civil war essay summary

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By: History.com Editors

Updated: April 20, 2023 | Original: October 15, 2009

The Civil War in the United States began in 1861, after decades of simmering tensions between northern and southern states over slavery, states’ rights and westward expansion. The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 caused seven southern states to secede and form the Confederate States of America; four more states soon joined them. The War Between the States, as the Civil War was also known, ended in Confederate surrender in 1865. The conflict was the costliest and deadliest war ever fought on American soil, with some 620,000 of 2.4 million soldiers killed, millions more injured and much of the South left in ruin.

Causes of the Civil War

In the mid-19th century, while the United States was experiencing an era of tremendous growth, a fundamental economic difference existed between the country’s northern and southern regions.

In the North, manufacturing and industry was well established, and agriculture was mostly limited to small-scale farms, while the South’s economy was based on a system of large-scale farming that depended on the labor of Black enslaved people to grow certain crops, especially cotton and tobacco.

Growing abolitionist sentiment in the North after the 1830s and northern opposition to slavery’s extension into the new western territories led many southerners to fear that the existence of slavery in America —and thus the backbone of their economy—was in danger.

Did you know? Confederate General Thomas Jonathan Jackson earned his famous nickname, "Stonewall," from his steadfast defensive efforts in the First Battle of Bull Run (First Manassas). At Chancellorsville, Jackson was shot by one of his own men, who mistook him for Union cavalry. His arm was amputated, and he died from pneumonia eight days later.

In 1854, the U.S. Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act , which essentially opened all new territories to slavery by asserting the rule of popular sovereignty over congressional edict. Pro- and anti-slavery forces struggled violently in “ Bleeding Kansas ,” while opposition to the act in the North led to the formation of the Republican Party , a new political entity based on the principle of opposing slavery’s extension into the western territories. After the Supreme Court’s ruling in the Dred Scott case (1857) confirmed the legality of slavery in the territories, the abolitionist John Brown’s raid at Harper’s Ferry in 1859 convinced more and more southerners that their northern neighbors were bent on the destruction of the “peculiar institution” that sustained them. Abraham Lincoln ’s election in November 1860 was the final straw, and within three months seven southern states—South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas—had seceded from the United States.

Outbreak of the Civil War (1861)

Even as Lincoln took office in March 1861, Confederate forces threatened the federal-held Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. On April 12, after Lincoln ordered a fleet to resupply Sumter, Confederate artillery fired the first shots of the Civil War. Sumter’s commander, Major Robert Anderson, surrendered after less than two days of bombardment, leaving the fort in the hands of Confederate forces under Pierre G.T. Beauregard. Four more southern states—Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee—joined the Confederacy after Fort Sumter. Border slave states like Missouri, Kentucky and Maryland did not secede, but there was much Confederate sympathy among their citizens.

Though on the surface the Civil War may have seemed a lopsided conflict, with the 23 states of the Union enjoying an enormous advantage in population, manufacturing (including arms production) and railroad construction, the Confederates had a strong military tradition, along with some of the best soldiers and commanders in the nation. They also had a cause they believed in: preserving their long-held traditions and institutions, chief among these being slavery.

In the First Battle of Bull Run (known in the South as First Manassas) on July 21, 1861, 35,000 Confederate soldiers under the command of Thomas Jonathan “Stonewall” Jackson forced a greater number of Union forces (or Federals) to retreat towards Washington, D.C., dashing any hopes of a quick Union victory and leading Lincoln to call for 500,000 more recruits. In fact, both sides’ initial call for troops had to be widened after it became clear that the war would not be a limited or short conflict.

The Civil War in Virginia (1862)

George B. McClellan —who replaced the aging General Winfield Scott as supreme commander of the Union Army after the first months of the war—was beloved by his troops, but his reluctance to advance frustrated Lincoln. In the spring of 1862, McClellan finally led his Army of the Potomac up the peninsula between the York and James Rivers, capturing Yorktown on May 4. The combined forces of Robert E. Lee and Jackson successfully drove back McClellan’s army in the Seven Days’ Battles (June 25-July 1), and a cautious McClellan called for yet more reinforcements in order to move against Richmond. Lincoln refused, and instead withdrew the Army of the Potomac to Washington. By mid-1862, McClellan had been replaced as Union general-in-chief by Henry W. Halleck, though he remained in command of the Army of the Potomac.

Lee then moved his troops northwards and split his men, sending Jackson to meet Pope’s forces near Manassas, while Lee himself moved separately with the second half of the army. On August 29, Union troops led by John Pope struck Jackson’s forces in the Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Manassas). The next day, Lee hit the Federal left flank with a massive assault, driving Pope’s men back towards Washington. On the heels of his victory at Manassas, Lee began the first Confederate invasion of the North. Despite contradictory orders from Lincoln and Halleck, McClellan was able to reorganize his army and strike at Lee on September 14 in Maryland, driving the Confederates back to a defensive position along Antietam Creek, near Sharpsburg.

On September 17, the Army of the Potomac hit Lee’s forces (reinforced by Jackson’s) in what became the war’s bloodiest single day of fighting. Total casualties at the Battle of Antietam (also known as the Battle of Sharpsburg) numbered 12,410 of some 69,000 troops on the Union side, and 13,724 of around 52,000 for the Confederates. The Union victory at Antietam would prove decisive, as it halted the Confederate advance in Maryland and forced Lee to retreat into Virginia. Still, McClellan’s failure to pursue his advantage earned him the scorn of Lincoln and Halleck, who removed him from command in favor of Ambrose E. Burnside . Burnside’s assault on Lee’s troops near Fredericksburg on December 13 ended in heavy Union casualties and a Confederate victory; he was promptly replaced by Joseph “Fighting Joe” Hooker , and both armies settled into winter quarters across the Rappahannock River from each other.

After the Emancipation Proclamation (1863-4)

Lincoln had used the occasion of the Union victory at Antietam to issue a preliminary Emancipation Proclamation , which freed all enslaved people in the rebellious states after January 1, 1863. He justified his decision as a wartime measure, and did not go so far as to free the enslaved people in the border states loyal to the Union. Still, the Emancipation Proclamation deprived the Confederacy of the bulk of its labor forces and put international public opinion strongly on the Union side. Some 186,000 Black Civil War soldiers would join the Union Army by the time the war ended in 1865, and 38,000 lost their lives.

In the spring of 1863, Hooker’s plans for a Union offensive were thwarted by a surprise attack by the bulk of Lee’s forces on May 1, whereupon Hooker pulled his men back to Chancellorsville. The Confederates gained a costly victory in the Battle of Chancellorsville , suffering 13,000 casualties (around 22 percent of their troops); the Union lost 17,000 men (15 percent). Lee launched another invasion of the North in June, attacking Union forces commanded by General George Meade on July 1 near Gettysburg, in southern Pennsylvania. Over three days of fierce fighting, the Confederates were unable to push through the Union center, and suffered casualties of close to 60 percent.

Meade failed to counterattack, however, and Lee’s remaining forces were able to escape into Virginia, ending the last Confederate invasion of the North. Also in July 1863, Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant took Vicksburg (Mississippi) in the Siege of Vicksburg , a victory that would prove to be the turning point of the war in the western theater. After a Confederate victory at Chickamauga Creek, Georgia, just south of Chattanooga, Tennessee, in September, Lincoln expanded Grant’s command, and he led a reinforced Federal army (including two corps from the Army of the Potomac) to victory in the Battle of Chattanooga in late November.

Toward a Union Victory (1864-65)

In March 1864, Lincoln put Grant in supreme command of the Union armies, replacing Halleck. Leaving William Tecumseh Sherman in control in the West, Grant headed to Washington, where he led the Army of the Potomac towards Lee’s troops in northern Virginia. Despite heavy Union casualties in the Battle of the Wilderness and at Spotsylvania (both May 1864), at Cold Harbor (early June) and the key rail center of Petersburg (June), Grant pursued a strategy of attrition, putting Petersburg under siege for the next nine months.

Sherman outmaneuvered Confederate forces to take Atlanta by September, after which he and some 60,000 Union troops began the famous “March to the Sea,” devastating Georgia on the way to capturing Savannah on December 21. Columbia and Charleston, South Carolina, fell to Sherman’s men by mid-February, and Jefferson Davis belatedly handed over the supreme command to Lee, with the Confederate war effort on its last legs. Sherman pressed on through North Carolina, capturing Fayetteville, Bentonville, Goldsboro and Raleigh by mid-April.

Meanwhile, exhausted by the Union siege of Petersburg and Richmond, Lee’s forces made a last attempt at resistance, attacking and captured the Federal-controlled Fort Stedman on March 25. An immediate counterattack reversed the victory, however, and on the night of April 2-3 Lee’s forces evacuated Richmond. For most of the next week, Grant and Meade pursued the Confederates along the Appomattox River, finally exhausting their possibilities for escape. Grant accepted Lee’s surrender at Appomattox Court House on April 9. On the eve of victory, the Union lost its great leader: The actor and Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth assassinated President Lincoln at Ford’s Theatre in Washington on April 14. Sherman received Johnston’s surrender at Durham Station, North Carolina on April 26, effectively ending the Civil War.

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American History: The Civil War (1861-1865) Essay

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Introduction

The civil war, northern versus southern interests, causes of the civil war, aftermath of the civil war.

Bibliography

American history is considered as the most inquisitive worldwide. Traditionally, American history started by a declaration of independence in the year 1776. This declaration was due to threats of British government towards American self-governed system. Declaration of Independence led to war in 1775 that was to liberate Americans.

With help of France in providing military and financial support, the patriots won American Revolution. In 1789, war hero George Washington became the first president of federal government by virtue of Constitution. With influence of European community, coping with scope of central government proved to be a challenging issue for American people.

In 1790s, creation of political parties was initiated, and later fought for the second independence in 1812. Consequently, this brought about expansion of US territory westwards. With this, the US managed to overcome modernizers who were solely interested in deepening its economy rather than helping American people in expanding their geography.

Heavy demand for cotton in southern states encouraged slavery of Africans even though it was illegal in northern states. In 1860, came the election of Abraham Lincoln as president and this triggered a crisis in slave states as he dejected the expansion of slave trade. Amongst the slave states, some of them seceded in forming the Confederate States of America in 1861. This brought about American Civil War, which was from 1861 to 1865.

In the American history, Civil War is the most momentous event that ever happened in the US. This iconic event redefined the American nation, as it was a fight that aimed at preserving the Union, which was the United States of America. From inauguration of the Constitution, differing opinions existed on the role of federal government.

It was a belief of Federalists that in order to ensure the union did not collapse, there was need for the federal government to hold on to power. Anti-federalists on the other hand, were of the opinion that sovereignty of the new states were to remain within their countries. Anti-federalists believed that each state had the right to determine their own set of laws and it is not right to indict them in following mandates of the federal government.

With the advent of the slavery, Northern states completely squared off against Southern states. The main reason for this being economic interests of north and south which were opposed to each other. In addition, Southerners largely depended on large-scale plantations of cotton, which was more labor-intensive.

On the other hand, northerners were more of a manufacturing region who produced finished goods by making use of raw materials. Southern ingrained culture of the plantation era encouraged slavery because it gave them an inexpensive labor source. The compromise of each group was the fear that one could gain an unequal amount of power. For example, northerners feared that if more slave states existed, then they would garner an unequal power in the nation.

The causes of the American Civil War, which claimed of over 618,000 casualties, are traceable back to early days in history of the US when tensions escalated. The main cause was difference in economic and social capabilities between the North and the South. The South mainly depended on cotton, which meant the urgent need for cheap labor most probably slaves, as they became one crop economy. On the other hand, northerners depended solely on industrial products.

This disparity, which existed between the two, was the major difference in their economies. The second cause was due to the infighting between those who favored states’ rights and those who favored federal rights. Emergence of these two camps that had differences in opinions ignited the war.

Third, the American Civil War was caused by in-fight between those who were proponents of slavery and those who were against slavery. Another cause of the American Civil War was the growth of the abolition movement. The fact that northerners were against slavery led to the increase of abolitionists who were against slaveholders. Lastly, when Abraham Lincoln was elected as president, it catalyzed the Civil War, as Southerners believed that he favored interests of the northerners because he was against slavery.

Surrender of General Robert E. Lee on April 9, 1865, marked an end to the Confederacy era. However, this did not stop the war completely as some small battles continued to occur. This was later to end when the last general, Stand Watie, surrendered on June 23, 1865.

Abraham Lincoln’s vision of reconstructing the nation did not bear much fruit as it failed to become a reality because of his assassination on April 14, 1865. The Radical Republicans imposed military rule on the southerners dealing with them harshly until Rutherford B. Hayes ended it in 1876. In the American history, Civil War is a watershed event and most importantly an event that officially ended slavery.

In conclusion, the Civil War was an important event in history of the American people. Moreover, its iconic stature is very vital, as the proponents who were against slavery became victors because their wish of anti-slavery was satisfied. In addition, it helped in liberating the people who had different opinions and gave them reasons to live for better ideals.

Foner, Eric. The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery . New York: W.W. Norton, 2010.

Kelly Martin. “ Overview of the American Civil War-Secession. ” About. Web.

Kelly Martin. “Top Five Causes of the Civil War: Leading up to Secession and the Civil War.” About. Web.

The History Channel. “ American Civil War. ” History. Web.

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IvyPanda. (2018, October 25). American History: The Civil War (1861-1865). https://ivypanda.com/essays/american-history-the-civil-war-1861-1865/

"American History: The Civil War (1861-1865)." IvyPanda , 25 Oct. 2018, ivypanda.com/essays/american-history-the-civil-war-1861-1865/.

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IvyPanda . 2018. "American History: The Civil War (1861-1865)." October 25, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/american-history-the-civil-war-1861-1865/.

1. IvyPanda . "American History: The Civil War (1861-1865)." October 25, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/american-history-the-civil-war-1861-1865/.

IvyPanda . "American History: The Civil War (1861-1865)." October 25, 2018. https://ivypanda.com/essays/american-history-the-civil-war-1861-1865/.

American Civil War 101

An Overview of the War Between the States

Alexander Gardner / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain 

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Fought from 1861–1865, the American Civil War was the result of decades of sectional tensions between the North and South. Focused on enslavement and states rights, these issues came to a head following the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860. Over the next several months, 11 southern states seceded and formed the Confederate States of America. During the first two years of the war, Southern troops won numerous victories but saw their fortunes turn after losses at Gettysburg and Vicksburg in 1863. From then on, Northern forces worked to conqueror the South, forcing them to surrender in April 1865.

Civil War: Causes & Secession

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The roots of the Civil War can be traced to increasing differences between North and South and their growing divergence as the 19th century progressed. Chief among the issues were the expansion of enslavement into the territories, the South's declining political power, states' rights, and the retention of the system of enslavement. Though these issues had existed for decades, they exploded in 1860 following the election of Abraham Lincoln who was against the spread of enslavement. As a result of his election, South Carolina, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas seceded from the Union.

First Shots: Fort Sumter & First Bull Run

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On April 12, 1861, the war began when Brig. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard opened fire on Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor forcing its surrender. In response to the attack, President Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers to suppress the rebellion. While Northern states responded quickly, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas refused, opting to join the Confederacy instead. In July, Union forces commanded by Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell began marching south to take the rebel capital of Richmond. On the 21st, they met a Confederate army near Manassas and were defeated.

The War in East, 1862-1863

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Following the defeat at Bull Run, Maj. Gen. George McClellan was given command of the new Union Army of the Potomac. In early 1862, he shifted south to attack Richmond via the Peninsula. Moving slowly, he was forced to retreat after the Seven Days Battles. This campaign saw the rise of Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee . After beating a Union army at Manassas, Lee began to move north into Maryland. McClellan was sent to intercept and won a victory at Antietam on the 17th. Unhappy with McClellan's slow pursuit of Lee, Lincoln gave command to Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside . In December, Burnside was beaten at Fredericksburg and replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker . The following May, Lee engaged and defeated Hooker at Chancellorsville , Virginia.

The War in the West, 1861-1863

In February 1862, forces under Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant captured Forts Henry and Donelson. Two months later he defeated a Confederate army at Shiloh, Tennessee. On April 29, Union naval forces captured New Orleans . To the east, Confederate Gen. Braxton Bragg attempted to invade Kentucky but was repelled at Perryville on October 8. That December he was beaten again at Stones River , Tennessee. Grant now focused his attention on capturing Vicksburg and opening the Mississippi River. After a false start, his troops swept through Mississippi and laid siege to the town on May 18, 1863.

Turning Points: Gettysburg & Vickburg

Kurz & Allison / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain 

In June 1863, Lee began to move north towards Pennsylvania with Union troops in pursuit. Following the defeat at Chancellorsville, Lincoln turned to Maj. Gen. George Meade to take over the Army of the Potomac. On July 1, elements of the two armies clashed at Gettysburg , Pennsylvania. After three days of heavy fighting, Lee was defeated and forced to retreat. A day later on July 4, Grant successfully concluded the siege of Vicksburg , opening the Mississippi to shipping and cutting the South in two. Combined these victories were the beginning of the end for the Confederacy.

The War in the West, 1863-1865

Kurz & Allison / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

In summer 1863, Union troops under Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans advanced into Georgia and were defeated at Chickamauga . Fleeing north, they were besieged at Chattanooga . Grant was ordered to save the situation and did so winning victories at Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. The following spring Grant departed and gave command to Maj. Gen. William Sherman . Moving south, Sherman took Atlanta and then marched to Savannah . After reaching the sea, he moved north pushing Confederate forces until their commander, Gen. Joseph Johnston surrendered at Durham, North Carolina, on April 18, 1865.

The War in the East, 1863-1865

National Archives and Records Administration / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain

In March 1864, Grant was given command of all Union armies and came east to deal with Lee. Grant's campaign began in May, with the armies clashing at the Wilderness . Despite heavy casualties, Grant pressed south, fighting at Spotsylvania C.H. and Cold Harbor . Unable to get through Lee's army to Richmond, Grant attempted to cut the city off by taking Petersburg . Lee arrived first and a siege began. From April 2–3, 1865, Lee was forced to evacuate the city and retreat west, allowing Grant to take Richmond. On April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Court House.

Currier & Ives / Wikimedia Commons / Public Domain 

On April 14, five days after Lee's surrender, President Lincoln was assassinated while attending a play at Ford's Theater in Washington. The assassin, John Wilkes Booth, was killed by Union troops on April 26 while fleeing south. Following the war, three amendments were added to the Constitution which ended the system of enslavement (13th), extended legal protection regardless of race (14th), and ended all racial restrictions on voting (15th).

During the war, Union forces suffered approximately 360,000 killed (140,000 in battle) and 282,000 wounded. Confederate armies lost approximately 258,000 killed (94,000 in battle) and an unknown number of wounded. The total killed in the war exceeds the total deaths from all other U.S. wars combined.

Civil War Battles

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The battles of the Civil War were fought across the United States from the East Coast to as far west as New Mexico. Beginning in 1861, these battles made a permanent mark upon the landscape and elevated to prominence small towns that had previously been peaceful villages. As a result, names such as Manassas, Sharpsburg, Gettysburg, and Vicksburg became eternally entwined with images of sacrifice, bloodshed, and heroism. It is estimated that over 10,000 battles of various sizes were fought during the Civil War as Union forces marched toward victory. During the Civil War, over 200,000 Americans were killed in battle as each side fought for their chosen cause.

American People and the Civil War

The Civil War was the first conflict that saw the large scale mobilization of the American people. While over 2.2 million served the Union cause, between 1.2 and 1.4 million enlisted in Confederate service. These men were led by officers from a variety of backgrounds ranging from professionally-trained West Pointers to businessmen and political appointees. While many professional officers did leave the U.S. Army to serve the South, the majority remained loyal to the Union. As the war began, the Confederacy benefited from several gifted leaders, while the North endured a string of poor commanders. In time, these men were replaced by skilled men who would lead the Union to victory.

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Key Facts of the American Civil War

10 Facts: What Everyone Should Know About the Civil War

Fact #1: The Civil War was fought between the Northern and the Southern states from 1861-1865.

The American Civil War was fought between the United States of America and the Confederate States of America, a collection of eleven southern states that left the Union in 1860 and 1861. The conflict began primarily as a result of the long-standing disagreement over the institution of slavery. On February 9, 1861,   Jefferson Davis , a former U.S. Senator and Secretary of War, was elected President of the Confederate States of America by the members of the Confederate constitutional convention.  After four bloody years of conflict, the United States defeated the Confederate States. In the end, the states that were in rebellion were readmitted to the United States, and the institution of slavery was abolished nation-wide.

Fact #2: Abraham Lincoln was the President of the United States during the Civil War.

Abraham Lincoln grew up in a log cabin in Kentucky.  He worked as a shopkeeper and a lawyer before entering politics in the 1840s.  Alarmed by his anti-slavery stance, seven southern states seceded soon after he was elected president in 1860—with four more states to soon follow.  Lincoln declared that he would do everything necessary to keep the United States united as one country. He refused to recognize the southern states as an independent nation and the Civil War erupted in the spring of 1861.  On January 1, 1863, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation , which freed the slaves in the areas of the country that "shall then be in rebellion against the United States." The Emancipation Proclamation laid the groundwork for the eventual freedom of slaves across the country.  Lincoln won re-election in 1864 against opponents who wanted to sign a peace treaty with the southern states.  On April 14, 1865, Lincoln was shot by assassin John Wilkes Booth, a southern sympathizer. Abraham Lincoln died at 7:22 am the next morning. 

Fact #3: The issues of slavery and central power divided the United States.

Slavery was concentrated mainly in the southern states by the mid-19th century, where slaves were used as farm laborers, artisans, and house servants. Chattel slavery formed the backbone of the largely agrarian southern economy.  In the northern states, industry largely drove the economy. Many people in the north and the south believed that slavery was immoral and wrong, yet the institution remained, which created a large chasm on the political and social landscape. Southerners felt threatened by the pressure of northern politicians and “abolitionists,” who included the zealot John Brown , and claimed that the federal government had no power to end slavery, impose certain taxes, force infrastructure improvements, or influence western expansion against the wishes of the state governments. While some northerners felt that southern politicians wielded too much power in the House and the Senate and that they would never be appeased. Still, from the earliest days of the United States through the antebellum years, politicians on both sides of the major issues attempted to find a compromise that would avoid the splitting of the country, and ultimately avert a war. The Missouri Compromise , the Compromise of 1850 , the Kansas-Nebraska Act , and many others, all failed to steer the country away from secession and war. In the end, politicians on both sides of the aisle dug in their heels. Eleven states left the United States in the following order and formed the Confederate States of America: South Carolina , Mississippi , Florida, Alabama, Georgia , Louisiana, Texas , Virginia , Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee.

Fact #4: The Civil War began when Southern troops bombarded Fort Sumter, South Carolina.

When the southern states seceded from the Union, war was still not a certainty. Federal forts, barracks, and naval shipyards dotted the southern landscape. Many Regular Army officers clung tenaciously to their posts, rather than surrender their facilities to the growing southern military presence. President Lincoln attempted to resupply these garrisons with food and provisions by sea. The Confederacy learned of Lincoln’s plans and demanded that the forts surrender under threat of force.  When the U.S. soldiers refused, South Carolinians bombarded  Fort Sumter in the center of Charleston harbor.  After a 34-hour battle, the soldiers inside the fort surrendered to the Confederates.  Legions of men from north and south rushed to their respective flags in the ensuing patriotic fervor. 

Fact #5: The North had more men and war materials than the South.

At the beginning of the Civil War, 22 million people lived in the North and 9 million people (nearly 4 million of whom were slaves) lived in the South.  The North also had more money, more factories, more horses, more railroads, and more farmland. On paper, these advantages made the United States much more powerful than the Confederate States.  However, the Confederates were fighting defensively on territory that they knew well. They also had the advantage of the sheer size of the Southern Confederacy. Which meant that the northern armies would have to capture and hold vast quantities of land across the south. Still, too, the Confederacy maintained some of the best ports in North America—including New Orleans, Charleston, Mobile, Norfolk, and Wilmington. Thus, the Confederacy was able to mount a stubborn resistance.

Fact #6: The bloodiest battle of the Civil War was the Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania.

The Civil War devastated the Confederate states.  The presence of vast armies throughout the countryside meant that livestock, crops, and other staples were consumed very quickly.  In an effort to gather fresh supplies and relieve the pressure on the Confederate garrison at Vicksburg, Mississippi, Confederate General Robert E. Lee launched a daring invasion of the North in the summer of 1863.  He was defeated by Union General George G. Meade in a three-day battle near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania that left nearly 51,000 men killed, wounded, or missing in action. While Lee's men were able to gather the vital supplies, they did little to draw Union forces away from Vicksburg, which fell to Federal troops on July 4, 1863. Many historians mark the twin Union victories at  Gettysburg  and Vicksburg , Mississippi, as the “turning point” in the Civil War. In November of 1863, President Lincoln traveled to the small Pennsylvania town and delivered the Gettysburg Address, which expressed firm commitment to preserving the Union and became one of the most iconic speeches in American history. 

Fact #7: Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee did not meet on the field of battle until May of 1864.

Arguably the two most famous military personalities to emerge from the American Civil War were Ohio born Ulysses S. Grant , and Virginia born Robert E. Lee . The two men had very little in common. Lee was from a well respected First Family of Virginia, with ties to the Continental Army and the founding fathers of the nation. While Grant was from a middle-class family with no martial or family political ties. Both men graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point and served in the old army as well as the Mexican-American War. Lee was offered command of the federal army amassing in Washington, in 1861, but he declined the command and threw his hat in with the Confederacy. Lee's early war career got off to a rocky start, but he found his stride in June of 1862 after he assumed command of what he dubbed the Army of Northern Virginia. Grant, on the other hand, found early success in the war but was haunted by rumors of alcoholism. By 1863, the two men were by far the best generals on their respective sides. In March of 1864, Grant was promoted to lieutenant general and brought to the Eastern Theater of the war, where he and Lee engaged in a relentless campaign from May of 1864 to Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House eleven months later. 

Fact #8: The North won the Civil War.

After four years of conflict, the major Confederate armies surrendered to the United States in April of 1865 at Appomattox Court House and Bennett Place .  The war bankrupted much of the South, left its roads, farms, and factories in ruins, and all but wiped out an entire generation of men who wore the blue and the gray.  More than 620,000 men died in the Civil War, more than any other war in American history.  The southern states were occupied by Union soldiers, rebuilt, and gradually re-admitted to the United States over the course of twenty difficult years known as the Reconstruction Era. 

Fact #9: After the war was over, the Constitution was amended to free the slaves, to assure “equal protection under the law” for American citizens, and to grant black men the right to vote. 

During the war, Abraham Lincoln freed some slaves and allowed freedmen to join the Union Army as the  United States Colored Troops  (U.S.C.T.).  It was clear to many that it was only a matter of time before slavery would be fully abolished.  As the war drew to a close, but before the southern states were re-admitted to the United States, the northern states added the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments to the Constitution. The amendments are also known as the "Civil War Amendments."  The 13th Amendment abolished slavery in the United States, the 14th Amendment guaranteed that citizens would receive “equal protection under the law,” and the 15th Amendment granted black men the right to vote.  The 14th Amendment has played an ongoing role in American society as different groups of citizens continue to lobby for equal treatment by the government. 

Fact #10: Many Civil War battlefields are threatened by development.

The United States government has identified 384 battles that had a significant impact on the larger war.  Many of these battlefields have been developed—turned into shopping malls, pizza parlors, housing developments, etc.—and many more are threatened by development.  Since the end of the Civil War, veterans and other citizens have struggled to preserve the fields on which Americans fought and died.  The American Battlefield Trust and its partners have preserved tens of thousands of acres of battlefield land. 

Learn More: Civil War Animated Map

Death by Fire

Silent Witness

Augmented Reality: Preserving Lost Stories

Related battles, explore the american civil war.

College & Research Libraries News  ( C&RL News ) is the official newsmagazine and publication of record of the Association of College & Research Libraries,  providing articles on the latest trends and practices affecting academic and research libraries.

C&RL News  became an online-only publication beginning with the January 2022 issue.

Susan Birkenseer is reference and instruction librarian at Saint Mary’s College of California, email: [email protected]

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The American Civil War: A collection of free online primary sources

Susan Birkenseer

The American Civil War began in 1861, lasted until 1865, and was ruinous by any standard. Within months of President Lincoln’s inauguration, seven southern states began the secession from the Union and declared the Confederate States of America. This split in the fabric of the country began a bitter war, concluding in the death of more than 750,000 soldiers. When the South finally surrendered, the Confederacy collapsed, and slavery was abolished. To understand the conflict, take a look back at the primary documents that highlight decisions of generals, the everyday drudgery of soldiers, and the photographic images of battle.

Hundreds of websites offer insight into the American Civil War. This guide is not comprehensive, but it highlights a diverse collection of free websites of primary sources for the study of the war. These websites include digitized newspaper archives for both the Union and Confederate sides of the struggle, collections of letters and diaries, digitized photographs, maps, and official records and dispatches from the battlefields.

• Brooklyn Daily Eagle (1841–1955). An important daily newspaper, the Eagle was unusual for its time since it covered national as well as regional news. The archive is searchable, can be browsed by date, and includes zooming capabilities to see the tiny text up close. The archive is maintained by the Brooklyn Public Library. Access: http://bklyn.newspapers.com/title_1890/the_brooklyn_daily_eagle/ .
• Chronicling America. This site offers access to multiple newspapers from both the Confederate and Union states. Over 1,400 newspapers are in the archive, but not all of them are from the Civil War years. Examples of newspaper titles include: Memphis Appeal (1857–1886), Chattanooga Rebel (1862–1865), New York Sun (1859–1916), and New York Daily Tribune (1842–1866). Search across the newspapers for a range of contemporary stories from both sides of the war. From the Library of Congress. Access: http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/#tab=tab_newspapers .

• Richmond Daily Dispatch (1860–1865). This paper was published from the Confederate capital and has a digitized and searchable online archive of 1,384 issues. The site is funded by the Institute of Museum and Library Services. Access: http://dlxs.richmond.edu/d/ddr/index.html .
• Secession-Era Editorials. This site from the Furman University history department in South Carolina contains transcribed editorials from contemporary newspapers, all from the 1850s. The specific issues discussed are the Nebraska Bill debates, the caning attack on Senator Charles Sumner by Representative Preston Brooks, John Brown’s Raid on Harper’s Ferry, and the Dred Scott decision. These events all highlight the varied and inflexible opinions of their time from both sides of the conflict. Access: http://history.furman.edu/editorials/see.py .

Maps and photographs

• Civil War Glass Negatives and Related Prints. Approximately 7,000 portraits and battleground images are available. The collection is from the glass negatives of Mathew Brady and Alexander Gardner, as well as from photographic collections that were purchased by the Library of Congress in 1943. Browse by broad subjects or search by keyword. Access: http://www.loc.gov/pictures/collection/cwp/ .

• Pictures of the Civil War. The new era of photography brought the battles home during the American Civil War. The National Archives has organized the Mathew Brady and Alexander Gardner photographs into broad categories for easy browsing. Access: http://www.archives.gov/research/military/civil-war/photos/index.html .

Diaries and letters

• Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress. Approximately 20,000 documents, which include correspondence with enclosures of newspaper clippings, drafts of speeches, notes, pamphlets, and other printed material by Lincoln, are available. Most of the material dates from the presidential years. Lincoln had a lively correspondence with many people in his day, so this is a rich resource. Each piece is scanned, with accompanying transcription. Searchable by keyword or just browse the collection. Access: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html .
• American Civil War Collection at the Electronic Text Center. This site has transcribed letters from the University of Virginia special collections with links to other collections (some links are only accessible by University of Virginia students). Access: http://etext.virginia.edu/civilwar/ .
• The Civil War Archive: Letters Home from the Civil War. A collection of letters from both Union and Confederate soldiers, organized by name and regiment. Access: http://www.civilwararchive.com/LETTERS/letters.htm .
• The Civil War Collection at Michigan State University. A huge online collection of scanned letters, newspaper articles, images, photographs, diaries, and much more, filled with the stories of Michigan soldiers. Access: http://civilwar.archives.msu.edu/ .
• The Civil War Collection at Penn State. Penn State has a rich digitized special collection. These include diaries, newspapers, and other ephemera. No transcriptions are available for the diaries, but the scanned pages are clean and easy to peruse. Access: http://www.libraries.psu.edu/psul/digital/civilwar.html .
• Civil War Diaries and Letters. Browse a list of scanned diaries and letters from the University of Iowa Libraries, some of which currently have transcriptions, but not all. You can also browse by year to get the materials for a particular time. Access: http://digital.lib.uiowa.edu/cwd/ .
• Civil War Diaries and Letters Collections. A collection of diaries and letters from Auburn University, covering both sides of the war; each item is scanned and transcribed. Access: http://diglib.auburn.edu/collections/civilwardiaries/ .

• The Civil War: Women and the Home-front. Duke University has put together this study guide relating to women’s role during the war. Use the tab labeled “Primary Sources Online,” which includes digitized diaries and letters, as well as outside links to other institutions’ collections. The online papers include a collection from Rose O’Neal Greenhow, a famed Confederate spy. Other letters include those written by African American slaves, describing their living conditions in the South. Access: http://guides.library.duke.edu/content.php?pid=41224&sid=303304 .
• First Person Narratives of the American South. Everyday people’s voices speak through their diaries, autobiographies, ex-slave accounts, and memoirs on this site, which is organized alphabetically or by subject. Access: http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/index.html .
• Manuscripts of the American Civil War. This special collection from the University of Notre Dame’s Rare Books and Special Collections contains seven soldier’s diaries, which have been carefully scanned and transcribed. The soldiers represented are from both sides of the war. The diaries highlight their day-to-day experiences—from the mundane to the terrifying. Access: http://www.rarebooks.nd.edu/digital/civil_war/diaries_journals/ .
• Saint Mary’s College of California Special Collections. Saint Mary’s College has a small, select special collection containing letters from a private in the Fifth Vermont regiment, and a diary from a captain of the Sixteenth Michigan regiment. The collections are digitized and transcribed, and the site is well illustrated. Access: http://www.stmarys-ca.edu/library/about-the-library/special-collections .
• South Carolina and the Civil War. The site brings together primary sources by eyewitnesses from the holdings of the University of South Carolina. Included on the site are diaries, sheet music, maps, letters, and photographs. The collections are scanned and viewable, but with little transcription or description. Access: http://library.sc.edu/digital/collections/civilwar.html .
• Valley of the Shadow. Thousands of documents are accessible that compare life in two towns during the war: one in Virginia and one in Pennsylvania. These documents include letters, diaries, maps, newspaper accounts, and other sources. Access: http://valley.lib.virginia.edu/ .
• Virginia Military Institute Archives. The Virginia Military Institute has a proud history of training its students to serve in the military service of the United States. The archives provide access to the full-text of more than 75 letters, diaries, manuscripts, and other ephemera of soldiers from both armies. Access: http://www.vmi.edu/Archives/Civil_War/Civil_War_Resources_Home/ .
• Wisconsin Goes to War: Our Civil War Experience. The University of Wisconsin is in the process of digitizing letters, diaries, poetry, and other writings from Wisconsin’s soldiers; approximately 630 pages to date, with an expected completion number to be more than 2,600 pages. Access: http://uwdc.library.wisc.edu/collections/WI/WIWar .

Dispatches and battles

• Antietam on the Web. This site looks at the crucial Battle of Sharpsburg (Antietam), highlighting generals and other officers, battle maps, and important background information. This site also includes the transcriptions of reports from the officers from both sides of the war, as well as excerpts from diaries and letters of some of the soldiers who survived. Access: http://antietam.aotw.org/index.php .
• Making of America: Official Records of the Union and Confederate Navies. The Making of America site is an excellent source of primary documents, and this one features the orders, reports, and correspondence from the Union and Confederate navies. The scanned pages of the 30-volume set from the Government Printing Office are annotated and arranged chronologically. The collection is searchable. This is an essential resource for any study of naval operations in the war. Access: http://ebooks.library.cornell.edu/m/moawar/ofre.html .
• Ulysses S. Grant Presidential Library. This site from Mississippi State University contains the first 31 volumes of The Papers of Ulysses S. Grant published by Southern Illinois University Press, and includes his military papers from the Civil War. Also included are photographs and prints from the life of Grant, including photographs from the war. The volumes are searchable as well as browsable. Access: http://digital.library.msstate.edu/cdm/usgrantcollection .
• The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. This 70-volume work from the Making of America site at Cornell University contains the formal reports for both the Union and Confederate armies, including correspondence and orders. The scanned volumes are arranged chronologically and identified with a brief annotation. The volumes are searchable. This is an essential resource for anyone doing serious research on battles, regiments, and the progress of the war. Access: http://digital.library.cornell.edu/m/moawar/waro.html .

Slavery and abolitionism

• Born in Slavery: Slave Narratives from the Federal Writers’ Project, 1936–1938. Includes more than 2,300 first-person accounts, and more than 500 photographs. The narratives were collected in the 1930s by the Federal Writer’s Project and the Works Progress Administration, and put into a seventeen volume set. Access: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/snhtml/snhome.html .
• Frederick Douglass Papers. A former slave and devout abolitionist, Douglass’s papers were digitized by the Library of Congress. They are searchable, and also can be browsed by date, and then narrowed by type, such as speeches or correspondence. Access: http://www.loc.gov/collection/frederick-douglass-papers/about-this-collection/ .
• North American Slave Narratives. The University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill has a special collection dedicated to slave narratives. Not every manuscript is a primary document, but many are. Included on the site are narratives of fugitive and former slaves in published form from before 1920. For scholars interested in further study, a bibliography of slave and former-slave narratives by William L. Andrews is also included. Access: http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/index.html .
• Slavery and Abolition in the U.S.: Select Publications of the 1800s. Reflecting both sides of the slavery question, these publications from the 1800s include speeches, tracts, pamphlets, books, legal proceedings, religious sermons, and personal accounts. This collection from a cooperative project by Millersville University and Dickinson College includes more than 24,000 individual pages. Access: http://deila.dickinson.edu/slaveryandabolition/index.html .
• Slaves and the Courts 1740–1860. From the Library of Congress’s American Memory Project this site consists of trials and cases, arguments, proceedings, and other historical works of importance that relate to the prosecution and defense of slavery as an institution. The collection contains more than 100 pamphlets and books published between 1772 and 1889. Access: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/sthtml/ .

Confederacy

• The Museum of the Confederacy. Various primary sources are accessible, including a collection of photographs, documents, and artifacts relating to Lee and Jackson, the “Roll of Honor and Battle Accounts” from Confederate soldiers, and a searchable database of their collections. Access: http://www.moc.org/collections-archives?mode=general .
• The Papers of Jefferson Davis. A selection of documents from the published papers of the same name that includes speeches, reports, and correspondence. The documents are organized by volume with brief annotations. Access: http://jeffersondavis.rice.edu/documentslist.aspx .

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ISSN: 2150-6698

How Civil Wars Start

63 pages • 2 hours read

How Civil Wars Start: And How to Stop Them

A modern alternative to SparkNotes and CliffsNotes, SuperSummary offers high-quality Study Guides with detailed chapter summaries and analysis of major themes, characters, and more.

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Summary and Study Guide

How Civil Wars Start and How to Stop Them by American political scientist Barbara F. Walter is split into two halves. The first half documents the patterns and risk factors that lead to civil wars. It shows how civil wars in the 21st century differ substantially from prior time periods, including the US Civil War in the 19th century. While each civil war has unique aspects, Walter uses evidence from around the world to show that they follow similar patterns. In doing so, she provides tools to better identify the precursors of civil wars to stop them from occurring.

In the second half of the book, Walter focuses on the vulnerability of democracy in the US. She suggests that there are currently the same precursors that lead to civil wars. Walter argues that Trump’s presidency, including his refusal to accept the 2020 election results, have helped to erode American democracy. Furthermore, the rise of alt-right militias that target civilians and infrastructure indicates the emergence of an insurgency. Finally, the country’s systemic issues of law, race, and justice are putting it on the path toward ethnic cleansing and genocide . Walter hopes that by highlighting the political instability in the US, Americans can prevent a second civil war from happening.

How Civil Wars Start and How to Stop Them was a New York Times bestseller and has won several other awards. It has generally received positive feedback, although some critics believe the book does not provide sufficient advice to stop a civil war in the US, whereas others believe she has exaggerated the risk of a second civil war.

This guide uses the 2022 Crown edition.

Content Warning: The source text depicts acts of violence and other crimes associated with civil wars.

Plot Summary

In the Introduction, Walter uses the example of Adam Fox’s attempted kidnapping and assassination of Gretchen Whitmer, the Democratic governor of Michigan, in 2020 to illustrate how the US is not immune to political instability or another civil war. She also works to dispel popular ideas about civil wars, which typically use pre-21st-century civil wars as their basis. Prior to the 21st century, civil wars took place on battlefields and involved large standing armies and conventional warfare tactics. Today, however, civil wars are fought by guerilla warfare and militias who often target civilians and public infrastructure. These conflicts are often due to deep ethnic and cultural tensions that turn into political factions who are willing to fight for power.

Walter next turns to defining autocracy , democracy, and anocracy in Chapter 1. These categories are important because they determine how close or far away a country is from civil war. Civil wars only occur in anocracies due to weak governments and political factions based on ethnic and cultural groups. Walter argues that anocracy represents one of four risk factors that best predict civil wars. Walter focuses on the rapid democratization of Iraq and the recent phenomenon of newer and once-safe democracies, especially Ukraine, moving toward autocracies to show how this anocracy or middle zone is especially dangerous to a country’s political stability.

In Chapter 2, Walter focuses on the second predictor of civil wars: factionalism . Ethnic entrepreneurs use fearmongering rhetoric to gradually build support for political parties based on racial, ethnic, or religious identities over policies. They publicly question their rivals’ language, history, and geography. By doing so, ethnic entrepreneurs instill in their supporters feelings of fear and vulnerability. Supporters are more likely to embrace violence in this climate because they feel their way of life is under threat by other groups. Walter uses the breakup of Yugoslavia , led largely by Slobodan Milošević , as a case study to highlight the dangers of factionalism to a country’s political stability. 

Walter focuses on the dark consequences of loss of power, especially by “sons of soil” groups (e.g., the Moro in the Philippines, the Abkhazians in Georgia, and the Assamese in India), which represents the third risk factor that predicts civil wars. Loss of power helps researchers figure out who will start civil wars. However, this risk factor does not represent a trigger. Instead, Walter argues in Chapter 4 that loss of hope, particularly after failed protests and elections, is a key trigger. She uses the case studies of Northern Ireland and Syria to support this assertion . Loss of hope represents the final risk factor.

Walter next turns to how social media algorithms serve as accelerants for violence and conflict (Chapter 5). She strongly believes that social media has helped corrode democracies around the world over the last decade. She explores three interconnecting ways these platforms have helped erode democratic institutions, including through the spread of misinformation and disinformation, enabling voters themselves to elect populist leaders who stoke fear through misinformation and disinformation and increasing factionalism through divisive content.

Walter then turns her attention to the US. In Chapter 6, Walter documents how American democracy is at its most vulnerable state in over two centuries, with the country displaying all four risk factors that prelude civil wars. She pays particular attention to Donald Trump and the Republican Party, who she believes have intentionally set the US on this destructive course by exacerbating ethnic tension to maintain political power. She also presents what a civil war might look like in the US since it would be drastically different than its first civil war (Chapter 7). Walter also documents the strategies extremists use to intentionally erode democracy. While not all the strategies are present in the US, the fact that even some are raises concerns for Walter. In particular, the presence of early stages of ethnic cleansing is especially worrying.

Despite the vulnerable state of American democracy, Walter remains hopeful that Americans have the tools to fix it (Chapter 8). In particular, Americans must shore up their political institutions. Only by doing so can trust in the US government be restored. Once this happens, the US government can more effectively combat its domestic extremist problem.

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1 Trending: If Democrats Want Proof Foreigners Are Registering To Vote, Virginia Just Found 6,303 Examples

2 trending: tim walz’s lies about his military record include inflating his rank and ducking deployment, 3 trending: simone biles’ life proves exactly why ‘suffering’ should never decide if a baby lives or dies, 4 trending: kamala harris can’t articulate the case for voting for her, firebrand leftist jamie raskin said congress must ‘disqualify’ trump, predicted ‘civil war conditions’.

“So it’s going to be up to us on Jan. 6, 2025 to tell the rampaging Trump mobs that he’s disqualified,” far left Rep. Jamie Raskin said.

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If you listen to U.S. Rep. Jamie Raskin, D-Md., the real insurrection will be led by Democrats and it will begin on Jan. 6, 2025 — should the American people dare to elect former President Donald Trump president again. 

In a video clip making the rounds Monday on social media, the far left firebrand laments what he characterizes as a lazy U.S. Supreme Court interfering with the Democratic Party’s plan to interfere with the 2024 election. 

“And so [the court] want to kick it to Congress, so it’s going to be up to us on Jan. 6, 2025 to tell the rampaging Trump mobs that he’s disqualified,” Raskin said in a panel discussion on Feb. 17, as the Supreme Court was mulling the constitutionality of the leftist Colorado secretary of state’s use of Section 3 of the 14th Amendment to remove Trump from the state’s presidential primary ballot. 

“And then we need bodyguards for everybody and civil war conditions all because nine justices — not all of them, but these justices who have not many cases to look at every year, not much work to do, have a huge staff, great protection — simply do not want to do their job and interpret what the great 14th Amendment means,” Raskin declared at a Washington, D.C. bookstore gathering of self-important leftists. 

Jamie Raskin is saying that congress will STOP Trump from taking office even if he’s chosen by the voters. This is extremely dangerous. Every Democrat needs to be on the record about this immediately. pic.twitter.com/9IwRoGrrQu — Charlie Kirk (@charliekirk11) August 5, 2024

Raskin’s rant may rank among the more incendiary comments about the court since U.S. Sen. Chuck Schumer, D-N.Y., unleashed his “ release the whirlwind” diatribe at a pro-abortion rally on the steps of the high court in 2020. The congressman’s vitriol simply cements the fact that the same people calling Trump a threat to democracy would assault the will of the people to keep the Republican from governing. 

“Congressman Raskin continues to stoke the flames of division in this country through his use of incendiary language aimed at his political opponents, and once again proves the hypocrisy of leftists like him who slander conservatives in an attempt to mask progressives’ proclivity towards violence which has been on full display in cities and college campuses across America in recent times,” U.S. Rep. Anthony D’Esposito, R-N.Y., told The Federalist Monday evening. 

Raskin’s office did not respond to a request for comment. His bellicose statements will mean nothing if Republicans take back the Senate and hold the House, but they are a look into the Trump-hating radical mindset of Democrats that will stop at nothing to maintain power. In a tinder box election year seared by an assassination attempt against the GOP’s presidential candidate, Raskin’s threatening rhetoric now seems more like the release of the whirlwind than ever.

‘This year is critical’

The congressman, known for his overheated rhetoric, made his fiery statements alongside Sherrilyn Ifill, leftist law professor and former president and director-counsel of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund . She also served on the boards of the George Soros ’ Open Society Foundations , according to InfluenceWatch. Raskin and Ifill were discussing the latest book by Rick Hasen , director of the Safeguarding Democracy Project at the UCLA School of law and vehement critic of basic voter integrity tools such as voter ID. Hasen’s book, A Real Right to Vote: How a Constitutional Amendment Can Safeguard American Democracy , as the title implies, calls for a constitutional amendment to “enshrine the right to vote.” He and his fellow leftists assert the Supreme Court historically, and particularly today’s conservative-led court, has been “no friend of the people.” 

Acknowledging that “the path to a constitutional amendment is undoubtedly hard,” Hasen insists that changing the constitution by outlawing fundamental state election integrity laws is the way to save democracy. In the meantime, militant-sounding Democrats believe they’re on a righteous mission to save democracy —  even if it means destroying it. Their dire warnings bounded into the absurd.  

“I absolutely believe that this year is critical to whether or not we are a democracy this time next year having a conversation in this room, having this conversation, which will be allowed in this place but there will be many places in this country where it’s not allowed,” Ifill dourly predicted. “Should we get past next year as a democracy this is the work we should be doing.” 

Remember that all of this theatrical melancholy came days before the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that kicking a political party’s leading political candidate off the primary ballot under the auspices of an amendment that enshrines the principle of due process doesn’t comport with the Constitution. It doesn’t look real good for democracy, either. 

Colorado’s far left secretary of state agreed with leftist lawfare groups that Section 3 of the 14th Amendment barred Trump from running because he, without being convicted of the crime, in their eyes engaged in an insurrection. The Constitution, contrary to the Democrats’ twisted reading, gives Congress, not the states, enforcement authority over the post-Civil War amendment. 

“Because the Constitution makes Congress, rather than the States, responsible for enforcing Section 3 against federal officeholders and candidates, we reverse,” the Supreme Court ruling , released in March, states. 

Constitutional law expert Hans von Spakovsky said the Article 3 argument was legally flawed from the beginning.

“I don’t believe the provision is still effect because of the Amnesty Acts passed by Congress,” said von Spakovsky, manager of the Heritage Foundation’s Election Law Reform Initiative,  “In any event, this is an anachronistic provision that was driven by the passions inflamed by a civil war that killed and wounded more Americans than in any other war we have ever fought.  It is an insult to those who fought in that conflagration for this congressman to try to use it to go after his political opponents, because that is what it amounts to.”

‘Something Akin to a Civil War’

As the decision loomed, Raskin expressed foreboding that the court would not uphold Colorado’s decision to disenfranchise the 555,000 voters who cast ballots for Trump in the Centennial State’s March primary —  and many millions more to follow in other blue states. 

“Last night I was most worried about the Supreme Court’s prospective, imminent abdication of its very clear duty to disqualify Donald Trump form the ballot … and what that might mean if their decision says it’s really up to Congress on Jan. 6, 2025 to disqualify him at the counting of electoral college votes, which really could lead to something akin to a civil war,” Raskin told his fellow D.C. leftists. 

Keeping with his party’s projection campaign talking points, Raskin insisted that “the right to vote is under attack in very specific ways in lots of states.” He is, of course, correct. Just not in the way the liberal elitist thinks he is. Democracy is under attack, and Democrats hold the cudgel. 

• 14th amendment
• Chuck Schumer
• Donald Trump
• George Soros’ Open Society Foundations
• Jamie Raskin
• NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund.
• Rep. Anthony D'Esposito
• Safeguarding Democracy Project
• Sherrilyn Ifill
• U.S. Supreme Court

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What Kamala Harris has said so far on key issues in her campaign

As she ramps up her nascent presidential campaign, Vice President Kamala Harris is revealing how she will address the key issues facing the nation.

In speeches and rallies, she has voiced support for continuing many of President Joe Biden’s measures, such as lowering drug costs , forgiving student loan debt and eliminating so-called junk fees. But Harris has made it clear that she has her own views on some key matters, particularly Israel’s treatment of Gazans in its war with Hamas.

In a departure from her presidential run in 2020, the Harris campaign has confirmed that she’s moved away from many of her more progressive stances, such as her interest in a single-payer health insurance system and a ban on fracking.

Harris is also expected to put her own stamp and style on matters ranging from abortion to the economy to immigration, as she aims to walk a fine line of taking credit for the administration’s accomplishments while not being jointly blamed by voters for its shortcomings.

Her early presidential campaign speeches have offered insights into her priorities, though she’s mainly voiced general talking points and has yet to release more nuanced plans. Like Biden, she intends to contrast her vision for America with that of former President Donald Trump. ( See Trump’s campaign promises here .)

“In this moment, I believe we face a choice between two different visions for our nation: one focused on the future, the other focused on the past,” she told members of the historically Black sorority Zeta Phi Beta at an event in Indianapolis in late July. “And with your support, I am fighting for our nation’s future.”

Here’s what we know about Harris’ views:

Harris took on the lead role of championing abortion rights for the administration after Roe v. Wade was overturned in June 2022. This past January, she started a “ reproductive freedoms tour ” to multiple states, including a stop in Minnesota thought to be the first by a sitting US president or vice president at an abortion clinic .

On abortion access, Harris embraced more progressive policies than Biden in the 2020 campaign, as a candidate criticizing his previous support for the Hyde Amendment , a measure that blocks federal funds from being used for most abortions.

Policy experts suggested that although Harris’ current policies on abortion and reproductive rights may not differ significantly from Biden’s, as a result of her national tour and her own focus on maternal health , she may be a stronger messenger.

High prices are a top concern for many Americans who are struggling to afford the cost of living after a spell of steep inflation. Many voters give Biden poor marks for his handling of the economy, and Harris may also face their wrath.

In her early campaign speeches, Harris has echoed many of the same themes as Biden, saying she wants to give Americans more opportunities to get ahead. She’s particularly concerned about making care – health care, child care, elder care and family leave – more affordable and available.

Harris promised at a late July rally to continue the Biden administration’s drive to eliminate so-called “junk fees” and to fully disclose all charges, such as for events, lodging and car rentals. In early August, the administration proposed a rule that would ban airlines from charging parents extra fees to have their kids sit next to them.

On day one, I will take on price gouging and bring down costs. We will ban more of those hidden fees and surprise late charges that banks and other companies use to pad their profits.”

Since becoming vice president, Harris has taken more moderate positions, but a look at her 2020 campaign promises reveals a more progressive bent than Biden.

As a senator and 2020 presidential candidate, Harris proposed providing middle-class and working families with a refundable tax credit of up to $6,000 a year (per couple) to help keep up with living expenses. Titled the LIFT the Middle Class Act, or Livable Incomes for Families Today, the measure would have cost at the time an estimated $3 trillion over 10 years.

Unlike a typical tax credit, the bill would allow taxpayers to receive the benefit – up to $500 – on a monthly basis so families don’t have to turn to payday loans with very high interest rates.

As a presidential candidate, Harris also advocated for raising the corporate income tax rate to 35%, where it was before the 2017 Tax Cuts and Jobs Act that Trump and congressional Republicans pushed through Congress reduced the rate to 21%. That’s higher than the 28% Biden has proposed.

Affordable housing was also on Harris’ radar. As a senator, she introduced the Rent Relief Act, which would establish a refundable tax credit for renters who annually spend more than 30% of their gross income on rent and utilities. The amount of the credit would range from 25% to 100% of the excess rent, depending on the renter’s income.

Harris called housing a human right and said in a 2019 news release on the bill that every American deserves to have basic security and dignity in their own home.

Consumer debt

Hefty debt loads, which weigh on people’s finances and hurt their ability to buy homes, get car loans or start small businesses, are also an area of interest to Harris.

As vice president, she has promoted the Biden administration’s initiatives on student debt, which have so far forgiven more than $168 billion for nearly 4.8 million borrowers . In mid-July, Harris said in a post on X that “nearly 950,000 public servants have benefitted” from student debt forgiveness, compared with only 7,000 when Biden was inaugurated.

A potential Harris administration could keep that momentum going – though some of Biden’s efforts have gotten tangled up in litigation, such as a program aimed at cutting monthly student loan payments for roughly 3 million borrowers enrolled in a repayment plan the administration implemented last year.

The vice president has also been a leader in the White House efforts to ban medical debt from credit reports, noting that those with medical debt are no less likely to repay a loan than those who don’t have unpaid medical bills.

In a late July statement praising North Carolina’s move to relieve the medical debt of about 2 million residents, Harris said that she is “committed to continuing to relieve the burden of medical debt and creating a future where every person has the opportunity to build wealth and thrive.”

Health care

Harris, who has had shifting stances on health care in the past, confirmed in late July through her campaign that she no longer supports a single-payer health care system .

During her 2020 campaign, Harris advocated for shifting the US to a government-backed health insurance system but stopped short of wanting to completely eliminate private insurance.

The measure called for transitioning to a Medicare-for-All-type system over 10 years but continuing to allow private insurance companies to offer Medicare plans.

The proposal would not have raised taxes on the middle class to pay for the coverage expansion. Instead, it would raise the needed funds by taxing Wall Street trades and transactions and changing the taxation of offshore corporate income.

When it comes to reducing drug costs, Harris previously proposed allowing the federal government to set “a fair price” for any drug sold at a cheaper price in any economically comparable country, including Canada, the United Kingdom, France, Japan or Australia. If manufacturers were found to be price gouging, the government could import their drugs from abroad or, in egregious cases, use its existing but never-used “march-in” authority to license a drug company’s patent to a rival that would produce the medication at a lower cost.

Harris has been a champion on climate and environmental justice for decades. As California’s attorney general, Harris sued big oil companies like BP and ConocoPhillips, and investigated Exxon Mobil for its role in climate change disinformation. While in the Senate, she sponsored the Green New Deal resolution.

During her 2020 campaign, she enthusiastically supported a ban on fracking — but a Harris campaign official said in late July that she no longer supports such a ban.

Fracking is the process of using liquid to free natural gas from rock formations – and the primary mode for extracting gas for energy in battleground Pennsylvania. During a September 2019 climate crisis town hall hosted by CNN, she said she would start “with what we can do on Day 1 around public lands.” She walked that back later when she became Biden’s running mate.

Biden has been the most pro-climate president in history, and climate advocates find Harris to be an exciting candidate in her own right. Democrats and climate activists are planning to campaign on the stark contrasts between Harris and Trump , who vowed to push America decisively back to fossil fuels, promising to unwind Biden’s climate and clean energy legacy and pull America out of its global climate commitments.

If elected, one of the biggest climate goals Harris would have to craft early in her administration is how much the US would reduce its climate pollution by 2035 – a requirement of the Paris climate agreement .

Immigration

Harris has quickly started trying to counter Trump’s attacks on her immigration record.

Her campaign released a video in late July citing Harris’ support for increasing the number of Border Patrol agents and Trump’s successful push to scuttle a bipartisan immigration deal that included some of the toughest border security measures in recent memory.

The vice president has changed her position on border control since her 2020 campaign, when she suggested that Democrats needed to “critically examine” the role of Immigration and Customs Enforcement, or ICE, after being asked whether she sided with those in the party arguing to abolish the department.

In June of this year, the White House announced a crackdown on asylum claims meant to continue reducing crossings at the US-Mexico border – a policy that Harris’ campaign manager, Julie Chavez Rodriguez, indicated in late July to CBS News would continue under a Harris administration.

Trump’s attacks stem from Biden having tasked Harris with overseeing diplomatic efforts in Central America in March 2021. While Harris focused on long-term fixes, the Department of Homeland Security remained responsible for overseeing border security.

She has only occasionally talked about her efforts as the situation along the US-Mexico border became a political vulnerability for Biden. But she put her own stamp on the administration’s efforts, engaging the private sector.

Harris pulled together the Partnership for Central America, which has acted as a liaison between companies and the US government. Her team and the partnership are closely coordinating on initiatives that have led to job creation in the region. Harris has also engaged directly with foreign leaders in the region.

Experts credit Harris’ ability to secure private-sector investments as her most visible action in the region to date but have cautioned about the long-term durability of those investments.

Israel-Hamas

The Israel-Hamas war is the most fraught foreign policy issue facing the country and has spurred a multitude of protests around the US since it began in October.

After meeting with Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu in late July, Harris gave a forceful and notable speech about the situation in Gaza.

We cannot look away in the face of these tragedies. We cannot allow ourselves to become numb to the suffering. And I will not be silent.”

Harris echoed Biden’s repeated comments about the “ironclad support” and “unwavering commitment” to Israel. The country has a right to defend itself, she said, while noting, “how it does so, matters.”

However, the empathy she expressed regarding the Palestinian plight and suffering was far more forceful than what Biden has said on the matter in recent months. Harris mentioned twice the “serious concern” she expressed to Netanyahu about the civilian deaths in Gaza, the humanitarian situation and destruction she called “catastrophic” and “devastating.”

She went on to describe “the images of dead children and desperate hungry people fleeing for safety, sometimes displaced for the second, third or fourth time.”

Harris emphasized the need to get the Israeli hostages back from Hamas captivity, naming the eight Israeli-American hostages – three of whom have been killed.

But when describing the ceasefire deal in the works, she didn’t highlight the hostage for prisoner exchange or aid to be let into Gaza. Instead, she singled out the fact that the deal stipulates the withdrawal by the Israeli military from populated areas in the first phase before withdrawing “entirely” from Gaza before “a permanent end to the hostilities.”

Harris didn’t preside over Netanyahu’s speech to Congress in late July, instead choosing to stick with a prescheduled trip to a sorority event in Indiana.

Harris is committed to supporting Ukraine in its fight against Russian aggression, having met with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelensky at least six times and announcing last month $1.5 billion for energy assistance, humanitarian needs and other aid for the war-torn country.

At the Munich Security Conference earlier this year, Harris said: “I will make clear President Joe Biden and I stand with Ukraine. In partnership with supportive, bipartisan majorities in both houses of the United States Congress, we will work to secure critical weapons and resources that Ukraine so badly needs. And let me be clear: The failure to do so would be a gift to Vladimir Putin.”

More broadly, NATO is central to our approach to global security. For President Biden and me, our sacred commitment to NATO remains ironclad. And I do believe, as I have said before, NATO is the greatest military alliance the world has ever known.”

Police funding

The Harris campaign has also walked back the “defund the police” sentiment that Harris voiced in 2020. What she meant is she supports being “tough and smart on crime,” Mitch Landrieu, national co-chair for the Harris campaign and former mayor of New Orleans, told CNN’s Pamela Brown in late July.

In the midst of nationwide 2020 protests sparked by George Floyd’s murder by a Minneapolis police officer, Harris voiced support for the “defund the police” movement, which argues for redirecting funds from law enforcement to social services. Throughout that summer, Harris supported the movement and called for demilitarizing police departments.

Democrats largely backed away from calls to defund the police after Republicans attempted to tie the movement to increases in crime during the 2022 midterm elections.

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Israel’s war on Gaza updates: Israel attacks schools again in Gaza City

These were the updates on Israel’s war on Gaza for Thursday, August 8.

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Where Tim Walz Stands on the Issues

As governor of Minnesota, he has enacted policies to secure abortion protections, provide free meals for schoolchildren, allow recreational marijuana and set renewable energy goals.

• Share full article

By Maggie Astor

• Aug. 6, 2024

Gov. Tim Walz of Minnesota, the newly announced running mate to Vice President Kamala Harris, has worked with his state’s Democratic-controlled Legislature to enact an ambitious agenda of liberal policies: free college tuition for low-income students, free meals for schoolchildren, legal recreational marijuana and protections for transgender people.

“You don’t win elections to bank political capital,” Mr. Walz wrote last year about his approach to governing. “You win elections to burn political capital and improve lives.”

Republicans have slammed these policies as big-government liberalism and accused Mr. Walz of taking a hard left turn since he represented a politically divided district in Congress years ago.

Here is an overview of where Mr. Walz stands on some key issues.

Mr. Walz signed a bill last year that guaranteed Minnesotans a “fundamental right to make autonomous decisions” about reproductive health care on issues such as abortion, contraception and fertility treatments.

Abortion was already protected by a Minnesota Supreme Court decision, but the new law guarded against a future court reversing that precedent as the U.S. Supreme Court did with Roe v. Wade, and Mr. Walz said this year that he was also open to an amendment to the state’s Constitution that would codify abortion rights.

Another bill he signed legally shields patients, and their medical providers, if they receive an abortion in Minnesota after traveling from a state where abortion is banned.

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UK riots latest: Thousands take part in anti-racism protests; petrol bomb thrown at mosque in 'racially motivated' incident

Police are on high alert this weekend amid concerns over more disorder breaking out as protests take place across the country. In Northern Ireland, police are investigating a "racially motivated" attack on a mosque.

Saturday 10 August 2024 23:00, UK

• Protesters gather outside Reform UK's London office
• Liverpool court hears how teenager stole £19,000 of vapes during riots
• Petrol bomb thrown at mosque in 'racially motivated' incident
• Impact of riots could be felt for years to come, warns justice secretary
• Tory councillor's wife remanded in custody over stirring up racial hatred online
• Listen: 'Unease and fear' - How Muslim communities feel about the riots
• Watch : Bodycam footage of Southport riot
• Watch : Pubgoers embrace Muslims 'defending their community'
• Analysis: The many reasons the far right stayed off streets
• Further reading : The men who've been jailed so far

That's all our coverage on this story for now. 

Thousands of anti-racism protesters have descended on cities across the country - outnumbering anti-immigration demonstrators for the fourth day in a row. 

Before we go, here's a recap of the main updates from the last 24 hours: 

• A court in Liverpool has heard how a 16-year-old stole £19,000 worth of vapes during riots in the city centre last week;
• A petrol bomb was thrown at a mosque in Northern Ireland in an incident described by police as racially motivated. The mosque in Newtownards, County Down, was attacked at around 1am, with graffiti sprayed on its front door;
• Lucy Connolly, the wife of a Tory councillor, has been remanded in custody ahead of a crown court appearance over publishing written material intended to stir up racial hatred;
• Justice Secretary Shabana Mahmood has warned the impact of the riots on the judicial system will be felt for years to come;
• The parents of six-year-old Bebe King, who was killed in the Southport stabbings, have paid tribute to their "precious daughter" and revealed her older sister saw the attack and escaped. 

Police have been granted enhanced stop and search powers in part of Yeovil tonight.

Avon and Somerset Police said the powers allow officers to search people who they consider "at risk of violence", without reasonable suspicion. 

The force said the technique has already resulted in arrests being made this evening. 

It comes after it reported a small number of people had gathered in the grounds of a church for a peaceful demonstration. 

Four men have been charged following the riots in Hartlepool and Middlesbrough last week. 

Cleveland Police said a 24-year-old man had been charged with burglary over the unrest in Middlesbrough last Sunday. 

Another 24 year-old was charged with violent disorder and a 27-year-old was charged with assault by beating of an emergency worker. 

A 19-year-old was charged with violent disorder in relation to the riots in Hartlepool on 31 July. 

All four men have been remanded in custody and are due to appear in court on Monday. 

The impact of the riots could be felt for months or years to come, the justice secretary has warned. 

Writing a piece for The Observer, Shabana Mahmood said the justice system has shown it can act swiftly, but its work has been made more difficult due to the state it was left in by the Conservatives. 

Courts have been working extended hours to deal with rioters who were charged by police during the week-long disorder. 

"The justice system has shown it can rise to this challenge. Should further criminality and disorder ensue, we will continue to deliver justice, until the last offender languishes in one of our jails," Ms Mahmood said. 

"But we must make no mistake. Rising to this challenge has been made harder by doing so within the justice system we inherited from the Conservatives." 

She pointed out that there are "record crown court backlogs" and prisons "close to overflowing". 

"The impact of these days of disorder will be felt for months and years to come. They make the job of rebuilding the justice system harder," she added. 

The parents of a six-year-old girl who was killed in the Southport stabbings have paid tribute to their "precious daughter" and revealed her older sister saw the attack and escaped.

Bebe King died along with nine-year-old Alice Dasilva Aguiar and Elsie Dot Stancombe, aged seven, after the stabbings at a Taylor Swift-themed dance workshop in the Merseyside town on 29 July.

The deaths of the three girls sparked anti-immigration protests and riots across UK towns and cities after false information circulated on social media that the attacker was an illegal migrant.

In a statement issued by Merseyside Police, Bebe's parents Lauren and Ben said their daughter "was full of joy, light, and love, and she will always remain in our hearts as the sweet, kind, and spirited girl we adore".

They revealed their nine-year-old older Genie witnessed the attack and managed to escape, saying: "She has shown such incredible strength and courage, and we are so proud of her.

You can read more about this story here ...

Photos of three men have been released by police as they continue to investigate the disorder that broke out in Whitehall last week. 

Metropolitan Police said more than 100 arrests were made at the protest on Wednesday 31 July. 

However, in the days that followed, a huge amount of footage and other evidence has been reviewed to try to identify outstanding suspects, it added. 

It urged people who recognise any of the three men to get in touch or contact Crimestoppers. 

Sky News understands Sir Keir Starmer has cancelled his holiday as protests continue to take place across the country. 

Thousands of police officers have remained on duty today in case violence flared again. 

But, for a fourth day in a row, anti-racism protesters far outnumbered far-right demonstrators in several areas. 

A dispersal order has been enforced in Liverpool city centre today and will remain in place for 48 hours. 

It also covers parts of Everton, Kensington, Vauxhall and Kirkdale. 

Merseyside Police said it had been introduced "following incidents of disorder". 

Neighbourhood Policing Inspector Chris Taylor said: "This order will give officers on the ground the ability to direct people suspected of being involved in or planning criminality to leave the designated area for a period of 48 hours, and to arrest them if they return." 

A Section 60 order, which gives officers enhanced stop and search powers, is already in place in the area. 

"Both orders are extra tools at our disposal to help keep the public safe, and highly visible police patrols will enforce them in the next 48 hours," Mr Taylor said. 

A total of 779 people have been arrested over rioting, the National Police Chiefs' Council (NPCC) has said. 

Of those, 349 have been charged, it added. 

Suspected rioters have continued to appear in court today, including the wife of a Tory councillor who has been accused of publishing written material intended to stir up racial hatred.

Lucy Connolly, 41, appeared at Nottingham Magistrates' Court on Saturday morning and did not enter a plea.

The NPCC said specialist officers have been tasked with pursuing suspected online offenders and so-called influencers, who they say are responsible for "spreading hate and inciting violence on a large scale".

Across the country, teams have been investigating "hundreds of leads".

"This abhorrent activity didn't happen by itself. Large crowds and gatherings didn't mobilise spontaneously," said Chief Constable Chris Haward, the NPCC lead for serious and organised crime. 

"It was the result of dozens of so-called influencers, exploiting the outpouring of grief from the tragic loss of three young girls in Southport.

"They knowingly spread misinformation, stoked the flames of hatred and division and incited violence from the comfort of their own homes, causing chaos on other people's doorsteps."

The leader of Newcastle City Council has said he is "angry" that some residents were made to "feel unsafe" by "right wing agitators". 

In a post on Facebook, Councillor Nick Kemp praised police for their work in the city, and urged people to stay "united". 

Protests organised by Enough Is Enough have been taking place today, but passed without any violence or disorder breaking out.

"Northumbria Police have done a phenomenal job in preparing for today and their swift actions throughout the entire week have acted as a deterrent," Cllr Kemp said. 

"Across the country, we have seen right wing agitators looking to divide our city and sow seeds of hatred. Today, Newcastle showed them what we are about.

"However, I am angry that they have made some of our residents feel unsafe. That their actions have caused doubt among those who call our city home."

You can read his full statement below... 

We are here, we are listening, and we are ready to act 🤝 That is the message from our Leader, Cllr Nick Kemp, who says... Posted by Newcastle City Council on  Saturday, August 10, 2024

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The Civil War in America

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