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Public Policy Essay: Meaning, Components, and Structure

Public policy essay writing provides an atmosphere for people to make significant contributions to the advancement of society by acting as links between ideas and deeds. Regardless of whether you are a student, policymaker, or just interested in the dynamics of influencing the public conversation, you must comprehend the intricacies of writing compelling essays that serve purpose and clarity. However, we know that it is tough for students to write such essays on their own. This is why we have brought you a comprehensive guide where we break down public policy essays by exploring their deep meaning, breaking down key components, and structure. This blog curated by All Assignment Help will clear all your doubts regarding a public policy essay.

So let’s get started!

What Is a Public Policy Essay?

A public policy essay is an essential resource for anyone looking to have a meaningful conversation about the laws that form their society. This written analysis goes deeper into the complexities, consequences, and possible solutions to policy issues, going beyond their obvious surface level.

A public policy essay is essentially a thoughtful, well-researched analysis that breaks down a specific policy, covering its background, guiding ideas, and practical implications. Moreover, this type of writing enables authors to express not just their opinions about particular policies but also suggestions for reforms or alternate courses of action.

Furthermore, a public policy essay offers a chance for people to participate in the continuing conversation about societal issues and the policies that attempt to address them. However, writing an essay on a public policy topic requires a lot of time and effort, and yet students fail to write a well-researched essay on their own. Hence, we suggest that they should seek online essay writing services where they will be assisted by professional essay writers who will work according to their needs.

Read Here: Personal Essay- Examples, Structure, and Writing Tips

Key Components of a Public Policy Essay

Although writing a public policy essay requires precise organization and planning in order to convey your thoughts clearly. The following are the key components that you should include in your public policy essay writing:

Introduction

• Describe the background of the topic or subject you are discussing.
• Give a clear explanation of your essay’s major point or goal.

The Problem Statement

• Give a precise definition of the topic or problem your essay is trying to solve.
• Justify its importance and the need for attention.

Overview of Policy

• Describe the public policy that you will be talking about.
• Give a brief overview of the goals, purpose, and background of the policy.

Analysis of Policy

• Talk about the implementation of the policy and any difficulties encountered.
• Determine whether the policy is successful in resolving the stated issue.
• Give a clear description of the aims and objectives of the policy.

Policy Alternatives

• Describe some different approaches to policy.
• Consider the benefits and drawbacks of each choice.

Suggestions

• Make suggestions for enhancing the current policy or putting forth a fresh strategy in accordance with your findings.
• Provide logic and supporting data to support the suggestions you make.
• Highlight how important the problem is and how important your suggestions are.
• Summarize the main points of your essay.
• Provide a detailed reference list for every source you used and cited in your writing.
• Use citation styles ( APA , MLA, Chicago, etc.) consistently.

However, don’t forget to utilize clear, succinct language, logical flow, and examples and facts to back up your claims. Furthermore, keep in mind any particular instructions or specifications given by your instructor. Also, you can hire an essay helper online if you need any kind of assistance in writing your essay. The essay helper will not only write your essay but also provide you with the knowledge needed to write a flawless public policy essay.

How To Structure A Public Policy Essay?

Writing a public policy essay that successfully communicates your position on the topic requires a well-organized strategy. A compelling introduction draws the reader in and establishes the framework for your arguments. Therefore, a proper essay structure is essential to successfully convey your ideas and arguments in your essay. Here is a general outline to assist you in structuring your essay:

Create an Eye-Catching Introduction

Your main goal in the opening should be to use a hook that will captivate the reader. This might be accomplished by posing an intriguing question, providing an eye-opening statistic, or including a relevant quotation. Move on to giving background information on the public policy issue you will be addressing once you have the reader’s attention. This background information should be brief and provide readers with the essential context to understand the complexities of the policy issue.

Present a Concise Thesis Statement

Now, give an easy-to-understand and understandable thesis statement after the introduction. This sentence acts as the essay’s center. It summarizes your position on the public policy matter and highlights the primary points you will make in the essay. Moreover, it serves as a road map for your readers, pointing them in the direction of what you are saying. However, to create a concise thesis statement, you need to create a lesson plan assignment so that your statement won’t miss anything important.

State The Significance and Context

Once your thesis has been established, explore the public policy problems larger context. Give a thorough analysis of the political, social, and economic forces that have influenced the necessity for the particular policy. Afterwards, show how important the issue is by explaining the potential consequences of ignoring it and highlighting how the suggested policy would be able to help with these issues.

Conduct Literature Review

Perform a comprehensive literature review. Provide a summary of the most important conclusions drawn from studies, policies, and other relevant literature that are relevant to the public policy problem. By doing this, you show that you understand the current topic and the voids your essay seeks to fill, as well as establish the intellectual foundation for your argument. Thus, conduct a deep literature analysis so that you can provide useful information to the readers.

Write Body Paragraphs

Make sure to highlight the policy analysis part in the first body paragraph. Begin by outlining the precise goals that the suggested policy seeks to accomplish. Analyze the different alternatives or options for policy in depth. Afterward, seamlessly transition to the details of putting the selected policy into practice in the second body paragraph. Lastly, identify potential obstacles to policy execution and take appropriate action. Identify any obstacles or objections to the suggested policy. Also, provide thoughtful responses to these challenges and openly acknowledge them.

Together, these initial sections provide your readers with a clear picture of the public policy essay context, significance, and body of existing knowledge. Additionally, they also establish the groundwork for an in-depth study of the topic.

Also Read: How to Write an Outstanding 900-Word Essay

Some Suggested Public Policy Essay Topics

You should certainly think about the ideal topics if you want to write a persuasive and interesting public policy essay. However, you should choose a topic that is relevant to the current time. It needs to spark debate and hold the attention of your readers. It would be simple to conduct the necessary study to get sufficient data and proof to back up your claims. Therefore, we have brought you the latest and trendiest essay topics that you can choose from for your next public policy essay.

The following list includes some suggested essay topics that you might find interesting:

• The economic effects of immigration policy
• How well the financial sector is regulated by the government?
• The function of the state in guaranteeing health care accessibility
• How well government initiatives to fight poverty are working?
• Transportation policy: the involvement of the government
• The way the government can help to promote inexpensive housing
• The success of government initiatives to advance renewable energy
• How well government support for the arts is working?
• What and how well-performing government initiatives are at helping small enterprises?
• How the restaurant industry is affected by government regulations?
• The efficiency of public funds allocated to space exploration
• Effects of governmental regulation on the technology sector
• The function of the state in advancing technological innovation
• How well government money is used to advance technology?

Writing a flawless public policy essay requires you to select an appropriate topic that gives something to the readers. With these topics at your hand, you can choose one that you find most suitable for your next essay writing.

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Policy Briefs

What this handout is about.

This handout will offer tips for writing effective policy briefs. Be sure to check with your instructor about their specific expectations for your assignment.

What are policy briefs?

Imagine that you’re an elected official serving on a committee that sets the standards cars must meet to pass a state inspection. You know that this is a complex issue, and you’d like to learn more about existing policies, the effects of emissions on the environment and on public health, the economic consequences of different possible approaches, and more–you want to make an informed decision. But you don’t have time to research all of these issues! You need a policy brief.

A policy brief presents a concise summary of information that can help readers understand, and likely make decisions about, government policies. Policy briefs may give objective summaries of relevant research, suggest possible policy options, or go even further and argue for particular courses of action.

How do policy briefs differ from other kinds of writing assignments?

You may encounter policy brief assignments in many different academic disciplines, from public health and environmental science to education and social work. If you’re reading this handout because you’re having your first encounter with such an assignment, don’t worry–many of your existing skills and strategies, like using evidence , being concise , and organizing your information effectively , will help you succeed at this form of writing. However, policy briefs are distinctive in several ways.

In some of your college writing, you’ve addressed your peers, your professors, or other members of your academic field. Policy briefs are usually created for a more general reader or policy maker who has a stake in the issue that you’re discussing.

Tone and terminology

Many academic disciplines discourage using unnecessary jargon, but clear language is especially important in policy briefs. If you find yourself using jargon, try to replace it with more direct language that a non-specialist reader would be more likely to understand. When specialized terminology is necessary, explain it quickly and clearly to ensure that your reader doesn’t get confused.

Policy briefs are distinctive in their focus on communicating the practical implications of research to a specific audience. Suppose that you and your roommate both write research-based papers about global warming. Your roommate is writing a research paper for an environmental science course, and you are writing a policy brief for a course on public policy. You might both use the exact same sources in writing your papers. So, how might those papers differ?

Your roommate’s research paper is likely to present the findings of previous studies and synthesize them in order to present an argument about what we know. It might also discuss the methods and processes used in the research.

Your policy brief might synthesize the same scientific findings, but it will deploy them for a very specific purpose: to help readers decide what they should do. It will relate the findings to current policy debates, with an emphasis on applying the research outcomes rather than assessing the research procedures. A research paper might also suggest practical actions, but a policy brief is likely to emphasize them more strongly and develop them more fully.

To support these changes in audience, tone, and purpose, policy briefs have a distinctive format. You should consult your assignment prompt and/or your professor for instructions about the specific requirements of your assignment, but most policy briefs have several features in common. They tend to use lots of headings and have relatively short sections. This structure differs from many short papers in the humanities that may have a title but no further headings, and from reports in the sciences that may follow the “IMRAD” structure of introduction, methods, results, and discussion. Your brief might include graphs, charts, or other visual aids that make it easier to digest the most important information within sections.  Policy briefs often include some of these sections:

• Title: A good title quickly communicates the contents of the brief in a memorable way.
• Executive Summary: This section is often one to two paragraphs long; it includes an overview of the problem and the proposed policy action.
• Context or Scope of Problem: This section communicates the importance of the problem and aims to convince the reader of the necessity of policy action.
• Policy Alternatives: This section discusses the current policy approach and explains proposed options. It should be fair and accurate while convincing the reader why the policy action proposed in the brief is the most desirable.
• Policy Recommendations: This section contains the most detailed explanation of the concrete steps to be taken to address the policy issue.
• Appendices: If some readers might need further support in order to accept your argument but doing so in the brief itself might derail the conversation for other readers, you might include the extra information in an appendix.
• Consulted or Recommended Sources: These should be reliable sources that you have used throughout your brief to guide your policy discussion and recommendations.

Depending on your specific topic and assignment, you might combine sections or break them down into several more specific ones.

How do I identify a problem for my policy brief?

An effective policy brief must propose a solution to a well-defined problem that can be addressed at the level of policy. This may sound easy, but it can take a lot of work to think of a problem in a way that is open to policy action.

For example, “bad spending habits in young adults” might be a problem that you feel strongly about, but you can’t simply implement a policy to “make better financial decisions.” In order to make it the subject of a policy brief, you’ll need to look for research on the topic and narrow it down. Is the problem a lack of financial education, predatory lending practices, dishonest advertising, or something else? Narrowing to one of these (and perhaps further) would allow you to write a brief that can propose concrete policy action.

For another example, let’s say that you wanted to address children’s health. This is a big issue, and too broad to serve as the focus of a policy brief, but it could serve as a starting point for research. As you begin to research studies on children’s health, you might decide to zoom in on the more specific issue of childhood obesity. You’ll need to consult the research further to decide what factors contribute to it in order to propose policy changes. Is it lack of exercise, nutritional deficiencies, a combination of these, or something else? Choosing one or another of these issues, your brief would zoom in even further to specific proposals that might include exercise initiatives, nutritional guidelines, or school lunch programs.

The key is that you define the problem and its contributing factors as specifically as possible so that some sort of concrete policy action (at the local, state, or national level) is feasible.

Framing the issue

Once you’ve identified the problem for yourself, you need to decide how you will present it to your reader. Your own process of identifying the problem likely had some stops, starts, and dead-ends, but your goal in framing the issue for your reader is to provide the most direct path to understanding the problem and the proposed policy change. It can be helpful to think of some of the most pressing questions your audience will have and attempt to preemptively answer those questions. Here are some questions you might want to consider:

What is the problem?

Understanding what the problem is, in the clearest terms possible, will give your reader a reference point. Later, when you’re discussing complex information, your reader can refer back to the initial problem. This will help to ‘anchor’ them throughout the course of your argument. Every piece of information in the brief should be clearly and easily connected to the problem.

What is the scope of the problem?

Knowing the extent of the problem helps to frame the policy issue for your reader. Is the problem statewide, national, or international? How many people does this issue affect? Daily? Annually? This is a great place for any statistical information you may have gathered through your research.

Who are the stakeholders?

Who does this issue affect? Adult women? College-educated men? Children from bilingual homes? The primary group being affected is important, and knowing who this group is allows the reader to assign a face to the policy issue.

Policy issues can include a complex network of stakeholders. Double check whether you have inadvertently excluded any of them from your analysis. For example, a policy about children’s nutrition obviously involves the children, but it might also include food producers, distributors, parents, and nutritionists (and other experts). Some stakeholders might be reluctant to accept your policy change or even acknowledge the existence of the problem, which is why your brief must be convincing in its use of evidence and clear in its communication.

Effective policy-writing

This handout has emphasized that good policy briefs are clear, concise, and focused on applying credible research to policy problems. Let’s take a look at two versions of the introduction to a policy brief to see how someone might write and revise to achieve these qualities:

A “not-so-good” policy brief

Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health in Outlandia: A Call to Action

The Report on Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health in Outlandia (2010), issued by Secretary of Health Dr. Polly Galver, served as a platform to increase public awareness on the importance of dermatologic health for adolescents. Among the major themes of the report are that dermatologic health is essential to general health and well-being and that profound and consequential dermatologic health disparities exist in the state of Outlandia. Dr. Galver stated that what amounts to a silent epidemic of acne is affecting some population groups–restricting activities as schools, work, and home–and often significantly diminishing the quality of life. Dr. Galver issued the Report on Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health as a wake-up call to policymakers and health professionals on issues regarding the state’s dermatologic health. (“ Not so good policy brief ,” Reproduced with permission of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD.)

This paragraph introduces a relevant and credible source, but it fails to use that source to explain a problem and propose policy action. The reader is likely to be confused because the word “acne” does not appear until the middle of the paragraph, and the brief never states what action should be taken to address it. In addition to this lack of focus, the paragraph also includes unnecessary phrases like “among the major themes” that could be removed to make it more concise.

A better policy brief

Seeing Spots: Addressing the Silent Epidemic of Acne in Outlandia’s Youth

Acne is the most common chronic disease among adolescents in Outlandia (Outlandia Department of Health, 2010). Long considered a benign rite of passage, acne actually has far-reaching effects on the health and well being of adolescents, significantly affecting success in school, social relationships, and general quality of life. Yet large portions of the state’s population are unable to access treatment for acne. The Secretary of Health’s Report on Adolescents’ Dermatologic Health in Outlandia (2010) is a call to action for policymakers and health professionals to improve the health and wellbeing of Outlandia’s youth by increasing access to dermatologic care (“ A Better Policy Brief” , Reproduced with permission of the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD.)

This paragraph is far more focused and concise than the first version. The opening sentence is straightforward; instead of focusing on the source, it makes a clear and memorable point that is supported by the source. Additionally, though the first version was titled “a call to action,” it did not actually say what that action might be. In this version, it is clear that the call is for increased access to dermatologic care.

Keep in mind that clarity, conciseness, and consistent focus are rarely easy to achieve in a first draft. Careful editing and revision are key parts of writing policy briefs.

Works consulted

We consulted these works while writing this handout. This is not a comprehensive list of resources on the handout’s topic, and we encourage you to do your own research to find additional publications. Please do not use this list as a model for the format of your own reference list, as it may not match the citation style you are using. For guidance on formatting citations, please see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial . We revise these tips periodically and welcome feedback.

Smith, Catherine F. 2016. Writing Public Policy , 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press.

Young, Eoin, and Lisa Quinn. n.d. “The Policy Brief.” University of Delaware. Accessed June 24, 2019. https://cpb-us-e1.wpmucdn.com/blog.lrei.org/dist/c/104/wp-content/uploads/sites/346/2009/11/PolicyBrief-described.pdf .

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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POL 101: American Government

• eBooks and Reference
• Academic Journals/Trade Publications/Primary Sources
• Evaluating Sources
• Public Policy Essay

Assignment:

Governments administer, or design and implement public policy to address social problems and controversies. Politics is the contested social process whereby individuals and groups compete to have government represent varied and often opposed interests as official public policy. In a 3-4 page essay, you will analyze a political issue that the federal government addresses through public policy. Your essay should cover the following themes:

• Issue Identification and Explanation: Identify and explain an important political issue that the federal government administers through public policy. Why is the issue controversial? What are the relevant facts? Provide data or support.
• Interest Group Analysis: How do they get government to do what they want? Do they lobby the Congress and executive branch of government? Do they mobilize the public with information and grassroots movements? Be specific.
• Government Administration and Policy Analysis: Identify and explain how the federal government administers the policies that address the political issue. What laws have Congress passed regarding the issue? What executive department, agency, or bureau is responsible in creating and enforcing the public policies and programs related to the issue? How have the federal courts and Supreme Court ruled in interpreting the constitutionality of legislation and policies related to the political issue?
• Assessment and Conclusion: Conclude by providing an assessment of your research: Are government institutions effective in addressing the political issue through public policy? Why or why not?

Formatting and Requirements:

• Length: 3-4 pages
• Double-spaced
• 12-point font (Calibri or Times New Roman)
• Standard margins
• Clear introduction with a thesis statement
• Well-organized body paragraphs with evidence
• Concluding paragraph summarizing your analysis
• Proper citation format (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.)

Resources for Paper

• Lobbying “Lobbying.” The Columbia Encyclopedia , by Paul Lagasse and Columbia University, 8th ed., Columbia University Press, 2018. Credo Reference
• See Also: ebooks and Reference
• See Also: Databases
• << Previous: Evaluating Sources
• Last Updated: Aug 22, 2024 2:10 PM
• URL: https://libguides.gateway.kctcs.edu/americangovernment

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• How to structure an essay: Templates and tips

How to Structure an Essay | Tips & Templates

Published on September 18, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on July 23, 2023.

The basic structure of an essay always consists of an introduction , a body , and a conclusion . But for many students, the most difficult part of structuring an essay is deciding how to organize information within the body.

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Table of contents

The basics of essay structure, chronological structure, compare-and-contrast structure, problems-methods-solutions structure, signposting to clarify your structure, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about essay structure.

There are two main things to keep in mind when working on your essay structure: making sure to include the right information in each part, and deciding how you’ll organize the information within the body.

Parts of an essay

The three parts that make up all essays are described in the table below.

Order of information

You’ll also have to consider how to present information within the body. There are a few general principles that can guide you here.

The first is that your argument should move from the simplest claim to the most complex . The body of a good argumentative essay often begins with simple and widely accepted claims, and then moves towards more complex and contentious ones.

For example, you might begin by describing a generally accepted philosophical concept, and then apply it to a new topic. The grounding in the general concept will allow the reader to understand your unique application of it.

The second principle is that background information should appear towards the beginning of your essay . General background is presented in the introduction. If you have additional background to present, this information will usually come at the start of the body.

The third principle is that everything in your essay should be relevant to the thesis . Ask yourself whether each piece of information advances your argument or provides necessary background. And make sure that the text clearly expresses each piece of information’s relevance.

The sections below present several organizational templates for essays: the chronological approach, the compare-and-contrast approach, and the problems-methods-solutions approach.

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The chronological approach (sometimes called the cause-and-effect approach) is probably the simplest way to structure an essay. It just means discussing events in the order in which they occurred, discussing how they are related (i.e. the cause and effect involved) as you go.

A chronological approach can be useful when your essay is about a series of events. Don’t rule out other approaches, though—even when the chronological approach is the obvious one, you might be able to bring out more with a different structure.

Explore the tabs below to see a general template and a specific example outline from an essay on the invention of the printing press.

• Thesis statement
• Discussion of event/period
• Consequences
• Importance of topic
• Strong closing statement
• Claim that the printing press marks the end of the Middle Ages
• Background on the low levels of literacy before the printing press
• Thesis statement: The invention of the printing press increased circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation
• High levels of illiteracy in medieval Europe
• Literacy and thus knowledge and education were mainly the domain of religious and political elites
• Consequence: this discouraged political and religious change
• Invention of the printing press in 1440 by Johannes Gutenberg
• Implications of the new technology for book production
• Consequence: Rapid spread of the technology and the printing of the Gutenberg Bible
• Trend for translating the Bible into vernacular languages during the years following the printing press’s invention
• Luther’s own translation of the Bible during the Reformation
• Consequence: The large-scale effects the Reformation would have on religion and politics
• Summarize the history described
• Stress the significance of the printing press to the events of this period

Essays with two or more main subjects are often structured around comparing and contrasting . For example, a literary analysis essay might compare two different texts, and an argumentative essay might compare the strengths of different arguments.

There are two main ways of structuring a compare-and-contrast essay: the alternating method, and the block method.

Alternating

In the alternating method, each paragraph compares your subjects in terms of a specific point of comparison. These points of comparison are therefore what defines each paragraph.

The tabs below show a general template for this structure, and a specific example for an essay comparing and contrasting distance learning with traditional classroom learning.

• Synthesis of arguments
• Topical relevance of distance learning in lockdown
• Increasing prevalence of distance learning over the last decade
• Thesis statement: While distance learning has certain advantages, it introduces multiple new accessibility issues that must be addressed for it to be as effective as classroom learning
• Classroom learning: Ease of identifying difficulties and privately discussing them
• Distance learning: Difficulty of noticing and unobtrusively helping
• Classroom learning: Difficulties accessing the classroom (disability, distance travelled from home)
• Distance learning: Difficulties with online work (lack of tech literacy, unreliable connection, distractions)
• Classroom learning: Tends to encourage personal engagement among students and with teacher, more relaxed social environment
• Distance learning: Greater ability to reach out to teacher privately
• Sum up, emphasize that distance learning introduces more difficulties than it solves
• Stress the importance of addressing issues with distance learning as it becomes increasingly common
• Distance learning may prove to be the future, but it still has a long way to go

In the block method, each subject is covered all in one go, potentially across multiple paragraphs. For example, you might write two paragraphs about your first subject and then two about your second subject, making comparisons back to the first.

The tabs again show a general template, followed by another essay on distance learning, this time with the body structured in blocks.

• Point 1 (compare)
• Point 2 (compare)
• Point 3 (compare)
• Point 4 (compare)
• Advantages: Flexibility, accessibility
• Disadvantages: Discomfort, challenges for those with poor internet or tech literacy
• Advantages: Potential for teacher to discuss issues with a student in a separate private call
• Disadvantages: Difficulty of identifying struggling students and aiding them unobtrusively, lack of personal interaction among students
• Advantages: More accessible to those with low tech literacy, equality of all sharing one learning environment
• Disadvantages: Students must live close enough to attend, commutes may vary, classrooms not always accessible for disabled students
• Advantages: Ease of picking up on signs a student is struggling, more personal interaction among students
• Disadvantages: May be harder for students to approach teacher privately in person to raise issues

An essay that concerns a specific problem (practical or theoretical) may be structured according to the problems-methods-solutions approach.

This is just what it sounds like: You define the problem, characterize a method or theory that may solve it, and finally analyze the problem, using this method or theory to arrive at a solution. If the problem is theoretical, the solution might be the analysis you present in the essay itself; otherwise, you might just present a proposed solution.

The tabs below show a template for this structure and an example outline for an essay about the problem of fake news.

• Introduce the problem
• Provide background
• Describe your approach to solving it
• Define the problem precisely
• Describe why it’s important
• Indicate previous approaches to the problem
• Present your new approach, and why it’s better
• Apply the new method or theory to the problem
• Indicate the solution you arrive at by doing so
• Assess (potential or actual) effectiveness of solution
• Describe the implications
• Problem: The growth of “fake news” online
• Prevalence of polarized/conspiracy-focused news sources online
• Thesis statement: Rather than attempting to stamp out online fake news through social media moderation, an effective approach to combating it must work with educational institutions to improve media literacy
• Definition: Deliberate disinformation designed to spread virally online
• Popularization of the term, growth of the phenomenon
• Previous approaches: Labeling and moderation on social media platforms
• Critique: This approach feeds conspiracies; the real solution is to improve media literacy so users can better identify fake news
• Greater emphasis should be placed on media literacy education in schools
• This allows people to assess news sources independently, rather than just being told which ones to trust
• This is a long-term solution but could be highly effective
• It would require significant organization and investment, but would equip people to judge news sources more effectively
• Rather than trying to contain the spread of fake news, we must teach the next generation not to fall for it

Signposting means guiding the reader through your essay with language that describes or hints at the structure of what follows.  It can help you clarify your structure for yourself as well as helping your reader follow your ideas.

The essay overview

In longer essays whose body is split into multiple named sections, the introduction often ends with an overview of the rest of the essay. This gives a brief description of the main idea or argument of each section.

The overview allows the reader to immediately understand what will be covered in the essay and in what order. Though it describes what  comes later in the text, it is generally written in the present tense . The following example is from a literary analysis essay on Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein .

Transitions

Transition words and phrases are used throughout all good essays to link together different ideas. They help guide the reader through your text, and an essay that uses them effectively will be much easier to follow.

Various different relationships can be expressed by transition words, as shown in this example.

Because Hitler failed to respond to the British ultimatum, France and the UK declared war on Germany. Although it was an outcome the Allies had hoped to avoid, they were prepared to back up their ultimatum in order to combat the existential threat posed by the Third Reich.

Transition sentences may be included to transition between different paragraphs or sections of an essay. A good transition sentence moves the reader on to the next topic while indicating how it relates to the previous one.

… Distance learning, then, seems to improve accessibility in some ways while representing a step backwards in others.

However , considering the issue of personal interaction among students presents a different picture.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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• College Essay Format & Structure
• Comparing and Contrasting in an Essay

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The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

An essay isn’t just a loose collection of facts and ideas. Instead, it should be centered on an overarching argument (summarized in your thesis statement ) that every part of the essay relates to.

The way you structure your essay is crucial to presenting your argument coherently. A well-structured essay helps your reader follow the logic of your ideas and understand your overall point.

Comparisons in essays are generally structured in one of two ways:

• The alternating method, where you compare your subjects side by side according to one specific aspect at a time.
• The block method, where you cover each subject separately in its entirety.

It’s also possible to combine both methods, for example by writing a full paragraph on each of your topics and then a final paragraph contrasting the two according to a specific metric.

You should try to follow your outline as you write your essay . However, if your ideas change or it becomes clear that your structure could be better, it’s okay to depart from your essay outline . Just make sure you know why you’re doing so.

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Public Policy: Origins, Practice, and Analysis

(2 reviews)

Kimberly Martin

Keith E. Lee Jr.

John Powell Hall

ISBN 13: 9781940771830

Publisher: University of North Georgia Press

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Amy McCoy, Assistant Professor, Drake University on 11/18/22

This is a comprehensive introduction to origins of policy, policy practice and policy analysis. It is written in a manner that is very accessible so that anyone, even without prior policy knowledge, gets sufficient background to understand the... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This is a comprehensive introduction to origins of policy, policy practice and policy analysis. It is written in a manner that is very accessible so that anyone, even without prior policy knowledge, gets sufficient background to understand the history of policy, how it's implemented and how to examine it.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

This is written in a neutral manner and while the Affordable Care Act is the policy that is followed, it is done some in a practical, non-partisan manner. It was a fitting choice for policy because it went through many iterations that could then be analyzed as parts of the policy analysis process.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

While the Affordable Care Act is already slightly past its prime, it's a relevant example and will continue to impact many citizens' lives. The historical background and clarity of explaining the policy process will not become outdated. It's all accessible to any level of policy knowledge, making it a useful tool for high school to undergraduate students.

Clarity rating: 5

I can't emphasize enough here that this written in simple, accessible language for learners who may not have any policy background. I'm impressed by the way it builds through the policy background in a meaningful way, taking the reader to a point they can feel comfortable doing analysis. The summary tables are excellent for learning and I will most certainly be incorporating the text as well as these visuals into my coursework.

Consistency rating: 5

The accessible, accurate language that quickly gets the reader the basic information they need to understand the policy process maintains its integrity throughout this resource. The resource sections are also extremely helpful for anyone accessing this information and wanting to build on it further.

Modularity rating: 5

Again, it's structured in a way that's easy to access and that summarizes the learning in addition to providing more resources. It would be quite simple to take each section and turn it into a learning system module.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

This text takes the reader through the historical background of policy to the ability to conduct present day political awareness and analysis.

Interface rating: 5

Easy to navigate with sections and pages clearly denoted.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I did not find any grammatical errors and the language was at a level that new college learners could easily absorb the information.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

This text is written in a very factual manner and while individual readers may have personal political leanings on its main analysis the Affordable Care Act - it's written in a manner that it neither promotes nor criticizes the policy but follows it progress.

This is a very accessible, accurate and engaging read especially for students new to policy and policy analysis. It may not fit the critical thinking level of upper level courses, but it will be in my toolbox for students who haven't worked in the policy area and those who want a reference text on the history, implementation and examination of policy.

Reviewed by Anne Douds, Associate Professor, Gettysburg College on 10/18/22

The book is sufficiently comprehensive, and I appreciate that it is more succinct than some other popular texts. Any gaps in information can easily be addressed with secondary readings. read more

The book is sufficiently comprehensive, and I appreciate that it is more succinct than some other popular texts. Any gaps in information can easily be addressed with secondary readings.

The book covers content neutrally and with minimal detectable bias.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

It is up to date for now, but I worry about whether the ACA as a unifying theme of all chapters will retain saliency? Updates will be necessary, which is true of all texts, but the ACA is already waning in terms of popular focus.

The book is very straight forward. At times, the text feels a bit simplistic, but when I think about using it for an introductory undergraduate class, I think its simplicity will appeal to students who are not as familiar with some fundamental concepts. Students better versed in policy studies who take the introductory course could be given supplementary materials to increase depth.

Yes the formatting, terminology, and framework are consistent.

Modularity rating: 4

The organization of the text is not consistent with how I teach the policy cycle, but that is not good or bad, just different. I would have preferred modules that separate problem definition, prioritization, implementation, outcomes, and evaluation into distinct modules. But I will be able to pull subsets of content from throughout the book for each of those.

The book works well as a pdf. I did not see any interactive spaces that might need to link to other materials.

Grammar is solid.

I did not detect anything concerning.

Table of Contents

• Acknowledgments
• Chapter 1: Introduction to Public Policy
• Chapter 2: Origins and Actors
• Chapter 3: Foundations of the Policy Process
• Chapter 4: Problem Identification and Agenda Setting
• Chapter 5: Policy Design and Formulation
• Chapter 6: Policy Implementation
• Chapter 7: Policy Analysis and Evaluation

Ancillary Material

About the book, about the contributors, contribute to this page.

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• Research centres and groups
• Chair's Blog: Summer Term 2022
• Staff wellbeing

Policy papers

This method of assessment involves students individually or in groups addressing a contemporary policy issue and then preparing it for presentation in written and/or oral form. The length of the written policy paper and/or oral presentation may vary. Policy papers usually present a range of alternatives to the current policy accompanied by a set of evidence-based recommendations as to which alternative might be preferable in the given context. The policy paper should include sufficient evidence to enable the decision-maker to reach a decision on the ensuing course of action.

Advantages of policy papers

Enables students to engage with real world issues.

Supports students to develop skills in selecting and using empirical evidence to underpin a proposal.

Encourages students to apply conceptual and theoretical knowledge to contemporary policy questions, to carry out some research, identify and weigh up possible options.

Enables teachers to test both lower and higher cognitive levels.

Can give students the opportunity to work on a real-world issue that is of interest to them and at times also in conjunction with policy makers in government or international organisations.

May be undertaken as a group or individual assessment. Working on a policy paper project supports the development of a range of valuable employability skills for students.

Challenges of policy papers

Differences between a policy paper and an academic essay/research paper need to be clearly explained to the students.

Tends to assess the application of knowledge in a particular area rather than the breadth of the curriculum.

Teachers need to think about how to design the assessment to enable students to work together effectively. 

Depending on the nature of the project can be rather all-encompassing.

Students may need some guidance as to how to balance the work on the policy paper against other assessments they have to complete.

How students might experience policy papers

When students get the opportunity to work on a subject that they are interested in and get the time and support to do so, they often become very excited and engaged in the project. The opportunity to work on a real-world challenge and to come up with potential solutions is an authentic form of learning: particularly if the students have the opportunity to present their work to actual policy-makers. As such it is usually something that students enjoy especially those who are not intending to pursue further academic studies. There is of course always a risk that this might crowd out other areas of their studies. Students may not be used to this form of assessment so they will need clear guidance as to what is expected; a clear explanation of marking criteria, and also an introduction to different forms of research and writing. This is particularly important given that our students are likely to be more used to academic forms of writing. One useful accompanying activity might be to ask students to take an academic blog and transform it into a policy blog.

Reliability, validity, fairness and inclusivity of policy papers

It is important that the person designing and setting the policy paper assessment is clear about exactly what it being assessed - the intended learning outcomes of the course. Consideration should also be given to how the policy paper fits with other methods of assessment on the course/programme. Likewise, it is useful for teachers to think about how the students will be prepared formatively for working on a policy paper and which additional structured activities might be designed into the course/programme as part of this process. It is also critical for students to recognise that working on a policy paper is not a less a demanding form of learning and assessment but simply different. Students are likely to need guidance in the following areas: the length of the policy paper; areas of content and formatting; approaches to writing, and presentation of policy paper work. This needs to be clearly communicated and reiterated to the students throughout the course of study as do the marking criteria and ideally the marking scheme - what proportion of marks will be allocated to format and presentation.

How to maintain and ensure rigour in policy papers

It is important to establish clear marking criteria for students and teachers alike. Marking and moderation of policy papers should be conducted following standard departmental practice. Individual markers should take steps to avoid the problems which affect batch marking, including such as the 'halo' effect where one or two positive characteristics of a student overly influence the marker.

How to limit possible misconduct in policy papers

The best way to limit possibilities for misconduct is through a staged process. This may start with a negotiation with the student or group of students over the issue to be addressed in the policy paper. It may include the presentation of a contextual paper or an outline or other tasks in written and/or oral form as an integral part of the learning process as well as a final presentation with questions from the teachers and peers. Giving students the opportunity to negotiate and refine the chosen topic is clearly supportive of an inclusive approach to learning and may also help students develop work that is specific rather than draw on general information that is easily accessible. The policy paper can, of course, be passed through Turnitin to ensure that the work is original.

LSE examples

PP440 Micro and Macro Economics for Public Policy

PP455 Quantitative Approaches and Policy Analysis

Further resources

https://politicalscienceguide.com/home/policy-paper/

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A policy memo is a practical, professionally written document that can vary in length from one page to over twenty-five pages. It provides analysis and recommendations directed to a predetermined audience regarding a specific situation, topic, or issue. A well-written policy memo reflects attention to the policy problem. It is well organized and structured in a clear and concise style that assumes the reader possesses limited knowledge of, as well as little time to conduct research about, the topic of concern. There is no thesis statement or overall theoretical framework underpinning the document; the focus is on describing one or more specific policy recommendations and their supporting action items.

Bhasin, Tavishi and Charity Butcher. “Teaching Effective Policy Memo Writing and Infographics in a Policy Programme.” European Political Science 21 (2022): 1-17; Davis, Jennifer. Guide to Writing Effective Policy Memos. MIT OpenCourseWare, Water and Sanitation Infrastructure Planning in Developing Countries, Spring 2004; Judge, Andrew. "Designing and Implementing Policy Writing Assessments: A Practical Guide." Teaching Public Administration 39 (2021): 351-368; Pennock, Andrew. “The Case for Using Policy Writing in Undergraduate Political Science Courses.” PS: Political Science and Politics 44 (January 2011): 141-146.

How to Approach Writing a Policy Memo

Benefits of Writing a Policy Memo

Writing a policy memo is intended to support the following learning outcomes:

• Helps students learn how to write academically rigorous, persuasive papers about a specific “real-world” issue;
• Teaches how to choose and craft a document’s content based on the needs of a particular audience [rather than for a general readership];
• Prepares students to write an effective position paper in non-academic settings;
• Promotes researching, organizing, and writing a persuasive paper that emphasizes presenting evidence-based recommendations rather than simply reporting a study's findings;
• Teaches students to be client-oriented and to better anticipate the assumptions and concerns of their targeted readership;
• Encourages reflective thinking about the cause and consequential effect of a particular recommendation and to anticipate what questions stakeholder groups may have; and,
• Enables students to create original work that synthesizes policy-making research into a clearly written document advocating change and specific courses of action.

Do not approach writing a policy memo in the same way as you would an academic research paper . Yes, there are certain commonalities in how the content is presented [e.g., a well-written problem statement], but the overarching objective of a policy memo is not to discover or create new knowledge. It is focused on providing to a predetermined group of readers the rationale for choosing a particular policy alternative and/or specific courses of action leading to positive social and political change within society. In this sense, most policy memos possess a component of advocacy and advice intended to promote evidence-based dialog about an issue.

Essential Elements of an Effective Policy Memo Focus and Objectives The overall content of your memo should be strategically aimed at achieving the following goal: convincing your target audience about the accuracy of your analysis and, by extension, that your policy recommendations are valid. Avoid lengthy digressions and superfluous narration that can distract the reader from understanding the policy problem. Note that your target audience is defined in two ways: by the decision-makers who can advocate for or implement change and by individuals and groups most likely impacted by your policy recommendations should they be implemented. Professionally Written Always keep in mind that a policy memorandum is a tool for decision-making. Keep it professional and avoid hyperbole and clever or indeterminate language that could undermine the credibility of your document. The presentation and content of the memo should be polished, easy to understand, and free of jargon. Writing professionally does not imply that you can’t be passionate about your topic, but your policy recommendations should be evidence-based and grounded in solid reasoning and a succinct writing style. Evidence-based A policy memo is not an argumentative debate paper. The reader should expect your recommendations to be based upon evidence that the problem exists and understand the consequences [both good and bad] of adopting particular policy alternatives. To address this, policy memos should include a clear cost-benefit analysis that considers anticipated outcomes, the potential impact on stakeholder groups you have identified, clear and quantifiable performance goals, and how success will be measured. Accessibility A policy memo requires clear and simple language that avoids unnecessary jargon and concepts of an academic discipline. Do not skip around. Use one paragraph to develop one idea or argument and make that idea or argument explicit within the first one or two sentences. Your memo should have a straightforward, explicit organizational structure that provides well-explained arguments arranged within a logical sequence of reasoning [think in terms of an if/then logic model--if this policy recommendation, then this action; if this benefit, then this potential cost; if this group is allocated resources, then this group may be excluded]. Presentation Style The visual impact of your memo affects the reader’s ability to grasp your ideas quickly and easily. Include a table of contents and list of figures and charts, if necessary. Subdivide the text using clear and descriptive headings to guide the reader. Incorporate devices such as capitalization, bold text, and bulleted items, but be consistent, and don’t go crazy; the purpose is to facilitate access to specific sections of the paper for successive readings. If it is difficult to find information in your document, policy makers will not use it. Practical and Feasible Your memorandum should provide a set of actions based on what is actually happening in reality. Do not base your policy recommendations on future scenarios or hypothetical situations that could be interpreted as unlikely to occur or that do not appear possible because you have not adequately explained the circumstances supporting these scenarios. Here again, your cost-benefit analysis can be essential to validating the practicality and feasibility of your recommendations. Explicit Transparency Provide specific criteria to assess either the success or failure of the policies you are recommending. As much as possible, this criteria should be derived from your cost/benefit analysis or framed as a SWOT [Strengths-weaknesses, opportunities-threats]. Do not hide or under-report information that does not support your policy recommendations. Just as you would note the limitations of your study in a research paper, a policy memo should describe issues of weakness of your analysis. Explain why they may arise and why your recommendations are still valid despite these issues. Be open and straightforward because doing so strengthens your arguments and it will help the reader assess the overall impact of recommended policy changes.

NOTE: Technically, it would not be wrong for your policy memo to argue for maintaining the status quo. However, the general objective of a policy memo assignment is to critically examine opportunities for transformative change and to highlight the risks of on-going complacency. If you choose to argue for maintaining the current policy trajectory, in whole or in part, be concise in identifying and systematically refuting all relevant policy options. Again, it must be rooted in an evidence-based cost/benefit analysis. Whether maintaining current policies is short-term or long-term [and these need to be clearly defined], you must explain concisely why each possible outcome of maintaining the status quo would be preferable to any alternative policy options and recommended courses of action. If your argument for maintaining the status quo is short-term, explain what factors in the future could trigger a policy-related course correction.

Herman, Luciana. Policy Memos. John F. Kennedy School of Government. Harvard University; How to Write a Public Policy Memo. Student Learning Center. University of California, Berkeley; Policy Memo. Thompson Writing Program, Writing Studio. Duke University; Policy Memo Guidelines. Cornell Fellows Program. Cornell University; Memo: Audience and Purpose. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition. Institute for Public Policy Studies. University of Denver; Thrall, A. Trevor. How to Write a Policy Memo. University of Michigan--Dearborn, 2006; Mastro, Oriana Skylar. "Teach What you Preach: A Comprehensive Guide to the Policy Memo as a Methods Teaching Tool." Journal of Political Science Education 17 (2021): 326-340; Writing Effective Memos. Electronic Hallway. Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs. University of Washington; Writing Effective Policy Memos. Water & Sanitation Infrastructure Planning syllabus. Spring 2004. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Structure and Writing Style

The contents of a policy memo can be organized in a variety of ways. Below is a general template adapted from the “Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition” published by the Institute for Public Policy Studies at the University of Denver and from suggestions made in the book, A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem-Solving [Eugene Bardach. 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2012] . Both sources provide useful approaches to writing a policy memo in the event your professor does not provide specific guidance. Overall, the tone of your writing should be formal but assertive. Note that the most important consideration in terms of writing style is professionalism, not creativity. I.  Cover Page Provide a complete and informative cover page that includes the document title, date, the full names and titles of the writer or writers [i.e., Joe Smith, Student, Department of Political Science, University of Southern California]. The title of the policy memo should be formally written and specific to the policy issue [e.g., “Charter Schools, Fair Housing, and Legal Standards: A Call for Equal Treatment”]. For longer memos, consider including a brief executive summary that highlights key findings and recommendations.

II.  Introduction and Problem Definition A policy memorandum should begin with a short summary introduction that defines the policy problem, provides important contextual background information, and explains what issues are being covered. This is followed by a short justification for writing the memo, why a decision needs to be made [answering the “So What?” question], and an outline of the recommendations you make or key themes the reader should keep in mind. Summarize your main points in a few sentences, then conclude with a description of how the remainder of the memo is organized.

III.  Methods This is usually where other research about the problem or issue of concern is summarized. Describe how you plan to identify and locate the information on which your policy memo is based. This may include peer-reviewed journals and books as well as possible professionals you interviewed, databases and websites you explored, or legislative histories or relevant case law that you used. Remember this is not intended to be a thorough literature review; only choose sources that persuasively support your position or that help lay a foundation for understanding why actions need to be taken.

IV.  Issue Analysis This section is where you explain in detail how you examined the issue and, by so doing, persuade the reader of the appropriateness of your analysis. This is followed by a description of how your analysis contributes to the current policy debate. It is important to demonstrate that the policy issue may be more complex than a basic pro versus con debate. Very few public policy debates can be reduced to this type of rhetorical dichotomy. Be sure your analysis is thorough and takes into account all factors that may influence possible strategies that could advance a recommended set of solutions.

V.  Proposed Solutions Write a brief review of the specific solutions you evaluated, noting the criteria by which you examined and compared different proposed policy alternatives. Identify the stakeholders impacted by the proposed solutions and describe in what ways they will benefit from your proposed solution. Focus on identifying solutions that have not been proposed or tested elsewhere. Offer a contrarian viewpoint that challenges the reader to take into account a new perspective on the research problem. Note that you can propose solutions that may be considered radical or unorthodox, but they must be realistic and politically feasible.

VI.  Strategic Recommendations Solutions are just opinions until you provide a path that delineates how to get from where you are to where you want to go. Describe what you believe are the best recommended courses of action [i.e., "action items"]. In writing this section, state the broad approach to be taken, with specific, practical steps or measures that should be implemented. Be sure to also state by whom and within what time frame these actions should be taken. Conclude by highlighting the consequences of maintaining the status quo [or if supporting the status quo, why change at this time would be detrimental]. Also, clearly explain why your strategic recommendations are best suited for addressing the current policy situation.

VI.  Limitations As in any academic paper, you must describe limitations to your analysis. In particular, ask yourself if each of your recommendations are realistic, feasible, and sustainable, and in particular, that they can be implemented within the current bureaucratic, economic, political, cultural, social, or other type of contextual climate in which they reside. If not, you should go back and clarify your recommendations and provide further evidence as to why the recommendation is most appropriate for addressing the issue. It does not necessarily undermine the overall recommendations of your study if the limitation cannot be overcome, but you must clearly acknowledge this. Place the limitation within the context of a critical issue that needs further study in concurrence with possible implementation [i.e., findings indicate service learning promotes civic engagement, but there is a lack of data on the types of service learning programs that exist among high schools in South Central Los Angeles].

VII.  Cost-Benefit Analysis This section may be optional but, in some cases, your professor may ask you to include an explicit summary analysis of the costs and benefits of each recommendation. If you are asked to include a separate cost-benefit analysis, be concise and brief. Since most policy memos do not have a formal conclusion, the cost-benefit analysis can act as your conclusion by summarizing the key differences among policy alternatives and recommended courses of action.

NOTE:   A feature found in many policy memos is the inclusion of text boxes or sidebars that are separate from the main body of text. A text box contains a useful checklist, case study, summary, example, quotation, definition, or expansion of an idea that is located close to the text it supports. A sidebar is a type of exclamation located beside or within the main content that brings further attention to a key point or is used to encourage the reader to pay particular attention to that section of the memo. A sidebar often contains a quotation or brief statement lifted from the main text. Both features are appropriate to use in your policy memo, but don't overdo it. Limit the use of a text box or sidebar to only the most essential text that expands or adds value to understanding content in a specific section of the policy memo, in particular, in the issue analysis section or when describing your strategic recommendations.

Bardach, Eugene. A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem-Solving . 4th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2012; Herman, Luciana. Policy Memos. John F. Kennedy School of Government. Harvard University; How to Write a Public Policy Memo. Student Learning Center. University of California, Berkeley; Policy Memo Guidelines. Cornell Fellows Program. Cornell University; Memo: Audience and Purpose. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Pennock, Andrew. “The Case for Using Policy Writing in Undergraduate Political Science Courses.” PS: Political Science and Politics 44 (January 2011): 141-146; Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition. Institute for Public Policy Studies. University of Denver; Text Boxes and Callouts. Australian Government Style Manual; Thrall, A. Trevor. How to Write a Policy Memo. University of Michigan--Dearborn, 2006; Sajedinejad, S., et al. From Research to Impact: A Toolkit for Developing Effective Policy Briefs . Toronto, Ontario: Policy Bench, Fraser Mustard Institute of Human Development, University of Toronto, 2021; What Are Policy Briefs. FAO Corporate Document Repository. United Nations; Writing Effective Memos. Electronic Hallway. Daniel J. Evans School of Public Affairs. University of Washington; Writing Effective Policy Memos. Water & Sanitation Infrastructure Planning syllabus. Spring 2004. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Proofreading the Memo

Problems to Avoid

The style and arrangement of an effectively written memo can differ because no two policies, nor their intended audience of readers, are exactly the same. Nevertheless, before you submit your policy memo, be sure you proofread the document so that you avoid these common problems. If you identify one or more of these problems, you should rewrite or re-organize the content accordingly.

1.  Acknowledge the Law of Unintended Consequences . No policy analysis is complete until you have identified for whom the policy actions are supposed to benefit and identify what groups may be impacted by the consequences of their implementation. Review your memo and make sure you have clearly delineated who could be helped and who could be potentially harmed or excluded from benefiting from your recommended policy actions. As noted by Wilcoxen, this is also important because describing who may or may not benefit can help you anticipate which stakeholder groups will support your policy recommendations and which groups will likely oppose it. Calculating potential "winners" and "losers" will help reveal how much it may cost to compensate those groups excluded from benefiting. By building this compensation into your policy recommendations, you are better able to show the reader how to reduce political obstacles.

2.  Anticipate the Reader's Questions . Examine your recommended courses of action and identify any open-ended, declarative, indeterminate, or ambiguous statements that could lead the reader to have to ask further questions. For example, you declare that the most important factor supporting school choice among parents is distance from home. Without clarification or additional information, this could lead the reader to ask numerous questions, such as, why or by what means do you know this, what distance is considered to be too far, what factors contribute to parent's decision about school choice and distance from schools, or what age group does this most apply to. Clarify these types of open-ended statements so that your policy recommendations can be more fully understood and accepted as valid.

3.  Be Concise . Being succinct in your writing does not relate to the overall length of the policy memo or the amount of words you use. It relates to your ability to provide a lot of information clearly and without superfluous detail. Strategies include r eviewing long paragraphs and breaking them up into parts, looking for long sentences and eliminating unnecessary qualifiers and modifiers, and deleting prepositional phrases in favor of adjectives or adverbs. The overarching goal is to be thorough and precise in how your ideas are presented and to avoid writing that uses too many words or excessively technical expressions.

4.  Focus on the Results . While it is important that your memo describe the methods by which you gathered and analyzed the data informing your policy recommendations, the content should focus on explaining the results of your analysis and the logic underpinning your recommendations. Remember your audience. The reader is presumably a decision-maker with limited knowledge of the issue and who has little time to contemplate the methods of analysis. The validity of your findings will be determined primarily by your reader's determination that your policy recommendations and supporting action items are realistic and rooted in sound reasoning. Review your memo and make sure the statement about how you gathered the data is brief and concise. If necessary, technical issues or raw data can be included in an appendix.

5.  Minimize Subjective Reasoning . Although the memo should be persuasive, avoid emphasizing your personal opinion about the topic. A policy memo should be written in a professional tone with recommendations based upon empirical reasoning while, at the same time, reflecting a level of passion about your topic. However, being passionate does not imply being opinionated. The memo should emphasize presenting all of the facts a reader would need to reach their own conclusions about the validity of your recommendations.

6.  Use of Non-textual Elements . It is common for policy memos to include data, statistics, and other types of information that require visualization. Review all tables, charts, figures, graphs, photographs, and other non-textual elements and make sure they are labeled correctly. Examine each in relation to the text, making sure they are described adequately and that they relate to the overall content of your memo. If these elements are located in appendices, make sure descriptive references to them within the text are correct [i.e., reference to Figure 2 is actually the table you want the reader to look at].

Bardach, Eugene and Eric M. Pataschnik. A Practical Guide for Policy Analysis: The Eightfold Path to More Effective Problem-Solving . 5th edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2016; Herman, Luciana. Policy Memos. John F. Kennedy School of Government. Harvard University; How to Write a Public Policy Memo. Student Learning Center. University of California, Berkeley; Memo: Audience and Purpose. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Policy Memo Requirements and Guidelines, 2012-2013 edition. Institute for Public Policy Studies. University of Denver; Wilcoxen, Peter J. Tips on Writing a Policy Memo. PAI 723, Economics for Public Decisions Course Syllabus. Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University.

Writing Tip

Difference Between a Policy Memo and a Policy Brief

A policy memo and a policy brief share much in common. They both describe the rationale for choosing particular policy alternatives or courses of action, they both contain persuasive language, and both documents are written for non-experts, such as, practitioners, politicians, non-governmental agency workers, lobbyists, and others who work on or regularly make decisions about the issue addressed in the document. Both documents are free of jargon or technical terminology and focus on communicating the practical implications of prior policy research to a specific audience based on available evidence.

Ironically, however, a policy memo is typically shorter in length than a policy “brief.” A policy memo usually ranges from one to twenty-five pages, while a policy brief can be anywhere from twenty to more than a hundred pages in length depending on the complexity of the topic. Therefore:

• A policy brief is commonly produced in response to a request from a decision-maker concerning an issue that requires more thorough information to address the underlying policy problem or they are produced by an advocacy group or organization for the purpose of influencing a specific policy, often in an urgent tone. Non-textual elements , such as, figures, charts, graphs, or diagrams, are often included.
• A policy memo is concisely written and presents information, ideas, and recommendations clearly so the reader can quickly scan the document for the most relevant points. Policy memos focus on brevity and often synthesize existing evidence in language that is direct, specific, and with minimal background information or historical context. Non-textual elements are only included if necessary.

Guide to Writing an Effective Policy Memo. Leadership for Educational Equity, New York; Policy Briefs. The Writing Center, University of North Carolina;  Policy Memo. Writing Studio, Duke University; Manny, Karoline. What is a Policy Brief/Memo? Grace Doherty Library, Centra College; Sajedinejad, S., et al. From Research to Impact: A Toolkit for Developing Effective Policy Briefs . Toronto, Ontario: Policy Bench. Fraser Mustard Institute of Human Development, University of Toronto, 2021.

Another Writing Tip

Citing Sources

Policy memos generally do not include extensive footnotes, endnotes, further readings, or a bibliography. However, if you use supporting information in a memo, cite the source in the text. For example, you may refer to a study that supported a specific assertion by referencing it in the following manner: "A study published in 2012 by the Eagleton Center for Public Interest Polling showed that public opinion towards China was....” However, some assignments may require a formal list of references. Before writing your memo, be sure you are clear about how your professor wants you to cite any sources referred to in your analysis.

Policy Memo. Thompson Writing Program, Writing Studio. Duke University.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Using Non-Textual Elements

Policy memos are not just text-based but frequently include numeric tables and charts or other non-textual elements, such as photographs, maps, and illustrations. However, it is important that you use non-textual elements judiciously and only in relation to supplementing and clarifying arguments made in the text so as not to distract the reader from the main points of your memo . As with any non-textual elements, describe what the reader is seeing and why the data is important to understanding the policy problem.

Still Yet Another Writing Tip

Including Appendices

The purpose of an appendix is to provide supplementary material that is not an essential part of the main text but which may be helpful in providing the reader with more complete information. If you have information that is vital to understanding an issue discussed in the memo, it can be included in one or more appendices. However, if you have a lot of information, don't write a five page memo and include twenty pages of appendices. Memos are intended to be  succinct and clearly expressed. If there is a lot of data, refer to the source and summarize it, or discuss with your professor how it should be included.

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Policy Memo Writing Tips

Applicants often ask us to provide some guidance in writing a policy memo. Steve Frakt, the School's writing advisor, has been advising the School's undergraduate and graduate students for the past 17 years. Steve meets with students one-on-one during his office hours to advise them on their various writing assignments. Graduate students in our Masters in Public Affairs program are required to take a core course entitled "The Politics of Public Policy"  in which special attention is given to writing skills as they apply to the roles of advisers and decision makers in public-sector organizations. 

Below is an excerpt from Steve's policy memo writing guidelines he provides to the graduate students in that course:

Purpose .  A policy memo provides information, guidance or recommendations about an issue or problem to a decision-maker.  It must be well-organized, clearly written and succinct, with a logical connection between the background information, evidence and conclusions/recommendation.  The reader should be able to identify the essential points in a quick scan of the memo (particularly the section headings and topic sentences).

Structure.  The format of a memo should enhance its readability.  It is not written as one lengthy essay. Rather, it is divided into sections, with headings that identify the content or major point of each section.  Each paragraph should begin with a significant point (the “topic sentence”), to be supported or expanded upon in the rest of the paragraph.  Each major point should be the focus of a separate paragraph.  Do not “bury” major themes in the middle of a paragraph.

A typical memo may include the following sections:

• Description and significance of the issue or problem you are examining.
• Evidence of the scope of the issue.
• Factors contributing to the issue or problem.
• Recommendations or conclusions about the issue.
• Counter-arguments against your position.
• Rebuttal to counter-arguments.
• Implementation issues for any recommendations (i.e. political, economic, environmental, technical, etc.).  

Language.  Policy memos require brevity and specificity.  Each sentence must serve to advance your presentation.   Be concise and do not waste words.  Use clear, direct language, free of bureaucratic jargon, pompous language or clichés. Eliminate unnecessary words and avoid repetition.  Write in the active voice, keep sentences relatively short, and minimize the use of adjectives and adverbs.  Avoid vague language and sentences that have no substance or state the obvious.  Also, refrain from dramatic embellishment, hyperbole and emotional rhetoric (you are not writing a political speech or an op-ed article).

Public Policy

Definition of public policy, what is public policy, social safety net, process of public policy.

There are several players at work in the process of the public policy. Everyone from politicians and civil servants, to lobbyists and industry representatives, are involved in public policy. These individuals strategize and come up with tactics and tools to push their proposed policies through. Some of the ways in which they do this is by:

Public Policy vs. Domestic Policy

Public policy example involving gun control, decision and appeal.

Further, the Court referred to the part of the District of Colombia Code that required individuals to only keep firearms at home if the firearms were nonfunctional. The Court stated that such a requirement did, in fact, impede upon an individual’s 2nd Amendment rights.

U.S. Supreme Court

In their own words.

“The handgun ban and the trigger-lock requirement (as applied to self-defense) violate the Second Amendment. The District’s total ban on handgun possession in the home amounts to a prohibition on an entire class of ‘arms’ that Americans overwhelmingly choose for the lawful purpose of self-defense. Under any of the standards of scrutiny the Court has applied to enumerated constitutional rights , this prohibition—in the place where the importance of the lawful defense of self, family, and property is most acute—would fail constitutional muster.

Related Legal Terms and Issues

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UNIT 1 PUBLIC POLICY : MEANING AND NATURE Structure

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Dwi Fitria Firdaus Firdaus

component in many a course and academic programme in various disciplines like political science, public administration, economics and business management.

Hazel Jovita , Dyah Mutiarin

David G. Ebhohimen AICMC

rambebu talifhani

Within the broader content of the political system, public policy comprising several elements aiming at achieving certain interests, goals and objectives is a skilful, comprehensive, enforceable, binding, legitimate, authoritative, deliberate and purposeful framework of and for interaction within which a multiplicity of policy decisions by political office – bearers can be made and various courses of action can be put into operation by public officials in order to realize the predetermined governmental aims and objectives as economically, efficiently and effectively. However, policy is not static as it should be reformulated and adapted continually on the basis of experience, research in the relative field of operation, and changing circumstances and needs; and these are always factors which serve to change the nature and the extent of the activities of public institution. All these aspects constitute the subject – matter of this article.

Sohaib Warsi

NORDSCI Conference Proceedings

Georgeta Ghebrea

This paper has as its main objective the critical analysis of certain influential definitions of public policies that exist in the scientific literature of the field. This analysis intends to trace the change in the way public policies are seen, studied and evaluated. The paper in question also investigates the historical context and the process of the birth of public policies, identifying the key factors of a structural, economic, cultural and political nature. The originality of our approach consists in grouping these factors within explanatory paradigms of the emergence of public policies: the structural paradigm, the social control paradigm, the utilitarian paradigm (which includes both economic and social-political pragmatism), the political mobilization paradigm, the humanistic and antioppressive paradigm. We first analyze the metamorphoses of the two concepts: public and policies. Later, we bring together the analysis of the historical evolution of the two respective concepts within the framework of the same approach. The conclusion underlines the fact that public policies are socially constructed. The methods used were from the category of those based on secondary qualitative analysis: bibliographic analysis, conceptual analysis, discourse analysis, processual analysis and hermeneutic analysis.

Public Policy Process

Ruby Tennyson

States function with guidelines, rules, objectives and monitoring. These objectives are usually the intentions of the government and are captured in what is known as public policy. It is an enabler for governance and without governance, order is extinct. Though a lot of people see public policy as solely controlled by politicians, many citizens and groups try to influence public policy through the political process by supporting candidates and political parties. This paper will be addressing three major points, the first being the description of the concept of public policy. This is because a good understanding is required in order to dive into the process of actually developing public policy. Finally, the paper would provide clarity on the classification of public policy.

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Understanding Public Policy

Checked : Mark A. , Greg B.

Latest Update 21 Jan, 2024

12 min read

Table of content

What is Public Policy?

What is the nature and scope of public policy.

Students taking economics at higher levels of education should understand public policy and what it represents. It is one of the most important topics, as it leads one to understand why and how governments make certain policies. When there is an issue within an economy, say a high inflation rate or a depression, the government comes up with different approaches to resolve them. But that is just for fiscal and monetary policies. Public policy is wider and takes on more serious issues concerning how people generally live and interact.

The public policy becomes an academic pursuit in the early 1950s and has been expanding into different dimensions ever since. Today, the subject is attempting to acquire the status of a discipline. And since it is the study of products on governments, it is a vital organ in different social science studies, including economics and management. Public policy has received such a huge and rapid growth in the academic arena, attracting researchers, teachers, and public administrators who now feel it is becoming complex. All disciplines associated with public policy cut through traditional academic lines on demarcation. This means it is an inter-disciplinary subject that has become quite interesting and thought-provoking.

Public policy has continued to be more challenging by the day. It has achieved so much attention over the past few years, yet many still don't understand how it works.

In the field of economic studies, the policy comes in as an instrument of direction and resolutions. It seeks to offer guidelines on what should be done when certain situations arise and how stakeholders should handle economic shocks. Therefore, it is vital to learning policy because sooner or later, you will be required to apply.

That is why, in this unit, we shall be looking at the meaning, nature, scope, and importance of public policy. There is a significant constant change in the conceptualization of 'public' and 'private' domains in the study of policy, which should be well understood too. We also attempt to look at this subject to understand the changes and what they mean to society, both socially and economically.

The term public policy is one of the most common terms used in our daily lives. It is also a major aspect of academic literature where we use terms such as education policy, fiscal policy, and monetary policy, among other various references in different disciplines. It is an area that involves all spheres labeled as public. The idea behind public Policy presupposes that there is an aspect of life that is common, and far from an individual or purely private.

During the initial years of public policy studies, it was only in researchers and political science students who got involved. Their focus was mainly on the institutional structure and philosophical justification of the government. In other words, they never sort to look at the policies themselves. Instead, they only focused on making the government look good. Political science was mostly preoccupied with the political activities of different political institutions. It concentrated on understanding political statuses and how they change governance. Yet, the policy is a critical component of the political process. It helps participants understand why certain directions should be taken and not anything else.

According to Thomas Dye, a renowned scholar of policy analysis, the traditional approach to a public policy defined the institution where the policy was formed. However, the relationship between crucial institutional arrangements and public policy consent was not very much explored. He continues to note that the political science of the modern era is shifting more towards public policy, which means it is now more about the description and explanation of causal and consequential activities of public policy. Economic studies have also focused more on understanding the cause for public policy and what determines which policy to be applied under certain circumstances. Modern political sciences have also focused on the organization of public authorities and public servants' behavior. This approach means determining the formulation of public policy is much harder. Even though it is largely contended that experienced policy implementation feeds back into the more in-depth application of policy-making processes, economic studies, more than political sciences, attempt to apply policy issues into the public field of administration. By seeking to understand how policies are generally made, it helps stakeholders, and the general public knows which policies are useful in resolving economic and administrative issues.

The public-policy-studies' past has mainly focused on the policy's content and the process of formulation and application. Today, this subject's study has evolved into its own discipline known as policy science, formulated by Harold Laswell in 1951.

There are two aspects of public policy that make it a worthy subject of study.

The 'public' is the first and most important concept of public policy. You may have come across terms such as 'public interest,' 'public sector,' 'public opinion,' and many others that involve the public. They are all founded on public policy, which means the spheres involved have to do with 'public' instead of 'private.' The public sector is made up of human activities regarded as requiring government intervention or common action. Despite this clear definition, there has always been a conflict between what is regarded as 'public' and what should be seen as 'private.' W.B Baber states that there are ten main points that differentiate the public from the private sector.

He says, public policy:

• Face more complicated and ambiguous tasks
• Faces more issues implementing its decision
• Involves more people motivated by a wider interest.
• Us concerned more with securing opportunities or implementing capacities.
• Compensates for market failure
• Engages in activities that bring out more significance
• Has strict standards of commitments and legality
• Must operate in the public interest
• Maintains a minimal level of public support.

Because of these key features, public administration emerged, coming in to secure public interest rather than private. Political economists hold that only markets can balance private and public interest, which is true. But new liberalism is founded on a belief that public administration is a more rational approach to encouraging public Policy. In this case, the civil servant is mainly tasked to serve the interests of those who elected them. This means public bureaucracy is different from anything that exists in the private domain. The issue of rational public interest became a major point of argument after World War II. Herbert Simon describes bureaucrats as exhibiting a large function of 'bounded rationality.'

The second aspect of public policy is the idea of 'policy,' and, like the concept of 'public,' is not a very precise term. It is a denotation of guidance of action, among other elements. Therefore, a policy can take different forms, including a declaration of goals, declaration of course of action; declaration of general purpose; and an authoritative decision. Hogwood and Gunn state that there are ten applications of the term 'policy,' where it a label for a field activity, the show expected state of affairs; specified proposals; government decision; frontal authority; a program; an output, a result, a model or thought; and a process. But the policy is something that cannot be seen from a single perspective because it assumes different forms. There is a push to designate policy as 'outputs' of the political system. Hence, public policy has been defined lesser as more or less inter-dependent concerned with different activities. Public policy studies have contrastingly focused more on the examination of policy decisions concerning specific values, more than just a political analysis.

This are magnum issues that can be recognized from various definitions that have come from different scholars. Y. Dror states that policies are a general directive of the mainline of action that should be followed. Peter Self also opines that policies change directives as to how tasks should be understood and undertaken. Sir Geffrey Vickers says polices are decisions giving directions in relation and continuity to the courses of action, which the responsibility of the decision-making body. And according to James Anderson, Policy can be regarded as the "purposive action course followed by an actor or actors handling a certain issue. According to Thomas Dye, public policy is the decision of governments. All these definitions have something in common, that policy involves an action, which should be taken or followed by concerned parties.

We have already seen what public Policy and why it has become such a huge concern for modern governments. It is also good to note that policy may be general or specific, narrow or broad, simple or complex, discretionary, or detailed, among other features. In economics, public policy is more emphasized as to what the government chooses to do or not to do. In which case, it can appear into three categories:

• Activities attached to a specific policy
• Activities that are more general in nature.
• Activities based on vague and ambiguous policies.

However, it is rare to find government with a set of guiding principles for every activity in real life. This means some decisions are just made because they come as an impromptu. The Supreme Court comes in with its decisions to offer new interpretations for some constitution articles that may seem hard to comprehend.

Public policy may cover a larger part of its activities, which follow the country's development policy. For instance, the development policy can be adopted through the socio-economic development, equality, or similar broad principles of guidance for action. It can also be adopted as a basic framework of goals. As stated above, public policy may be narrow, covering specified activities, like child labor protections, or maybe as wide as women's empowerment.

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In modern political systems, public policy is seen as purposive or goal-oriented statements. Also, public policy may be negative or positive. Positive public policy may some form of government intervention resolve a particular issue, like policies to shield markets from failure. On the other hand, a negative public policy could be when public servants refuse to take action on some matters the government is required to handle. Public policy is also defined by legal coercive qualities accepted by citizens as legitimate – like paying of taxes to avoid severe penalties.

The nature of public policy can be better understood when compared to related concepts, including:

• Policy-making and decision-making where policies influence decisions. However, policy-making does involve decision-making, but not every decision carries a policy.
• Policies and goals. Policies can be used as a means to end action. In other words, we can expect policies to the deliberate choice of action to attain certain goals and objectives.
• Policy analysis and policy advocacy. There is some distinction between policy analysis and policy advocacy. In this case, policy analysis is all about discovering the impact of a policy.
• Policy analysis and policy management. There is a need to understand the distinction between policy analysis and policy management. However, despite their differences, they are linked through policy-making and cover a large aspect of senior administrations.

Apart from the nature of public policy, the scope is another significant aspect of its study. It consists of the development of scenarios and extrapolations of contemporary trends concerning the public. The public sector scope and size have grown exponentially, making it important to consider how it is linked to public policy.

In trying to understand public policy, there are many other aspects of the subject you are going to cover. For instance, some scholars have tried to discuss the typologies of the policy issue. According to Lowi, for instance, policy issues can be classified as distributive; regulative; redistributive; and constituent. There are other issues you will come across, including: Regulatory Policy issues, constituent policy issues, conflict policy issues, and bargaining policy issues.

It is also vital to understand the significance of public policy. In this case, we have seen that public policy is focused on resolving public problems. It seeks to determine how issues and problems are defined, constructed, and resolved. Also, policy is purposive and deliberately formulated, it is well-thought-out, the real action, it delineates a time frame and follows a defined course of action.

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