available.

K. Chemical probe data

Manuscripts that report the identification and validation of new chemical probes are encouraged to submit their probes to the Chemical Probe Portal .

L. Macromolecular structural data

Manuscripts reporting new macromolecular structures (proteins, nucleic acids, etc.) should contain a table summarizing structural and refinement statistics. Templates for such tables describing NMR and X-ray crystallography data are available. To facilitate assessment of the quality of the structural data, a stereo image of a portion of the electron density map (for crystallography papers) or of the superimposed lowest energy structures (>10; for NMR papers) should be provided with the submitted manuscript. If the reported structure represents a novel overall fold, a stereo image of the entire structure (as a backbone trace) should also be provided.

Please note: because of the advanced features used in the form, you must use Adobe Reader to open the document and fill it out.

17 – Deposition of chemical compound information to PubChem

ournal name '/> staff. At the time of submission of the final revised version of the manuscript, authors should provide the following file:

A single ChemDraw file (.cdx) that contains all of the structures in the manuscript that are identified with bold Arabic numerals or other bold descriptors (see Chemical Structure Display Items below). Reagents and solvents should not be included, and the structure of each compound should be 'grouped' with its assigned numeral/descriptor and a compound name. If the paper contains more chemical structures than will fit on a single page in ChemDraw, additional pages should be created within the same file.

18 – Graphical abstract

A graphical abstract, which summarizes the manuscript in a visual way, is designed to attract the attention of readers in the table of contents of the journal. Graphical abstracts are published with Articles, Reviews and Perspectives. The graphical abstract may contain chemical structures or images. Textual statements should be kept to a minimum. Colour graphical abstracts are encouraged and will be published at no additional charge. The image must be sized to fit in a rectangle of dimensions 90 mm wide × 50 mm high. The graphic should be submitted as a single file using a standard file format (see below) and will be published in the table of contents in print and online. If your graphical abstract contains any ChemDraw structures (and you are not submitting it as a .cdx file), please provide a separate .cdx file for the ChemDraw structures. All graphical abstracts should be submitted with a white background and imagery should fill the available width and depth, whenever possible. Please see figure guidelines for resolution requirements.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

How to Write an Effective Chemistry Research Paper (Part 1)

Here, we will state the rules about the format and content of a research paper in chemistry and explain the scientific conventions used in chemistry papers. These rules and conventions will help you write research papers in chemistry effectively and confidently. Alternatively, there is an AI-driven language enhancement tool, Trinka, which could be used. Trinka is world’s first online grammar checker and language correction tool that is custom-built for academic writing and caters to subject-specific requirements.

Let us explore the rules about writing an effective Chemistry research paper.

Format and Content of Chemistry Articles

Readers expect two things while reading your paper:

• Understand the information presented
• Know that the findings are legitimate

How to Fulfill these Objectives?

Introduction

Methods and materials.

This format may slightly differ depending on the journal; for instance, some journals ask you to include an abstract or separate section for the hypothesis. Overall, however, this represents a textual version of the scientific method.

Table of Contents

Select terms that are as precise as the text permits.

Avoid:  A magnetic alloy

Use:  A vanadium-iron alloy

Things to Avoid

• Phrases such as “on the,” “a study of,” “research on,” and “regarding.”
• Non-quantitative, meaningless words such as “rapid” and “new.”

A quality abstract distinctly identifies the objective of the experiment and the key outcomes.

• Beginning with “ The purpose of this experiment was… ” Such background information belongs in the Introduction section.
• RBe specific about what was done.
• Instead use, “… hexaammine cobalt (III) chloride was prepared from cobalt (II), chloride, and hydrogen peroxide. The yield was 8.45 g. ”

Tip 1 When writing a full report, write the Abstract last.

Go step-wise!

• Begin by describing the larger area of the research
• Give examples of advancement in the field
• A distinct statement of the research problem
• Approach being addressed in the current report

Avoid:   This experiment intends to investigate upon any measurable amounts of Nickel in the surrounding mud area and within barnacles living on the pilings.

Use:  The purpose of this study is to determine the nickel content in the surrounding mud area and in the barnacles living on the pilings.

Include a description of your experimental procedure and the names of instruments used. Do not rewrite the lab manual or protocol.

Avoid:  Next, prepare copper solution. Weigh 0.1821 g of copper nitrate and dilute it in 10 mL of tap water.

Use:  A solution was prepared by dissolving copper nitrate (0.1821 g) in tap water (10 mL).

Further subdivide into

• Materials—sources and purity of reagents used
• Preparation of compounds—with the procedure and summary of characterization by NMR, IR, etc.
• Instrumentation—manufacturer, description of any adaptation, or sample preparation

Tip 2 A quality Materials and Methods section should allow the reader to holistically reproduce what you did in the lab, using what you have written.

Include an outline of your raw data, preferably aided by tables and figures, and main observations.

Tip 3 Don’t include lengthy tables of raw data; instead, simply present the outcomes of your calculations.

Avoid:  The following standard concentrations were used to follow X law for the absorbances at the corresponding wavelength (Table).

Use:   The standard concentrations were measured at the corresponding wavelengths and the data provided in Table 1.

Figures, Tables, Equations

Explain the objective of each figure, scheme, equation, and table in the Results section. When referring to a figure, table, or equation, use its number in the text.

A plateau was observed at reduced pressures >0.1, as indicated in Table 1.

Indicate every figure, table, and equation with a number. Figures and tables need a number and a descriptive title, and equations usually have a number placed in parentheses at the right margin.

Figure 1. Mass Uptake vs. Reduced Pressure for A

Table 1. Powder Diffraction Data Obtained for A

A = B 2                                                                             (1)

Tip 4 “Figure” is much preferred compared to the labels “chart” and “graph.”

• Analyze your outcomes
• Comment on the objective of the experiment
• Explain what the outcomes point to
• What are the sources of inaccuracy (experimental uncertainty/precision) and limitations?
• What further experiments could help address any open questions or loose ends?
• Do the outcomes agree with what others have discovered?
• Do the outcomes endorse a model or hypothesis?

Avoid:  If, for example, we could have used a red and green apple to determine the components, we could have averaged the data and obtained more accurate results.

Use:  For example, if data were obtained from both a red and a green apple, the averaged results could provide more representative values.

Summarize your outcomes and discussion with a concise conclusion, phrasing it in terms of the broad-ranging questions addressed in the Introduction. A notable feature of Trinka is the ability to present academic writing concisely.

Tip 5 When testing a hypothesis, you may want to say that the hypothesis was “ proved ” or “ disproved ” or was “ correct ” or “ incorrect .”

Remember, you are testing a theory with a procedure that lasts only a handful of hours and depends on only a few trials, which seriously compromises your ability to be certain about the “truth” you see.

Consequently, words such as “supported,” “indicated,” and “suggested” are more suitable to evaluate your hypothesis.

In the next article , we will discuss the scientific conventions and styles used in chemistry articles.

Again, to better understand how these rules and conventions can be incorporated in academic writing, you can try Trinka . This AI-driven writing tool understands subtle subject-specific requirements and enhances your writing with suggestions pertaining to technical spellings, formal tone, style guide preferences, and a lot more. Trinka’s exclusive features are designed make your research paper publication-ready easily!

Go beyond grammar & spelling

• Write with Trinka

How to Write a Research Proposal? – Guide with Examples

How to Write Any Type of Letter?

Do Citations Really Matter? How to Identify High-quality Academic Sources

Tips for IELTS Preparation: Why You Should Use Trinka AI to Help Your Writing

Appreciating the hard work you put into your blog and detailed information you present.It’s nice to come across a blog every once in a while that isn’tthe same outdated rehashed material. Fantastic read! I’ve bookmarked your site and I’m including your RSS feeds to my Google account.

Leave A Reply Cancel Reply

Your email address will not be published.

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Subscribe to stay updated with us!

Join thousands of subscribers to get regular updates on industry trends and our blog posts.

Additional Navigation and Search

• Search Icon

Accessibility Options

Chemistry writing guide, introduction, writing assignments, discipline-specific strategies, watch out for..., professor's comments and websites.

Writing in chemistry is similar to writing in other disciplines in that your paper must have a clear purpose that explains why you are writing, a thesis statement or main idea that defines the problem to be addressed, and background information wherever necessary. In addition, you should include evidence in the form of figures, graphs, and tables to support your argument.

You will be asked to write an abstract -- a single-spaced paragraph summary that briefly states the purpose of the experiment, important results (and how the results were obtained), and conclusions. Ideally, the abstract can be thought of as one or two sentences from each section of the paper that form a cohesive paragraph that summarizes the entire paper. The abstract should be single spaced unless you receive other instructions from your professor.

When writing an abstract, you should avoid too much experimental detail (e.g. concentration of stock solutions used) or preliminary results (i.e. "raw" data). In addition, make certain that the purpose of the experiment is stated clearly and early in the abstract. Ideally, it should be stated in the first or second sentence.

Lab Reports

There are six main sections in a chemistry paper: introduction, experimental section, results section, discussion section, conclusion, and list of references. As with most disciplines, the introduction should include your background knowledge of the experiment, including theory and past research, the relevance of your research, and the thesis statement. You may also state in your introduction any general conclusions you discovered, but try to avoid making your introduction longer than a page. The purpose of the introduction in a chemical journal is to provide (1) a literature review of what has been published on the subject to justify the importance of your research, (2) an explanation of any unusual experimental approaches, and (3) any background information or explanations that will help the reader understand your experiment and your results. Ultimately, the introduction should explain how the experimental approach you chose allows you to find the numerical or qualitative results you are looking for. For example, if you're going to determine if the substance you synthesized is a particular compound by examining its UV-Vis spectrum, you should find in the literature or a reference book the maximum wavelength of the compound and present it in the introduction. The experimental section focuses on the details of the experiment. Be certain to include enough information so that the reader could repeat the experiment and obtain similar results within the limits of uncertainty. The following should be addressed in this section: treatment of data (e.g. calculations or computations used to generate graphs) and an identification of instruments and sources of materials used (e.g. synthesized within the lab or bought from Aldrich, Sigma, or Fluka). For commercially available equipment, the manufacturer and the model should be mentioned (e.g. JASCO UV-Vis Spectrophotometer). The results section should include any figures, graphs, and tables that summarize the data. The material in this section should be presented in the order that best defends the thesis and the order in which they will be addressed in the discussion section. The order in which the data was collected is rarely important. For example, just because the data for graph N was collected before that of graph M does not mean that M shouldn't be presented first if it makes the presentation of data more coherent. In the results section, graphs are usually listed as figures. Tables are numbered and given specific titles (must include concentrations, volumes, etc.), which are placed at the top of the table. Figures (graphs or any other visuals) are numbered and given a caption, not a title. The caption should be several sentences long and explain what the figure is, what result is found from the figure, and the importance of the result. Captions are placed below the figure. For a results section, the text, tables, and figures should mirror each other. That is, the text must include all of the important information given in the graphs and tables, but in written form. If a table or figure is included in the report, it must be specifically referenced in the text as at the end of this sentence (Table 1). It might also be worthwhile to note that figures and tables are usually submitted to a journal and also to a professor with the tables and figures attached to the end of the report, not interspersed throughout the text. Journals insert your figures and tables according to their page format. In the discussion section, you should explain your results and observations and illustrate how they support your thesis, discuss any possible sources of error, and suggest potential future research stemming from your results. You may also want to mention any past research in the field that may pertain to your experiment's results.

Something to think about: results and discussion sections are often combined in chemical journals. In that case, each result is presented and then its relevance is explained. If you are writing a results section alone, you should only present, not interpret, your results. For example, a statement like, "The UV-Vis spectrum of the complex showed a peak at 291 nm" is a statement of your numerical result and is appropriate for a results section. A statement like, "The peak at 291 nm indicates that the complex changed conformation" is interpretive and belongs in a discussion section. Your conclusion should contain a brief summary of the paper and must state important results (e.g. yield of product) and assess the research with respect to the purpose. This section may be combined with the discussion section; that is, the last paragraph of the discussion section may act as a conclusion. In the reference section you must list all non-original sources used in the paper in the order in which they appear with the appropriate number. Citations should be made according to the format of the journal to which you will submit your paper. For a Swarthmore class, the Journal of the American Chemical Society format is appropriate. Unlike other disciplines, citations in a chemistry paper are usually not in-text or parenthetical, but incorporated using superscripts as at the end of this sentence. 1 It is sometimes appropriate in a discussion section to refer to other researchers by name and end the sentence with a reference. For example, "Khmelnitksy, et al. found that trypsin denatures in 2-propanol." 2

• Chemistry papers should be written in passive voice (unless you receive other instructions from your professor).
• Abbreviations or acronyms must be explained the first time they are used.
• Figures, graphs, and tables must be titled and referenced in the text.
• References (including textbooks and lab manuals) must be cited and numbered consecutively with the superscript number corresponding to that reference in the reference section of the paper. The use of superscript suffices as the mode of reference because it eliminates the need for in-text citations and footnotes.

I. Organization: As for all lab reports, chemistry reports are very structured and must be highly organized in a logical way. Organization of results is especially important. Your results and discussion sections, as well as tables and figures, should be organized in a way that leads the reader to draw the same conclusion that you did based on your data. Don't just tack on a graph at the end of the paper or arbitrarily put your results into a table. Think about how you can use tables to make comparisons between your data and literature or reference values. Think about the format of your tables and the chronology of your results section. How can you present your results so that the reader is already convinced of your conclusion before you explicitly state it?

II. Repetition: If you've already said it once, or it's already been published somewhere else, don't say it again. You can refer to other parts of your paper instead of repeating explanations or facts. If you've already written an experimental methods section, you've already explained your procedure; there is no need to provide procedural details again when you talk about results. If the procedure you used came from a published article, provide a short summary, explain any alterations, and then give the citation. Also, if you explain someone else's experimental results in the introduction, it is acceptable to write statements like, "As discussed above, Khmelnitsky, et al. found contradictory results" in your results section. Journals have page limits. Repetitious or unnecessary words or figures are unwelcome.

III. Distraction: Remember that the whole point of writing a chemistry paper is to present results and prove your conclusion based on those results. There are a lot of numbers, facts, and procedure information that you can easily get bogged down by. Just remember that ultimately you have to convince the reader that your conclusion is accurate. If you feel overwhelmed by the amount of information you have to include, try making a flow chart that shows the logical progression of your procedure. Or create your figures and tables first, and then use them as an outline or guide to write your results section. Take a look at published articles to get a sense of how others organize papers and what kinds of phrases and sentence structure are useful and accepted.

Courses Taught: General Chemistry, Organic I and II laboratories

Particular stylistic issues you should keep in mind:

"Write as concisely as possible. Know the meanings of the words you use and choose the best word for your purpose."

Grammar/spelling and word choice pet peeves:

• Using "this" and "that' as undefined pronouns
• Using "so" without "that" or "as"
• Misspelling of terms that are presented in the manual

Additional Site Navigation

Social media links, additional navigation links.

• Alumni Resources & Events
• Athletics & Wellness
• Campus Calendar
• Parent & Family Resources

Helpful Information

Dining hall hours, next trains to philadelphia, next trico shuttles.

Swarthmore Traditions

How to Plan Your Classes

The Swarthmore Bucket List

Search the website

Students & Educators  —Menu

• Educational Resources
• Educators & Faculty
• College Planning
• ACS ChemClub
• Project SEED
• U.S. National Chemistry Olympiad
• Student Chapters
• ACS Meeting Information
• Undergraduate Research
• Internships, Summer Jobs & Coops
• Study Abroad Programs
• Finding a Mentor
• Two Year/Community College Students
• Social Distancing Socials
• Grants & Fellowships
• Career Planning
• International Students
• Planning for Graduate Work in Chemistry
• ACS Bridge Project
• Graduate Student Organizations (GSOs)
• Standards & Guidelines
• Explore Chemistry
• Science Outreach
• Publications
• ACS Student Communities
• LEADS Conference
• ChemMatters
• Chemistry Outreach Activities
• National Chemistry Week
• You are here:
• American Chemical Society
• Students & Educators
• Undergraduate
• Undergraduate Research Guide

Undergraduate Research in Chemistry Guide

Research is the pursuit of new knowledge through the process of discovery. Scientific research involves diligent inquiry and systematic observation of phenomena. Most scientific research projects involve experimentation, often requiring testing the effect of changing conditions on the results. The conditions under which specific observations are made must be carefully controlled, and records must be meticulously maintained. This ensures that observations and results can be are reproduced. Scientific research can be basic (fundamental) or applied. What is the difference? The National Science Foundation uses the following definitions in its resource surveys:

• Basic research The objective of basic research is to gain more comprehensive knowledge or understanding of the subject under study, without specific applications in mind. In industry, basic research is defined as research that advances scientific knowledge but does not have specific immediate commercial objectives, although it may be in fields of present or potential commercial interest.
• Applied research Applied research is aimed at gaining knowledge or understanding to determine the means by which a specific, recognized need may be met. In industry, applied research includes investigations oriented to discovering new scientific knowledge that has specific commercial objectives with respect to products, processes, or services.

Planning for Graduate School

Get on the path to graduate school with our comprehensive guide to selecting an institution and preparing for graduate studies.

What is research at the undergraduate level?

At the undergraduate level, research is self-directed work under the guidance and supervision of a mentor/advisor ― usually a university professor. A gradual transition towards independence is encouraged as a student gains confidence and is able to work with minor supervision. Students normally participate in an ongoing research project and investigate phenomena of interest to them and their advisor. In the chemical sciences, the range of research areas is quite broad. A few groups maintain their research area within a single classical field of analytical, inorganic, organic, physical, chemical education or theoretical chemistry. More commonly, research groups today are interdisciplinary, crossing boundaries across fields and across other disciplines, such as physics, biology, materials science, engineering and medicine.

What are the benefits of being involved in undergraduate research?

There are many benefits to undergraduate research, but the most important are:

• Learning, learning, learning. Most chemists learn by working in a laboratory setting. Information learned in the classroom is more clearly understood and it is more easily remembered once it has been put into practice. This knowledge expands through experience and further reading. From the learning standpoint, research is an extremely productive cycle.
• Experiencing chemistry in a real world setting. The equipment, instrumentation and materials used in research labs are generally more sophisticated, advanced, and of far better quality than those used in lab courses
• Getting the excitement of discovery. If science is truly your vocation, regardless of any negative results, the moment of discovery will be truly exhilarating. Your results are exclusive. No one has ever seen them before.
• Preparing for graduate school. A graduate degree in a chemistry-related science is mostly a research degree. Undergraduate research will not only give you an excellent foundation, but working alongside graduate students and post-doctorates will provide you with a unique opportunity to learn what it will be like.

Is undergraduate research required for graduation?

Many chemistry programs now require undergraduate research for graduation. There are plenty of opportunities for undergraduate students to get involved in research, either during the academic year, summer, or both. If your home institution is not research intensive, you may find opportunities at other institutions, government labs, and industries.

What will I learn by participating in an undergraduate research program?

Conducting a research project involves a series of steps that start at the inquiry level and end in a report. In the process, you learn to:

• Conduct scientific literature searches
• Read, interpret and extract information from journal articles relevant to the project
• Design experimental procedures to obtain data and/or products of interest
• Operate instruments and implement laboratory techniques not usually available in laboratories associated with course work
• Interpret results, reach conclusions, and generate new ideas based on results
• Interact professionally (and socially) with students and professors within the research group, department and school as well as others from different schools, countries, cultures and backgrounds
• Communicate results orally and in writing to other peers, mentors, faculty advisors, and members of the scientific community at large via the following informal group meeting presentations, reports to mentor/advisor, poster presentations at college-wide, regional, national or international meetings; formal oral presentations at scientific meetings; or journal articles prepared for publication

When should I get involved in undergraduate research?

Chemistry is an experimental science. We recommended that you get involved in research as early in your college life as possible. Ample undergraduate research experience gives you an edge in the eyes of potential employers and graduate programs.

While most mentors prefer to accept students in their research labs once they have developed some basic lab skills through general and organic lab courses, some institutions have programs that involve students in research projects the summer prior to their freshman year. Others even involve senior high school students in summer research programs. Ask your academic/departmental advisor about the options available to you.

How much time should I allocate to research?

The quick answer is as much as possible without jeopardizing your course work. The rule of thumb is to spend 3 to 4 hours working in the lab for every credit hour in which you enroll. However, depending on the project, some progress can be achieved in just 3-4 hours of research/week. Most advisors would recommend 8-10 hours/week.

Depending on your project, a few of those hours may be of intense work and the rest may be spent simply monitoring the progress of a reaction or an instrumental analysis. Many research groups work on weekends. Saturdays are excellent days for long, uninterrupted periods of lab work.

How do I select an advisor?

This is probably the most important step in getting involved in undergraduate research. The best approach is multifaceted. Get informed about research areas and projects available in your department, which are usually posted on your departmental website under each professor’s name.

Talk to other students who are already involved in research. If your school has an ACS Student Chapter , make a point to talk to the chapter’s members. Ask your current chemistry professor and lab instructor for advice. They can usually guide you in the right direction. If a particular research area catches your interest, make an appointment with the corresponding professor.

Let the professor know that you are considering getting involved in research, you have read a bit about her/his research program, and that you would like to find out more. Professors understand that students are not experts in the field, and they will explain their research at a level that you will be able to follow. Here are some recommended questions to ask when you meet with this advisor:

• Is there a project(s) within her/his research program suitable for an undergraduate student?
• Does she/he have a position/space in the lab for you?
• If you were to work in her/his lab, would you be supervised directly by her/him or by a graduate student? If it is a graduate student, make a point of meeting with the student and other members of the research group. Determine if their schedule matches yours. A night owl may not be able to work effectively with a morning person.
• Does she/he have funding to support the project? Unfunded projects may indicate that there may not be enough resources in the lab to carry out the project to completion. It may also be an indication that funding agencies/peers do not consider this work sufficiently important enough for funding support. Of course there are exceptions. For example, a newly hired assistant professor may not have external funding yet, but he/she may have received “start-up funds” from the university and certainly has the vote of confidence of the rest of the faculty. Otherwise he/she would not have been hired. Another classical exception is computational chemistry research, for which mostly fast computers are necessary and therefore external funding is needed to support research assistants and computer equipment only. No chemicals, glassware, or instrumentation will be found in a computational chemistry lab.
• How many of his/her articles got published in the last two or three years? When prior work has been published, it is a good indicator that the research is considered worthwhile by the scientific community that reviews articles for publication. Ask for printed references. Number of publications in reputable refereed journals (for example ACS journals) is an excellent indicator of the reputation of the researcher and the quality of his/her work.

Here is one last piece of advice: If the project really excites you and you get satisfactory answers to all your questions, make sure that you and the advisor will get along and that you will enjoy working with him/her and other members of the research group.

Remember that this advisor may be writing recommendation letters on your behalf to future employers, graduate schools, etc., so you want to leave a good impression. To do this, you should understand that the research must move forward and that if you become part of a research team, you should do your best to achieve this goal. At the same time, your advisor should understand your obligations to your course work and provide you with a degree of flexibility.

Ultimately, it is your responsibility to do your best on both course work and research. Make sure that the advisor is committed to supervising you as much as you are committed to doing the required work and putting in the necessary/agreed upon hours.

What are some potential challenges?

• Time management . Each project is unique, and it will be up to you and your supervisor to decide when to be in the lab and how to best utilize the time available to move the project forward.
• Different approaches and styles . Not everyone is as clean and respectful of the equipment of others as you are. Not everyone is as punctual as you are. Not everyone follows safety procedures as diligently as you do. Some groups have established protocols for keeping the lab and equipment clean, for borrowing equipment from other members, for handling common equipment, for research meetings, for specific safety procedures, etc. Part of learning to work in a team is to avoid unnecessary conflict while establishing your ground to doing your work efficiently.
• “The project does not work.” This is a statement that advisors commonly hear from students. Although projects are generally very well conceived, and it is people that make projects work, the nature of research is such that it requires patience, perseverance, critical thinking, and on many occasions, a change in direction. Thoroughness, attention to detail, and comprehensive notes are crucial when reporting the progress of a project.

Be informed, attentive, analytical, and objective. Read all the background information. Read user manuals for instruments and equipment. In many instances the reason for failure may be related to dirty equipment, contaminated reagents, improperly set instruments, poorly chosen conditions, lack of thoroughness, and/or lack of resourcefulness. Repeating a procedure while changing one parameter may work sometimes, while repeating the procedure multiple times without systematic changes and observations probably will not.

When reporting failures or problems, make sure that you have all details at hand. Be thorough in you assessment. Then ask questions. Advisors usually have sufficient experience to detect errors in procedures and are able to lead you in the right direction when the student is able to provide all the necessary details. They also have enough experience to know when to change directions. Many times one result may be unexpected, but it may be interesting enough to lead the investigation into a totally different avenue. Communicate with your advisor/mentor often.

Are there places other than my institution where I can conduct research?

Absolutely! Your school may be close to other universities, government labs and/or industries that offer part-time research opportunities during the academic year. There may also be summer opportunities in these institutions as well as in REU sites (see next question).

Contact your chemistry department advisor first. He/she may have some information readily available for you. You can also contact nearby universities, local industries and government labs directly or through the career center at your school. You can also find listings through ACS resources:

• Research Opportunities (US only)
• International Research Opportunities
• Internships and Summer Jobs

What are Research Experiences for Undergraduates (REU) sites? When should I apply for a position in one of them?

REU is a program established by the National Science Foundation (NSF) to support active research participation by undergraduate students at host institutions in the United States or abroad. An REU site may offer projects within a single department/discipline or it may have projects that are inter-departmental and interdisciplinary. There are currently over 70 domestic and approximately 5 international REU sites with a chemistry theme. Sites consist of 10-12 students each, although there are larger sites that supplement NSF funding with other sources. Students receive stipends and, in most cases, assistance with housing and travel.

Most REU sites invite rising juniors and rising seniors to participate in research during the summer. Experience in research is not required to apply, except for international sites where at least one semester or summer of prior research experience is recommended. Applications usually open around November or December for participation during the following summer. Undergraduate students supported with NSF funds must be citizens or permanent residents of the United States or its possessions. Some REU sites with supplementary funds from other sources may accept international students that are enrolled at US institutions.

• Get more information about REU sites

How do I prepare a scientific research poster?

Here are some links to sites with very useful information and samples.

• How to Prepare a Proper Scientific Paper or Poster
• Creating Effective Poster Presentations
• Designing Effective Poster Presentations

Research and Internship Opportunities

• Internships and Fellowships Find internships, fellowships, and cooperative education opportunities.
• SCI Scholars Internship Program Industrial internships for chemistry and chemical engineering undergraduates.
• ACS International Center Fellowships, scholarships, and research opportunities around the globe

Accept & Close The ACS takes your privacy seriously as it relates to cookies. We use cookies to remember users, better understand ways to serve them, improve our value proposition, and optimize their experience. Learn more about managing your cookies at Cookies Policy .

1155 Sixteenth Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036, USA |  service@acs.org  | 1-800-333-9511 (US and Canada) | 614-447-3776 (outside North America)

• Terms of Use
• Accessibility

Copyright © 2024 American Chemical Society

A guide to research question writing for undergraduate chemistry education research students

Welcome to chemistry education research

There is no doubt that there are particular challenges associated with chemistry students taking up a project that brings together familiar aspects of chemistry with aspects of social sciences that are likely unfamiliar. There is a new world of terminology and literature and approaches that may initially seem insurmountable. However, as chemistry students, you bring something unique to the discussion on education: your expertise in chemistry and your experience of being a chemistry student. The combination of discipline speciality and focus on education has given rise to a new genre of education research, known as discipline based education research, or DBER ( NRC, 2012 ). The focus on chemistry, known as chemistry education research , intends to offer insights into issues affecting teaching and learning of chemistry from the perspective of chemistry, and offers enormous insight into factors affecting learning in our discipline. This journal ( www.rsc.org/cerp ) along with the Journal of Chemical Education published by the American Chemical Society (http://pubs.acs.org/journal/jceda8) and Chemistry Teacher International published for IUPAC (http://www.degruyter.com/view/j/cti) focus on discipline specific issues relating to chemistry education, and their prominence in being associated with major societies in chemistry indicates the high status chemistry education and chemistry education research has attained with the family of chemistry sub-disciplines.

In an attempt to help students new to chemistry education research take some first steps in their research work, this editorial focuses on the important early stage of immersing in project work: deciding what it is you want to research. Other sources of information relating to project work include the associated editorials in this journal describing more fully other parts of conducting research ( Seery et al. , 2019 ), as well as thinking about how theses published as part of university studies compare to education research publications ( Lawrie et al. , 2020 ). These editorials should be useful to students in the planning and writing stages of their research work respectively and, like all articles published in this journal, are free to access. Guidance on completing a literature review in chemistry education research is available online ( Seery, 2017 ).

What do you want to find out? Defining your research question

The “good” news is that this initial experience is very common. The task at the beginning stage of your first project is to determine what general area you would like to research, and narrow this down iteratively until you decide on a particular question you would like to answer. We will go through this process below, but an important thing to keep in mind at this stage is that work on your first project is both about the research you will do and also what you learn about doing research. Choosing a topic of interest is important for your own motivation. But regardless of the topic, doing a project in this field will involve lots of learning about the research processes and this research field. These associated skills and knowledge will likely be of most benefit to you after you complete your dissertation and go on into a future career and further studies.

Deciding on your research topic

Choosing what you want to work on when you are not quite sure of the menu to select from is very difficult. Start by writing down what kinds of things interest you that could form general topics of study. You could structure these using the following prompts:

• What from your own learning experience was satisfactory or unsatisfactory? When did you feel like you really understood something, or when did you feel really lost? Sketch out some thoughts, and discuss with some classmates to see if they had similar experiences. The task is to identify particular topics in chemistry or particular approaches of teaching that emerge, and use those as a basis for narrowing your interest to a specific theme.

• What issues from the media are topical in relation to education? Perhaps there have been changes to assessment approaches in schools, or there is a focus on graduate employability? What issues relating to education are emerging in reaction to the impact of COVID-19? Is there something current that interests you that you would like to focus on?

• Are there societal issues that are important to you? Perhaps you would like to explore the experience or performance of particular groups within education, or look at historical data and research trends. You might wish to explore education policy and subsequent impact in chemistry education.

It is likely that several broad topics will emerge that will be of interest to you. But you only have one year and one project, so you will need to choose one! So before you choose, take a shortlist of about three broad topics that interest you and find out a little more about them. The aim here is to dip your toe in the water of these topics and get a feel for what kinds of things people do, and see which one piques your interest most, and which one has most potential for a meaningful and achievable research project.

To find out a little more, you should engage in preliminary reading. This is not a literature review – the task here is to find one or two recent articles associated with each topic. To achieve this, you could go directly to one of the journal pages linked above and type in some search terms. With each article of interest you retrieve, use the following prompts to guide your reading:

1. The introduction to the article usually sets the context of the research, with some general issues relating to the research in this topic, while the final section of the paper (“limitations” or “conclusions” sections) give some specific detail on what needs further study. Read over these sections: are the issues being discussed of interest to you?

2. The experimental or methods section of the article usually describes the sample used in the study. If you were to research in this area, can you see how questions you are interested in would translate to your setting? While we will discuss scope of research more carefully below, the task here is to put yourself in the moment of doing a research project to think: what would I do? And then ask; does that moment pique your interest?

3. The results and discussion section of the article describes data the researchers report and what they think it means in the wider context of the research area. Again, while the data that you get in your project will depend on what you set out to do, use this reading to see what kind of data is impressing you, and whether you find the discussion of interest.

This kind of “sampling” of the vast literature available is a little ad hoc , but it can be useful to help bring focus on the kinds of research that are feasible and help refine some conversations that you can have with your research supervisor. While embarking on a new project will always have a big “unknown” associated with it, your task is to become as familiar as possible with your chosen topic as you can in advance, so that you are making as informed a decision as possible about your research topic. Once you have – you are ready to continue your research!

From research topic to research question

While we don’t often explicitly state the research question in chemistry research, scientists do have an implicit sense that different questions lean on different areas of theory and require different methods to answer them. We can use some of this basis in translating the context to chemistry education research; namely that the research question and the underpinning theory are clearly interdependent, and the research question we ask will mandate the approaches that we take to answer it.

In fact, in (chemistry) education research, we are very explicit with research questions, and setting out the research question at the start of a study is a major component of the research process ( White, 2008 ). As you will find repeatedly in your project, all the components of a research process are interdependent, so that the research question will determine the methods that will determine the kinds of data you can get, which in turn determine the question you can answer. The research question determines what particular aspect within a general research topic you are going to consider. Blaikie (2000, p. 58) wrote (emphasis in original):

“In my view, formulating research questions is the most critical and, perhaps, the most difficult part of a research design… Establishing research questions makes it possible to select research strategies and methods with confidence. In other words, a research project is built on the foundation of research questions .”

So there is a lot of pressure on research questions! The good news is that while you do need to start writing down your research question near the beginning of the project, it will change during the early stages of scoping out projects when considering feasibility, and as you learn more from reading. It could change as a result of ethical considerations ( Taber, 2014 ). And it will probably change and be fine-tuned as you refine your instruments and embark on your study. So the first time you write out a research question will not be the last. But the act of writing it out, however bluntly at the start, helps set the direction of the project, indicates what methods are likely to be used in the project (those that can help answer the question), and keeps the project focussed when other tempting questions arise and threaten to steer you off-course. So put the kettle on, get out a pen and a lot of paper, and start drafting your first research question!

Defining your research question

To assist your thinking and guide you through this process, an example is used to show how this might happen in practice. In this example, a student has decided that they want to research something related to a general topic of work-experience in chemistry degree programmes. The student had previously completed some work experience in an industrial chemistry laboratory, and knows of peers who have completed it formally as part of their degree programme. The student's experience and anecdotal reports from peers are that this was a very valuable part of their undergraduate studies, and that they felt much more motivated when returning to study in formal teaching at university, as well as having a much clearer idea on their career aspirations after university.

Stage 1: what type of question do you want to answer?

Some foreshadowed questions that might emerge in early stages of this research design might include:

• What kinds of industrial experience options are available to chemistry students?

• What experiences are reported by students on industrial experience?

• Why do some students choose to take up industrial placements?

• How does a students’ perception of their career-related skills change as a result of industrial experience?

• How do students on industrial experience compare to students without such experience?

All of these questions – and you can probably think of many more – are specific to the general topic of industrial experience. But as they stand, they are too broad and need some focussing. To help, we will first think about the general kind of research we want to do ( White, 2008 ).

Types of research

A second broad area of research is explanatory research, which tends to answer questions that start with “how” or “why”. Explanatory research has less of a focus on the subject of the research, and more on the processes the subjects are engaged with, seeking to establish what structures led to observed outcomes so that reasons for them can be elucidated.

A third broad area of research is comparative research, which tends to compare observations or outcomes in two or more different scenarios, using the comparison to identify useful insights into the differences observed. Many people new to education research seek to focus on comparative questions, looking to answer the generic question of is “X” better than “Y”? This is naturally attractive, especially to those with a scientific background, but it is worthwhile being cautious in approaching comparative studies. Even in well-designed research scenarios where research does find that “X” is indeed better than “Y” (and designing those experimental research scenarios is fraught with difficulty in education studies), the question immediately turns to: “but why”? Having richer research about descriptions or explanations associated with one or both of the scenarios is necessary to begin to answer that question.

Let us think again about our foreshadowed questions in the context of general types of question. The aim here is to simply bundle together foreshadowed questions by question type, and using the question type, begin to focus a little more on the particular aspects of interest to us. The intention here is to begin to elaborate on what these general questions would involve in terms of research (beginning to consider feasibility), as well as the kinds of outcomes that might be determined (beginning to consider value of research).

The descriptive questions above could be further explored as follows:

• What kinds of industrial experience options are available to chemistry students? In answering this question, our research might begin to focus on describing the types of industrial experience that are available, their location, their length, placement in the curriculum, and perhaps draw data from a range of universities. In this first iteration, it is clear that this question will provide useful baseline data, but it is unlikely to yield interesting outcomes on its own.

• What experiences are reported by students on industrial experience? In answering this question, we are likely going to focus on interviewing students individually or in groups to find out their experience, guided by whatever particular focus we are interested in, such as questions about motivation, career awareness, learning from placement, etc. This research has the potential to uncover rich narratives informing our understanding of industrial placements from the student perspective.

The explanatory questions above can be further explored as follows:

• How does students’ perception of their career-related skills change as a result of industrial experience? In answering this question, our research would remain focussed on student reports of their experiences, but look at it in the context of their sense of career development, their awareness of development of such skills, or perhaps identifying commonalities that emerge across a cohort of students. This research has the potential to surface such issues and inform the support of career development activities.

• Why do some students choose to take up industrial placements? In answering this question, our research would likely involve finding out more about individual students’ choices. But it is likely to uncover rich seams that can be explored across cohorts – do particular types of students complete placements, or are there any barriers to identify regarding encouraging students to complete placements? “Why” questions tend to throw up a lot of follow-on questions, and their feasibility and scope need to be attended to carefully. But they can offer a lot of insight and power in understanding more deeply issues around particular educational approaches.

The comparative question above can be further explored as follows:

• How do students on industrial experience compare to students without such experience? In answering this question, research might compare educational outcomes or reports of educational experience of students who did and did not complete industrial experience, and draw some inference from that. This type of question is very common among novice researchers, keen to find out whether a particular approach is better or worse, but extreme caution is needed. There may be unobservable issues relating to students who choose particular options that result in other observable measures such as grades, and in uncovering any differences in comparing cohorts, care is needed that an incorrect inference is not made. Handle comparisons with caution!

At this stage, you should pause reading, and dwell on your research topic with the above considerations in mind. Write out some general research areas that have piqued your interest (the foreshadowed questions) and identify them as descriptive, explanatory, or comparative. Use those headline categories to tease out a little more what each question entails: what would research look like, who would it involve, and what information would be obtained (in general terms). From the list of questions you identify, prioritise them in terms of their interest to you. From the exercise above, I think that the “how” question is of most interest to me – I am an educator and therefore am keen to know how we can best support students’ return to studies after being away on placement. I want to know more about difficulties experienced in relation to chemistry concepts during that reimmersion process so that I can make changes and include supports for students. For your research area and your list of foreshadowed questions, you should aim to think about what more focussed topics interest and motivate you, and write out the reason why. This is important; writing it out helps to express your interest and motivation in tangible terms, as well as continuing the process of refining what exactly it is you want to research.

Once you have, we can begin the next stage of writing your research question which involves finding some more context about your research from the literature.

Stage 2: establishing the context for your research

Finding your feet, types of context.

Let's make some of this tangible. In focussing my foreshadowed questions, I have narrowed my interest to considering how students on work experience are aware of their career development, how they acknowledge skills gained, and are able to express that knowledge. Therefore I want to have some theoretical underpinnings to this – what existing work can I lean on that will allow me to further refine my question.

As an example of how reading some literature can help refine the question, consider the notes made about the following two articles.

• A 2017 article that discusses perceived employability among business graduates in an Australian and a UK university, with the latter incorporating work experience ( Jackson and Wilton, 2017 ): this study introduces me to the term “perceived employability”, the extent to which students believe they will be employed after graduation. It highlights the need to consider development of career awareness at the individual level. It discusses the benefits of work experience on perceived employability, although a minimum length is hinted at for this to be effective. It introduces (but does not measure) concepts of self-worth and confidence. Data to inform the paper is collected by a previously published survey instrument. Future work calls for similar studies in other disciplines.

• A 2017 article that discusses undergraduate perceptions of the skills gained from their chemistry degree in a UK university ( Galloway, 2017 ): this study reports on the career relevant skills undergraduate students wished to gain from their degree studies. This study informs us about the extent to which undergraduates are thinking about their career skills, with some comparison between students who were choosing to go on to a chemistry career and those who were considering some other career. It identifies career-related skills students wished to have more of in the chemistry curriculum. Most of the data is collected by a previously published survey. This work helps me locate my general reading in the context of chemistry.

Just considering these two articles and my foreshadowed question, it is possible to clarify the research question a little more. The first article gives some insight into some theoretical issues by introducing a construct of perceived employability – that is something that can be measured (thinking about how something can be measured is called operationalisation). This is related to concepts of self-worth and confidence (something that will seed further reading). Linking this with the second article, we can begin to relate it to chemistry; we can draw on a list of skills that are important to chemistry students (whether or not they intend to pursue chemistry careers), and the perceptions about how they are developed in an undergraduate context. Both articles provide some methodological insights – the use of established surveys to elicit student opinion, and the reporting of career-important skills from the perspective of professional and regulatory bodies for chemistry, as well as chemistry students.

Taking these two readings into account, we might further refine our question. The original foreshadowed question was:

“ How does students’ perception of their career-related skills change as a result of industrial experience? ”

If we wished to draw on the literature just cited, we could refine this to:

“ How does undergraduate chemistry students’ perceived employability and awareness of career-related skills gained change as a result of a year-long industrial placement? ”

This step in focussing is beginning to move the research question development into a phase where particular methods that will answer it begin to emerge. By changing the phrase “perception” to “perceived employability”, we are moving to a particular aspect of perception that could be measured, if we follow methods used in previous studies. We can relate this rather abstract term to the work in chemistry education by also incorporating some consideration of students’ awareness of skills reported to be important for chemistry students. We are also making the details of the study a little more specific; referring to undergraduate chemistry students and the length of the industrial placement. This question then is including:

– The focus of the research: perception of development of career skills.

– The subject of the research: undergraduate chemistry students on placement.

– The data likely to be collected: perceived employment and awareness of career related skills.

It is likely that as more reading is completed, some aspects of this question might change; it may become more refined or more limited in scope. It may change subject from looking at a whole cohort to just one or two individual student journeys. But as the question crystallises, so will the associated methodology and it is important in early readings not to be immediately swayed in one direction or another. Read as broadly as you can, looking at different methods and approaches, and find something that lines up with what it is you want to explore in more detail.

Stage 3: testing your research question

Personal biases.

Whatever we like to tell ourselves, there will always be personal bias. In my own research on learning in laboratories, I have a bias whereby I cannot imagine chemistry programmes without laboratory work ( Seery, 2020 ). If I were to engage in research that examined, for example, the replacement of laboratory work with virtual reality, my personal bias would be that I could not countenance that such an approach could replace the reality of laboratory work. This is a visceral reaction – it is grounded in emotion and personal experience, rather than research, because at the time of writing, little research on this topic exists. Therefore I would need to plan carefully any study that investigated the role of virtual reality in laboratory education to ensure that it was proofed from my own biases, and work hard to ensure that voices or results that challenged my bias were allowed to emerge. The point is that we all have biases, and they need to be openly acknowledged and continually aired. I suggest to my students that they write out their own biases related to their research early in their studies as a useful checkpoint. Any results that come in that agree with the tendency of a bias are scrutinised and challenged in detail. This can be more formally done by writing out a hypothesis, which is essentially a prediction or a preconception of what a finding might be. Hypotheses are just that – they need to be tested against evidence that is powerful enough to confirm or refute them.

Bias can also emerge in research questions. Clearly, our research question written in the format: “why are industrial placements so much better than a year of lecture courses?” is exposing the bias of the author plainly. Biases can be more subtle. Asking leading questions such as “what are the advantages of…” or “what additional benefits are there to…” are not quite as explicitly biased, but there is an implicit suggestion that there will be advantages and benefits. Your research question should not pre-empt the outcome; to do so negates the power of your research. Similarly, asking dichotomous questions (is placement or in-house lecturing best?) implies the assumption that one or the other is “best”, when the reality is that both may have distinct advantages and drawbacks, and a richer approach is to explore what each of those are.

Question scope

Feasibility relates to lots of aspects of the project. In our study on industrial experience, the question asks how something will change, and this immediately implies that we will at least find out what the situation was at the beginning of the placement and at some point during or after the placement. Will that be feasible? Researchers should ask themselves how they will access those they wish to research. This becomes a particular challenge if the intention is to research students based in a different institution. The question should also be reviewed to ensure that it is feasible to achieve an answer with the resources you have to hand. Asking for example, whether doing an industrial placement influences future career choices would be difficult to answer as it would necessitate tracking down a sufficient sample of people who had (and had not) completed placements, and finding a robust way of exploring the influence of placement on their career choice. This might be feasible, but not in the timeframe or with the budget you have assigned to you. Finally, feasibility in terms of what you intend to explore should be considered. In our example research question, we have used the term “perceived employability”, as this is defined and described in previous literature with an instrument that can elicit some value associated with it. Care is needed when writing questions to ensure that you are seeking to find something that can be measured.

Of course researchers will naturally over-extend their research intentions, primarily because that initial motivation they have tapped into will prompt an eagerness to find out as much as possible about their topic of study. One way of addressing this is to write out a list of questions that draw from the main research question, with each one addressing some particular aspect of the research question. For our main research question:

we could envisage some additional related questions:

(a) Are there differences between different types of placement?

(b) Are the observations linked to experience on placement or some other factors?

(c) What career development support did students get during placement?

(d) How did students’ subsequent career plans change as a result of placement?

And the list could go on (and on). Writing out a list of related questions allows you to elaborate on as many aspects of the main question as you can. The task now is to prioritise them. You may find that in prioritising them, one of these questions itself becomes your main question. Or that you will have a main question and a list of subsidiary questions. Subsidiary questions are those which relate to the main question but take a particular focus on some aspect of the research. A good subsidiary question to our main question is question (a), above. This will drill down into the data we collect in the main question and elicit more detail. Care should be taken when identifying subsidiary questions. Firstly, subsidiary questions need to be addressed in full and with the same consideration as the main questions. Research that reports subsidiary question findings that are vague or not fully answered is poor, and undermines the value and power of the findings from the main research questions. If you don’t think you can address it in the scope of your study, it is best to leave it out. Secondly, questions that broaden the scope of the study rather than lead to a deeper focus are not subsidiary questions but rather are ancillary questions. These are effectively new and additional questions to your main research, and it is unlikely that you will have the time or scope to consider them in this iteration. Question (d) is an example of an ancillary question.

Question structure

The length of a research question is the subject of much discussion, and in essence, your question needs to be as long as it needs to be, but no longer. Questions that are too brief will not provide sufficient context for the research, whereas those that are too long will likely confuse the reader as to what it is you are actually looking to do. New researchers tend to write overly long questions, and tactics to address this include thinking about whether the question includes too many aspects. Critiquing my own question, I would point out that I am asking two things in one question – change in perceived employability and change in awareness of career-related skills gained – and if I were to shorten it, I could refer to each of those aspects in subsidiary questions instead. This would clarify that there are two components to the research, and while related, each will have their own data collection requirements and analysis protocols.

Research questions should be written as clearly as possible. While we have mentioned issues relating to language to ensure it is understandable, language issues also need to be considered in our use of terms. Words such as “frequent” or “effective” or “successful” are open to interpretation, and are best avoided, using more specific terms instead ( Kane, 1984 ). The word “significant” in education research has a specific meaning derived from statistical testing, and should only be used in that context. Care is needed when referring to groups of people as well. Researching “working class” students’ experiences on industrial placement is problematic, as the term is vague and can be viewed as emotive. It is better to use terms that can be more easily defined and better reflect a cohort profile (for example, “first generation” refers to students who are the first in their family to attend university) or terms that relate to government classifications, such as particular postcodes assigned a socio-economic status based on income.

As well as clarity with language, research questions should aim to be as precise as possible. Vagueness in research questions relating to what is going to be answered or what the detail of the research is in terms of sample or focus can lead to vagueness in the research itself, as the researcher will not have a clear guide to keep them focussed during the research process. Check that your question and any subsidiary questions are focussed on researching a specific aspect within a defined group for a clear purpose.

Moving on from research question writing

• Blaikie N., (2000), Designing social research , Oxford: Blackwell.
• Galloway K. W., (2017), Undergraduate perceptions of value: degree skills and career skills, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. , 18 (3), 435–440.
• Jackson D. and Wilton N., (2017), Perceived employability among undergraduates and the importance of career self-management, work experience and individual characteristics, High. Educ. Res. Dev. , 36 (4), 747–762.
• Kane E., (1984), Doing Your Own Research: Basic Descriptive Research in the Social Sciences and Humanities , London: Marion Boyars.
• Lawrie G. A., Graulich N., Kahveci A. and Lewis S. E., (2020), Steps towards publishing your thesis or dissertation research: avoiding the pitfalls in turning a treasured tome into a highly-focussed article for CERP, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. , 21 (3), 694–697.
• NRC, (2012), Discipline-based education research: Understanding and improving learning in undergraduate science and engineering , National Academies Press.
• RSC, (2015), Accreditation of Degree Programmes , Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry.
• Seery M. K., (2009), The role of prior knowledge and student aptitude in undergraduate performance in chemistry: a correlation-prediction study, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. , 10 (3), 227–232.
• Seery M. K., (2017), How to do a literature review when studying chemistry education. Retrieved from http://michaelseery.com/how-to-do-a-literature-review-when-studying-chemistry-education/.
• Seery M. K., (2020), Establishing the Laboratory as the Place to Learn How to Do Chemistry, J. Chem. Educ. , 97 (6), 1511–1514.
• Seery M. K., Kahveci A., Lawrie G. A. and Lewis S. E., (2019), Evaluating articles submitted for publication in Chemistry Education Research and Practice, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. , 20 , 335–339.
• Taber K. S., (2014), Ethical considerations of chemistry education research involving ‘human subjects’, Chem. Educ. Res. Pract. , 15 (2), 109–113.
• White P., (2008), Developing Research Questions: A Guide for Social Scientists , Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.

Chemistry :: Peppers: APA style

• Chemistry Resources
• Research Paper

Citation Builders

Electronic manual for apa style.

• In-Text Citations: The Basics
• APA Format Citation Guide
• APA Style Blog

APA Formatting Videos

If your'e wondering how to insert a page header, adjust margins, and indent paragraphs, the following videos, created by Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL), may be helpful:

APA Help Docs

What is the major difference between the citation styles?

  mla format.

is used in most literature , arts , and humanities courses. These fields place emphasis on authorship . Because of this emphasis on the author of the work, most MLA citation involves recording the author’s name prominently in the in-text citation with no mention of the date. The author’s name is also the first to appear in the “Works Cited” page at the end of the essay.

  APA Format

is used most often in psychology , education , nursing , and other social sciences . These fields place emphasis on the date a work is created. Because of this emphasis on the date the work was created, the date will appear prominently in the citations. The in-text citation will include the date. The date is also placed immediately after the author's name in the each citation on the Reference page.

  Chicago Style

used most in history  courses. History places much emphasis on primary sources, so footnotes and endnotes are used in the text to demonstrate where a particular piece of information derived from.

• << Previous: Research Paper
• Last Updated: Aug 13, 2024 10:02 AM
• URL: https://guides.matc.edu/peppers

Chemistry Research Guide

• Chemistry Home
• Browsing Chemistry Topics
• Scholarly Articles
• How to Read a Scientific Article
• Books & Ebooks
• Streaming Video
• Citation Styles

ACS (American Chemical Society)

ACS (American Chemical Society)  has its own citation style. It is used for academic writing in chemistry.

See the  ACS Guide to Scholarly Communication,   Chapter 4, ACS Style Quick Guide , for more information.

Create and check your citations with one of these APA style guides:

APA Style Quick Guide from PCC Library Includes guidelines and examples of APA citations for commonly used formats (book, article, and website).

APA Formatting and Style Guide from OWL Purdue Includes more in-depth examples for the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations, and References pages.

Create and check your citations using one of these MLA style guides:

• MLA Style "Quick Guide" from PCC

Includes guidelines and examples of MLA citations.

• MLA Formatting and Style Guide from OWL Purdue

Examples for the general format of MLA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and Works Cited pages.

• MLA Handbook, 9th Edition

The MLA Handbook guides writers through the principles behind evaluating sources for their research. It then shows them how to cite sources in their writing and create useful entries for the works-cited list.

PCC Library has several copies located at the Reference Desk and Circulation Desk.

Call Number: LB2369 .G53 2021

• Setting up "hanging indents"

Walks through setting up "hanging indents" in Microsoft Word and Google Docs

• << Previous: Websites
• Next: Get Help >>
• Last Updated: Aug 27, 2024 11:36 AM
• URL: https://libguides.pasadena.edu/chemistry

• Harvard Library
• Research Guides
• Faculty of Arts & Sciences Libraries

Chemistry Resources for Graduate Students

Literature review.

• Getting Started
• Library Databases
• Find Dissertations and Theses
• Managing Citations
• Managing Your Academic Identity  
• Research Data Management
• Helpful Tools
• Library seminars

Reviewing the Literature: Why do it?

• Personal: To familiarize yourself with a new area of research, to get an overview of a topic, so you don't want to miss something important, etc.
• Required writing for a journal article, thesis or dissertation, grant application, etc.

Literature reviews vary; there are many ways to write a literature review based on discipline, material type, and other factors.

Background:

• Literature Reviews - UNC Writing Center
• Literature Reviews: An Overview for Graduate Students  - What is a literature review? What purpose does it serve in research? What should you expect when writing one? - NCSU Video

Where to get help (there are lots of websites, blogs , articles,  and books on this topic) :

• The Center for writing and Communicating Ideas (CWCI)
• (these are non-STEM examples: dissertation guidance , journal guidelines )
• How to prepare a scientific doctoral dissertation based on research articles (2012)
• Writing a graduate thesis or dissertation (2016)
• The good paper : a handbook for writing papers in higher education (2015)
• Proposals that work : a guide for planning dissertations and grant proposals (2014)
• Theses and dissertations : a guide to planning, research, and writing (2008)
• Talk to your professors, advisors, mentors, peers, etc. for advice

READ related material and pay attention to how others write their literature reviews:

• Dissertations
• Journal articles
• Grant proposals
• << Previous: Find Dissertations and Theses
• Next: Managing Citations >>
• Last Updated: Sep 13, 2023 2:15 PM
• URL: https://guides.library.harvard.edu/CCBGrad

Harvard University Digital Accessibility Policy

WashU Libraries

Chemistry writing resources.

• Writing a Research Paper or Lab Report

Parts of a Reference

Formatting for different types of references, citation management software.

• Return to Main Chemistry Guide

When using sources and references, it is important and necessary to give credit to the original author and work by properly citing the source. Citing sources and references properly allows for the correct reference to be located.  In order to cite correctly and obtain the proper full-text article it is necessary to know the different parts that make up a citation to obtain access to the article.

Primary literature like journal articles will be the most common kind of reference used when writing lab reports and research papers.

When citing a journal article using the American Chemical Society (ACS) format, the citation contains the following elements: 

An ACS reference citation lists information in the following order and formatting for journal articles :

• Author: The authors are listed by their last name then their first and middle initials in regular font in the order they appear in the byline
• Title of Article: The title of the article is written in regular font*
• Journal:  The title of the Journal is italicized; journal abbreviations can be found at https://cassi.cas.org/search.jsp
• Year: The year the article was published is formatted in bold font
• Volume: The volume of the article comes after the year and is italicized
• Issue: If the article has an issue number, it is listed after the volume, is not italicized, and is enclosed in parentheses
• Page Numbers:  The page numbers of the cited article are listed in regular font

* depending on the journal, the title of the article is not always included as part of the reference

References should be cited in the text of a paper in one of the following ways: with an italicized number, a superscript number, or withe first author name and year of publication.  References should be numbered sequentially; when citing more than one reference, each reference should be listed with an increasing number and should be separated with a comma.  As always, check the publication or with your instructor for the proper or desired style for citations and reference lists.

Different types of references (e.g. Journal Articles vs. Books) have different citation formats.  

Proper formatting for different reference sources can be found in Chapter 14 , Table 14-2 of the ACS Style Guide, and formatting styles of common references can be found below.

Format 1:  Author 1, Author 2, Author 3, etc.  Title of Article.  Journal Abbreviation Year, Volume , Pages cited.

Nguyen, S. T.; Johnson, L. K.; Grubbs, R. H.; Ziller, J. W. Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) of Norbornene by a Group VIII Carbene Complex in Protic Media. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992 , 114 (10), 3974–3975.

Format 2:   Author 1, Author 2, Author 3, etc.  Journal Abbreviation Year, Volume , Pages cited.

Nguyen, S. T.; Johnson, L. K.; Grubbs, R. H.; Ziller, J. W. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1992 , 114 (10), 3974–3975.

Authors are listed by their last name then their first and middle initials in the order they appear in the byline.

Article titles are not required in reference citations, but inclusion of the title can be useful for indicating the contents of a paper and for helping to locate the specific reference. Some ACS publications include the article title in journal references, and some do not.  So, it is important when citing references to check the requirements of the publication.

The minimum amount of information required for a book citation is the author or editor, book title, publisher, city of publication, and year of publication. Page numbers can and should be included when specific pages in a book are being cited, but are not necessary if the book is being cited as a whole.

Book Chapter/Book with Editors: Author 1; Author 2 Title of Chapter. In Title of Book ;   Editor 1, Editor 2, Eds. Name of Publisher: City, Year of Publication; Page Numbers.

Minch, Eric Dynamics and Complexity in Systems Biology Modeling: Theoretical Challenges in Metabolic Simulation. In Bioinformatics and Genomes Currents Perspectives ; Andrade, M.A. ed. Horizon Scientific: Norfolk, England. 2003; pp123-140.

Author 1, Author 2 Title of Book ; Editor 1, Editor 2, Eds. Name of Publisher: City, Year of Publication; Page Numbers.

Perez-Iratxeta, Carolina; Andrade, Miguel A. In Bioinformatics and Genomes Currents Perspectives ; Andrade, M.A. ed. Horizon Scientific: Norfolk, England. 2003; pp 141-152.

Note:  In some cases the title of the chapter is included and may be useful for finding the specific chapter or work being referenced.  The use of the word "In" prior to the title of the book is used to indicate that the authors wrote part of the book, but not the whole book.

Book without editors: Author 1, Author 2 Title of Book ; Name of Publisher: City, Year of Publication; Page Numbers.

Carpenter, Barry K. Determination of Organic Reaction Mechanisms ; Wiley: New York, 1984.

Book in a Series: Author 1, Author 2 . Title of Chapter. In Title of Book ; Editor 1, Editor 2, Eds.; Name of Publisher: City, Year of Publication; Volume, Page Numbers.

Vogt, Emil; Hansen, Anne S.; Kjaergaard, Henrick, G.  Local Modes of Vibration: The Effect of Low-Frequency Vibrations. In Molecular Spectroscopy: A Quantum Chemistry Approach ; Ozaki, Y.; Wojcik, M.J.; Popp, J; Eds.; Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KgaA: Weinham, Germany, 2019; Volume 2, pp 389-424.

Author 1, Author 2. Title of  Website. URL (date accessed)

Nyant, Anak.  Physical Chemistyr: 7 tips to Approach Problems in Physical Chemistry. https://www.toppr.com/bytes/7-tips-to-excel-in-physical-chemistry/ (accessed January 8, 2020)

The ACS Style Guide. https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/bk-2006-STYG (accessed January 5, 2020)

Note: Required information for a website includes the site title, URL, and access date. The author of the site should be included if available

Author 1, Author 2 Name of Patent. Country and Patent Number, Date of Patent Submission.

Straubinger, R.M., Sharma, A., Mayhew, E. Taxol Formulation. United States US5415869A, May 16, 1995.

Citation of reference management software provides a method for keeping track of articles, books, web pages, and more as you find them during the course of your research or literature searching.  Most citation management software provides similar and useful functions that may include: 

• storing all references in one location 
• providing organization and management of many references
• sharing references or collections of references with collaborators
• generating bibliographies or reference lists in the proper format/style for a giving manuscript or discipline
• allowing writers to use a "cite while write" function

The library has a gude that provides some guidance on picking the citation management software that will work best for you 

How to Chose: Zotero, Mendeley, or Endnote

• Can gather citations for PDF content
• Can easily gather citations for non-PDF content (e.g. websites, artwork, manuscripts)
• Works well with many catalogs and databases
• Can drag and drop a PDF into Zotero to create a citation record
• Can sync online and desktop libraries
• Can create groups with other Zotero users to create shared libraries
• Zotero has useful guides and online support:  www.zotero.org/support/
• WUSTL Libraries has a helpful guide and provides support for Zotero:  libguides.wustl.edu/zotero
• Works well with catalogs and Elsevier databases
• Can drag and drop and PDF into Mendeley to create a citation record
• Mendeley has an integrated PDF viewer
• Can find related references online through your Mendeley account (automatic look up process)
• Can collaborate and join “Groups” in Mendeley online that have similar research interests to share references and/or libraries
• Can create Groups with other Mendeley users to share libraries
• Can share and edit a library or annotate PDFs with another Mendeley user simultaneously. 
• Mendeley has excellent online support:  www.mendeley.com/guides
• << Previous: Writing a Research Paper or Lab Report
• Next: Return to Main Chemistry Guide >>
• Last Updated: Jun 10, 2024 2:38 PM
• URL: https://libguides.wustl.edu/chemwriting

DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln

Home > Chemistry > Dissertations, Theses, and Student Research

Chemistry, Department of

Department of chemistry: dissertations, theses, and student research.

Characterizing and Developing Chemistry Students’ Data Analysis and Interpretation of Chemical Data , Stephanie A. Berg

Halide Exchange and Transport in Halide Perovskite Lattices , Temban Acha Billy

Soft Microreactors for the Deposition of Microstructures and the Related Surface Chemistries of Polymeric Materials , Jessica Wagner

Synthesis and Study of High-Spin Stable Organic Radicals for Electrical Conductors and Mannosamine Nitroxide for MRI Contrast Agents , Shuyang Zhang

Designing Experiments: The Impact of Peer Review Structure on Organic Chemistry Students' Experimental Designs , Katie Patterson

Study of halide gradient formation via solution-solid halide exchange in crystalline CH 3 NH 3 PbBr 3 thin films , Behnaz Akbari

Oxygen Binding Thermodynamics of Human Hemoglobin in the Red Blood Cell , Kyle K. Hill

Developing Techniques for the Identification of Non-Canonical RNA Pairing and Analysis of LC-MS Datasets , Christopher Jurich

Surface Functionalization of Elastomers for Tunable Crystal Growth and Smart Adhesives , John Kapitan

Issue of False Amphetamine Field Test Positives Caused By Sugar. Use of Baeyer Test as a Secondary Test Solution. , Reed A. Knutson, Jennah Duncan, Kara Peightal, and Samuel Thomas

Harnessing Surface Chemistry and Instabilities in Silicone Elastomers to Synthesize Adaptive Systems with Mechanically Tunable Surface Properties and Functionality , Ali Jamal Mazaltarim

How Oxygen-Binding Affects Structural Evolution of Even-Sized Gold Anion Clusters. (Size Range 20 to 34) , David Brunken-Deibert

Analysis of Hydroxychloroquine Interaction with Serum Proteins by High Performance Affinity Chromatography , Kyungah Suh, Sadia Sharmeen, and David S. Hage

The Application and Development of Metabolomics Methodologies for the Profiling of Food and Cellular Toxicity , Jade Woods

Evaluation of the Overall Binding of Acetohexamide and Tolbutamide with Methyl Glyoxal-Modified HSA by High-Performance Affinity Chromatography , Ashley G. Woolfork and David S. Hage

C(sp2)-C(sp3) Cross-Coupling of Aryl Halides and Active C(sp3)-H Bonds via Dual Catalysis: Organic Photocatalysis/Nickel Redox Catalysis , Nicholas Armada

Phosphonate-Directed Catalytic Asymmetric Hydroboration: Synthesis of Functionalized Chiral Secondary and Tertiary Boronic Esters and Mechanistic Insights , Suman Chakrabarty

COMPUTATIONAL STUDIES OF THERMAL PROPERTIES AND DESALINATION PERFORMANCE OF LOW-DIMENSIONAL MATERIALS , Yang Hong

QUANTUM CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS APPLIED TO SOMO-HOMO CONVERSION AND VIBRATIONALLY AVERAGED NMR SHIELDING PARAMETERS , Erik Johnson

Design and Synthesis of Stable Aminyl and Nitroxide Radical Precursors , Joshua Bryan Lovell

Development of Nanomaterial Supports for the Study of Affinity-Based Analytes Using Ultra-Thin Layer Chromatography , Allegra Pekarek

ANALYSIS OF DRUG-PROTEIN INTERACTIONS DURING DIABETES BY HIGH-PERFORMANCE AFFINITY CHROMATOGRAPHY , Pingyang Tao

Electropolymerization and Characterization of Thin Film Dielectrics , Christopher White II

Synthesis, Characterization, and Catalytic Activity of Copper Palladium Oxide Solid Solutions. , Gregory L. Christensen

GLOBAL MINIMUM SEARCH AND CARBON MONOXIDE BINDING STUDIES OF NOVEL GOLD NANOCLUSTERS , Navneet S. Khetrapal

Mass Spectrometry and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in the Chemometric Analysis of Cellular Metabolism , Eli Riekeberg

Ultrafast Affinity Extraction and High-Performance Affinity Chromatography Applications for Measuring Free Drug Fractions: Interactions of Sulfonylurea Drugs with Normal and Glycated Human Serum Albumin , Bao Yang

DEVELOPMENT OF ENTRAPMENT COLUMNS FOR THE STUDY OF AFFINITY BASED ANALYSIS OF DRUG-PROTEIN INTERACTIONS , Shiden T. Azaria

Chemical Vapor Deposition of Two-Dimensional Materials and Heterostructures , Alex J. Boson

Bioinformatic and Biophysical Analyses of Proteins , Jonathan Catazaro

Developing Functionalized Peroxide Precursors for the Synthesis of Cyclic and Spirocyclic Ethers , Anna J. Diepenbrock

Decarboxylative Elimination for the Systhesis of Olefins Via Photoredox/Cobalt Dual Catalysis , Renjie Gui

Enantioselective γ- and δ -Borylation of Unsaturated Carbonyl Derivatives: Synthesis, Mechanistic Insights, and Applications. , Gia L. Hoang

Entrapment of proteins in high-performance affinity columns for chromatographic studies of drug-protein interactions , Saumen Poddar, Elliott Rodriguez, Shiden Azaria, and David S. Hage

Genetic Code Expansion in Biochemical Investigations and Biomedical Applications , Nanxi Wang

Applying the Diffusion of Innovation Theory to Characterize STEM Faculty Attending Professional Development Programs , Dihua Xue

Who is attending pedagogical workshops? Applying the Innovation Diffusion to Characterize Faculty Attendees , Victoria Dihua Xue, Trisha Vickrey, and Marilyne Stains

Genetically Encoded Fluorescent Protein Biosensor for Nitric Oxide , Wenjia Zhai

STUDIES IN DIRECTED CATALYTIC ASYMMETRIC HYDROBORATION OF 1,2-DISUBSTITUTED UNSATURATED AMIDE , Shuyang Zhang

Synthesis and Applications of Cyclobutenes , Benjamin Enns

Binding of Oxygen to Human Hemoglobin Within the Erythrocyte Using ICAM Spectrophotometry , Kyle K. Hill

Design and Synthesis of Novel Octacarboxy Porphyrinic Metal-Organic Frameworks , Jacob A. Johnson

Development of a Direct Activity Probe for Rho-Associated Protein Kinase , Maia Kelly

Thermolysis of Hypervalent Iodine Complexes: Synthesis of Fluorinated Radiotracers for Positron Emission Tomography and Synthesis of Quaternary α-Alkyl α-Aryl Amino Acids , Jayson J. Kempinger

Synthesis and Applications of Lanthanide Sulfides and Oxides , Christopher Marin

SELECTIVE IODINATION USING DIARYLIODONIUM SALTS , William H. Miller IV

MOLECULAR MECHANISM FOR THE BIOSYNTHESIS AND REGULATION OF SECONDARY METABOLITES IN LYSOBACTER , Simon Tesfamichael Tombosa

STUDIES IN ASYMMETRIC CATALYSIS: SUPRAMOLECULAR CATALYSIS AND BORANE-ASSISTED HYDROGENATION , Kazuya Toyama

Molecular Mechanism for the Biosynthesis of Antifungal HSAF and Antibacterial WAP-8294A2 , Haotong Chen

Toward the Probing of DHQS Activity by Protein Engineering through the Introduction of Unnatural Amino Acids and the Selection of tRNA/tRNA Synthetase Pairs , Shaina E. Ives

Toward an Expanded Role for Collision-Induced Dissociation in Glycoproteomic Analysis , Venkata Kolli

New Methods for Synthesis of Organic Peroxides and Application of Peroxide Electrophiles to Synthesis of Functionalized Ethers , Shiva Kumar Kyasa

Chromatographic Analysis of Drug-Protein Interactions During Diabetes and Characterization of Human Serum Albumin Through Multidimensional Mass Spectrometry , Ryan E. Matsuda

THREE-DIMENSIONAL SCAFFOLDS OF GRAPHENE, CARBON NANOTUBES AND TRANSITION-METAL OXIDES FOR APPLICATIONS IN ELECTRONICS, SENSORS AND ENERGY STORAGE , Gilbert N. Mbah

TOWARD THE MEASUREMENT OF BIODISTRIBUTION OF 18 F-LABELED INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS WITH POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET) , Katelyenn S. McCauley

Investigations into the Molecular Mechanisms of Bacterial Pathogen-Host Interactions: Construction of a Dual Plasmid System for Incorporation of Unnatural Amino Acids into Pseudomonas syringae pv. tomato DC3000 , Scotty D. Raber

Applications of High Performance Affinity Chromatography with High Capacity Stationary Phases Made by Entrapment , John A. Vargas Badilla

Uses of Diaryliodonium Salts and Methods for their Synthesis , Jordan M. Veness

The intersection of nuclear magnetic resonance and quantum chemistry , Yali Wang

Chemometric and Bioinformatic Analyses of Cellular Biochemistry , Bradley Worley

Analysis of Free Solute Fractions and Solute-Protein Interactions Using Ultrafast Affinity Extraction and Affinity Microcolumns , Xiwei Zheng

The 8-Silyloxyquinoline Scaffold as a Versatile Platform for the Sensitive Detection of Aqueous Fluoride , Xinqi Zhou

Nanostructured Cerium Oxide Based Catalysts: Synthesis, Physical Properties, and Catalytic Performance , Yunyun Zhou

Hydrolytically Stable Analogues of Sugar Phosphates and a Miniaturized in Situ Enzymatic Screen , Xiang Fei

Development and Application of Combined Quantum Mechanical and Molecular Mechanical Methods , Rui Lai

Syntheses of Aminyl Diradicals and Nitroxide Tetra- and Octaradicals , Arnon Olankitwanit

Analysis of Drug Interactions with Lipoproteins by High Performance Affinity Chromatography , Matthew R. Sobansky

Studies in Asymmetric Synthesis: Supramolecular Catalysis, C-H Activation, and D-Cycloserine Synthesis , Nathan C. Thacker

Application of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Based Metabolomics to Study the Central Metabolism of Staphylococci , Bo Zhang

IMPLEMENTATION AND APPLICATION OF THE MMFF94 FORCE FIELD , Hongbo Zhu

The Electrochemical Analysis of Bovine Bone Derived Supercapacitors, Organic Peroxide Explosives, and Conducting Polymer Nanojunctions , Paul Goodman

The Development and Applications of NMR Metabolomics Analysis of Bacterial Metabolomes , Steven M. Halouska

Utilizing NMR Spectroscopy and Molecular Docking as Tools for the Structural Determination and Functional Annotation of Proteins , Jaime Stark

A. Catalysis of CO-PROX by Water-Soluble Rhodium Fluorinated Porphyrins B. Studies toward Fluorination of Electron Rich Aromatics by Nucleophilic Fluoride , Shri Harsha Uppaluri

Regulation of Secondary Metabolism in Lysobacter enzymogenes : Studies of Intercellular and Intracellular Signaling , Stephen J. Wright

DIRECTED CATALYTIC ASYMMETRIC HYDROBORATION OF 1,1-DISUBSTITUTED ALKENES , Mohammad Odeh Bani Khaled

I. Synthesis of β-Sitosterol and Phytosterol Esters; II. New Methodology for Singlet Oxygen Generation from 1,1-Dihydroperoxides , Jiliang Hang

Experimental and Theoretical Studies in Solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance , Monica N. Kinde

Experimental and Theoretical Studies in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance , John D. Persons

RHODIUM-CATALYZED HYDROBORATION OF 1,1-DISUBSTITUTED ALKENES , Scott A. Pettibone

INVESTIGATIONS OF INTER- AND INTRAMOLECULAR C-O BOND FORMING REACTIONS OF PEROXIDE ELECTROPHILES , Benjamin W. Puffer

The Use of Rhenium (VII) Oxide as a Catalyst for the Substution of Hemiacetals , Michael W. Richardson

Characterization of Novel Macrocyclic Polyether Modified Pseudostationary Phases for use in Micellar Electrokinetic Chromatography and Development of a Chemiluminescence Presumptive Assay for Peroxide-based Explosives , Raychelle Burks

Preparation and Characterization of Biomimetic Hydroxyapatite-Resorbable Polymer Composites for Hard Tissue Repair , Kristopher R. Hiebner

High Yield Synthesis of Positron Emission Tomography Ligands for Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor Imaging , Saraanne E. Hitchcock

Optimization and Implementation of Entrapment: A Novel Immobilization Technique for High-performance Affinity Chromatography , Abby J. Jackson

Fabrication and Catalytic Property of Cerium Oxide Nanomaterials , Keren Jiang

Affinity Chromatography in Environmental Analysis and Drug-Protein Interaction Studies , Efthimia Papastavros

Development and Optimization of Organic Based Monoliths for Use in Affinity Chromatography , Erika L. Pfaunmiller

I. An Improved Procedure for Alkene Ozonolysis. II. Exploring a New Structural Paradigm for Peroxide Antimalarials. , Charles Edward Schiaffo

QUANTUM MECHANICAL AND MOLECULAR MECHANICAL STUDY OF SOLVENT EFFECTS , Dejun Si

Resorbable Polymer-Hydroxyapatite Composites for Bone Trauma Treatment: Synthesis and Properties , Troy E. Wiegand

PURIFICATION OF LYSINE DECARBOXYLASE: A MODEL SYSTEM FOR PLP ENZYME INHIBITOR DEVELOPMENT AND STUDY , Leah C. Zohner

Characterization of Glycation Sites on Human Serum Albumin using Mass Spectrometry , Omar S. Barnaby

HIGH TEMPERATURE RARE EARTH COMPOUNDS: SYNTHESIS, CHARACTERIZATION AND APPLICATIONS IN DEVICE FABRICATION , Joseph R. Brewer

Classification, Synthesis and Characterization of Pyridyl Porphyrin Frameworks , Lucas D. DeVries

Ultrasonic Activation of Triacetone Triperoxide , LaTravia R. Dobson

Characteristics and Stability of Oxide Films on Plutonium Surfaces , Harry Guillermo García Flores

Controlling Reductive Elimination From Novel I(III) Salts Using a SECURE Method , Joseph W. Graskemper

Advanced Search

Search Help

• Notify me via email or RSS
• Administrator Resources
• How to Cite Items From This Repository
• Copyright Information
• Collections
• Disciplines

Author Corner

• Guide to Submitting
• Submit your paper or article
• Chemistry Website

Home | About | FAQ | My Account | Accessibility Statement

Privacy Copyright