university of guelph writing services

Make an Appointment - Use the location dropdown to specify where the appointment will take place. Selecting a different location will reload the appointment dates and times that are available to be booked. Select an Appointment Type Select an Appointment Type In-Person Time Management, Studying, Presentation Skills Appointments In-Person Writing Appointments Online Time Management, Studying, Presentation Skills Appointments Online Writing Appointments

Book In-Person Writing Appointments for support with planning, outlining, drafting, organizing, or revising your writing assignments.

We also offer Online Writing Appointments .

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• Please arrive on time or your appointment may be given to another student.

Writing appointments will be available within the following dates:

• September 23, 2024 - December 13, 2024
• January 20, 2025 - April 17, 2025
• Writing appointments will run on a reduced schedule from mid-May to mid-August 2025

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WRITING IN THE SCIENCES

Welcome to Writing in the Sciences (WITS)

Welcome! As professional writing consultants, we understand that writing can be challenging and time-consuming, and that many science writers often avoid the writing process until the end stages of their research study. We want to support your progress to help you start early and write sections regularly throughout your research process. 

This Writing in the Sciences (WITS) website is designed to help writers address some of the challenges that they face with scientific writing. Some of these challenges include:  

• feeling overwhelmed and uncertain of where to start 
• struggling to articulate ideas and concepts in a clear and concise way 
• navigating the transition from writing course assignments like lab reports to writing publishable research articles 
• being uncertain of what information to include in the different sections of a scientific research article 

This website features two modules. In these modules, we introduce you to strategies and techniques that will help you approach your scientific writing with confidence. 

The first module Writing Research Articles , developed by writing specialists Jodie Salter and Sarah Gibbons, provides a detailed approach for writing a scientific research article. It offers strategies for outlining key components and for mapping individual sections. This module consists of seven sections that walk you through the writing process from beginning to end. In our “Getting Started” section, we teach how to analyze research articles in your field, and we provide a research article mapping template to help you create a strong outline. In our sections on writing the Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion sections, we outline the key components that you need to address in research articles, and we share techniques for how to communicate your research effectively. In our final sections, we teach how to write concise abstracts and titles, and we provide strategies for revising and responding to feedback. 

The second module Storytelling in Science Writing , developed by ecologist Christopher Greyson-Gaito, focuses on using storytelling techniques from Hollywood to write an engaging scientific research article. This module teaches writers how to create a storyboard to map out a research article from beginning to end and how to use the ‘and, but, therefore’ technique to write an effective abstract. 

How to Use the Site (For Students and Faculty)

These modules will help writers get started with their writing, create strong outlines, identify the key information that they need to include in scientific writing genres, and make the transition from writing for assignments to publications.

The modules can be completed in any order. We recommend that writers choose a module, start with the first section, and complete the associated worksheets and reflection activities along the way. These worksheets and activities provide writers with opportunities to develop new skills, practice techniques, and apply strategies discussed in the modules to their own scientific writing.

The  Writing in the Sciences (WITS) Youtube channel  hosts all the video content for this website.

About this Site

This project was made possible by a Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) Science Communication Skills Training Grant in 2020.

Project Team

Dr. Sarah Gibbons and Dr. Jodie Salter, Writing Specialists at the University of Guelph, are two of the co-PIs on the NSERC development grant and are the lead content creators and web developers for this WITS online project.

Acknowledgments

This project was funded with the generous support of the NSERC Science Communication Skills Grant program, the University of Guelph’s Research Innovation Office, and the Campbell Centre for the Study of Animal Welfare. We would like to thank all the following contributors for their time and support:

• Dr. Georgia Mason, Director of the  Campbell Centre for the Study of Animal Welfare and Professor, Department of  Integrative Biology  at University of Guelph, as our co-PI on the grant
• Lenore Latta who in her former role as Writing Specialist developed the in-person workshop series at the University of Guelph in 2013 to support graduate student writers in the sciences
• Dr. Christopher Greyson-Gaito, former University of Guelph PhD candidate and ecologist, for his creation of the module Storytelling in Science Writing
• Marinette Fargo, formerly from the University of Guelph’s Digital Accessibility Resource Centre, who provided accessibility support for our webpages and downloadable resources
• Tiffany Murphy from the University of Guelph McLaughlin Library’s Communications team who developed the Writing in the Sciences graphics
• University of Guelph undergraduate students: Kaleigh Kerr, for website development; and Lujayn Mahmoud and Amrit Rooprai, for reviewing and providing feedback on the content

Accessibility

Accessibility is a dynamic process, and we are continually working to improve our services. If you find any part of this site inaccessible to you, or if you have any suggestions for how we might make it more accessible in content, language, tone, style, etc., we would love your feedback.

This form is protected by reCAPTCHA and the Google Privacy Policy and Terms of Service apply.

Disclaimers

For educational purposes, we’ve created fictional excerpts that resemble passages from scientific research articles. The fictional examples are intended to illustrate writing techniques and are not designed to teach scientific content. Please note that the scientific content and data in these passages and videos is fictional.

This site features reflection activities that collect information in fillable forms. These activities provide writers with opportunities to reflect on their process, practice their skills, and apply specific techniques to their own writing. Please note that all information collected in fillable forms is recorded anonymously and will be used only for program evaluation, improvements, and reporting.

Unless otherwise noted, all images that appear on this site are copyright-free and are free to distribute without attribution under the Pixabay license.

The main content of this site is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution – NonCommercial – Sharealike license, apart from specific sections that will have a separate license indicated. A Creative Commons Attribution- NonCommercial-Sharealike license means that others may build on or alter content when it is re-shared. The content must be only used for non-commercial purposes and the original work must be attributed to the content creators. Users must also license the new work under the same license. For more information about Creative Commons licensing .

This project was made possible by an NSERC Science Communication Skills Training Grant.

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Creative Writing Certificate

Overview 

If you are an aspiring writer looking to get serious about your craft then the Creative Writing Certificate program is designed for you. Take advantage of an opportunity to explore a variety of genres, improve your writing, and develop the tools to master a significant writing project. 

The Creative Writing Certificate offers a series of writing courses in a variety of genres that enables you to focus your learning on the techniques of creative writing. The program offers you practical guidance in how to generate ideas, take that spark of inspiration to the page, advance your writing skills and explore your creativity while offering advice about publishing and being a writer.

Through the program you will:

• Examine the elements of creative writing and practice them through in-class writing exercises and the development of a writing portfolio
• Give and receive effective feedback through workshopping your writing with your peers and with feedback from your instructor
• Build a portfolio of your writing samples and develop a writing practice

The Creative Writing Certificate program consists of six courses: two required courses, a choice of three electives, and a final capstone project. Course activities include peer workshopping, reading, and story revision. All program instructors are experienced writers with published works.

With a total of six courses to complete, this certificate will provide you with the knowledge and skills to create your own literary works.

Learning Outcomes 

Upon successful completion of this program, you will be able to: 

• Trace the historical development of a genre over time and observe how it has adapted according to social, historical, and literary trends
• Examine and discuss creative writing elements used by published authors across a variety of genres and apply them to your own writing
• Consider the effectiveness of writing from different and varied points of view
• Define what it means to read “closely” and read and respond to close readings of various genres of literature
• Discuss different genres from both a technical and literary perspective
• Receive and give feedback through the workshopping of creative work
• Discuss the challenges inherent in writing true stories and the ethics of creative non-fiction
• Explore creative writing from a Canadian Perspective
• Identify the importance of revision in producing publishable work
• Develop a writing practice
• Identify resources for writing and publishing
• Read aloud for an audience

This certificate will compliment careers and work in the following areas: 

• Content writer 
• Book reviewer
• Copy editor or digital copywriter
• Editorial assistant
• Blog writer
• Technical writer
• Marketing professional
• Communications professional

This program requires the completion of two required courses, three electives, and one capstone project. Required and elective courses may be taken in any order. The capstone project must be taken after completion of five other courses.

remote - synchronous

Enrolment is on a course-by-course basis and there is no application required. This program is intended for adult learners who are at least 18 years of age or have completed Grade 12 or equivalent. Course availability changes each semester. It is recommended you submit notification requests for each course in the program to be informed when registration opens. Course registration closes before the start of the semester.

Complete two required courses, three electives, and one capstone project. Request your parchment through the OpenEd Student Portal once all requirements are met.

You can take up to 5 years from the start of your first course to complete and receive the certificate.

The price per course is currently $549. Course prices are subject to change and are not guaranteed. The total cost of the program may vary.

Additional Information 

If you would like additional information about this program, please contact our  Main Office . 

Sponsoring Partner 

School of English and Theatre Studies, College of Arts  

Required Courses

2 Course(s)

• 7000011 Introduction to Creative Writing
• 7000014 Creative Writing through Reading

3 Course(s)

Students will choose three electives.

• 7000012 Writing Short Stories
• 7000013 Writing Poetry
• 7000015 Writing a Novel
• 7000016 Writing Mystery
• 7000017 Playwriting
• 7000018 Young Adult Writing
• 7000019 Writing Creative Non-Fiction
• 7000020 Writing Dialogue
• 7000022 Writing for Children
• 7000023 Writing Flash Narratives
• 7000024 Writing your own Story

1 Course(s)

• 7000021 Creative Writing Capstone Project

Session Time-Out

Privacy policy.

Privacy policy

Open Learning and Educational Support (OpenEd) adheres to the University of Guelph's Policy on the Release of Student Information. This policy outlines the procedures followed by OpenEd with respect to personal information obtained from registered and prospective students.

Student Information OpenEd collects the following information:

• Current and prospective student biographical information including name, address, employer, employee number, email, and contact information
• Student enrolment activities and related grades/marks
• Student financial and payment information, including credit card numbers, bank accounts and financial status
• Student comments through the course evaluation process
• Activities within the online learning environment, including discussions, marks, assignments and quizzes, and the completion of online surveys
• This information is collected in writing, as well as verbally and electronically.

Purpose, Access and Disclosure The above information is collected as necessary to provide the academic services of OpenEd.

Access to student and course enrolment information is limited to officers of the University who require the information in order to perform the duties of their position.

Disclosure to third parties will only occur under one or more of the following conditions:

Upon written request of the student In the event of an emergency Upon the presentation of a court order (to be released to a police officer or officer of the court) For the collection of OpenEd's outstanding accounts (to be released to collection agencies) For the promotion of OpenEd's activities to former, current and prospective students* *OpenEd requires that any mailing agencies used in the distribution of promotional materials and information comply with both the University's privacy guidelines and OpenEd's Privacy Policy.

Individuals who do not wish to receive promotional material or information relating to the academic activities of OpenEd can email our main office or phone us at 519-767-5000 to be removed from the list.

Program evaluations for continuing education activities will follow the guidelines outlined in the Program Evaluation Standards and Policy established in March 2004. Information collected on the departmental academic surveys will adhere to the guidelines established by the University of Guelph Faculty Policies.

Retention of Records Prospective student information - 3 years Student and enrolment information (no final mark) - 3 years Student and enrolment information (with mark) - permanent Continuing education course evaluations - 1 semester Departmental academic surveys - 1 semester Course exams - 1 semester Student activity on the online platform - 1 semester Undergraduate Course Request Forms - 2 years Transcript Request Forms - 1 year Transcripts for other institutions - 1 year Certificate and Diploma Request Forms - 1 year Continuing education registration forms - 7 years Purging of Records Student personal and enrolment activities will be purged after three years of inactivity unless a final mark is associated with the enrolment. Enrolments that include final marks are retained indefinitely in order to prepare official academic achievement reports.

Information collected in courses served on the online learning platform will be maintained for one semester after the subsequent offering. After such time, student names will be removed from discussion postings and will be replaced with unique identifiers in order to protect the confidentiality of students, while allowing for course development and continuous improvement strategies. Student assignments submitted online will be purged at the end of the following semester. All records will be destroyed when they are no longer considered useful.

Violations and Complaints Complaints or alleged violations of this policy will be received and investigated by the OpenEd Director in accordance with the University's guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Access to Information. Complaints or concerns about the application of this policy or the use of student information should be directed in the first instance to the OpenEd Director and subsequently to the Protection of Privacy and Access to Information Officer.

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College of Social & Applied Human Sciences

Writing Guide

Below are the requirements for all political science courses. Students are expected to follow the instructions in this guide for all of their written assignments. Individual course instructors may provide specific instructions for their particular courses or written assignments. Otherwise, students are required to follow the instructions in this guide.

The guide focuses on four important requirements for writing an academic paper. It is organized in the following sections: (A) Citation Style; (B) Use of Sources; (C) Structuring a Research Paper; and (D) Editing and Formatting. All of these are important for the assessment of written assignments.

Download the Writing Guide PDF

Citation Style

Apa citation style guide.

Students must use the APA citation style for all of their written assignments. The APA style guide can be found on the library website. Familiarize yourself with this guide as you will be required to follow it for both in-text citations and full citations in the reference list.

Consistency in Citation

Students are required to use in-text citations to cite sources and these must be consistent with APA throughout the assignment. Likewise, all of the items in your reference list must follow the APA style consistently. If you are using reference software , always check that all of the citations are imported properly and consistently into the document.

Citing Judicial Decisions

When citing judicial decisions, students should follow the Canadian Uniform Guide to Legal Citation (also known as the McGill Guide). The in-text citation should include the name of decision, year, and paragraph number (if applicable). If there is no paragraph number available, a page number will suffice. For example:

The Supreme Court has ruled that no level of government has the authority to act alone to change the "fundamental nature and role" of Canada’s political institutions (Reference re Senate Reform, 2014, para. 48).

In your reference list, the full case information should be included. If you are citing from a database (such as CanLII), you should include a database identifier. For example:

Good Spirit School Division No. 204 v Christ the Teacher Roman Catholic Separate School Division No. 212, 2017 SKQB 109 (CanLII) R. v. Oakes, [1986] 1 S.C.R. 103 Reference re Senate Reform, [2014] 1 S.C.R. 704

Use of Sources

Presenting and integrating others' ideas.

When you quote directly, paraphrase, or borrow specific ideas or statistics from another source, you must include the author’s last name (or last names), the year of publication, and the relevant page number(s) in the text [for example, (Mau, 2013, p. 112)] immediately following the borrowed information.

When you refer to general ideas, arguments, or positions put forth by others, you must include the author’s last name (or last names) and the year of publication; page numbers are not necessary [for example, (Riddell, Hausegger & Hennigar, 2013)].

In either case, you can also introduce the author or authors in the text and include the other relevant information in parentheses. For example:

• "Future Y-PAR research should be complemented by efforts to embed young mothers' contributions into community development and policy development more broadly" according to Levac (2013, p. 425).
• In their examination of five Canadian social welfare programs, Koning and Banting (2013) find a range of permanent and temporary forms of exclusion affecting different categories of newcomers.
• Johnson (2010) argues that public health narratives in Honduras shape policy options.

When you wish to claim that an argument or hypothesis is widely supported by several scholars, or when you wish to point to general fields of study , you need to include several sources. For example:

• It is commonplace to note that the introduction of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms has resulted in an increased policy role for the Supreme Court of Canada (Baker, 2009, p. 171; Hausegger, Hennigar and Riddell, 2015, p. 353; Snow, 2012, p. 172)
• Many scholars have written about new forms of activism in the Middle East (Clark & Yaghi, 2014; Schlaim, 2014; Shukor, 2014; Sreberny, 2015).

You do not need to source easily verifiable facts (e.g., Halifax is the capital of Nova Scotia).

Overall, it is your responsibility to know exactly what constitutes plagiarism. It is considered academic misconduct whether you intend it or not. If in doubt, ask your instructor or someone at the Library’s writing services desk. You can also check out the library’s website for more details on plagiarism . Most importantly, start your work early to avoid the pressure that can lead to making bad decisions.

Identifying Appropriate Sources

Sources are used to support the argument being made. When identifying and using sources, their quality needs to be evaluated.

Peer-review is a "collaborative process that allows manuscripts submitted to a journal to be evaluated and commented upon" (Taylor & Francis Editor Resources, 2016). Two or more independent experts check the quality and contribution of the scholarship presented in peer-reviewed or 'refereed' work . Most scholarly journals are peer-reviewed. Peer-reviewed work is especially rigorous. It should be used as much as possible.

Other forms of scholarly work such as conference papers or conference proceedings may have been editor-reviewed but not peer-reviewed. Diligence is required with this literature to make sure that the arguments being presented make sense.

A lot of work that is relied on in political science is non-reviewed or undergoes an alternative review process . Government documents (policy papers, legislation, etc.), community organization publications (e.g. research reports by the United Way, the Girls Action Foundation) and research or papers produced by think tanks and research institutes (e.g. the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives, the Fraser Institute, the Institute for Research on Public Policy) fall into this category.

In some cases, advisory groups work together to review publications. In other cases, there is no review at all. It is necessary to know what type of review has occurred to determine how and whether to use a source. If in doubt consult with your instructor.

In all cases, the author(s) matter . For example, drawing from Random Rita’s blog to help you make a point about intergovernmental relations is not appropriate, whereas Dr. Pamela Palmater’s Indigenous Nationhood blog and website may serve as an appropriate source of contemporary discourse around Indigenous issues. On the other hand, if Random Rita gives an account of an experience of dealing with intergovernmental relations, and her experience is relevant to your argument, it may be useful as a supplemental source.

Structuring a Research Paper

A research paper should begin with an introduction and should be followed by the body, wherein points of argument are presented. In a conclusion, arguments are summed up. This includes insights that have been gained. In the body of the paper each point of argument should have its own paragraph. There is no such thing as a three-paragraph essay. You will need as many paragraphs as it takes to write an introduction, present the points of argument needed and write a conclusion.

The introduction should accomplish three things: introduce the relevance of the paper, state the main argument or thesis and provide a roadmap of the remainder of the paper – identifying the vital steps of the argument. The thesis statement needs to be specific and argumentative, in that it takes a specific perspective on the question at hand. This does not mean that a paper should be completely one-sided. As an argument is developed, counterarguments should be acknowledged – this helps to disarm critics and make an argument more convincing.

In the body of a paper, points of argument are presented. Do not try to make more than one point of argument in a paragraph. Each paragraph should start with one point of argument followed by the evidence for this specific point. The first sentence of the paragraph is very important, so ask yourself why you are presenting the material in this paragraph. If the first sentence does not make that clear, rewrite it. This way repetition of arguments can be avoided. Make sure that everything in the essay directly helps to defend the main thesis.

An effective conclusion should summarize the main thesis and the most important supporting arguments, while discussing the implications of the thesis and the insights gained. Never introduce new evidence during the conclusion.

Editing and Formatting

Editing your paper.

Students are expected to proofread and edit their papers before handing them in. Multiple grammatical and spelling errors detract from the overall quality of the paper.

Clarity in writing is crucial. Unclear writing detracts from the overall quality of the paper. Work on keeping it simple. For advice on improving your style consult the library website .

Formatting Your Paper

• All papers should be double-spaced and use a well-readable font (e.g. Times New Roman, Arial, Cambria) of size 11 or 12.
• Margins should be 1 inch/2.54 cm on the sides and 1.25 inches/3.17 cm on the top and bottom.
• All pages must be numbered.
• All papers should have a title that reflects the content of the paper. The title page should include the paper’s title, student name and number, course number, instructor’s name, and assignment deadline.
• If handing in a hard copy, the paper should be stapled.

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• Gender, Sexuality
• Indigenous Peoples
• Inclusive IT Language: Replacement Terms

• Style Category
• University of Guelph Style Guide for Writers

How to Use This Guide

The University of Guelph Style Guide is a reference tool for all University communicators, provided by Communications and Marketing . It is intended to help you communicate across campus and with external audiences, serving as a resource for usage questions from inclusivity to punctuation.

To provide a consistent, professional appearance to University publications and communications, the University of Guelph uses  Canadian Press style, except in the circumstances outlined in this document. The majority of the rules in this document can also be found in the Canadian Press Stylebook and its companion publication, the Canadian Press Caps and Spelling guide, both of which are available for purchase online.

• Titles & Names
• Capitalization
• Abbreviations
• Punctuation

A Note About Spelling

For correct spellings of words not covered in this guide, refer to the Canadian Press Caps and Spelling  guide.

If you can’t find the word in any of these publications, refer to the Canadian Oxford Dictionary (free online), which uses Canadian rather than American spelling.

This document will be revised to reflect changes in language and in general or campus usage. For questions/comments, contact: [email protected]

• 14/11/2019 – Added page for Indigenous Peoples

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MFA Program

Catherine Bush, Kevin Connolly, Carrianne Leung, Canisia Lubrin, Kyo Maclear, Judith Thompson, Blain Watters, Michael Winter

The program offers partial funding. All students are granted the Constance Rooke Scholarship, which provides a total of $8,000 in funding over two years. Students are also considered for the McClelland & Stewart Scholarship, the Edward Y. Morwick Scholarship, Graduate Tuition Scholarships of varying amounts, and Board of Graduate Research Scholarships.

Students can also pursue opportunities to tutor at the Humber Writing Centre, teach creative writing to public school students, TA in creative writing classes at the University of Guelph, and teach creative writing at Guelph-Humber University Continuing Ed.

The program offers concentrations in poetry, fiction, nonfiction, drama/screenwriting, and hybrid/mixed genres.

The program hosts a reading series, professional panels, semester-long mentorships, and master classes at the Toronto International Festival of Authors. A teaching practicum is also offered in downtown Toronto schools through the Parkdale Project.

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Grad Pathways

Welcome to Grad Pathways, the University of Guelph hub of academic and professional skills development opportunities for graduate students and postdoctoral fellows. It is administered by the Office of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies in collaboration with on-campus and off-campus partners. 

Grad Pathways has created a non-credit  Skills Development Course  that allows students to earn a Record of Completion for attending 8 workshops spread across the skills domains, and then completing a short task for each.  More details on the course and how to register are provided on the course webpage . 

Send questions about Grad Pathways to [email protected] . Videos from the first Grad Pathways Skills Development Conference , held in March 2021 are now available for viewing.  You must be logged in to the University of Guelph network to view the videos in Microsoft stream.  You can access all the videos in the  Stream Group.  

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Write an Annotated Bibliography

What is an annotated bibliography, what is the purpose of an annotated bibliography, what is the difference between a bibliography and an annotated bibliography, what is the difference between an annotated bibliography and an abstract, what are the two types of annotated bibliographies, how is an annotated bibliography organized, how long should an annotated bibliography be, how can i improve my annotated bibliography, resources to help with citations.

• Components of the Annotation

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An annotated bibliography is a written assignment (paper, journal article, appendix to a journal article, or complete book) consisting of a series of entries on a single theme, organized either alphabetically, by date, or by topic. Each entry consists of two parts:

• the citation information in a proper referencing style (MLA, Chicago, APA, CSE, etc.)
• a brief summary (or "annotation") of the source in paragraph form
• Note-taking Sheet for Annotated Bibliographies Use this fillable form after every article you read. Spend at least 10-15 minutes on your note-taking. Record essential information from one article or study. Remember, annotated bibliographies should do three things: summarize, analyze, and show relevance.

Each annotation enables readers to see the relationship of a number of written works to each other and in the context of the topic studied. Many annotations are both descriptive (telling readers what the source is about) and critical (evaluating the source’s usefulness or importance).

• To present the reader with a fairly comprehensive, yet focused, review of the scholarly sources on a specific topic or in a specialized field
• To provide the writer with a more in-depth understanding of a specific topic or specialized field in preparation for conducting future research
• A bibliography is an organized list of works consulted when you are doing research on a particular topic, which is placed at the end of a paper, journal article, chapter, or book .
• the citation in the proper referencing style
• a one-paragraph discussion (or "annotation") of the source listed above
• An abstract is a descriptive summary of a single longer text, with content summarized in the same order as the original. It is often found at the beginning of scholarly journal articles, in periodical indexes, or in electronic databases
• An annotation enables readers to see the relationship of a number of written works to each other and in the context of the topic studied
• Although what is required in annotated bibliographies differs from discipline to discipline, many annotations are both descriptive and critical and illustrate the writer's library research skills, summarizing expertise, point of view, analytical ability, and understanding of the field

In the sciences and some of the more scientific disciplines of the social sciences, annotated bibliographies are rarely used; when they are used, they will often be primarily summary or descriptive—that is, they will paraphrase the original text.

In the arts and some social sciences, annotated bibliographies will be judged by how critical and analytical they are and often by how the writer links the text's usefulness to their potential or imaginary research project.

Summary or descriptive annotated bibliographies:

The summary or descriptive annotated bibliography provides a summary of the main findings in a source with no analysis or evaluation.

Critical annotated bibliographies:

A critical annotation goes beyond a simple summary of the original source.

• It evaluates the reliability of the information presented, including the authors' credentials, the value of the reference for other scholars, and, if relevant, the appropriateness of the methodologies.
• It evaluates the conclusions and discusses how successfully the authors achieve their aims. If the annotated bibliography is intended as a first step to a review of literature leading to a major paper, thesis, or dissertation, then it will also evaluate how useful the information and methodological approaches will be for someone doing research on a particular project.
• It may also indicate your own critical reactions to the sources. This might be done by indicating whether the information presented is similar or different to other authors' findings or approaches to the subject— and hypothesizing why. For example, did the author fail to take important information into consideration? Did the author take a certain approach as the result of a particular theoretical viewpoint?

Annotated bibliographies can be organized in three different ways:

• by author alphabetically
• by subtopics or sections

Most undergraduate-level annotated bibliographies are relatively short and will not need an introductory paragraph and/or separate sections.

Longer annotated bibliographies may necessitate an introductory paragraph, explaining the scope of the selected sources (within certain dates, within geographic parameters, only in a certain discipline, etc.), or noting any other particulars (such as abbreviations, etc.).

The specific length of your annotations and the number of sources will vary from assignment to assignment. Check with your professor to find out what length and organizational style is preferred.

The text of an annotation normally ranges from four to ten sentences. This limit forces the writer to focus on the central ideas in the source.

A long annotated bibliography may be preceded by an introduction to the topic chosen, with a discussion of the rationale behind the selection of the entries for the bibliography as well as the exclusion of others, and the timeframe covered.

In a very long annotated bibliography, the entries are often numbered, but this is rare in undergraduate student papers. Other options for longer annotated bibliographies would be to arrange entries under topic and subtopic headings, or in chronological order.

After you have written a draft,

• Re-read the assignment instructions carefully to make certain you have included all of the essential components that you need in each annotation. Make a checklist and compare each entry against the list.
• Evaluate your annotations and assess whether you have included both summaries and critical evaluations for each entry.
• Check each citation for accuracy and consistency in language and style.
• Try to avoid the passive voice and use active voice instead (e.g., change "Artistic autonomy was spoken about by the presenter" to "The presenter spoke about artistic autonomy.")
• Review your work to see if you have used clear and specific verbs such as demonstrates, asserts, speculates.
• Check your verb tenses. In general, use present tense to describe an author’s ideas and arguments (e.g., Jones argues that…). However, if you are describing an action that was completed in the past, describe it using the past tense (e.g., Smith tested her hypothesis by observing five hamsters…).
• Make certain that you have avoided using direct quotations, except when the words quoted are important terms that you wish to highlight.
• Lastly, proof read your document for errors in grammar, punctuation, and style.
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