critical inquiry in education

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Critical Inquiry and Inquiry-Oriented Education

Opinion: K.P. Mohanan, Professor, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER), Pune

Human violence has multiple roots. Someone who stabs another in a fit of road-rage is acting under blind emotions. Someone who cannot kill humans but is prepared to kill animals has not expanded the scope of their ethical considerations beyond humans. And someone who wages war against another country is guided by ideological or economic factors, unaffected by ethics. To deal with violence, then, education must incorporate strands that aim at the emotional, ethical and intellectual foundations for peace.

Educating emotion requires helping the young liberate themselves from negative emotions such as anger, hostility, hatred, cruelty, intolerance, selfishness and competitiveness, while strengthening positive emotions such as empathy, compassion, love, and the spirit of altruism.

Educating the intellect for peace involves helping learners protect themselves from ideologies of violence. It should also empower them to change systems and practices that either promote violence or fail to prevent violence.

Ethical foundations draw on both emotion and intellect. Enriching the natural ethical instincts is a matter of emotions. Expanding the scope of ethical considerations is a matter of both emotions and reasoning. And connecting ethical values and principles to one’s actions and practices is a matter of reasoning.

In sum, we need a form of education that combines the emotional and the intellectual.  In this article, my concern is with the intellectual part.

Intellectual education needs to include not only the information and knowledge to work towards a non-violent world but also the abilities of critical thinking and inquiry to investigate the causes of violence, and to find ways to dissolve those causes. This means that Inquiry-Oriented Education (IOE), which seeks to develop the capacity for rational inquiry, has to be recognised as an important strand of education. What follows are my reflections on the role of rational inquiry in education and of critical inquiry as a specific form of rational inquiry.

What is Rational Inquiry?

Inquiry is the  investigation of a question on the basis of our own experience and reasoning, to look for an answer and arrive at a conclusion.

It involves:

• Questions  whose answers we wish to find out
• Methodological strategies  to look for answers
• Answers to the questions,  and  conclusions  based on them
• Rational justification  (proof, evidence, arguments) for the conclusions
• Thinking critically about  our own or others’ conclusions and justification

Rational inquiry  is inquiry that is committed to the following axioms:

• Rejecting Logical Contradictions : We must reject statements that are logically contradictory
• Accepting Logical Consequences : If we accept a set of statements, then we must also accept their logical consequences

By ‘logical contradiction’, we mean a combination of a statement and its negation. Thus, the statement that the earth is flat and the earth is not flat constitutes a logical contradiction. A logical consequence of a set of statements is a conclusion derived from them through logic. Thus, the conclusion that all humans are vertebrates is a logical consequence of these statements: (i) all humans are primates; (ii) all primates are mammals; and (iii) all mammals are vertebrates.

For readers who wish to go beyond this brief sketch, a wide range of examples of rational inquiry for school and college education are available at  www.schoolofthinq.com

Inquiry-Oriented Education, which seeks to develop the capacity for rational inquiry, has to be recognised as an important strand of education.

What is Critical Inquiry?

There are many situations where we do not realise our ignorance. We also take many beliefs and practices for granted, without questioning. When we subject such domains to critical thinking, we are pursuing  a special kind of rational inquiry, called  critical inquiry, which begins with doubting and questioning what has been taken for granted (analogous to ‘interrogating/cross-examining’ an ‘expert witness’ including ourselves) and demonstrating that we don’t know what we think we know.

Questions for critical inquiry are triggered by critical thinking.  Critical thinking is a set of mental processes for evaluating the merit of something . ‘Merit’ here could be the truth of a statement (e.g., the statement, ‘That the earth is round’ is true.), the  usefulness  of a product, action, practice, or policy to achieve a given goal (e.g., death penalty to effectively deter crime), the  ethical desirability  of an action, practice, or policy (e.g., the ethical rightness of the death penalty), the  beauty  of a work of art (e.g., Is da Vinci’s Mona Lisa a great painting?), or the  value  of something that we (ought to) strive for (e.g., we ought to liberate ourselves from anger and hatred).

Mathematical and scientific inquiries offer fruitful emotion-free terrains for the practice of critical inquiry.

Examples of Critical Inquiry

Critical inquiry into issues of terrorism, communal violence, forced migrations, xenophobia, nationalist and religious ideologies that promote violence, and the relation between economic policies and violence, are of direct relevance to education for peace. Such issues, however, are emotionally charged. They might be seductive for beginners, but precisely because of their emotional appeal, there is a danger that when investigating them, feelings replace thinking and assertions of personal opinions replace rational conclusions.

My experience suggests that for beginners to engage with such topics with adequate detachment, clarity and rigour, they need to strengthen their mental equipment in two ways: by striving for emotional maturity, in order to detach feelings from reflection and reasoning; and by strengthening and sharpening their intellectual capacity, using topics that would not create emotional storms.

Mathematical and scientific inquiries offer fruitful emotion-free terrains for the practice of critical inquiry. Let me sketch an example.

Suppose we begin a class activity for eighth graders with an innocent-sounding question:  How many angles does a triangle have?  The textbook answer is: Three. We can now initiate critical inquiry:  What is an angle such that triangles have three angles and rectangles have four?

Most novices would think of this as a trivial question. But then, the function of critical inquiry is to challenge complacency.

What is an angle?  A student’s answer might be: “If two straight lines meet in such a way that they do not form a single straight line, what lies between them is an angle.” If so, the combination of two straight lines in Fig. 1 forms an angle, but not in Fig. 2.

What is a right angle? What is an acute angle? What is an obtuse angle? What is a straight angle?  The standard textbook answers are: “A right angle measures 90º; an acute angle is less than a right angle; an obtuse angle is more than a right angle (but less than two right angles); and a straight angle is two right angles.”

We now proceed to rigorous reasoning. Given these ‘definitions’, it follows that angle ABC in Fig. 1 is an obtuse angle; while angle DEF in Fig. 2 is a staight angle. Since any straight line can be viewed as being made up of two straight lines at a straight angle, there is a straight angle at every point in a straight line.

How many angles does a straight line have?  Since every finite straight line has infinitely many points, it has infinitely many straight angles. Therefore, it has infinitely many angles. Since a triangle is made of three straight lines, it has infinitely many angles. This conclusion negates the textbook answer to the question we started with.

We now have to either accept the conclusion that triangles and rectangles have infinitely many angles, or re-define the concept of angle such that we abandon the concept of straight angle from the textbook.

If schools around the world could engage in discussions pursuing rational inquiry into principles and concepts of ethics, there would perhaps be far less violence in the world.

This begins an inquiry into questions whose answers we realise we don’t know:  What is an angle?

This example illustrates the strategy of ‘problematisation’ in critical inquiry: we begin with questions on what we think we know and take for granted; we engage critically with the answer; and realise that we don’t know what we thought we knew, triggering further inquiry.

As I said, math and science offer rich terrains for emotion-free practice of critical inquiry. Once learners acquire the necessary sharpness and strength of mind, they can be guided into critical inquiry in emotion-riddled terrains. We now explore two such examples.

2. Freedom Fighters and Terrorists

We give students the following hypothetical story.

Suppose a country, Arraya, rules over an island, Parumbi. The people of Parumbi don’t want Arraya to govern them, but the people of Arraya want Parumbi under them. Parumbians take up arms to achieve their goal. Their supporters describe them as ‘freedom fighters’, and their activity as an ‘independence struggle’. But the government of Arraya and its supporters describe them as ‘terrorists’, and their activity as ‘terrorism’.

We then give them the following real world story:

An article, “Terrorism, Not Freedom Struggle” (The Times of India, 10 August 2001) stated that “rejecting Islamabad’s description of terrorism in Jammu and Kashmir as freedom struggle,” India’s external affairs minister said that under no circumstance should India accept “Islamabad’s attempt to confer cross-border terrorism a kind of diplomatic legitimacy  1  …” Pakistan’s newspaper Business Recorder quoted Harry Truman as having warned that “once a government is committed to silencing the voice of dissent, it has only one way to go. To employ increasingly repressive measures, until it becomes a source of terror to all its citizens and creates a country where everyone lives in fear.” It went on to say: “Nothing illustrates the Indian policy, vis-à-vis occupied Kashmir, better than the above quoted remark of the American leader 2 .”

The students’ task is to spell out how we would distinguish between ‘freedom fighters’ and ‘terrorists’ and to define ‘terrorism’ and ‘independence struggle’ such that we can engage in a rational debate on whether a particular movement qualified as an independence struggle or as terrorism.

3. Nation and Nationalism

Activity 1 Write down the answers to the following questions: What is your nationality? Do you feel good when you hear your national anthem or see your national flag? Are there nations that you dislike or are hostile to? Write the names of those nations.

Activity 2 Now consider the following question: What is a nation?

Discussion : Two meanings of the term ‘nation’ emerged:

• People-nation : nation as a people united by a shared ancestry, language, and culture. (e.g. ‘Naga-nation,’ ‘Navaho- nation,’ ‘Palestine as a stateless nation’). People-nation prompts loyalty and, devotion to the people with shared ancestry, language, and culture.
• State-nation : nation as a government that rules a population in a given geographical region. (e.g. India, Pakistan, Vietnam, South Korea, United States of America, Australia, Nigeria, Argentina, and Germany). State-nations are results of war, conquest and power negotiations; they don’t require shared ethnicity, language, or culture.

A promising avenue for emotion-education is perhaps something along the lines of mindfulness meditation: ‘looking’ internally at the contents of one’s own experience . . .

Activity 3 Consider the concept of nationalism : We may define it as: a form of collective identity that prompts loyalty and devotion to  one’s nation .

Discussion : Given the two distinct concepts of nation, we needed to recognise the corresponding concepts of nationalism: people-nationalism and state-nationalism. People-nationalism might perceive the rulers as ‘foreign’, prompting the political separation of one’s people from those rulers. State-nationalism would perceive those involved in that separation as ‘traitors’. State-nationalism then is loyalty and devotion to one’s rulers and is identical to ‘patriotism’.

Activity 4 Let us go back to the questions we asked earlier: What is your nationality? Do you feel good when you hear your national anthem or national flag?

Discussion : Is your concept of nationality grounded in people-nation or state-nation? Do you feel good when you hear the national anthem or see the national flag? Do you feel patriotism rise in your heart? Does that feeling come from loyalty to the people, or to the state?

What would your nationality be now?

Which national anthem and national flag would produce feelings of patriotism in your grandchildren? Which nations are your grandchildren likely to hate?

Now answer the same questions by assuming that there were no wars anywhere in the world after the tenth century, and that the political map continued without change till today.

After thinking through these questions, go back to the concepts of state-nation and peoples-nation and write a one-page reflection on the concepts of nation, nationality, nationalism, and patriotism, and the role of violence in the origin and evolution of nations.

An Example of Ethical Inquiry

As a form of rational inquiry, ethical inquiry seeks to help develop the capacity to construct and evaluate ethical theories at individual and collective levels and to deduce the ethical judgements derived from those theories.

In a class session that I did for 6th Graders in Pune, India, the children came up with this ethical principle:  It is immoral to kill humans and other creatures . During the subsequent discussion, one child said that the principle doesn’t apply to enemies. The entire class agreed that it is okay to kill enemies. The principle was revised as:  It is immoral to kill fellow creatures other than enemies .

Some students even suggested that killing enemies is our ethical duty. This resulted in the following dialogue:

At this point, they were no longer sure about their position on enemies. I gave them a few minutes to discuss the problem in groups and come up with a concept of ‘enemy’ such that killing enemies is okay. After some discussion, most groups came up with the following statements:

Those who want to kill others are our enemies.

Those enemies exist in both India and Pakistan.

I would have liked to raise the question: Is it morally right to kill someone who has killed another? This could have taken us to fairly complex issues like mercy-killing, honour-killing, war, abortion and death penalty. I did not pursue that line of inquiry, for I wasn’t sure if it was age-appropriate for the children.

If schools around the world could engage in discussions of this kind, pursuing rational inquiry into principles and concepts of ethics, there would perhaps be far less violence in the world.

  Contemplative Inquiry

As mentioned earlier, the education of emotions has an important role to play in minimising human violence. A promising avenue for emotion-education is perhaps something along the lines of mindfulness meditation: ‘looking’ internally at the contents of one’s own experience, including sensory and non-sensory experience, as well as the experience of emotions. Meditative techniques such as attending to breathing, body scan, loving-kindness and observing thought are forms of looking at the inner world 3 .

The so-called  contemplative inquiry  in this tradition is a form of rational inquiry that takes the results of such introspection as the grounds of inquiry to arrive at rational conclusions about oneself. This allows us to address questions as, “Am I a covert racist?” “Am I as ethical as I think?”, “Do I carry hatred in me?”, as part of inquiry into a fundamental question: “Who am I?”

Instead of merely experiencing emotions such as anger or hostility, we can employ contemplative inquiry with the rational-perceptual part of the mind examining with equanimity the emotional suffering part. The outcome of attention then forms the basis for rational investigation of oneself.

Inquiry-Oriented Education

Helping the young to develop the capacity to engage in these diverse modes of rational inquiry, combined with practices that enhance positive emotions and dissolve negative ones, is an imperative that institutionalised education can no longer afford to ignore in today’s world. Mathematical, scientific, conceptual, ethical and contemplative inquiries play significant roles in this enterprise, which would involve incorporating the strand of Inquiry-Oriented Education into schooling at the primary, secondary, as well as tertiary levels. UNESCO MGIEP has currently undertaken such a move in a collaborative endeavour with ThinQ 4  in its LIBRE programme.

1   http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Terrorism-not-freedom-struggle-Jaswant/articleshow/1086523490.cms

2   http://www.brecorder.com/index.php?option=com_news&view=single&id=1108304

3  http://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/how_to_choose_a_type_of_mindfulness_meditation

4   www.schoolofthinq.com

K.P. Mohanan  received his Ph.D. from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and taught at the University of Texas in Austin, MIT, Stanford University and the National University of Singapore (NUS). At NUS, he initiated the General Education Programme for undergraduate students and, as part of this programme, created a web course on Academic Knowledge and Inquiry.

In January 2011, he moved to IISER-Pune, where he created a three-course package on rational inquiry, covering scientific, mathematical, and conceptual inquiries. He is currently engaged in developing courses and programmes on different types of inquiry-based learning for high school and college students.

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Creating Challenging Learning Experiences

When teachers leverage inquiry, students use critical thinking skills to examine multiple perspectives and find ways to improve our world.

As I write this article, my daughter is writing about the Berlin Conference and the Scramble for Africa. She is evaluating the impact of imperialism on the people of Africa in the 1800s and the rationale of European nations to colonize an entire continent of people. Through this unit, she analyzed Kipling’s White Man’s Burden and evaluated the influence of its message on world leaders. In addition, she was assigned excerpts from Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness to represent the thinking of the anticolonialism messages of the time.

I examined these tasks, and I found that she was engaged in critical thinking. She was asked to analyze policies and the author’s purpose in complex pieces of writing. Further, she was tasked with weighing the decisions of European countries to conquer the people of Africa. In addition, she evaluated different perspectives on these decisions.

However, she lacked the opportunity to tie that powerful work to different perspectives from largely underrepresented groups during that period and today. She read about the experiences and analysis of White men. I don’t recall any analysis of the people of Congo, the Philippines, or India.

Rigor Light

She was engaging in critical thinking but lacked the opportunity to engage in criticality, or the idea that we must connect critical thinking with varying contexts (past, present, and future situations) and perspectives to the human condition. As a result, she participated in a mirage of rigor. Rigor without criticality and contribution is rigor light.

Professor and author Gholdy Muhammad, who holds a PhD in literacy, language, and culture, explains the difference between critical thinking and criticality in this way: “I discuss the difference between lowercase- c critical , which is just deep and analytical thinking. But Critical with a capital c is related to power, equity, and anti-oppression.” The argument here is that both criticality and critical thinking are deeply intertwined and necessary in our work with students.

A good way to remain focused on criticality is through the lens of equity. Equity as a practice and mission and the development of thinking deeply are interwoven. So how do we ensure that we are tending to the demands of the interrelationship between the advancement of equity and cognition? And how do we use this learning for meaningful contribution?

The recommendation here is to engage students with a set of questions that move critical thinking to exploring perspectives, evaluating contexts, and determining potential actions that students can take to solve problems and improve or enhance the world. One way to do this is to use questions that move across levels of thinking from critical analysis, to criticality analysis, to a call to action.

Critical Thinking Questions

The “what” questions guide students to engage in critical thinking by analyzing, synthesizing, evaluating, and reflecting on their curriculum, texts, and current events. Using inductive and deductive reasoning is essential for students to develop the skills necessary to understand the core principles of a subject. Here are a few questions to prime critical thinking skills:

• What is your overall summary or conclusion from this text, theme, idea?
• What are repeating themes, patterns that occur in this unit of study?  
• What are your key takeaways? 
• What is the main idea of the story/article?
• What information supports your explanation? To what extent is that information valid and accurate?
• What themes emerge between the two texts we are reading?  
• What is the author trying to prove? How do you back up your assertion?
• How does _____ contrast with _____?
• What is the point or big idea of _____?

Criticality Thinking Questions

The “so what” questions prepare students to challenge assumptions and intent, analyze multiple perspectives, and discuss the effects of both past and present decisions on multiple communities, particularly those whose voices have been underrepresented and marginalized. Here we use the powerful tools of critical thinking to challenge and better understand the nature of how we have been presented, persuaded, and pushed to learn content in particular ways. Here are a few questions to prime criticality skills:

• How does this relate to other contexts we have studied so far in both time and space? How does this relate to today?  
• Given the perspectives we are seeing in this text, what voices are missing? 
• What perspectives would help us better understand the situation at hand from other people, communities, and cultures?  
• What assumptions are we carrying in this discussion? What are the implications of exploring and testing assumptions?  
• Where have we seen similar stories/patterns/themes in other texts or in the real world? 

Call-to-Action Questions

The “now what” questions help students look for ways to contribute. Critical and criticality thinking skills are designed for students to take action. Here students should think and act on their learning to make the world a better place through better ways to frame content, to generate problems they want to solve, and to contribute to solving problems locally and globally. The  following questions serve as a primer for students to use their voice for contributing to a better understanding and a better future. 

• To what extent can and should we take action in a way that promotes social change? 
• Where have we seen successes in taking action in the past? How can we leverage these successes in this context?
• When is the opportune time to take action that creates a sustainable change?
• Where do we see alignment with our next steps?
• To what extent have others solved this problem?
• Where have we taken into account assumptions about the problem and our solution?

The following organizations offer a number of protocols that can assist in structuring these questions and conversations: Facing History , National School Reform Faculty , and School Reform Initiative . Additionally, strategies such as comparing contexts or using rigorous PBL as a methodology enable this work to flourish.

18 Inquiry-Based Learning Examples (Benefits & criticisms)

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Inquiry-based learning is a learning and teaching strategy where students construct knowledge through a process of observation, investigation, and discovery.

Examples of inquiry-based learning include observational field trips, science experiments, and hypothesis-based research projects.

This learning strategy is believed to increase students’ level of engagement in the learning process. It is considered an active learning strategy that is in contrast to traditional approaches in education where teachers present information to passive learners.

Inquiry-Based Learning Definition

In inquiry-based classrooms, students engage in activities that provoke their curiosity as they go on a journey of discovery. Through the process, they construct knowledge rather than having it delivered by the teacher.

The students learn by exploring a subject, experimenting with concepts or objects, and conducting searches for information on their own.

Some scholarly definitions include:

• Pedaste et al: “It can be defined as a process of discovering new causal relations, with the learner formulating hypotheses and testing them by conducting experiments and/or making observations” (Pedaste et al, 2015, p. 47)
• Lee et al: “[Inquiry-based learning is] an array of classroom practices that promote student learning through guided and, increasingly, independent investigation of complex questions and problems, often for which there is no single answer” (Lee et al, 2004, p. 9).

Although John Dewey is often mentioned as a forerunner of inquiry-based learning, its roots can actually be traced as far back as Socrates (470-399 BC), the Greek philosophy that taught his students using the Socratic Method, which involved him asking his students questions repeatedly instead of imparting his wisdom onto them.

Inquiry-Based Learning Examples

• Self-directed curriculum: Instead of giving students set questions to answer, the teacher gives the students a general topic to inquire about and find an area of interest to explore within the overarching topic.
• Field trips: Students go on a field trip to collect data by taking photographs. The students return to the class and use the photographs to compile information about the topic under study.
• Science experiments: Students conduct an experiment on what plants need by growing seeds in different conditions and tracking each plants progress.
• College Dissertations: Students at university often need to do a research study where they come up with a hypothesis and conduct a scientific study to confirm or falsify their hypothesis.
• Community-based projects: When students identify a problem in the community and work to solve it, they are often engaging in the phases of inquiry-based learning.
• Inquiring about a mystery by using clues: Students in a kindergarten class see before and after photos of destroyed habitats as the teacher asks questions about what they think happened and how do they feel.  
• Construction activities: A kindergarten teacher supplies his students with paper-towel tubes, tape, cardboard boxes and other materials so they can construct their own unique marble-runs.
• Investigating the local environment: Students in a science class investigate the water quality of a nearby creek and answer the key question: is the water safe to go tubing?
• Deconstructing facts: Students are given a list of “facts” about different planets. Some of those facts are actually wrong. The students work in small groups and try to identify the different planets and which facts are false.
• Gathering resources to solve a problem: A social studies class tell the class that they have been asked by NASA to make a time-capsule for aliens. The students work in small groups and gather items or create material to be put in the spaceship.
• Coming up with methodologies for solving problems: A math teacher uses 3-dimensional objects and asks student teams to choose their own methods to calculate its properties and then take turns presenting their strategy to the class.
• Divergent thinking : Divergent thinking involves coming up with multiple possible solutions to a single problem. For example, students in third-grade are told they can have any 3 powers they want to become a superhero. Then they decide on which powers they want, design their costume, and describe the kinds of situations they would help in.
• Concept mapping: Anotherdivergent thinking task would involve a concept map. A high school history teacher has the students make individual concept maps regarding the causes of the Boston Tea Party and checks their work as they go.
• Brainstorming solutions: Mr. Jennings writes a “Big Idea” question on a piece of paper and places it in the center of a bulletin board. Students then use post-it notes to surround the big idea with various thoughts and factors related to the question.
• Archaeological digs: A mock archaeological dig can be considered an inquiry-based learning situation. Students can dig for artifacts then figure out who lived there (and in what era) based on the artifacts.
• Frog dissections: Students who dissect frogs in labs are conducting inquiry-based projects. They may need to draw and diagram what they saw then use the results to report on the animal’s physiology.
• Project-based learning: Project-based learning is a unique and separate type of learning, but they have many overlaps. A teacher can set up a project so that it has all five phases of inquiry (see below).
• Escape rooms: The recent trend of escape rooms, where people have to go into a room and work in a team to solve clues and escape, are often based on an inquiry-based approach. Learners need to uncover answers through using observational skills and clues in their environment.

Phases of Inquiry

Pedaste et al. (2015) propose five phases of inquiry that can underpin the design of an inquiry-based project:

• Orientation: The teacher stimulates curiosity by presenting information about the topic, posing questions, and offering problem statements.
• Conceptualization: Students generate research questions and hypotheses about the project.
• Investigation: Students plan a study, collect data, and analyze it.
• Conclusion: Students construct their own knowledge based upon their inquiry, rather than having teachers give the answers to the students.
• Discussion: Students present their findings to peers, a teacher, or family members, and engage in reflective activity to reinforce knowledge.

Benefits of Inquiry-Based Learning

The benefits of inquiry-based learning are numerous:

• Enhanced critical-thinking skills: when students are asked to inquire rather than simply rote learn information, they have to engage higher-order thinking skills.
• Greater enthusiasm and interest in learning: Learning through active inquiry is believed to enhance intrinsic motivation in the classroom.
• Connecting learning to the real world: Through inquiry, students don’t just learn theories, but also how to solve real-life problems.
• Encouraging independent learning: When students inquire, they make up the research questions and learning outcomes themselves, allowing them to engage in self-directed learning .
• Helping students learn to work with others in a team: Very often, inquiry-based lessons take place in groups.

Case Studies of Inquiry Learning

1. what’s in the box.

The hallmark of any good inquiry-based lesson starts with an opening question. The teacher might not even announce the topic for that day’s lesson.

This is a simple but highly effective way to get the attention of the students right off the bat. When someone is asked a question, they can’t help but to start trying to answer it. That’s just the way the human mind is built.

Since getting the attention of a class full of 1 st graders can be a challenge in and of itself, teachers need to make use of every tool in the box. Hence, the game “what’s in the box?”

If the lesson is about animal habitats, then the teacher can place different items that are in that habitat in a box. As the kids begin to guess what’s in the box, the teacher can pull out one item at a time.

Once a few items are on the table, then the kids can start to guess the name of the habitat and the animals that live in it. It’s a lot of fun for the kids and is a great way to exercise their cognitive processes.

2. Let the Kids do the Work

We often underestimate the ability of very young learners. They are actually a lot smarter than most people give them credit for. Of course, this is understandable; how smart can a child be when they have trouble putting on their own shoes?

But don’t be fooled. Inside their small little heads is a small little brain that is a lot stronger than its size would indicate.

We can see this demonstrated by giving them a chance to do things we didn’t think they could do. For example, when receiving a new set of obstacle course pieces for the playground, let the kids have a go at putting the equipment together.

The set might include some balance-beam pieces, standing hoops, jumping bars, and large plastic screws. Just spread the pieces out on the playground and let the kids try to figure out how they all fit together. You might be surprised at how quickly they do…and all without ever looking at the instructions.

3. The Bakery and the Marketer

At the heart of inquiry-based learning is the idea that students should do most of the thinking. Instead of the teacher distributing knowledge to the brains of students, the leg-work of a course from the minds of the students themselves.

This premise can be seen in a marketing course where the instructor announces the problem, and then the student must create the solution.

For example, students can be given the task of creating a unique marketing campaign for a failing bakery (or any other type of business).

While the instructor could apply some guidelines, such as the campaign should be digital or involve on-site experiences, it is best to provide as little guidance as possible.

Instructors often discover that students can be incredibly imaginative, and insightful. The less restrictive the instructions, the more creative the campaigns. 

4. Cultural Artifacts

Cultural artifacts are objects that remain from a given culture. They can include tools, pieces of garments or kitchenware, even items involved in various types of ceremonies.

In an older, more traditional type of anthropology course, the professor would present a lecture about a particular tribe or ancient culture. To supplement the lecture, the prof might bring along various objects that have been unearthed by archeologists or anthropologists during excavations.

However, in an inquiry-based lesson, the sequence of events in this lesson would be reversed. The professor would first present the artifacts to the students and say as little as possible.

The students would then engage in an analysis (slightly speculative) regarding what the object is and what purpose it served in that particular culture.

This somewhat “backwards” approach to teaching is exactly more engaging for the students. They become more immersed in the lesson. Their interest is piqued and if EEG sensors were attached to their scalps, a lot more cerebral activity would be detected than if they were just sitting in their seats listening.

5. Physics Experimentation

Students in a physics course can spend a lot of time going through formulas. The one for calculating force looks simple enough (F=ma), but that it can get a lot more complicated if you start adding variables for inclines and wind resistance.

To help students understand these concepts on a deeper, more holistic level, some physics teachers will designate a class completely devoted to experimentation.

The students are provided with all the necessary materials, including toy trucks, plastic ramps, objects of various weights, paper and assorted items that could be used to form structures to reduce wind resistance.

The students experiment with altering the various parameters and will form an understanding of the concepts in the formula in a way that could never be accomplished by calculations alone.

Theoretical Basis

The theoretical basis of inquiry-based learning is constructivism. This is a learning theory that emphasizes the importance of constructing knowledge rather than having information told to you by an authority figure.

It is based on the idea that humans learn through developing coherent ideas – called schema – in their minds. We don’t learn well when we’re just told information. Instead, we need to learn through trial and error, which helps us to formulate these cognitive schema.

In the process of actively learning, we don’t only come to know facts, but the underlying how and why of a fact. This context helps cognitive recall and ensures you have deep knowledge of the topic.

Inquiry-based learning embraces this idea of constructing knowledge rather than being told facts .

Through an inquiry situation, students aren’t just learning from a teacher – they’re learning from experience. They gather information, try our different sets of facts, and find the answers that make most sense.

Criticisms of Inquiry-based Learning

While an inquiry-based approach to learning is widely accepted as a strong pedagogical strategy, it does have some weaknesses.

Primarily, it doesn’t achieve standardization of curriculum for all student. It necessarily requires differentiation and allows student-led study, leading to different learning experiences for different students. This undermines the goal of ensuring all students have the same strong educational foundations by the end of compulsory schooling.

Similarly, it is difficult to achieve standardization of assessment during an inquiry-based approach. With build-in student-led learning, students aren’t all completing the exact same task in the exact same way. As a result, subjective assessment methods like performance-based assessment tend to be used, which don’t lead to normative and standardized grading standards.

Inquiry-based learning is a step away from traditional educational practices that disseminated information to passive students. Traditional pedagogy created learners that were ill-equipped to function at a high level in an increasingly complex society.

By creating learning environments that allow students to be more fully engaged and inquisitive, it creates learners that are skilled at critical-thinking and problem-solving.

Teachers can implement a wide range of activities and techniques that foster creativity , communication, and teamwork . The wonderful thing about inquiry-based learning is that it can be applied to nearly any subject at all grade levels, from preschool to graduate school.

Beyrow, M., Godau, M., Heidmann, F., Langer, C., Wettach, R., & Mieg, H. (2019). Inquiry-Based Learning in Design. Inquiry-Based Learning – Undergraduate Research (pp. 239-247). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14223-0_22

Ernst, Dana & Hodge, Angie & Yoshinobu, Stan. (2017). What Is Inquiry-Based Learning? Notices of the American Mathematical Society, 64 . 570-574. https://doi.org/10.1090/noti1536

Lee, V. S., Greene, D. B., Odom, J., Schechter, E., & Slatta, R. W. (2004). What is inquiry guided learning. In V. S. Lee (Ed.), Teaching and learning through inquiry: A guidebook for institutions and instructors (pp. 3-15). Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.

Pedaste, M., Mäeots, M., Siiman, L. A., De Jong, T., Van Riesen, S. A., Kamp, E. T., … & Tsourlidaki, E. (2015). Phases of inquiry-based learning: Definitions and the inquiry cycle.  Educational research review ,  14 , 47-61. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.02.003

Seltzer, E. (1977). A comparison between John Dewey’s theory of inquiry and Jean Piaget’s genetic analysis of intelligence. The Journal of Genetic Psychology , 130 (2d Half), 323–335. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.1977.10533264

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Community-based Inquiry Improves Critical Thinking in General Education Biology

• Ian J. Quitadamo
• Celia L. Faiola
• James E. Johnson
• Martha J. Kurtz

Central Washington University, Ellensburg, WA 98926-7537

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National stakeholders are becoming increasingly concerned about the inability of college graduates to think critically. Research shows that, while both faculty and students deem critical thinking essential, only a small fraction of graduates can demonstrate the thinking skills necessary for academic and professional success. Many faculty are considering nontraditional teaching methods that incorporate undergraduate research because they more closely align with the process of doing investigative science. This study compared a research-focused teaching method called community-based inquiry (CBI) with traditional lecture/laboratory in general education biology to discover which method would elicit greater gains in critical thinking. Results showed significant critical-thinking gains in the CBI group but decreases in a traditional group and a mixed CBI/traditional group. Prior critical-thinking skill, instructor, and ethnicity also significantly influenced critical-thinking gains, with nearly all ethnicities in the CBI group outperforming peers in both the mixed and traditional groups. Females, who showed decreased critical thinking in traditional courses relative to males, outperformed their male counterparts in CBI courses. Through the results of this study, it is hoped that faculty who value both research and critical thinking will consider using the CBI method.

INTRODUCTION

A national crisis in critical thinking.

Not since the time of Sputnik has the focus on national science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) reform been so strong. It is becoming abundantly clear that the United States must revise STEM teaching practices to maintain its international competitiveness. Increasing the number of STEM majors in the pipeline is necessary ( National Research Council [NRC] 2003 ; National Academy of Sciences et al. , 2005 ) but insufficient. We must also improve STEM general education to promote an informed electorate, produce more competitive college graduates, and capitalize on this generation's potential.

Recent national reports indicate that U.S. college graduates are becoming less competitive in the global marketplace. Research shows that a large majority of U.S. college graduates lack essential critical-thinking and problem-solving skills, abilities that directly contribute to academic and professional success. A recent report reveals that 93% of college faculty consider analytical and critical thinking to be among the most essential skills students can develop, and while a majority of students believe college experiences prepare them to think, only 6% of graduates can actually demonstrate these essential skills ( Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2005 ). The questions being asked by many higher education faculty are: (1) What is causing the disconnect between critical-thinking perception and reality? and (2) What tools can be used to rectify the problem?

In order for students to better compete on the international stage, higher education faculty need to make practical instructional changes. National recommendations are clear: Science should be learned and taught as science is done in the real world ( American Association for the Advancement of Science [AAAS], 1989 ; NRC, 1996 , 2000 ). Specifically, students must learn how to solve real-world problems and apply knowledge in creative and innovative ways ( Council on Competitiveness, 2005 ; PKAL, 2006). In order for students to learn, their preconceptions of science must be engaged, they must “do” science as science is done by professionals, and they must become aware of how they think, not just what they think ( Bransford and Donovan, 2005 ).

Despite the accumulating evidence for the efficacy of nontraditional methods like inquiry-based instruction, many faculty continue to resist pressures to modify their teaching. The lack of studies that show clear connections between critical thinking and STEM teaching methods ( Tsui, 1998 , 2002 ) may contribute to faculty reticence. Ultimately, convincing data and practical methods are necessary to motivate faculty to make the necessary instructional reforms.

One approach that may prove to be palatable for content faculty is greater integration of research into the classroom. In the laboratory and field, faculty intentionally set up investigative experiences that require students to structure and create their own knowledge and skills under the guidance of a content expert. Many such discovery-based teaching methods are used successfully ( Porta, 2000 ; DebBurman, 2002 ; Howard and Miskowski, 2005 ), but small-scale implementation in the classroom limits long-term meaningful instructional reform ( Building Engineering and Science Talent, 2003 ). With regard to national recommendations, teaching methods that focus more on integrating research experiences may help students build core thinking skills, which in turn will increase their academic and professional success in ways that contribute to worker productivity and national competitiveness ( National Academy of Sciences et al. , 2005 ; Bybee and Fuchs, 2006 ; National Science Board, 2007 ). However, it is not always feasible to use research-focused teaching methods in STEM courses, particularly those with large sections. What is needed is a practical instructional approach that addresses faculty concerns and considers professional values, improves critical-thinking skills, and connects teaching and learning to solving real-world problems. Considering that fewer students are choosing STEM disciplines in college, it is also imperative that undergraduates be provided with authentic research experiences that increase engagement, relevance, and promote entry into STEM majors ( Smith et al. , 2005 ; Russell et al. , 2007 ).

The Centrality of Critical Thinking

The importance of critical thinking has been established since the time of Socrates. Yet, despite the requirement of critical thinking in many scientific endeavors, it is shocking how few undergraduate students can demonstrate these skills ( Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2005 ), and how little emphasis is placed on explicitly teaching these skills in an organized and systematic way in STEM courses ( Miri et al. , 2007 ). Critical thinking and the elements that constitute it are described in detail elsewhere ( Ennis, 1985 ; Facione and American Philosophical Association, 1990 ; Jones et al. , 1995 ; Facione, 2007 ), but briefly, critical thinking is defined as a “process of purposeful self-regulatory judgment that drives problem-solving and decision-making,” or the “engine” that drives how we decide what to do or believe in a given context. Critical thinking comprises behavioral tendencies (e.g., curiosity, open-mindedness) and cognitive skills (e.g., analysis, inference, evaluation; Ennis, 1985 ). Behavioral tendencies toward critical thinking appear not to change, at least not over the short term ( Giancarlo and Facione, 2001 ; Ernst and Monroe, 2006 ). However, significant gains in critical-thinking skill can occur in as little as 9 weeks ( Quitadamo and Kurtz, 2007 ). The academic and personal benefits of critical thinking are fairly obvious; students tend to get better grades, use better personal reasoning ( United States Department of Education, 1990 ), and are preferentially employed ( Carnevale and American Society for Training and Development, 1990 ; Holmes and Clizbe, 1997 ; National Academy of Sciences et al. , 2005 ). It is also clear from the literature that the majority of university faculty value critical thinking as an essential student learning outcome ( Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2005 ).

The Utility of Undergraduate Research

There exists a sizable body of knowledge on the benefits of undergraduate research ( Kardash, 2000 ; Hathaway et al. , 2002 ; Lopatto, 2004 ; Seymour et al. , 2004 ; Hunter et al. , 2007 ; Russell et al. , 2007 ), but few studies have explored the relationship between undergraduate research and critical thinking explicitly. Ten years ago, the Boyer Commission advocated research as a way to improve undergraduate science education ( Boyer, 1998 ). However, providing independent research opportunities for each and every STEM undergraduate is not a reasonable goal for most colleges and universities. Furthermore, undergraduate research has rarely been applied to general education courses, which host students who arguably have the greatest need for these experiences.

Most studies of the effects of undergraduate research rely on anecdotal evidence including academic performance (e.g., GPA), undergraduate and alumni surveys of student and faculty attitudes and perception, entry into STEM programs, and postgraduation marketability and employment rates ( Kinkel and Henke, 2006 ; Russell et al. , 2007 ). A number of studies have found that undergraduate research experiences help students to develop their ability to conceptualize a scientific problem, design experiments, collect and analyze data, draw conclusions in a contextual manner, and in general to “think and act like a scientist” ( Kardash, 2000 ; Hathaway et al. , 2002 ; Lopatto, 2004 ; Seymour, et al. , 2004 ; Hunter et al. , 2007 . Undergraduate research experiences seem to lower barriers to primary literature and improve perception of gains in content knowledge ( DebBurman, 2002 ; Russell et al. , 2007 ) regardless of institution type ( Lopatto, 2004 ). However, there is some indication that females do not benefit to the same extent as males ( Kardash, 2000 ). Furthermore, while students seem to connect more strongly to particular fields of study as a result of research experiences ( Lopatto et al. , 2004 ; Hunter et al. , 2007 ), they remain largely unable to frame research questions, creatively design experiments to investigate their questions, and lack an understanding of how scientific knowledge is constructed over time ( Hunter et al. , 2007 ).

These studies provide important insight into the utility of undergraduate research experiences and infer a correlation between undergraduate research and greater research skill, deeper content knowledge, entry into STEM majors, and future success. While many studies have looked at stand-alone undergraduate research programs, few studies have investigated the effects of research experiences as an integral part of STEM general education courses, and even fewer have investigated their specific effects on critical thinking. If the majority of faculty believe that critical thinking is a core outcome of higher education ( Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2005 ) and undergraduate research is a key method for improving student learning ( Kardash, 2000 ; Hathaway et al. , 2002 ; Lopatto, 2004 ; Seymour et al. , 2004 ; Russell et al. , 2007 ), then it stands to reason that more students should be able to experience these benefits, not just a select few.

Using Community-based Inquiry to Integrate Research and Critical Thinking

Instructional methods that incorporate elements of undergraduate research are called by different names. The terms project-based learning, experiential learning, and community-based research generally refer to teaching methods that promote student inquiry and discovery in an authentic context ( Kolb, 1984 ; Blumenfeld et al. , 1991 ; Sclove, 1995 ). Inquiry is recommended as a core teaching strategy in STEM courses ( American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993 ; National Research Council, 1996 ), ranges from teacher-guided to student-directed ( Colburn, 2000 ), and can provide a focus for laboratory activities or serve as a framework for an entire course. Some colleges and universities have successfully used such community-based inquiry (CBI) methods ( Huard, 2001 ) to address critical-thinking outcomes in STEM courses ( Magnussen et al. , 2000 ; Arwood, 2004 ; Ernst and Monroe, 2006 ); but results supporting a relationship between critical thinking and inquiry-based instruction are somewhat mixed. Some studies indicate that inquiry-based instruction in STEM courses improves critical-thinking skill ( Arwood, 2004 ; Ernst and Monroe, 2006 ; Quitadamo and Kurtz, 2007 ) but not critical-thinking disposition in the same time frame ( Ernst and Monroe, 2006 ). Other studies show inquiry-based instruction has no overall effect on critical thinking ( Magnussen et al. , 2000 ). Based on existing literature, it is difficult to generate a clear picture of the effect of inquiry-based teaching on critical thinking because most studies do not focus on critical thinking explicitly ( Kardash, 2000 ; Hathaway et al. , 2002 ; DebBurman, 2002 ; Lopatto, 2004 ; Henke, 2006 ; Russell et al. , 2007 ) or suffer from issues like regression toward the mean ( Magnussen et al. , 2000 ), the lack of a valid and reliable measure to assess critical thinking ( DiPasquale et al. , 2003 ; Arwood, 2004 ), nonmatched pretest and posttest scores, or lack of suitable comparison groups that account for covariable effects ( Kardash, 2000 ; Lopatto, 2004 ; Kinkel and Henke, 2006 ).

Purpose of the Study

Can CBI produce greater critical-thinking gains than traditional methods in general education biology?

Do students experiencing CBI develop greater analysis, inference, and evaluation skills than those who experience traditional instruction?

Do critical-thinking gains vary by gender, ethnicity, prior thinking skill, or instructor?

Study Context

This study took place at a regional comprehensive university in the Pacific Northwest. Eight sections of a fundamentals of biology nonmajors course over two successive years were included in the study (n = 337). Two sections of conventional lecture/laboratory were assigned as a traditional group (n = 82). Two sections that partially implemented CBI but retained aspects of traditional instruction were assigned to a mixed group (n = 80). Four sections that fully implemented CBI were assigned as the treatment group (n = 175). Only students who completed both the critical-thinking pretest and posttest were included in the statistical analysis.

All course sections were taught in similarly appointed modern lecture classrooms and common laboratory facilities. Each lecture section included a maximum of 48 students and was taught for 50 min 4 d/wk. Laboratory included 24 students per section and met 1 d/wk for 2 h. Laboratory for all sections took place in the same two rooms except when field work was required. Two different instructors taught four CBI sections, one instructor taught both mixed sections, and two instructors taught the traditional course sections over successive fall terms. Lecture instructors materially participated in laboratory with support from one graduate assistant per lab section. The same nonmajors textbook was used across all sections. None of the instructors from the CBI, mixed, or traditional groups had implemented CBI previously.

CBI, mixed, and traditional groups differed primarily by the instructional method used and the extent to which it was implemented. The traditional group used a standard lecture format and a conventional laboratory manual with drill and skill-based exercises that covered common themes of biology, including the scientific method, ecology, evolution and natural selection, genetics and cell biology, macromolecules, and basic biochemistry. These same topics were covered in both the CBI and mixed groups using more nontraditional methods. Little emphasis was placed on student-driven scientific inquiry in the traditional group, and probably the only activities explicitly addressing critical-thinking skills were the discussion of and laboratory exercise on the scientific method. This method did include small collaborative group work, but interactions were typically limited to completing the laboratory exercises.

The mixed group emphasized critical thinking somewhat superficially and included an inquiry laboratory component, but did not include the case studies that were used in the CBI group to explicitly connect critical thinking and scientific process. This group included a standard lecture that did address some aspects of critical thinking. The lab was inquiry based, but it was somewhat conceptually disconnected from the other course work and was taught primarily by the teaching assistants. The mixed group included collaborative writing assignments for the group research proposal and poster (see below). A comparison of methods used in CBI, mixed, and traditional groups is described in Table 1 .

+, +/−, and − symbols refer to full, partial, or no use of method, respectively.

CBI Overview and Planning

The CBI and mixed group laboratory implemented undergraduate research using quarter-long experiments organized around student-generated research questions. Naturalistic field observations during initial lab meetings led to drafting of preliminary research proposals based on student interest. Each proposal was connected in some way to addressing a pressing community need (e.g., water quality, amphibian decline). Proposals included a research question, null and alternative hypotheses, predictions, anticipated materials and methods, and a description of the experimental design. Students worked with faculty and teaching assistants to revise proposals, to collect necessary materials, and conduct their experiments over a period of several weeks. When students needed to analyze their data, they were taught mathematics and statistics using a just-in-time approach ( Novak et al. , 1999 ). Students orally presented and defended their research at a poster session during the final week of laboratory. Some examples of student research projects included frog capture-recapture, habitat selection, isopod tracking and migration, chemical effects on macroinvertebrate frequency and diversity, microbial contamination, water quality, environmental chemistry, and decomposition studies.

Initial CBI planning meetings took place just before the beginning of the academic term and included graduate assistant and instructor training to help them learn to consistently evaluate student work (i.e., proposals) using a rubric. A range of samples from poor to high quality was used to calibrate scoring and ensure consistency between evaluators from different sections within the CBI and mixed groups.

Description of the CBI Method

The CBI instructional model consisted of four main elements that worked in concert to foster gains in critical thinking. These elements included: (1) authentic inquiry related to community need, (2) case study exercises aligned to major course themes, (3) peer evaluation and individual accountability, and (4) lecture/content discussion. All four of these elements were integrated and used as a framework ( Sundberg, 2003 ; Pukkila, 2004 ) focused on promoting the development of critical thinking through application of the scientific method ( Miri et al. , 2007 ).

On the first day of lecture, CBI instructors informed their students that, in addition to traditional exams and quizzes, their course performance would be evaluated using a combination of case study exercises, peer evaluations, and a research poster presentation. Students were grouped into teams of three to four individuals during the first laboratory session. The criteria for completing CBI assignments were further explained at that time.

Authentic science inquiry formed the cornerstone experience of the CBI model that took place during laboratory. Student learning outcomes were assessed using initial and final research proposals, a laboratory journal, and a formal research poster. Teams were introduced to the scientific method and data collection during the first few laboratory periods by examining some basic biological phenomena such as the dynamics of frog populations or the growth of bacteria. Each team developed a written research proposal built around their own research question with clearly defined independent and dependent variables, explicit null and alternative hypotheses, a detailed experimental design with anticipated materials and methods, and predictions for experimental results.

Initial drafts of research proposals were composed in Microsoft Word and submitted to course instructors using the campus Blackboard system. Each team's research proposal (typically six per lab section) was evaluated for clarity, effective research question, hypotheses, predictions, research design, and practicality. An initial grade worth 25% of the total proposal grade was assigned based on the proposal rubric (see Supplemental Material A ). Evaluators electronically inserted comments and suggestions (largely in the form of Socratic questions ( Faust and Paulson, 1998 ; Elder and Paul, 2004 ) using Microsoft Word “track changes” tools. Each student team received their evaluated proposals electronically along with a completed proposal rubric. Teams addressed comments and suggestions and submitted a final draft worth 75% of the total proposal grade.

Once proposals were approved, students spent the remainder of laboratory time executing their research projects, collecting and analyzing data, and producing a formal research poster. Research posters included all components normally associated with a scientific manuscript, including an introduction, materials and methods, results, discussion, conclusions, and a literature cited section. CBI instructors provided students with a research poster rubric (see Supplemental Material B ) ahead of time to clarify performance expectations and to help students gauge their own efforts. During a final poster session, students used the research poster rubric to peer evaluate other team posters. A compilation of all peer poster evaluations was incorporated into each team's final poster grade.

CBI students were required to keep a personal research journal summarizing all laboratory work. As with research proposal and poster rubrics, journal evaluation criteria were given to the students on the first day of laboratory (see Supplemental Material C ). Collectively, CBI research proposals, journals, and posters accounted for approximately 23% of the students' final course grade.

Case study exercises were used during lecture to increase student understanding of the scientific method. Approximately eight to 10 lecture periods were devoted to case study work during the term. Each case study exercise was designed around a major theme in biology (e.g., the scientific method, molecules and cells, molecular genetics, evolution, and ecology) and intended to mimic and reinforce the scientific process used for CBI in the laboratory. Case study exercises followed a slightly modified version of the interrupted case method ( Herreid, 1994 , 2004 , 2005a ) where students worked in the same collaborative teams as for laboratory and submitted all answers in writing. Each exercise consisted of multiple parts (usually four) that were completed sequentially. The decision to use collaborative teams to support CBI was partly based on existing literature ( Collier, 1980 ; Bruffee, 1984 ; Jones and Carter, 1998 ; Springer et al. , 1999 ) and prior research that showed writing in small groups helps to measurably improve undergraduate critical-thinking skills ( Quitadamo and Kurtz, 2007 ).

In the case study exercises, students were required to work through the scientific method, identify important questions and variables, state hypotheses, integrate important content information (supported by lecture), propose experiments, analyze data, and draw reasoned conclusions based on real examples from the scientific literature (see Herreid [2005b] for one example of a case study used in this part of the CBI model). Each research team submitted their answers using Microsoft Word as described above, were evaluated using a case study rubric (see Supplemental Material D ), and were assigned an initial grade (33% of the total case study assignment grade). Instructors or graduate assistants who evaluated each team's case study submission posed additional Socratic questions ( Faust and Paulson, 1998 ; Elder and Paul, 2004 ) aimed at clarifying the initial questions and/or answers. Teams reflected on initial proposal rubric scores and instructor comments, and were then allowed to revise and resubmit their work. This reflection and revision strategy was used in an attempt to develop student critical thinking ( Dewey, 1933 ; Brookfield, 1987 ) and metacognitive awareness ( Bransford and Donovan, 2005 ). Answers were reevaluated using a final proposal rubric (66% of the final case study assignment grade). Altogether, the case study exercises accounted for approximately 20% of the final course grade.

Peer evaluations were another element of the CBI model that provided individual accountability within each research team. This was done to help students reflect on and evaluate their own performance, maximize individual contributions to the group, and make sure students received credit proportional to their contributions. A peer evaluation rubric was used to assess team members based on their contributions, quality of work, effort, attitude, focus on tasks, work with others in the group, problem solving, and group efficacy (see Supplemental Material E ). The average peer evaluation score for each student was included as approximately 5% of the final course grade.

The final element in the CBI instructional model was the lecture. As with traditional lecture sections these were largely content driven, but were also modified to focus on supporting both the CBI and the case study exercises within a framework of critical thinking. As with the CBI laboratory and case studies, the scientific method, inquiry as a process, and Socratic questioning ( Faust and Paulson, 1998 ; Elder and Paul, 2004 ) were emphasized. Traditional exams and quizzes accounted for approximately 53% of a student's course grade.

Research Design and Statistical Methods

A quasi-experimental pretest/posttest control group design was used to determine critical-thinking gains in CBI, mixed, and traditional groups. This design was chosen because intact groups were used and it was not feasible to randomly assign students between course sections. In the absence of a true experimental design, this design was the most useful because it minimizes threats to internal and external validity ( Campbell and Stanley, 1963 ). Additional threats were managed by administering the CCTST 9 wk apart, and by including multiple covariables in the statistical analysis. Pretest sensitivity and selection bias were potential concerns, but minimized via the use of a valid and reliable critical-thinking assessment evaluated for sensitivity ( Facione, 1990 ) and by statistically accounting for prior critical thinking in critical-thinking gains.

Student critical-thinking skills were assessed using an online version of the CCTST ( Facione, 1990 ; Facione et al. , 1992 , 2004 ). Critical- thinking gains between CBI, mixed, and traditional groups were evaluated using an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) test, which was used to increase statistical accuracy and precision. Covariables used in the ANCOVA included prior critical-thinking skill (CCTST pretest scores), gender, ethnicity, age, class standing, time of day, instructor, course section, and academic year. Paired-samples t tests were used to compare CCTST pretest to posttest scores for the CBI, mixed, and traditional groups to determine whether gains or declines were significant. Mean, SE, and effect size were also compared between the CBI, mixed, and traditional groups.

Participant Demographics

A distribution of age, gender, and ethnicity was constructed to provide context for experimental results (see Table 2 ). In general, demographics were consistent across CBI, mixed, and traditional groups. CBI and mixed groups had more females than the traditional, which had a near-even gender split. Most participants were Caucasian, with Asian-American, Latino/Hispanic, African-American, and Native American students constituting the remainder with decreasing frequency.

*Other includes the “choose not to answer” response.

Statistical Assumptions

ANCOVA tests were used to parse out effects of a number of variables on critical-thinking gains, and to more accurately and precisely analyze critical-thinking differences between CBI, mixed, and traditional groups. Error variance across groups (homogeneity of covariances) and normal distribution (normality) assumptions were evaluated using Levene's test and a frequency histogram of CCTST gain scores, respectively. Levene's test results, F(2, 334) = 0.995, p = 0.371, indicated error variance did not differ significantly across CBI, mixed, and traditional groups. A frequency distribution of critical-thinking gains (pretest/posttest difference) showed the sample approximated a standard normal curve (data not shown).

Prior critical thinking (indicated with pretest scores) was compared across CBI, mixed, and traditional groups to establish baseline thinking performance. Pretest scores were also used to determine whether students with low prior thinking skill showed greater gains than students with high prior thinking skill (regression toward the mean).

Effect of CBI on Critical-Thinking Gains

Significant pretest/posttest critical-thinking gains were observed for the CBI group ( p = 0.0001), but not for mixed ( p = 0.298) or traditional ( p = 0.111) groups. Critical-thinking gains differed significantly between the CBI and traditional ( p = 0.13) groups but not the mixed group ( p = 0.076; see Figure 1 ). Critical-thinking gains in the CBI group were more than 2.5 times greater than the mixed group, and nearly 3 times greater gains than the traditional group (see Table 3 ). National percentile equivalent scores for critical thinking indicated the CBI group gained 7.01 (44th to 51st percentile), whereas the mixed and traditional groups decreased −1.64 (42nd to 40th percentile) and −4.17 (56th to 52nd percentile), respectively.

Figure 1. Comparison of national percentile critical-thinking gains between CBI, mixed, and traditional groups. National percentile ranking was computed using CCTST raw scores, an equivalency scale from Insight Assessment, and a linear conversion script in SPSS. Values above columns represent net gains in percentile rank. Error bars represent standard error of the mean.

SEM indicates standard error of the mean. *Significance tested at 0.05 level.

Results indicated that gender, age, class standing, and academic term did not significantly influence critical-thinking outcomes. However, prior critical-thinking skill, instructor, and ethnicity significantly affected critical-thinking gains (see Table 4 ). Prior critical-thinking skill had the greatest significant effect on critical-thinking gains of any variable tested, with 4 times greater effect than instructor and over 5 times greater effect than ethnicity.

Prior critical-thinking skill indicated by CCTST pretest. *Significance tested at 0.05 level. Effect size represented in standard units.

CBI, mixed, and traditional groups were subsequently divided into gender and ethnic subgroups to determine which group benefited most from each instructional method (see Tables 5 and 6 ). In the CBI group, female critical-thinking gains in national percentile rank were 1.3 times greater than male gains, but 5.4 times less than males in the mixed group and nearly 2 times less than males in the traditional group. The greatest critical-thinking gains for all ethnicities occurred in the CBI group, with Asian/Pacific Islander, Caucasian, Other, Hispanic, and African-American in decreasing order of performance. In the mixed and traditional groups, nearly all students showed nonsignificant decreases in critical-thinking skill, with the exception of Caucasian students who showed very slight gains in the mixed group and Hispanic students who showed gains in the traditional group.

Gains based on CCTST national percentile.

SEM refers to standard error of the mean.

The effects of CBI on gains in the component critical-thinking skills of analysis, inference, and evaluation were also investigated. Students in the CBI group showed significant gains in inference and evaluation skill, whereas students in the traditional group showed significant decreases in inference skill (see Figure 2 ). Mixed group students showed no significant change in any component skill. Students from the CBI group showed 9.4 times greater analysis, 9.2 times greater inference, and 4.2 times greater evaluation skill gains than the mixed group. The CBI group also showed 7.4 times greater analysis, 13.4 times greater inference, and 4.2 times greater evaluation skill gains than the traditional group.

Figure 2. Comparison of analysis, inference, and evaluation skills for CBI, mixed, and control groups. Gains scores indicated by national percentile ranking. *Significance tested at 0.05 level. Error bars based on standard error of the mean.

The purpose of this study was to discover whether CBI could elicit greater gains in critical thinking than traditional lecture/laboratory instruction in general education biology courses. The CBI group showed the only significant change in overall critical thinking, with large gains in national percentile rank compared with mixed and traditional groups. The CBI group also showed the only significant gains in inference and evaluation skills, whereas mixed and traditional groups showed either no change or significant declines in inference skill. Small evaluation skill gains were observed for mixed and traditional groups, although CBI evaluation gains were more than 4 times greater. Females, who showed larger critical-thinking decreases than males in traditionally taught courses, outperformed males when CBI was used. CBI also produced greater gains in critical thinking than traditional methods for nearly all ethnic groups. Collectively, these results indicate that CBI students outperform traditionally taught students and show greater gains in overall critical thinking and analysis, inference, and evaluation skill.

Students in the traditional group showed the largest critical-thinking declines even though they began the term with the highest prior critical-thinking skill. Although not significant in this study, this negative trend has been observed in nearly every traditionally taught biology course we have investigated to date. While it is not totally clear as to why critical-thinking skills decrease, it is reasonable to suggest that traditional methods are less effective because they are not conducive to how students learn science most effectively ( Bransford and Donovan, 2005 ). Traditional methods typically do not build from students' prior knowledge, are disconnected from how science is done in the real world, and generally do not promote student awareness of how they learn ( Bransford and Donovan, 2005 ). In contrast, nontraditional methods like CBI may be more effective because they build from what students already know, allow them to experience authentic scientific research, and require them to reflect and improve in ways that increase self-awareness and metacognition. The mental constructs produced from experiential methods like CBI are more likely to promote critical thinking ( Wesson, 2002 ; Miri et al. , 2007 ).

In addition to CBI, prior critical-thinking skill and instructor significantly affected critical-thinking performance. Although some overlap between method and instructor was expected, instructor was included as a standalone variable in an attempt to more specifically isolate CBI effects on critical-thinking gains when multiple faculty used the same method. Prior critical-thinking skill and instructor have significantly affected critical-thinking gains in other studies as well ( Quitadamo and Kurtz, 2007 ), with the former being a major determinant of future critical-thinking gains. These results further underscore the need for critical-thinking skills to be explicitly taught ( Miri et al. , 2007 ), not only in higher education, but throughout the K–20 continuum, so that students are provided with equitable opportunity and necessary tools for learning success. Teaching these skills during formative years will serve to decrease gaps in critical-thinking performance as students continue their education.

It is interesting to note that nearly all ethnicities experienced greater critical-thinking gains in the CBI group compared with the mixed and traditional groups. Presumably, this benefit comes from using an instructional method that promotes student-driven questions and research. By precluding an instructional top-down model of what is and is not important to individuals, students are encouraged to choose their own area of research. By engaging them in a rigorous scientific research process, these students learn the values and beliefs of science without a particular viewpoint being imposed on them. This in turn may encourage greater openness to learning, which ultimately manifests in greater thinking skill. However, this interpretation is speculative, and further research is necessary to uncover cause and effect relationships between CBI, ethnicity, and critical thinking.

It was also interesting to find that CBI helped females to erase critical-thinking deficits seen in traditionally taught course sections. Perhaps the collaborative nature of the CBI model and increased connection to community issues encouraged women to take a more active role in STEM learning, and thereby gave them opportunity to practice critical-thinking skill to a greater extent than traditional drill and skill instruction. Small group collaboration, which was used to some extent in CBI, mixed, and traditional groups, is known to improve attitude and promote student achievement in STEM courses ( Springer et al. , 1999 ) but less is known about its effects on critical thinking. Despite the use of small groups in both the mixed and traditional groups, critical-thinking skill gains did not occur. One interesting project would be to consider male only, female only, and mixed collaboration group effects on critical-thinking gains. More research is required to tease out the particular elements of CBI that caused gender differences.

Although content knowledge was not assessed using a valid and reliable instrument, it is important to note that CBI instructors “covered” the same amount of lecture content as they had in previous, traditionally taught courses. The perceived lack of content knowledge is a common criticism of teaching methods that focus on thinking process, although recent studies have shown no content knowledge penalties manifest ( Sundberg, 2003 ). Future iterations of this research will include a standardized content knowledge assessment to further clarify the relationship between content knowledge and thinking-skills development.

Faculty considering whether to use CBI may wonder about their specific role, and if time and energy spent implementing the method will produce better scientists. Aside from engaging in meaningful research and learning to think critically, it is also important that students learn to appreciate the values and beliefs inherent in the scientific enterprise. Faculty played a pivotal role in CBI, modeling a range of good scientific behaviors from how to problem solve and create an effective research design, to drawing conclusions based on evidence. A clear emphasis was placed on the value of discovery, not just rote facts. Faculty trying CBI for the first time may also find students tend to become increasingly frustrated over the first 3–4 wk of the term because they are asked to do more than memorize. Whereas others have found students may retain skeptical attitudes of new instructional methods for some time ( Sundberg and Moncada, 1994 ), our results indicate CBI students rapidly become acclimated after approximately 4 wk as research projects begin and beneficial relationships between investigative science and critical thinking become more clear.

Learning how to use critical thinking as the course framework ( Pukkila, 2004 ) and clearly connecting this to the scientific method ( Miri et al. , 2007 ) appears to be a major determinant in the success of the CBI model. This may explain why students in the mixed (and traditional) groups did not show critical-thinking gains. Major differences between the CBI and mixed groups were: (1) the time that course instructors spent in lab modeling knowledge, skills, and behaviors of investigative science, (2) the ability of faculty and teaching assistants to ask Socratic questions, and (3) the extent to which instructors integrated the fundamental elements of CBI, including undergraduate research, case studies, and lecture content discussion. In and of itself, adding an inquiry laboratory component and talking about critical thinking without building it into the course are unlikely to produce meaningful critical-thinking gains. Although not tested explicitly, is possible that the tighter integration of lecture and laboratory ( Sundberg, 2003 ) in the CBI group could have accounted for some of the critical-thinking gains.

Some practical considerations for adopting the CBI model include the requirements of greater collaboration with colleagues, clearly defining for students what kinds of critical-thinking behaviors and skills are expected, and developing explicit examples of how critical thinking relates to the scientific process ( Miri et al. , 2007 ). Time spent evaluating and providing meaningful feedback on research proposals, journals, and posters is another potential concern. In this study, implementation of CBI did not take more time and effort per se; rather, it required faculty to reconceptualize how they spent their instructional time and adopt different primary objectives. For example, students were informed ahead of time that each member of their research group would receive the lowest common grade for their proposal or poster. As a result, they tended to self-regulate group behavior and productivity and became less tolerant of noncontributors. Rubric evaluations, which would be time-consuming if faculty completed one for every student, were provided for each research group. Group members then discussed strengths and weaknesses of their submission and worked collaboratively to address them. Faculty and teaching assistants must understand how the CBI model is different, why it is being used, and what they can expect from students ( Sundberg et al. , 2000 ). Training on CBI objectives, how to evaluate student work using a rubric, and reinforcement of the Socratic and just-in-time teaching methods of CBI are required for successful implementation. It is also important that support staff be aware that students will be making a variety of requests for equipment and materials in the coming weeks and that these requests are somewhat unpredictable.

Future Directions

The CBI model has worked repeatedly for faculty included in this study. CBI has created a buzz among students, which has prompted faculty at our and other institutions to ask to be taught the model and corresponding techniques so they can use it in their own courses. At this point, all faculty teaching nonmajors biology at our institution use the CBI model, partly because students better learn how to think, and partly because it is more fun to teach courses that involve discovery and research. However, it is not clear how extensible this model is to other disciplines. Further study would involve implementing CBI in nonmajors STEM courses such as chemistry or physics. Two of the authors have implemented CBI in majors cell biology, genetics, and microbiology courses, with similar benefits.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study are encouraging for faculty who seek better alternatives than traditional lecture and laboratory methods for promoting critical thinking in STEM general education courses. Based on previous literature and the results presented here, we conclude that CBI helps improve critical-thinking skill in general education biology, and should be considered by faculty searching for better ways to improve STEM teaching and learning. It remains to be seen whether this model is extensible to other science disciplines, and further study is necessary to evaluate the widescale suitability of the CBI model. As a research-based instructional method, CBI has the potential to improve essential learning outcomes like critical thinking, and through this process enhance the cognitive performance and competitiveness of the general population. As we all search for better ways to improve STEM teaching and learning, faculty should consider CBI.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors acknowledge the generous financial support provided by the Central Washington University Office of the Provost and the Office of the Associate Vice President for Undergraduate Studies.

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Submitted: 14 November 2007 Revised: 16 April 2008 Accepted: 18 April 2008

© 2008 by The American Society for Cell Biology

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• Part 1 Theorizing education: the gap between theory and practice
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• adopting an educational philosophy
• what is an educational practice? Part 2 Towards a critical educational science: can educational research be scientific?
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• whatever happened to action research?
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• epilogue - resisting the postmodernist challenge.
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5 Questions For Ambitious Leaders Driving Change In Education

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The education system traditionally operates as a finite game.

In his book Finite and Infinite Games , the American academic James Carse explains that finite games have fixed rules, clear objectives and defined endpoints. But infinite games are ongoing, evolving and focused on continuous play.

The education system exemplifies a finite game. It is driven by standardized tests and obsessed with end-point examinations. To transform it, we must reframe it as an infinite game that encourages long-term sustainability, adaptability and a love for lifelong learning.

The Finite Game Of Education

In the current system students, teachers, administrators and policymakers are the key players in the finite game. Each player has defined roles and responsibilities. The boundaries of this game are set by rigid curriculum guidelines, fixed school years and standardized testing protocols. Success is measured by a grade point average. The focus is often on short-term achievements and memorization. This turns education into a competition among students and schools.

As James Carse explained, “A finite game is played for the purpose of winning, an infinite game for the purpose of continuing the play.”

The current system's finite nature drives a win-lose mentality where the ultimate goal is to succeed in exams and move on. This provides structure and clear goals. But it has huge drawbacks. It can stifle creativity, discourage critical thinking and create immense pressure on students to perform well on tests rather than truly understand the material. It fails to prepare students for the unpredictable and rapidly changing world beyond school.

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Best 5% interest savings accounts of 2024, the infinite game of education.

Transforming education into an infinite game requires a new strategy. The focus must move from achieving short-term results to fostering lifelong learning, critical thinking and adaptability. Creating a system that continuously evolves and improves is now an imperative. Encouraging students to develop a love for learning that lasts a lifetime is the new mark of success.

In the infinite game of education, the players are an expanding community that includes not only students and educators but also parents, employers and society at large. Participants change and evolve over time, contributing to a dynamic and inclusive educational ecosystem. As Carse notes, “Finite players play within boundaries; infinite players play with boundaries.” The boundaries of this game are flexible, with curricula that adapt to the needs and interests of students and societal changes.

The duration of the infinite game of education is endless. Learning continues throughout life, beyond formal schooling. Success is measured not by grades or test scores but by the ability to think critically, solve problems, adapt to new challenges and contribute positively to society. The focus is on personal growth and societal contribution rather than competition and definitive outcomes.

Implications For Transforming Education

Curriculum flexibility:.

To foster an infinite game mindset, curricula must be adaptable and responsive to the changing needs of students and society. This involves encouraging interdisciplinary learning and critical thinking rather than rote memorization. Subjects should be integrated, showing students the connections between different areas of knowledge and how they apply to real-world problems. As Carse insightfully states, “Only that which can change can continue.”

Assessment Methods:

Moving beyond standardized tests is crucial. Diverse forms of assessment, such as project-based learning, peer reviews, and self-assessments, can provide a more comprehensive view of a student’s abilities. These methods encourage deep understanding and application of knowledge rather than superficial memorization.

Lifelong Learning:

Promoting the idea that education does not end with graduation is essential. Lifelong learning can be encouraged through professional development opportunities, community learning initiatives, and online courses. By fostering a culture of continuous improvement, individuals remain adaptable and skilled in a rapidly changing world.

Inclusive Participation:

Involving a broader range of stakeholders in the educational process ensures the system remains relevant and effective. This includes input from students, parents, industry leaders, and community members. By considering diverse perspectives, education can better meet the needs of all learners and society as a whole.

Focus On Skills For The Future:

Prioritizing the development of skills such as critical thinking, emotional intelligence, digital literacy, and adaptability is crucial. These skills prepare students for the uncertainties of the future and equip them to navigate complex challenges.

A Fundamental Shift

Viewing education as an infinite game requires a fundamental shift from short-term achievement to long-term growth and adaptability. By adopting this perspective, we can create an education system that not only prepares individuals for specific tasks or tests but also equips them with the skills and mindset necessary to thrive in an ever-evolving world. This transformation is essential for fostering a society that values continuous learning, innovation and collective well-being.

As we embrace the infinite game of education, we open the door to endless possibilities, where learning is a lifelong journey and the goal is not just to win but to keep playing, growing and contributing to a better future for all.

5 Game Changing Questions

• How can we shift our focus from winning (e.g., achieving high test scores) to continuing the play, ensuring education is a lifelong journey of discovery and growth?
• In what ways can we play with boundaries instead of within them by creating a more flexible and adaptive curriculum that evolves with the needs of our students and society?
• How can we cultivate a learning culture that values ongoing change and adaptation, recognizing that 'only that which can change can continue'?
• What new and innovative assessment methods can we introduce to measure not just what students know but also how they think, solve problems and adapt to new challenges?
• How can we ensure that our educational practices and policies are not just preparing students to win in the short term, but equipping them with the skills and mindset to thrive in an infinite game?

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Old boys banned from Gordonstoun

Almost 70% of people are worried about mass university closures, poll suggests - and this is who they blame

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Scale of child abuse at King Charles' former school Gordonstoun laid bare after Scottish inquiry

Children were abused over many years at the Scottish boarding school attended by King Charles and other members of the Royal family, an inquiry has found. Lady Smith, chair of the Scottish Child Abuse Inquiry, said leadership failures at Gordonstoun , in Moray, and its associated junior school, Aberlour, were only addressed after 1990.

She concluded that children who boarded at both establishments were exposed to risks of sexual, physical, and emotional abuse, and for many those risks materialised.

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Lady Smith said: “I have no difficulty in finding that children were abused at Gordonstoun and Aberlour in a variety of ways over a long period of time. It was assumed the declaration of good intentions by founder Kurt Hahn was enough to ensure the school could be entrusted to provided appropriate residential care.

“At Gordonstoun, the assumption proved to be ill-founded, largely due to poor leadership. It was only after 1990 and the appointment of a headmaster who understood the importance of pastoral care that abuse eventually began to be addressed and a measure of trust was restored.

“A dreadfully abusive and, in some houses, extremely violent culture was allowed to take root. Abuse was also perpetrated by staff. The evidence of abuse was clear from the accounts of many applicants.

“Similarly, at Aberlour, the 1960s to 1990s were marked by a similar culture of assumption and naivety, exacerbated by the long and unchallenged leadership. There was a significant failure of governance, with no interest in child protection or pastoral care until the 1990s.”

Charles III attended the school  at Duffus in the 1960s, on the recommendation of his father Prince Philip, who was one of the school’s first pupils. Lady Smith added: “There have been periods in Gordonstoun’s history where abuse was allowed to be normalised for decades. It seems clear, however, that for the last 30 years or so, some good leaders have sought to recover the position.

“The risk of children being abused will, however, always be present. I recognise that Gordonstoun has now made real efforts to be aware of the risk of abuse, to protect against it, and, if abuse occurs, to respond appropriately, but the school must never become complacent.”

Lady Smith has now published 12 sets of findings, most recently in relation to Morrison’s Academy.

In an open letter to the Gordonstoun community, Principal Lisa Kerr, writing jointly with chair of governors David White, apologised to all those who suffered at the school.

They said: “Today’s report is upsetting and it is shocking to read of the abuse that children in the past experienced and the enduring impact on their lives 30, 40 or even 50 years later. We respect and thank those who have spoken up about their experiences and those who gave evidence to the Inquiry. 

“The lack of care and the abuse they experienced, which the inquiry identifies as being mainly in ‘the period from the 1970s to the early 1990s’ reflects that, as Lady Smith states ‘there have been periods in Gordonstoun’s history where the vision and ethos that formed the basis of Kurt Hahn‘s founding of the school was allowed to wither’.

“Those who were abused deserved better and we are sorry they were so badly let down. Since reports of historic abuse came to our attention in 2013, we have taken a pro-active approach, addressing matters openly and offering whatever support possible.”

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After publishing an article critical of Israel, Columbia Law Review’s website is shut down by board

FILE - A student protester parades a Palestinian flag outside the entrance to Hamilton Hall on the campus of Columbia University, Tuesday, April 30, 2024, in New York. The student-run legal journal, Columbia Law Review, was taken offline Monday, June 3, 2024, after its board of directors objected to the publication of an article that accused Israel of genocide. (AP Photo/Mary Altaffer, Pool, File)

FILE - Protesters demonstrate against the war in Gaza outside the entrance to the campus of Columbia University, Tuesday, April 30, 2024, in New York. The student-run legal journal, Columbia Law Review, was taken offline Monday, June 3, 2024, after its board of directors objected to the publication of an article that accused Israel of genocide. (AP Photo/Mary Altaffer, File)

FILE - Police stand guard as demonstrators chant slogans outside the Columbia University campus, on April 18, 2024, in New York. The student-run legal journal, Columbia Law Review, was taken offline Monday, June 3, 2024, after its board of directors objected to the publication of an article that accused Israel of genocide. (AP Photo/Mary Altaffer, File)

FILE - Student protesters camp on the campus of Columbia University, Tuesday, April 30, 2024, in New York. The student-run legal journal, Columbia Law Review, was taken offline Monday, June 3, 2024, after its board of directors objected to the publication of an article that accused Israel of genocide. (Pool Photo/Mary Altaffer, File)

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NEW YORK (AP) — Student editors at the Columbia Law Review say they were pressured by the journal’s board of directors to halt publication of an academic article written by a Palestinian human rights lawyer that accuses Israel of committing genocide in Gaza and upholding an apartheid regime.

When the editors refused the request and published the piece Monday morning, the board — made up of faculty and alumni from Columbia University’s law school — shut down the law review’s website entirely. It remained offline Tuesday evening, a static homepage informing visitors the domain “is under maintenance.”

The episode at one of the country’s oldest and most prestigious legal journals marks the latest flashpoint in an ongoing debate about academic speech that has deeply divided students, staff and college administrators since the start of the Israel-Hamas war.

Several editors at the Columbia Law Review described the board’s intervention as an unprecedented breach of editorial independence at the periodical, which is run by students at Columbia Law School. The board of directors oversees the nonprofit’s finances but has historically played no role in selecting pieces.

In a letter sent to student editors Tuesday and shared with The Associated Press, the board of directors said it was concerned that the article, titled “Nakba as a Legal Concept,” had not gone through the “usual processes of review or selection for articles at the Law Review, and in particular that a number of student editors had been unaware of its existence.”

“In order to preserve the status quo and provide student editors some window of opportunity to review the piece, as well as provide time for the Law Review to determine how to proceed, we temporarily suspended the website,” the letter continued.

Those involved in soliciting and editing the piece said they had followed a rigorous review process, even as they acknowledged taking steps to forestall expected blowback by limiting the number of students aware of the article.

In the piece, Rabea Eghbariah, a Harvard doctoral candidate, accuses Israel of a litany of “crimes against humanity,” arguing for a new legal framework to “encapsulate the ongoing structure of subjugation in Palestine and derive a legal formulation of the Palestinian condition.”

Eghbariah said in a text message that the suspension of the law journal’s website should be seen as “a microcosm of a broader authoritarian repression taking place across U.S. campuses.”

Editors said they voted overwhelmingly in December to commission a piece on Palestinian legal issues, then formed a smaller committee — open to all of the publication’s editorial leadership — that ultimately accepted Eghbariah’s article. He had submitted an earlier version of the article to the Harvard Law Review, which the publication later elected not to publish amid internal backlash, according to a report in The Intercept .

Anticipating similar controversy and worried about a leak of the draft, the committee of editors working on the article did not upload it to a server that is visible to the broader membership of the law journal and to some administrators. The piece was not shared until Sunday with the full staff of the Columbia Law Review — something that editorial staffers said was not uncommon.

“We’ve never circulated a particular article in advance,” said Sohum Pal, an articles editor at the publication. “So the idea that this is all over a process concern is a total lie. It’s very transparently content based.”

In their letter to students, the board of directors said student editors who didn’t work on the piece should have been given an opportunity to read it and raise concerns.

“Whatever your views of this piece, it will clearly be controversial and potentially have an impact on all associated with the Review,” they wrote.

Those involved in the publishing of the article said they heard from a small group of students over the weekend who expressed concerns about threats to their careers and safety if it were to be published.

Some alluded to trucks that circled Columbia and other campuses following Hamas’ Oct. 7 attack on Israel, labeling students as antisemites for their past or current affiliation with groups seen as hostile to Israel.

The letter from the board also suggested that a statement be appended to the piece stating the article had not been subject to a standard review process or made available for all student editors to read ahead of time.

Erika Lopez, an editor who worked on the piece, said many students were adamantly opposed to the idea, calling it “completely false to imply that we didn’t follow the standard process.”

She said student editors had spoken regularly since they began receiving pushback from the board on Sunday and remained firmly in support of the piece.

When they learned the website had been shuttered Monday morning, they quickly uploaded Eghbariah’s article to a publicly accessible website . It has since spread widely across social media.

“It’s really ironic that this piece probably got more attention than anything we normally published,” Lopez added, “even after they nuked the website.”

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India's First Global Centre for Enterprise Risk Management Launches in East India

The india affiliate of the institute of risk management partnered with sri sri university to establish india's first global centre for enterprise risk management in east india. the center aims to provide risk management education and resources, fostering resilient business leadership and addressing various critical risks..

New Delhi, Delhi: In a landmark collaboration, the India Affiliate of the Institute of Risk Management (IRM) and Sri Sri University (SSU) have inaugurated India's first Global Centre for Enterprise Risk Management. The ceremony, held at the Art of Living International Centre in Bangalore, witnessed the convergence of numerous dignitaries including Gurudev Sri Sri Ravishankar, founder of SSU, and Hersh Shah, CEO of IRM India Affiliate.

This pioneering center is set to offer students unparalleled access to IRM's global resources and training, aiming to nurture experts in risk-informed business leadership, entrepreneurship, and corporate management. The initiative will address critical risk areas such as disaster preparedness, cyber security, and financial stability, while enhancing continuous learning and networking within the IRM India ecosystem.

Hersh Shah underscored the center's role in developing future-ready, risk-intelligent professionals who can navigate the complexities of the modern world. Prof. Rajita Kulkarni echoed this sentiment, highlighting the partnership's alignment with SSU's commitment to innovative education. The initiative is poised to produce over 10,000 certified professionals, fortifying the business landscape with resilient and sustainable practices.

(This story has not been edited by Devdiscourse staff and is auto-generated from a syndicated feed.)

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Ministry for Regulation Launches Review on Early Childhood Education Sector

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