human geography essay

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Here is a compilation of essays on the ‘Approaches to Human Geography’ for class 11 and 12. Find paragraphs, long and short essays on the ‘Approaches to Human Geography’ especially written for school and college students.

Approaches to Human Geography

Essay Contents:

• Essay on Radical Geography

Essay # 1. Humanistic Geography:

It is an approach in human geography, distinguished by the central and active role it gives to human awareness and human agency, human consciousness and human creativity. It is an attempt at understanding meaning, value and the human significance of life events. The revival of humanism in geography in the 1970s owed much to a deep dissatisfaction with the more mechanistic models developed during the quantitative/spatial science revolution.

For this reason, its early steps were taken alongside behavioural geography. But the two soon parted company and humanistic geography came to recognise the essential ‘subjectivity’ of both the investigator and the investigated in ways which departed from the formal structures of behaviourism.

Indeed, humanistic geography shared in the more general critique of positivism’s claim to ‘objectivity’ (in which behavioural geography was itself inculcated). It came to be represented as a form of criticism through which geographers can be made more aware and cognizant of many of the hidden assumptions and implications of their methods and research, rather than as a coherent and robust methodology for the ‘post-behavioural revolution’ in geography. But humanism was intended to be more than just a critical philosophy.

Anne Buttimer (1978) attempted to bring forward the tradition of Vidal de la Blache, and argued that historical and geographical studies go together. She emphasised the need to understand each region and its inhabitants from the ‘inside’ (that is, on the basis of local perspective) and not from the perspective of the researching ‘outsider’. There undoubtedly are affinities between the French School of la geographie humaine and humanistic geography.

Idealist Approach:

Leonard Guelke (1981) advocated an idealist approach, and expressed his ideas to historical geographers, as a counter to the arguments that they should adopt the approaches and techniques of positivism. He points out, ‘it is obvious that quantitative techniques will often be useful, but statistical methods put in harness with positivist philosophy is a dangerous combination.

Historical geographers need to rethink not their techniques but their philosophy. This can be best achieved by moving from problem-solving contemporary applied geography, towards the idealist approach widely accepted by historians’. A well-verified idealist explanation will be one in which a pattern of behaviour can be shown to be consistent with certain underlying ideas.

The idealist philosophy combines two positions, according to Guelke:

(a) A metaphysical argument that mental activity has a life of its own which is not controlled by material things and processes; and

(b) An epistemological argument that the world can only be known indirectly through ideas, and all knowledge is ultimately based on an individual’s subjective experience of the world, and comprises mental constructs and ideas. There is no ‘real’ world that can be known independently of the mind. Positivist spatial science is thus criticised because it believes in the existence of a real world, the nature of which it seeks to explain via general laws of behaviour.

Behavioural geography was equally criticised, not for its response to perceived images and subjective evaluation, but because of two assumptions within this field that:

(a) Identifiable environmental images exist which can be measured accurately; and that

(b) There are strong relationships between revealed images and preferences and actual (real world) behaviour.

Such an approach, according to Bunting and Guelke, puts human geography into a single-cause model, much like the earlier environmental determinism, and if one accepted this model, research in behavioural geography has failed to validate it. They argue for an idealist approach, which focuses on overt behaviour and its interpretation—in searching for the truth a scholar conducts a critical dialogue with his evidence and in due course he puts the results before his colleagues for their appraisal.

Guelke considered that geographers should attempt to discover what the decision-maker believed and not why he believed it. Thus, the human geographer does not need to develop theories, since the relevant theories which led to the action under study already existed in the minds of the decision-makers.

Hays (1979) points out the inherent weaknesses in the idealist approach that it ignores the possibility of either unconscious or sub-conscious behaviour. He further points out that the objective facts must influence behavioural outcomes, in addition to the thoughts of the actors. To him, idealism acts as a reductionist, but the world is more than a large number of independent decision-makers.

Mabogunje also criticises the idealist approach of Guelke, and argues that such a retreat from objective theory formulations as a means of seeking explanation to certain events would exclude from our consideration the exploration of the consequences of social actions.

Instead of retreating to a focus of particular cases, seeking special explanation for each situation in which a different value system can be shown to be operative, the geographers should attempt to build better theories encompassing these differences in value systems. Some scholars have expressed doubts as to how an idealist interpretation could be verified.

Hermeneutic Approach:

Idealism implies one type of Hermeneutic Approach, which is the theory of interpretation and clarification of meaning. It took its place in the German tradition of ‘Geisteswissenchaften’, the human sciences.

Its arguments were then developed to embrace the reader (or interpreter) as well. The dialectic between the subject and the object leads on to what has been called ‘double hermeneutics’. In geography, hermeneutics has been formally employed in a similarly general fashion to contest the epistemology of positivism and hence to reject the exclusive claims of spatial science.

The critical impulse which hermeneutics entails has been generalised through claims for a presuppositional approach in human geography capable of giving direction to its emerging social conscience.

However, hermeneutics has much to offer to regional geography. On the one hand, it can provide the epistemology for a self-reflective, historical, geographical science of the region. On the other hand, it has specific contribution to make concerning the characteristics of the Earth, space and place, culture and especially, language, and thus it could be a means of reconstructing regional geography.

Phenomenological Approach:

Phenomenology has attracted more attention among human geographers than idealism. The term was first used by Sauer as early as 1925, but it had only become widely known during 1970s. It was Relph who first attempted to introduce a phenomenological approach, when he pointed out that the basic aim of phenomenology is to present an alternative methodology to the hypothesis-testing and theory building of positivism, an alternative grounded in humankind’s ‘lived’ world of experience.

Phenomenologists argue that there is no objective world independent of man’s existence—all knowledge proceeds from the world of experience and cannot be independent of that world – ‘Idealism’, on the other hand, accepts that there is a real world outside the individual’s consciousness.

Kirk (1963) recognised two separate, but not independent environments:

(a) ‘Phenomenal environment’, which is the totality of the Earth’s surface, and

(b) ‘Behavioural environment’, which is the perceived and interpreted portion of the phenomenal environment.

Phenomenology in human geography is somewhat concerned with the phenomenal environment. The contents of that environment are unique to every individual, for each of its elements is the result of an act of intentionality; it is given meaning by the individual, without which it does not exist, but with which it influences behaviour. Phenomenology is the study of how such meanings are defined. It involves the researcher seeking to identify how the individual structures the environment in an entirely subjective way.

One of the well-known phenomenologists was Yi-Fu Tuan (1971), to whom geography is the mirror of man and reveals the essence of human existence and striving. To know the world is to know oneself, just as careful analysis of a house reveals much about both the designer and the occupant.

The study of landscapes is the study of the essence of the societies which mould them in just the same way as the study of literature and art reveals much of human life. Such study is clearly based in the humanities rather than in the social or physical sciences.

According to him, ‘Humanistic geography achieves an understanding of the human world by studying people’s relation with nature, their geographical behaviour as well as their feelings and ideas with regard to space and place. Scientific approaches to the study of man tend to minimise the role of human awareness and knowledge. Humanistic geography, in contrast, specifically tries to understand how geographical activities and phenomena reveal the quality of human awareness’.

There are five basic themes in Tuan’s humanistic geography:

(1) The nature of geographical knowledge and its role in human survival;

(2) The role of territory in human behaviour and the creation of place identities;

(3) The interrelationships between crowding and privacy, as mediated by culture;

(4) The role of knowledge as an influence on livelihood; and

(5) The influence of religion on human activity. Such concerns are best developed in historical and in regional geography; their value to human welfare is that they clarify the nature of the experience. ‘The model for the regional geographers of humanistic leaning is … the Victorian novelist who strives to achieve a synthesis of the subjective and the objective’.

Buttimer (1976, 282) also favoured phenomenology, as a path to understanding, on which informed planning can be built. ‘It could elicit a clearer grasp of value issues surrounding one’s normal way of life, and an appreciation of the kinds of education and socialization which might be appropriate for persons whose lives may weave through several mileux.’

Berry (1973) also supported the phenomenological orientation, calling for a view of the world from the vantage of process metageography. By metageography is meant that part of geographic speculation which deals with the principles lying behind perceptions of reality, and transcending them, including such concepts as essence, cause and identity.

Entrikin argues that ‘the humanistic approach is best understood as a form of criticism’. Whereas the positivist/quantitative movement was characterised by a great numerical superiority of practitioners over preachers, the phenomenological movement (like the idealist) has been characterised by the converse—much preaching and little practice.

However, humanistic geography has moved far from the position defined by Entrikin. It has moved from its early attack on positivism to make an assault on structuralism, and at the same time, it has developed a much more incisive methodology for empirical investigation.

Johnston (1986) distinguishes two basic streams of work. The first stream is characterised by a self-conscious drive to connect with that special body of knowledge, reflection and substance about human experience and human expression, about what it means to be a human being on this Earth, namely, the humanities.

The second stream is, perhaps, more self-consciously theoretical—in fact one of its central concerns is to clarify the ‘theoretical attitude’ itself. It draws on a range of constraints derived from the human and social sciences, most usually from existentialism and phenomenology, and from ethnomethodology and symbolic interactionism.

Humanistic geography, therefore, appears to be concerned either with the study of individuals and their construction of phenomenal environments, or with the analysis of landscapes as repositories of human beings. As such, it may be considered separate from the subject matter of such human geography, notably behavioural geography, and its investigation of everyday activity within environments (most of them man-made). The phenomenological perspective has been adapted to such work, in the writing of Schultz on what he terms the ‘taken for granted’ world.

Much of everyday behaviour is unconsidered, in that it involves no original encounters. The behaviour is habitual, because all of the stimuli encouraged are processed as examples of particular types. Those types are not externally defined for the individual, but are created by him.

The phenomenology of the ‘taken for granted’ world is the study of those individually-defined typifications of the unconsidered ‘world of social reality’ rather than ‘a fictional non-existing world’ constructed by the scientific observer.

It may be that interactions within communities lead to common typifications. Quantitative methods may be used to identify the common elements, but as descriptive tools only. Quantification is not tied to positivism except when it is used to suggest laws and other generalisations.

Humanistic geography is based on a profound critique of positivist work, both that which makes major assumptions about the nature of decision­ making and that which seeks inductive laws of human behaviour which can be scientifically verified.

Its argument is for an understanding of man as a ‘living, acting, thinking being’. It is contended that the human condition can only be indicated by humanistic endeavour, for attitudes, impressions and subjective relation to places, and the sense of place, cannot be revealed by positivist research.

Essay # 2. Behavioural Geography:

In contrast to humanistic geography, Behavioural Geography may be seen as a developing criticism, from within the ‘quantitative’ movement, starting from disillusionment with theories based upon the concept of ‘economic man’.

It is an approach to human geography, and in particular to the processes responsible for human spatial behaviour, which especially draw on behaviouralism, or on cognition, as a key to understanding human spatial behaviour.

Behavioural geography treats man as a responder to stimuli. It seeks to identify how different individuals respond to particular stimuli (and also how the same individual responds to the same stimulus in different situations) to isolate the correlates of those varying responses to build models that can predict the probable impact of certain stimuli. The end-product is the input to processes aimed at either providing environments to which people respond in a preferred way or at changing the stimuli.

Behavioural geography has maintained strong ties with the positivist/spatial science tradition. Data are collected from individuals, but there almost all are concerned with the conscious elements in action; they are usually aggregated in order to allow statistically substantive and significant generalisations to be made about spatial behaviour, almost certainly in the context of the normative model of the spatial science school.

Though it was once assumed to be a ‘behavioural backlash’ to a conventional spatial science, behavioural geography was really a ‘logical outgrowth’ of the commitment to positivism enshrined in the quantitative revolution.

Kates (1962) was a major exponent of the behaviouristic approach. In his study of the flood-plain management, he said, ‘the way men view the ranks and opportunities of their uncertain environments plays a significant role in their decisions as a resource management’. Kates developed a scheme which seemed to have relevance to a wide range of behaviours.

His scheme was based on four assumptions:

1. Men are rational while taking decision:

Such a decision may be either prescriptive—describing how men should behave—or the descriptive of actual behaviour. The latter appears to be the most fruitful, both for understanding past decisions and for predicting those yet to be made. Decisions are made on a rational basis, but in relation to the environment as it is perceived by the decision-maker, which may be quite different from either ‘objective reality’ or the world as seen by the researcher.

2. Men make choices:

Many decisions are either trivial or are habitual so that they are accorded little or no thought immediately before they are made. Some major decisions regarding environment and its use may also be habitual, but such behaviour usually develops only after a series of conscious choices has been made. This leads to a stereotyped response to similar situation in the future.

3. Choices are made on the basis of knowledge:

Only very rarely can a decision-maker bring together all the information relevant to his task, and frequently he is unable to assimilate and use all that he has.

4. Information is evaluated to pre-determined criteria:

In habitual choice, the criterion is what was done before, but in conscious choice the information must be weighed according to certain rules.

Kates’ study aimed at understanding why people choose to live in areas which are prone to flooding. Their information was based on their knowledge and experience, and they could be scaled according to the certainty of their perceptions regarding further floods. In justifying their decisions, most were boundedly rational, and had made conscious choices in order to satisfy certain objectives.

It was Julian Wolpert who introduced many human geographers to the behaviourist alternative to the normative approaches then quite popular. In his paper, entitled ‘ The decision process in spatial context’, published in the Annals of the Association of American Geographers (1964), he compared actual and potential labour productivity on farms in Central Sweden. He observed that the sample farm population did not achieve profit maximisation, nor were its goals solely directed to that objective. The farmers were ‘spatial satisfiers’ rather than ‘economic men’.

Wolpert further continued this theme with studies of migration, aiming to model the decision-making which is behind the patterns of migration reported in census volumes and analysed by spatial scientists. He found the gravity model inadequate as a representation of such flow patterns.

To him, such individual has an action space—the set of place utilities which the individual perceives and to which he responds—whose contents may deviate considerably from that portion of the ‘real world’ which it purports to represent. Once the first decision—to migrate—has been made, then the action space may be changed as the potential mover searches through it for potential satisfactory destination If necessary, he extends the space if no suitable solution to the research can be found.

Undoubtedly, Wolpert’s papers heralded the development of behavioural geography. His behavioural approach has focused on topics related to decision-making in spatial contexts. Wolpert and his associates also prepared pioneering papers, related to political decision-making, applying the approach he set forth in his first work. Regarding the distribution of certain artefacts in the landscape, Wolpert pointed out that the location of a public facility, for example in an urban area, frequently is the product of policy compromise.

The aim in behavioural geography has been to derive alternative theories to those based on economic man. These theories are ‘more concerned with understanding why certain activities take place rather than what patterns they produce in space’.

Here the researcher uses the real world from a perspective of those individuals whose decisions affect locational or distributional pattern. He tries ‘to derive sets of empirically and theoretically sound statements about individual, small group, or mass behaviour’. Man is considered an active decision-maker, not a reactor to particular institutionally-created stimuli.

It may be noted that the initial interest in resource management was followed by an extension from environmental perception and decision-making into aspects of attitudes and motivation. These were applied to studies of migration, the diffusion of innovations, political behaviour (especially voting), perception, choice behaviour, and spatial search and learning.

‘By studying behavioural processes in these contexts, the aspiration was to increase geographer’s understanding of how spatial patterns evolve, thereby complementing their existing ability to describe such pattern. Morphological laws and systems are insufficient of themselves for understanding; the amalgamation of concepts about decision-making taken from other social sciences with geography’s spatial variable would allow development of process theories that could account for the morphologies observed’.

One aspect of behavioural geography has been the concept of mental map. This refers to the images of place, ‘mentally stored by individuals and drawn upon as resources in their interpretation of spatial desirability, their organisation of spatial routines, and their decision-making transaction as satisficing agents. Mental maps are an amalgam of information and interpretation reflecting not only what an agent knows about places but also how he or she feels about them’.

Mental maps are important to geographers not only as a means of examining an individual’s areas of spatial preference, but also as an insight into the processes whereby decisions are made, opportunities perceived and goals determined and satisfied.

‘If we grant that spatial behaviour is our concern, then the mental images that men hold of the space around them may provide a key to some of the structures, patterns and processes of man’s work on the face of the Earth’. Such maps are useful, it is believed, not only in the analysis of spatial behaviour, but also in the planning of the social investment.

According to Downs (1970), there may be two other approaches to the study of environmental images:

(a) The ‘structural approach’ which inquiries into the nature of the spatial information stored in people’s minds and which they use in their day- to-day affairs; and

(b) The ‘evaluative approach’ in which the question is, what factors do people consider important about their environment, and having estimated the relative importance of these factors, how do they employ them in their decision-making activities. With this evaluative approach, geographers moved into the wider field of cognitive mapping.

On the methods in behavioural geography, Johnston points out, ‘The behaviouristic approach is an inductive one, with the aim being to build general statements out of observations of ongoing processes…. In terms of the accepted route to scientific explanation … behavioural geography involved moving outside the accepted cycle procedure to input new sets of observations on which superior theories might be based. In doing this, the behaviourists did not really move far from the spatial-science ethos. Indeed many of their methods were those of their predecessors; Gould’s mental map studies, for example, used the same technical apparatus as the factorial ecologies’.

However, Pred presented an alternative to theory building based on ‘economic man’ in his two-volume work Behaviour and Location (1969), and proposed the use of a behavioural matrix to provide a framework in which locational decision­ making could be analysed.

Axes of behavioural matrix are quantity and quality of information available and the ability to use that information; economic man is located in the bottom right-hand corner. Because of the nature and importance of information flows, the position on the axis depends in part on the decision-maker’s spatial location.

His position would reflect aspiration levels, experience and norms of any groups to which he belonged. Different people in different positions in the matrix would vary in their decisions; therefore two at the same position may act on different bases and in different ways. Individuals do not stay at the same position in the matrix, and spatial patterns are not static.

In the second volume of the book, Pred introduced a dynamic element by shifting individuals through the matrix. As they shift, and change their decisions, so the environment changes for others. As people learn, they both acquire better information, and become more skilled in its use.

They shift towards the bottom right-hand corner of the matrix, some of them in advance of others, who benefit from the activities of the ‘decision leaders’. The unsuccessful are gradually eliminated, so that with time a concentration of good decision ­makers close to the economic man position evolves.

But changes in the external environment produce parametric shocks, which result in decision-­makers becoming less informed and less certain; as a consequence they are shifted back towards the upper left-hand corner, and another learning cycle begins. As long as parametric shocks occur more frequently than the learning experience takes, an optimal location pattern will never emerge, except perhaps by chance.

Harvey (1969) criticised the model of the behavioural matrix, finding it ambiguous, unoperational and an over-simplification of the complex nature of behaviour. He also expressed scepticism about the viability of a behavioural location theory. Instead, Harvey suggested two alternatives to behavioural location theory— further development of normative theory and the construction of a stochastic location theory.

To him, both these approaches offered more immediate pay­offs in terms of understanding spatial patterns than did behavioural efforts, because of the conceptual and measurement problems of the latter. Curry (1967) favoured the stochastic approach, while Weber (1972) attempted to model locational approaches.

The behavioural approach has not brought about a revolution away from the spatial science paradigm; in effect it has become an attachment to it. Behavioural geography is now widely accepted within the positivist orientation.

It seeks to account for spatial pattern within the environment (both man-made and natural) by establishing generalisations about man-environment interrelationships, and then using these as a basis for change through environmental planning activities that ‘modify the stimuli which affect the spatial behaviour of ourselves and others’.

The behavioural approach, therefore, is based on four major assumptions, according to Gold (1980):

1. The environment in which an individual acts is that which he perceives, which may well differ markedly from the true nature of the real world.

2. Individuals interact with their environments, responding to them and reshaping them.

3. The focus of study is the individual, not the group.

4. Behavioural geography is multi-disciplinary.

The behaviourist approach appears to consist of two approaches:

(a) The first is based on the study of overt behaviour using the traditional positivist formulation of dependent variables influenced by independent variables. This approach has involved the widespread application of statistical techniques,

(b) The second approach is based on attempts to identify the mental constructs that lie behind overt behaviour. However, little has been achieved in the second approach, i.e. linking cognitive schemata to behaviour, and thus extending the predictive models of the first approach.

‘In the early 1960s and 1970s, therefore, behavioural studies in geography typically examined the ways in which information is (selectively) abstracted, structured and stored in mental maps; fed into and channeled through decision-making systems, as individuals or corporations make diagonal moves through a notional behavioural matrix at movements in a recursive learning process; and disclosed in patterns of spatial behaviour through the analysis of revealed spatial preference and the reconstruction of individual- action-space’.

Essay # 3. Time-Space Geography:

Related to the behaviouralist tradition, and somewhat also to the humanistic heritage, is Hagerstrand’s Time-Space Geography. It may be seen as a critique, not so much of the ‘quantitative movement’ of the important aspects of social research in general.

It conceives of time and space as providers of ‘room (rum) for ‘collateral processes’. Time-space geography emphasises the importance of continuity and connectivity for sequences of events which necessarily take place in ‘situations bounded in time and space and whose outcomes are mutually modified by their common localization’.

An important aspect of time-space geography is that time and space are both regarded as resources which constrain activity. Any behaviour which requires movement involves the individual or group traversing a path through space and time. Movements along the horizontal axis indicate spatial traverses while those along the vertical axis mark the passage of time. Any journey, termed a lifeline by Hagerstrand, thus involves movement along both axes simultaneously.

Time-space geography is based upon four basic assumptions:

1. Space and time are resources on which individuals have to draw in order to realise particular projects.

2. The realisation of any project is subject to three constraints:

(a) ‘Capability constraints’, which restrict the activities of individuals through their own physical capabilities. They derive large measures from the individuals’ livelihood position,

(b) ‘Coupling constraints’, which operate to require certain individuals and groups to be in particular places at stated times. Such constraints define space- time boundaries,

(c) ‘Authority or steering constraints’, which impose certain conditions of access to and modes of conduct within particular space-time domain. Together, these three define the time-space prism (Fig. 15.1) which contains all the available lifeline paths for an individual starting at a certain location and needing to return there at a given time.

3. These constraints are interactive rather than additive and together they delineate a series of possibility boundaries which mark out the paths available for individuals to fulfil particular projects. These boundaries correspond to an underlying and evolving logic or structure whose disclosure requires a way of dealing with projects in space-time terms of considerable conceptual precision.

4. Within these structural templates, competition between projects for free paths and open space- times is the central problem for analysis and is mediated by specific institutions which seek to maintain an essential space-time coherence.

Time-space geography is often described as a ‘situational ecology’ concerned to incorporate certain essential biotic and ecological predicates within human geography and social theory. It has the potential for throwing new light on some of the very different kinds of questions customarily posed by ‘old-fashioned’ regional and historical geographers, as well as ‘modern’ human geographers.

Time-space geography is a challenge to turn to the ‘choreography’ of individual and collective existence—to reject the excesses of inter- and intra-disciplinary specialisation for a concern with collateral processes. It provides a method of mapping spatial behaviour and at the same time represents a reorientation of scale, away from aggregate data towards studies of individual behaviour. Hagerstrand’s time-space geography appears to be essentially humanistic, aimed to provide insight into what is especially human in man’s nature, and elucidates the specific human situation.

Human Ecology:

One aspect of the critical revolution in the mid- 1960s was the revival of Human Ecology, the application of ecological concepts to the study of the relations between people and their physical and social environment. It was a logical extension of the system of thought and the techniques of investigation developed in the study of man.

Reacting to the contention of Eyre and Jones (1966) that human ecology was aimed to launch a deliberate assault on the quantitative revolution, Stoddard attempted to remove and/or reconcile the confusion by his translation of human ecology into systems analysis.

It is this focus on the location of people within the wider ecosystem that has characterised most recent studies in geography. However, Chorley (1973) finds the traditional ecological model inadequate, because human geography is no simple extension of biogeography. To him, the ecological model may fail as a supposed key to the general understanding of the relations between modern society and nature, because it casts social man in too subordinate and ineffectual a role.

It is because of time-space geography of Hagerstrand that human ecology received explicit recognition in the contemporary geographic studies. He defined his theoretical system as ‘space-time ecology’. His so-called ‘web model’ of space-time interaction should, in principle, be applicable to all aspects of biology from plants to animals to people. Its central subject matter, in fact, is to incorporate certain essential biotic and ecological predicates within human geography and to bridge the gap between biological and human ecology.

Holt-Jenson (1981) argues that those who describe geography as human ecology have often defined the concept too narrowly and have presented studies of man’s relationships to his environment as if it only encompasses man’s relationship with nature and not to his total physical and social environment.

Kirk (1963) described the geographical environment in terms which may possibly provide a useful starting point for a discussion of systems in which both ecological and social science theories and concepts may be relevant.

Essay # 4. Welfare Geography:

One of the distinct consequences of the ‘critical revolution’ in the contemporary human geography was the emergence/development of Welfare Geography in the 1970s. It is an approach to human geography that stresses on questions of inequality.

The welfare approach emerged from the radical reaction to the quantitative and model-building emphasis of the 1960s, which was thought to be insufficiently concerned with contemporary problems. It was developed as a possible reaction to the positivist/spatial science tradition.

During the 1960s, a lot of research was reported, under the general title of factorial ecologies, but only in the 1970s was the factorial ecology set of procedures adapted to the task of mapping social welfare on any significant scale.

A movement towards the welfare approach in the contemporary human geography was in fact heralded by D. M. Smith and P. L. Knox. Smith’s work, The Geography of Social Well-being in the United States (1973) was prepared in the light of American social indication movement and the growing belief there that gross national product (GNP) and national income are not necessarily direct measures of the quality of life in its broadest sense.

His aim was to initiate the collection and dissemination of territorial social indication, to point out the extent of discrimination by place of residence which occurs in the United States. Knox (1975) stated that it was a fundamental objective for geography to map social and spatial variations in the quality of life, both as an input to planning procedures and as a means of monitoring policies aimed at improving welfare.

Smith and Knox set forth the tradition of the welfare approach in geography in an organised manner. As Chisholm stated, their works represented the geographer as a ‘delver’ and ‘dovetailer’, as a provider of information on which more equitable social planning could be based.

A number of such works, suggesting spatial policies for social improvements, were done in the 1970s. These works carried forward human geography towards ‘welfare’ issues such as poverty, hunger, discrimination, crime, medical care, racial tension and access to social services. This corresponded to a major shift in societal concern, from narrow economic criteria of development to broader aspects of the quality of life.

The basis of the welfare approach is in ‘who gets what, where and how’. The present states of society, with respect to ‘who gets what and where’ may be represented by extension of the abstract formulation of welfare economics, and the practical objective is to give it empirical substance. The welfare approach in geography requires the development of social indication for the empirical identification of social inequality and injustice in territorial distribution.

This may combine particular elements of social well-being in a composite measure. The method in welfare geography essentially appears to be descriptive, because descriptive research provides a basis for evaluation of social well-being. However, the early preoccupation with descriptive research in welfare geography has now given way to more process-oriented work on the question of how inequality arises.

Although originally proposed as an alternative framework for human geography, the welfare approach has now been merged with other lines of inquiry within geography directed towards the fundamental problems of inequality.

Implicit in welfare approach is a recognition that the issues in question extend beyond the limits of single discipline, and in fact render-disciplinary boundaries increasingly irrelevant. The welfare approach logically requires a holistic social perspective. Welfare geography attempts to make human geography more relevant to contemporary social problem.

Essay # 5. Radical Geography:

‘Whereas welfare geography works in principle within the framework of existing economic and social system, radical geography which has been established more recently, calls for both revolutionary theory and revolutionary practice’.

Radical geography appears to be an outcome of a ‘new critical revolution’ in the contemporary human geography, which seemed to have occurred largely as a result of the critiques of positivist/spatial science tradition in human geography.

As a holistic, revolutionary science, Marxism provides a film theoretical base for the radical movement in geography. Marxism offers an opportunity to develop an integrated comprehension of reality as a whole. To Harvey (1973), Marxist theory provides the key to understanding capitalist production from the position of those not in controls of the means of production—an enormous threat to the power structure of the capitalist structure. It not only provides an understanding of the origin of the present system, with its many-faceted inequalities, but also propounds alternative practices which would avoid such inequalities.

The Marxist theory renounced that the scientific laws of society are eternal. This view sharply contrasted with the claim of positivist science that scientific laws are universal in space and time. Economic laws are not eternal laws of nature, but historical laws appear and disappear. Society has inbuilt conflicts in it which tend to resolve themselves by change both in practice and in theory.

Science and scientific development, according to the Marxist theory, must be understood in relation to social reality, To Harvey (1973), the essential difference between positivism and Marxism is that positivism simply seeks to understand the world, whereas Marxism seeks to change it.

For Peet (1977), the Marxist science begins with a material analysis of society, proceeds through a critique of capitalist control of the material base of society and proposes solutions in terms of social ownership of that material base.

The growing disillusionment in the American society, partly as a result of the Vietnam War, social inequalities and injustice, racial tension, and the unresponsive attitude of the authority to the needs of the under-privileged, on the one hand, and the Marxist theory, on the other hand, formed a broad symbiosis for radical geography.

However, according to Peet (1977), radical geography developed largely as a negative reaction to the established disciplines, a reaction which was initially formulated within existing methods of positivism. By the early 1970s, the critique however, had developed a strong Marxist base, aiming to create a radical science, which seeks to explain not only what is happening, but also to prescribe revolutionary change. A journal of radical geography—Antipode was launched in 1969 at Clark University.

The first step in the development of a mature radical practice of geography was the emergence of a liberal viewpoint. This was an attempt to find more socially appropriate uses for the existing techniques and theories, and yet to maintain the basic ideas and values of the social system. When geographers began to question the ideology underlying the existing geographic models, they moved into the critique stage of development. Next came the extraction of elements-problems.

Failure on the part of the liberal geographers to offer meaningful solutions to the major socio­economic crisis in the United States prompted Harvey (1973) to offer a revolutionary theory, thereby overthrowing the current paradigm.

The immediate task, according to him, is nothing more than the self-conscious and aware construction of a new paradigm for social geographic thought through a deep and profound critique of our existing analytical constructs. The new paradigm would be built on a Marxist base, and it would achieve social reforms through the education process. The benefit of Marxist theory was that it can handle two crucial issues that positivist theory cannot—increase injustice, and heightened economic and social instability.

However, Peet (1977) has argued that the early ‘radical’ work by geographers in the late 1960s was liberal in its attitude. David Harvey in his book Social Justice and the City (1973) made a major contribution to the case for a Marxist- inspired, materialist theory development within geography. Peet also moved to a Marxist position replacing his earlier paper on poverty by a Marxist interpretation, based on the assumption that inequality is inherent in the capitalist mode of production.

As a mode of analysis, Marxism is a variant of the philosophy of structuralism which identifies three levels of analysis:

(a) The level of appearance or the super-structure;

(b) The level of processes, or the infrastructure; and

(c) The level of imperatives, or the deep structure.

Marxism has a materialist base. It argues that the infrastructure comprises a set of economic processes and most Marxist work concentrates on the processes operating within the capitalist mode of production. Marxist analysis seeks to identify the processes operating in the infrastructure and to relate them to the pattern in the super-structure. In human geography, this means deriving general theories of historical materialism that will account for particular patterns.

Marxist structuralism can also be presented as a variant of the realist philosophy of science which seeks to relate the contents of an empirical world to a set of infrastructural determinants—economic processes.

The Marxist/radical approach in geography has four basic components:

(1) The first is the critique of positivist spatial science and behavioural geography, and of humanistic geography.

(2) The second is to provide general theoretical frameworks, within which empirical work can be set.

(3) Thirdly, there is work that seeks to establish how individuals act within the structural imperative.

(4) And finally, there is detailed empirical work that seeks to understand particular aspects of the subject matter of human geography within the structuralist framework.

The radical geographers, with their concern for social values and political action, have rejected the traditional concept of geography. Although the radicals generally remain interested in the human/ environmental and spatial relationships, they spurn the systems of theory and methodology that are viewed as providing only partial accounts of reality and as serving the interests of a select social group or class.

Most radical geographers accept geography as a legitimate field of study and feel that it has much to offer in finding solution to the world problems. The radical geographer’s aim is the alteration of the operating societal processes by changing the relations of production.

Since radical geography is purely an American enterprise, it had no academic recognition in the former Soviet Union where its desirability and viability was doubted for not having a good understanding of Marxist-Leninist thought.

Though critical revolution in geography occurred side by side with the quantitative revolution in the 1960s and the early 1970s, as a possible reaction to the positivist spatial science tradition, but recent studies in humanistic geography, behavioural geography, time space geography, human ecology, welfare geography and radical geography reveal that there are some attempts towards some ‘revaluation’ of the positivist approach.

It is equally important to note that in geography, paradigms or rather schools of thought have not succeeded each other as Kuhn’s model suggests, but, to a large extent, continue to exist in parallel, whilst the new schools slowly absorb the older ones leaving some former contradiction to linger on within the new structure.

There is little evidence either of large-scale disciplinary consensus for any length of time about the merits of a particular approach or any of the revolutions that have been entirely consummated. Certainly the quantitative and theoretical developments followed by the critical and neo-critical revolutions have had a major impact, but there were many residuals of earlier paradigms. The failure to fit Kuhn’s model to contemporary trends in human geography leads to the conclusion that the model is irrelevant to this social science and perhaps to social science in general.

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58 Human Geography Examples (Terms & Concepts)

Chris Drew (PhD)

Dr. Chris Drew is the founder of the Helpful Professor. He holds a PhD in education and has published over 20 articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education. [Image Descriptor: Photo of Chris]

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Human geography studies the relationship between human societies and spaces and places.

It is a branch of the social sciences that concerns itself with our relationships with place, how we move through spaces, and the politics of space, place, and nationhood.

Students who study human geography will examine patterns of migration, how humans are nourished by the earth, how we use (and abuse) the earth, and how we can live more sustainably on our planet.

According to the Advanced Placement Human Geography course, there are five themes of human geography :

1. Location Location holds fundamental importance in human geography as it pertains to the ways in which we shape and are shaped by the spaces in which we inhabit. So, human geography might explore how our location affects our lives (e.g. if we live in a food desert), or how our proximity to the city affects our job prospects. 

2. Place The theme of Place encompasses physical characteristics (natural environment or landscape) and human aspects (structures and cultural influence ) that make one place different from another (Marston, 2013). It also pertains to the concept of ‘sense of place’, explaining how place becomes a part of our cultures and identities.

3. Human-Environmental Interactions Human-Environmental Interactions involve how humans adapt to, modify, and affect nature, for example, building a dam to control a river’s flow (Peet, Robbins, & Watts, 2011). In the era of the Anthropocene, it’s believed human actions are able to impact the entire global ecosystem, such as through human-induced climate change.

4. Movement The theme of Movement concerns the continuous interaction among people, places, and environments that facilitates exchange, along the pathways of transportation routes, communication networks, or economic associations (Knox, Marston & Imort, 2015). It also examines how and why people migrate, and the impacts that has on both migratory and host populations.

5. Region Region refers to an area distinguished by particular physical and human characteristics, that includes formal regions (countries or climate zones), functional regions (based on interaction), and perceptual regions (associated with cultural identity or mindset) (Cresswell, 2010). People living within regions tend to have a strong impact on one another due to their interdependence for food and resources, and the fact they tend to share resources.

While above I’ve presented five broad themes, below are summaries of some of the most important terms and concepts in human geography. You would need to familiarize yourself with these as a human geography student.

Human Geography Examples

Absolute Location This term refers to a point on the Earth’s surface defined with precision using geographic coordinates such as latitude and longitude; it provides a unique numerical identity for each location.

Anthropocene This term proposes a new geological epoch characterized by the significant global impact of human activities on the Earth’s ecosystems, including biodiversity loss, climate change, pollution, and land use changes; its usage reflects the recognition of human influence on the planet’s health. 

Balkanization This is a geopolitical process where a region or state fractures into smaller autonomous entities due to ethnic, social, political, or economic divisions; it represents the conflict and disintegration often driven by ethnic enmity.

Carrying Capacity This concept signifies the maximum population of a species that an environment can sustain indefinitely given available resources like food, water and habitat; it showcases the balance between resource availability and consumption.

Contagious Diffusion This notion relates to the rapid, widespread dispersion of a characteristic, idea, innovation, or disease throughout a population by contact from person to person; it demonstrates how phenomena can spread organically across regions.

Cultural Appropriation This term delineates the adoption or borrowing of elements from a culture by individuals from a different culture, usually dominant ones, without understanding, respect, or proper acknowledgment; it often unveils sensitive issues related to power dynamics and fairness.

Cultural Assimilation This term signifies the process in which members of a minority group adapt or adopt dominant social norms, traditions, and behaviors, merging into the prevalent culture; it highlights important aspects of cultural integration and homogeneity.

Cultural Diffusion This is a sociocultural process where a new cultural idea, material, or practice spreads from its place of origin to other locales, fostering cultural interconnectedness; it forms an integral part of cultural evolution, often leading to cultural diversity.

Cultural Globalization This concept relates to the transmission of ideas, meanings, and values around the world in such a way as to extend and intensify social relations, often leading to the mingling or confluence of cultures; it shows the dynamic interplay between global and local cultures.

Cultural Heterogeneity This indicates the diversity of human societies or cultures in a specific region, or in the world as a whole; it underscores the dynamic interplay of cultural variations and similarities.

Cultural Homogenization This refers to the reduction in cultural diversity through the popular spread of certain languages, practices, or values across regions, often due to globalization; it signals the growing similarity among cultures.

Cultural Landscapes These are natural landscapes that have been altered by human societies, reflecting the cultural imprint on the environment through buildings, agriculture, or other modifications; they embody the intertwined relationship between people and their environments.

Cultural Syncretism This denotes the fusion of different cultural beliefs, practices, or expressions to create new combined forms; it illustrates the dynamism and pluralism within cultures.

Demographic Transition This term outlines the shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates that typically occurs as a country develops economically; it offers a macro view of population change over time.

Demography This is the statistical and scientific study of population dynamics, including size, structure, movement, birth, death, and migratory trends; it provides vital insights into societal characteristics and trends.

Diaspora This represents a scattered population outside their original geographic homeland, maintaining cultural connections to it; it unveils the complexities of migration and cultural identity.

Economic Globalization This term designates an interconnected world economy where countries are economically dependent on each other through trade, investment, and capital flows; it underscores the integrated nature of the modern global economy.

Environmental Justice This term emphasizes fair treatment and meaningful involvement of all people in environmental policymaking, implementation, and enforcement, regardless of race, color, national origin, or income; it draws attention to social justice aspects of environmental issues.

Ethnocentrism This is the belief in the superiority of one’s own ethnic group or culture and viewing other cultures from that perspective; it underscores bias and prejudice in understanding and valuing other cultures.

Expansion Diffusion This denotes a type of cultural diffusion where an idea or innovation spreads outward from its hearth, maintaining its influence there while being adopted elsewhere; it indicates the spread and uptake of cultural trends.

Food Deserts These are urban or rural areas with limited access to affordable and nutritious food, often due to systemic socioeconomic barriers; they depict disparities in food access tied to social and economic inequities.

Formal Region A formal region is an area characterized by a certain degree of homogeneity in one or more phenomena; such as climate, soil, vegetation or human activity such as religion or language.

Functional Region This term pertains to a region defined by the particular set of activities or interactions that occur within it; it usually consists of a central place or hub and the surrounding places affected by it.

Gentrification This is an urban development trend characterized by the influx of wealthier individuals into deteriorating urban neighborhoods leading to increased property values and the displacement of lower-income residents; it raises concerns about social inequality and housing justice.

Globalization This term signifies an ongoing process that involves increasing interaction and integration among people, governments, and companies worldwide; it’s often driven by international trade, investment, and aided by information technology.

Heartland Theory This geopolitical theory postulates that the landlocked Eurasian “heartland,” due to its huge resource base and inaccessibility, is the key to global domination; it sought to explain political power dynamics in the first half of the 20th century.

Hierarchical Diffusion In this form of diffusion, an idea or innovation spreads by trickling down from larger to smaller adoption units, often with the help of opinion leaders; it explains the different stages of adoption in a social system.

Human Impacts on Climate Change This refers to the significant anthropogenic contributions to global climate change, primarily through greenhouse gas emissions from burning fossil fuels; it illustrates the critical influence of human activity on the planet’s climate.

Human-Wildlife Conflict This involves any intersection of human and wildlife where interactions result in negative effects on human social, economic or cultural life, or on the conservation of wildlife populations; it spotlights the challenges of coexistence in shared habitats.

Intensive Agriculture This system of agriculture involves greater inputs of labor and capital relative to land area for increased agricultural output; it involves practices like terracing, agroforestry, and multi-cropping.

Megalopolis This term is employed for cities with a total population in excess of 10 million inhabitants; these urban agglomerations, often setting trends in culture, politics, and economics, grapple with challenges of congestion, pollution, and social disparity.

Migration This denotes the act of moving from one geographical area to another, often for reasons such as employment, education, or escape from adverse conditions; it impacts the social, economic, and political strategies of the departed and destination places.

Multiculturalism This signifies the coexistence of diverse cultures where each maintains their identities within a larger society; it signifies a societal approach advocating for diversity, pluralism, mutual respect, and integration (see also: pluralism in sociology ).

Nation-State This term refers to a form of political entity in which a nation (a group of people sharing common elements of culture, such as language or history) coincides with a political state; it represents an ideal wherein cultural boundaries match up with political ones.

Political Geography This is a subfield of geography that studies the spatial distribution of political phenomena and processes, inclusive of boundaries, divisions, and resources; it underscores how political structures and actions influence and are influenced by the spatial layout.

Political Globalization This refers to the intensification and expansion of political interrelations across the globe, marked by international treaties, global regulations, and the emergence of international organizations; this phenomenon highlights how nation-states navigate within an increasingly interconnected global political landscape.

Postindustrial Society This term denotes a stage of society’s development when the service sector generates more income than the manufacturing sector; it showcases a societal transition towards information- and service-based economies.

Primary Sector of the Economy This component of the economy involves industries involved in the extraction and collection of natural resources, such as mining, agriculture, or forestry; it represents the foundation of all economic activity.

Pull Factors These are conditions that attract people to a new area, including job opportunities, political stability, or better services; they play a significant role in patterns of human migration.

Push Factors This term refers to the reasons that compel people to leave their areas of residence, including war, economic hardship, or natural disasters; understanding push factors helps explain migratory trends.

Quaternary Sector of the Economy This economic sector encompasses knowledge-based services like information technology, consultation, education, research and development, and financial planning; it underlines the increasing importance of intellectual capabilities in contemporary economies.

Quinary Sector of the Economy This segment of economy includes the highest levels of decision-making in a society or economy, including top executives or officials in government, science, universities, nonprofits, healthcare, culture, and the media; it reflects the highest levels of societal influence and decision-making power.

Relative Location This term refers to the location of a place in relation to other places, such as “west of the park” or “south of the city”; it provides a frame of reference that helps depict spatial relationships.

Relocation Diffusion This type of diffusion happens when individuals migrate from one place to another, taking their cultural ideas, practices, or innovations with them; it demonstrates the transmission of cultural traits through human motion.

Rimland Theory This geopolitical hypothesis proposes control of the maritime fringes of a landmass (rimland), and not the landlocked center (heartland), as the key to global power; it provided a counterpoint to the Heartland theory in the mid-20th century.

Rural Depopulation This phenomenon involves a reduction in rural population, usually because of migration to urban areas for better economic opportunities or living conditions; it displays the urban-rural dynamic in population distribution.

Secondary Sector of the Economy This term pertains to industries that produce goods using the raw materials provided by the primary sector, encompassing activities like manufacturing, processing, and construction; it highlights the value-added aspect of the economy.

Social Geography This is a branch of human geography focusing on social patterns as expressed in space, exploring dimensions like distribution, identity, behavior, and interaction of diverse social groups; it illuminates the spatial manifestations of social phenomena.

Stimulus Diffusion In this form of diffusion, a concept, idea or innovation spreads to new places, but is then changed by those who adopt it to better suit their culture or environment; it highlights the adaptive nature of cultural exchange.

Subsistence Agriculture This form of agriculture is characterized by self-sufficiency where the farmers focus on growing enough food to feed themselves and their families; it displays a traditional approach to farming, centered on basic survival.

Supranationalism This signifies a type of alliance where nations surrender some degree of sovereignty to a higher entity for mutual benefits or for pursuing common objectives, like in case of the European Union; it underscores trends towards greater global governance.

Sustainable Development This development strategy integrates economic progress, social development, and environmental protection to meet the needs of the present without compromising the future generations’ ability to meet theirs; it embodies a holistic, long-term perspective on global development.

Technological Globalization This concept refers to the proliferation and integration of technology across national and cultural borders, facilitating increased connectivity, interaction, and exchange; it underscores the role of technology in creating a globally connected ecosystem.

Tertiary Sector of the Economy This sector, also known as the service sector, covers all jobs that involve providing a service to individuals and other businesses, including healthcare, education, retail, and entertainment; it signifies a dominant part of most developed economies.

Transnational Corporation This refers to a corporation that operates in more than one country, driving its efficiencies or gains from utilizing resources or markets across nations; it typifies large-scale business operations in a globally interconnected economy.

Urban Sprawl This term refers to the uncontrolled expansion of urban areas into the adjacent rural lands often resulting in increased dependence on cars and reduced walkability; it underscores a significant planning challenge associated with rapid urban growth.

Urbanization This describes the growth and expansion of urban areas, typically involving the migration from rural to urban regions, and corresponding increase in their population and economic activities; it represents a dominant demographic trend in the contemporary world.

Vernacular Region This term pertains to areas that people define by their collective mental map of the world’s regions based on perceptions or an accumulation of descriptive facts; it demonstrates how place identities can vary based on personal or collective interpretations.

Human geography helps us to explore the complexity and interconnectedness of the world. The discipline explores spatial relationships, environments, cultural relations to place, and socio-economic systems, providing us with the tools to decipher our shared and unique experiences on this planet. The study of human geography reminds us how interconnected we are, as well as the scope and impact of our actions in shaping the cultural, socio-political, and economic landscapes.

Cresswell, T. (2010). Towards a politics of mobility . Environment and Planning D: Society and Space.

Knox, P. L., Marston, S. A., & Imort, M. (2015). Human geography: places and regions in a global context . Los Angeles: Pearson.

Marston, A. (2013). Geography. New York: Reference Reviews.

Peet, R., Robbins, P., & Watts, M. (2011). Global political ecology . London: Routledge.

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Since 1945 human geography has contained five main divisions. The first four—economic, social, cultural, and political—reflect both the main areas of contemporary life and the social science disciplines with which geographers interact (i.e., economics , sociology , anthropology , and political science and international relations , respectively); the fifth is historical geography . All five have remained central, being joined in the mid- to late 20th century by concentrations on particular types of areas, notably urban. Research interests in specific regions have declined, and relatively few geographers now identify themselves as experts on a particular part of the world.

Economic geography has a long pedigree. Its traditional focus has been the distribution of various productive activities—with subdivisions into, for example, the geography of agriculture, industrial geography, and the geography of services—and patterns of trade such as transport geography. Such concentrations were strengthened by the move into spatial analysis. Relatively little work in that mold is now undertaken, however, and the models of idealized economic landscapes that dominated in the 1960s and ’70s are now rarely deployed or taught. Part of the change reflects economic shifts, notably the extension of globalization . Transport costs have decreasing significance for many location decisions, relative to labour and other costs. Instead, the decision making of transnational corporations dominates the changing global pattern of activity, reflecting a wide range of political as well as economic concerns regarding the profitability of investing in different countries and regions. Much contemporary work studies company locational decision-making processes, the regulatory regimes of individual states (including policies designed to attract and retain investment), and their impact on the pattern of economic activity.

Economic and cultural worlds are closely intertwined. Many individual economic decisions in advanced industrial countries—e.g., what to buy, where to eat, and where to take vacations—reflect not needs but rather culturally induced preferences, which change rapidly, in part responding to advertising and media discussions of tastes and fashions. To some commentators, this generates a significant shift in the major features of capitalist production and consumption . It is moving away from mass products manufactured on large assembly lines toward myriad small niche markets with factories having relatively short production lines and rapid changes in the details of their products. Economic geographers investigate how markets for goods and services are culturally created and changed and the implications for both where production occurs and where jobs are created and destroyed.

Political geography also has a considerable pedigree, although it attracted little attention during the mid-20th century. Its main concerns are with the state and its territory—with states’ external relations and the relationships between governments and citizens. The geography of conflict incorporates both local conflicts, over such matters as land use and environmental issues, and international conflicts, including the growth of nationalism and the creation of new states. Electoral geography is a small subfield, concerned with voting patterns and the translation of votes into legislative seats through the deployment of territorially defined electoral districts.

Social geography concentrates on divisions within society, initially class, ethnicity , and, to a lesser extent, religion; however, more recently others have been added, such as gender, sexual orientation , and age. Mapping where different groups are concentrated is a common activity, especially within urban areas, as is investigating the related inequalities and conflicts. Such mappings are complemented by more-detailed studies of the role of place and space in social behaviour—as with studies of the geography of crime and of educational provision—and in how mental representations of those geographies are created and transmitted.

Other subdisciplines associated with social geography are sometimes seen as separate. Population geography is largely concerned with the three main demographic characteristics of fertility, mortality, and migration; investigations using census and other data are complemented by detailed case studies of decision making, such as whether and where to migrate and how relevant information is received and processed. Medical geography focuses on patterns of disease and death—of how diseases spread, for example, and how variations in morbidity and mortality rates reflect local environments—and on geographies of health care provision.

In its original manifestations , cultural geography had close links with anthropology, especially in the work of Sauer’s Berkeley school. This has been superseded by a wider appreciation of the interrelationships among people and societies as well as between people and their environments . Cultures are sets of beliefs transmitted in various ways. Many involve texts, not only written but also visual and constructed (e.g., works of art and architecture) and aural (e.g., soundscapes); some may never be recorded but are transitory moments in people’s movements and expressions. Interpreting them involves deconstructing what people say and do, activities that bring geographers into contact with the humanities as well as the social sciences in developing appreciations of meanings in texts and actions, including the landscapes and townscapes—large and small, personal and intimate , as well as grand and public—created in the process.

Places are central to this diverse range of contemporary work, especially in the study of cultural change, which involves mixing people from different backgrounds and areas as they move through space. Cultures are fluid and continually renegotiated, as are the spaces they create and occupy. Many negotiations involve conflict and the exercise of power—for example, the imperial strategies in the construction of 19th- and 20th-century worlds and postcolonial responses to others’ worldviews imposed on them.

One of the most popular fields of study from the 1960s to the ’80s was urban geography , under the banner of which much pioneering work in the locational analysis approach was conducted. Cities and towns were field laboratories for testing models of least-cost decision making. When those models were dismissed as oversimplifying complex realities and the search for spatial laws about cities declined, interest turned to contemporary concerns regarding urban areas and life. Cities are major globalization nodes, economic power being centralized in a small number of world cities ( London , New York City , and Tokyo are usually placed at the top of city hierarchies).

Given that the majority of people in the industrialized world live in cities, it is not surprising that urban geography has received much more attention than rural geography. Relatively little work was done on aspects of rural areas other than agriculture before the 1970s, just when, according to some, much of the particularity of rural areas was disappearing as many features of urban society were reaching into the countryside. To others, however, issues unique to rural, low-density areas call for a separate rural geography; although typical urban problems such as poverty, homelessness, social exclusion, and access to public facilities are also characteristic of rural low-density areas, particular issues there include the society-nature relationships, common images of the “rural,” and the role of tourism in reinvigorating rural economies.

Historical geography has retained its identity and distinction, although historical geographers have not distanced themselves from changes elsewhere in the discipline , with which their focus on interpreting the past from available evidence resonates . The developments in locational analysis stimulated some new ways to study available data. For others, the later developments, especially in cultural geography, coincided with their deployment of a wide range of nonquantitative sources to reconstruct the real and imagined, as well as the abstract (spatial analysis), worlds of the past; issues of postcolonialism have attracted the attention of historical geographers as well as those interested in current cultural issues. Detailed analyses of particular places and times are complemented by major syntheses—such as Donald Meinig’s four-volume The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History (1986–2002).

A great range of sources is now used in such endeavours, not only maps but also, for example, travelers’ writings about worlds they have encountered . Within this enterprise is a rejuvenated interest in the history of geography itself, not merely as a means of better appreciating where the discipline has come from but also of illustrating the importance of place and context in its evolution; geography, like so much else, is a range of practices that emerged and evolved in response to local stimuli. Geographers have produced particular forms of knowledge that have been significantly influenced by how people have encountered the world.

Historical geographers have long investigated landscape change. Their work now informs investigations of global environmental changes as well as illustrating past human-induced environmental modifications. Other research evaluates contemporary environmental changes and their implications not only for environmental futures but also for individual life chances.

Such studies occupy the intersection of physical and human geography, although relatively little work involves collaboration among human and physical geographers. For the latter, it involves incorporating human-induced changes to models of environmental processes and systems. Human geographers’ concerns range widely, from pragmatically applied work on environmental policy and management through political ecology to explorations of culture-nature interrelations.

Chapter 1: Introduction to Geography

David Dorrell and Joseph P. Henderson

STUDENT LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this section, the student will be able to:

Define: geography and its subfields

Understand: the importance of maps and some tools used to create them

Explain: the concept of places and how they are characterized from a spatial perspective

Describe: the various types of diffusion

Connect: the discipline of geography with other academic disciplines

CHAPTER OUTLINE

1.1 Introduction

1.2 What is Geography?

1.3 Mapping the World

1.4 Where in the World am I?

1.5 How do I Describe Where I am?

1.6 Geographic Data Gathering and Analysis

1.7 Changes in Places: Diffusion

1.8 The Human-Environment Relationship

1.9 Key Terms Defined

1.10 Works Consulted and Further Reading

1.11 Endnotes

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Geography is a diverse discipline that has some sort of connection to almost every other academic discipline. This connection is the spatial perspective, which essentially means if a phenomenon can be mapped, it has some kind of relationship to geography. Studying the entire world is a fascinating subject, and geographical knowledge is fundamental to a competent understanding of our world. In this chapter, you will learn what geography is as well as some of the fundamental concepts that underpin the discipline. These fundamental terms and concepts will be interwoven throughout the text, so a sound understanding of these topics is critical as you delve deeper into the chapters that follow. By the end of the chapter, you will begin to think like a geographer.

1.2 WHAT IS GEOGRAPHY?

The term geography comes from the Greek word geographos , which means writing (graphos) about the Earth (geo). Geography is the study of the physical and environmental aspects of the world, from a spatial perspective. Geography has  two major subdivisions, human (social science) and physical (natural science) . This text focuses primarily on human geography, but because the physical aspects affect humans and vice versa, physical geography will not be completely excluded but will receive less emphasis.

As geographers study the Earth, the one element that binds the discipline of geography and makes it unique is studying the Earth from a spatial perspective. The spatial perspective means that the phenomenon you are studying can be displayed on a map, so geography focuses on places around the world.  Geography,  then, is a physical (or natural) and social science that asks the fundamental questions, “What is  where , and why?” Human geography is a social science that focuses on people, where they live, their ways of life, and their interactions in different places around the world. A simple example of a geographic study in human geography would be where the Hispanic population is concentrated in the U.S., and why? A physical geography research endeavor might ask, Where do most hurricanes strike the U.S. coastline, and why? In addition, because the Earth is dynamic, geographers also look at how places change through time, and why, so there is a natural connection with history.

1.2.1 Geography and Its Relationship to Other Disciplines

Not only is there a connection between geography and history, but geography is also related to a broad range of other academic disciplines ( Figure 1.1 ). If you examine Figure 1.1, you may find your own major on the outside margin of the circle, with the corresponding subdiscipline in geography on the interior of the circle. Again, if a phenomenon can be depicted on a map and studied from a spatial perspective, it is geographical. A basic example would relate to the health sciences or medical geography, the subfield of geography that focuses on the spatial patterns of various aspects of health. For example, when the spread of a disease from its source area is mapped, medical professionals can get a better idea of the causes of the disease and the mechanisms of its transmission. Often, the understanding of cultural practices or environmental conditions (such as the habitat for a mosquito-borne disease) can shed light on the process of how the disease operates. Another example of how geography relates to other disciplines is in economic geography, the subfield that examines the different economic activities in various places, and how places interact economically. A fundamental concept in economic studies is that the location of a business is often important to the success of that business. If the business is located in close proximity to its clientele, for example, the customers might be more likely to visit that restaurant, store, etc. on a regular basis. A business owner would be wise to consult maps of both transportation networks as well as the population of the customers to which they intend to cater. Data with geospatial content is prevalent worldwide, and the federal government estimates that 80% of all data in the world contains some type of locational information (GAO 2015).

H5P Activity: Flashcard

1.3 MAPPING THE WORLD

Cartography is the science and art of making maps, which is fundamental to the discipline of geography and has been used by humans since before 6,000 B.C. Today’s maps are much more sophisticated, complex, and precise and are used by many people who employ GPS mapping systems in their vehicles. This technology allows motorists to navigate from place to place with relative ease, but the process by which these digital and other maps are created is exceptionally complex.

Essentially, a map, which is a flat presentation of a place on Earth, is actually depicting a curved surface. The Earth, which looks like a sphere, is technically an oblate spheroid, which means that the “middle” of the Earth, around the equator, is slightly wider, and the north/south pole axis is slightly shorter than a perfect sphere. When any curved surface is depicted on a flat surface, that process is known as projection . The three major types of projections are conic, cylindrical, and planer. Each projection has some sort of error/distortion, and deciding on which one to use is based on what is being mapped. The size, shape, distance, and direction of objects are distorted to various degrees on maps. The reason this distortion occurs can be visualized by simply imagining peeling an orange and trying to flatten the peel on a table. If you drew the continents on that orange before peeling it, the continents would most certainly be distorted when you try to flatten the peel on the table. This analogy does not precisely describe how projections are created; the process is much more involved. However, the underlying principle still applies. An example of distortion is shown on the map of the globe below ( Figure 1.2 ). Note, for example, in this Mercator projection that Greenland appears to be larger than South America, although it is, in fact, much smaller. A fun presentation of mapping issues can be seen in Video 1 .

Figure 1.2 | World Map, Author |  User “Strebe,”  Source |  Wikimedia Commons,  License | CC BY-SA 4.0

Video 1. Why All World Maps are Wrong ; Author | Vox Source | YouTube License | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kIID5FDi2JQ&ab_channel=Vox

Besides projections, another important characteristic of maps is the  scale . The scale of a map is a ratio of the length or distance on the map versus the length or distance on the Earth or ground (actual). The amount of detail shown on a map will vary based on the scale. For example, a map with a scale of 1:100,000 (which means 1 in/cm on the map equals 1,000,000 in/cm on the ground) would show much less detail than a map at a scale of 1:10,000 ( Figure 1.3 ). Besides showing scale as a ratio, it can also be presented as a bar graph or as a verbal statement. Scale can also mean the spatial extent of some kind of phenomenon. For example, one could examine migration at the global, national, state, or local scale. By either definition, however, each refers to the level of detail about the place that the geographer is researching. Examining the world from different scales enables different patterns and connections to emerge.

H5P Activity: Crossword

1.4 WHERE IN THE WORLD AM I?

One of the most important pieces of information that maps provide is location. Knowing precisely where a place is in the world is fundamental to geography.

While one can define a location simply by using a street address, not all places on Earth have such an address. Therefore, one of the basic ways to pinpoint a location on the Earth is using the geographic grid. The geographic grid is comprised of meridians and parallels, which are imaginary lines and arcs crisscrossing the Earth’s surface.  Meridians  are half circles that connect the north and south poles, and  longitude  refers to the numbering system for meridians.  Parallels  are circles that encompass the Earth and are parallel to the equator, and the numbering system for these circles is known as  latitude  ( Figure 1.4, Video 2) . Degrees of longitude extend from the north to the south pole and measure the angular distance from east to west. Meridians originate at the Prime Meridian (0 degrees longitude), which is in Greenwich, England, and extend eastward and westward until they meet at 180 degrees, which is in the middle of the Pacific Ocean.

Figure 1.4 Longitude and Latitude; Author | User “Djexplo” and Corey Parson; Source  | Wikimedia Commons; License | 4.0. The geographic grid comprised of meridians and parallels with longitude and latitude.

Video 2 Latitude and Longitude ; Author | Andy Jensen Source | YouTube License | https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=swKBi6hHHMA&ab_channel=AndyJensen

Degrees of latitude originate at the equator (0 degrees latitude) and extend northward and southward to the poles (90 degrees). Lines of latitude never touch and are always parallel to each other. Where meridians and parallels intersect at precise locations (points) on the Earth on the geographic grid, a location can be known by its latitude and longitude.

A few meridians on Earth are of particular importance, one being the  Prime Meridian located at 0° longitude, which passes through Greenwich, England. The other important meridian, called the International Date Line , follows roughly along 180° longitude, and this meridian is on the opposite side of the world from the Prime Meridian ( Figure 1.5 ). When a traveler crosses the International Date Line, the day of the week instantaneously changes. When moving westward, the day moves forward, and when traveling eastward, the date jumps backward one day. Fortunately, the International Date Line is in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, so disruptions to the daily calendar are minimal for most people in the world. Moreover, the International Date Line does not precisely follow the 180° longitude line, and this accommodation allows countries and territories consisting of islands that straddle 180°   longitude to share the same calendar date.

This world map shows the international date line and global time zones.

Figure 1.5 Times Zones;   Author | Central Intelligence Agency; Source | Wikimedia Commons; License |  Public Domain

H5P Activity: Chart

1.5 HOW DO I DESCRIBE WHERE I AM?

Defining a location by using the geographic grid is only part of the process of describing a place. Geographers are primarily concerned with two ways of describing a place: site and situation.  Site  refers to the physical characteristics, such as the topography, vegetative cover, climatic conditions, and the like.  The situation , on the other hand, refers to the area surrounding the place and is sometimes referred to as relative location. In other words, where is this place relative to other places, and how is it connected to its surroundings via transportation networks? New Orleans provides an excellent example of a site versus situation. The site of New Orleans is not ideal for a city, as it lies below sea level and is prone to flooding. However, the situation of New Orleans is much better in that New Orleans is connected to a large portion of the Mississippi River’s network of navigable waterways while also being close to the Gulf of Mexico and convenient to coastal traffic. Hence, the situation of New Orleans is why the city has not long since been abandoned, despite catastrophic flooding such as during Hurricane Katrina in 2005. As we examine various places around the world, both site and situation are key considerations in determining the “why” of where a place is located.

1.5.1 Regions

While site and situation can help describe a place, a broader view of the world and the connections between places can be derived from the concept of regions. A  region  is an area that shares some sort of common characteristic that binds the area as a whole. Geographers use regions to help one understand the interconnections between places and simplify a complex world. Two major types of regions are formal and functional.  Formal regions are characterized by homogeneity or uniformity in one or several different characteristics. These characteristics can be both human and physical-related, so regions could be defined by climate or vegetation types, in the sense of physical geography, or they could be defined by language or ethnicity, in the sense of human geography. One example of a map that includes formal regions would be a map of the states in the US or a map showing the counties or parishes of a state. In this map, the parishes of the State of Louisiana could be considered a formal region because each state is governed commonly or uniquely and hence portrays homogeneity ( Figure 1.6 ).

Figure 1.6 Map of Louisiana’s Parishes, Author | Wikipedia, Source | Wikimedia Commons , License | Public Domain

A  functional region , which is sometimes called a nodal region, is an area that contains a central node or focal point to which other places in the region are connected by some activity. Functional regions can be seen in cities where the central area of the city might serve as the focal point for the rest of the metropolitan area ( Figure 1.7 ). At a smaller scale, a Wi-Fi hotspot could be considered the focal point of a functional region that extends to the range of the Wi-Fi signal. Even the delivery area for the local pizza restaurant would be a functional region with the restaurant as a central node.

Figure 1.7 Atlanta MSA ; Author | David Dorrell; Source | Original Work; License | CC by SA 4.0. Atlanta Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) as defined by the US Census Bureau.

Regions are devised and not absolute, so whether or not a particular place fits within a region is sometimes a matter of dispute. For example, scholars disagree on the exact extent of the American South as a formal region. What defines this region?

It depends on what characteristics one uses to define the region, be they food, dialect, political affiliation, historical affiliation in the Civil War, or any other element the mind conjures up when one thinks of the South as a relatively homogeneous formal region. Most geographers see Texas as a part of the South, but West Texas is much different from East Texas, and Florida is likewise diverse. Extreme southern Florida is vastly different from the panhandle of Florida in ethnic make-up and political affiliation. The opinion on what constitutes the Southern region varies based on personal viewpoints ( Figure 1.8 ). The Southern region, then, may be thought of as a vernacular (or perceptual) region because the boundaries of these types of regions depend on the perspectives or mental maps of different groups of people who live both outside or inside that region. Hence, the concept of regions and their definition is not a straightforward process and involves generalities and varying opinions.

Figure 1.8 | The Fuzzy Boundaries of the American South, Author |  David Dorrell,  Source |  Original Work,  License | CC BY SA 4.0. It is not exactly the old Confederacy or the slave states. And it varies from one part to the next.

1.6 GEOGRAPHIC DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

To analyze and develop regions, describe places, and conduct detailed geographic analysis, two important tools have been developed that are of particular value to geographers. The first is remote sensing , or the acquisition of data about the Earth’s surface from aerial platforms such as satellites, airplanes, or drones. Images taken from these airborne machines can provide a wealth of valuable information about both the human and physical characteristics of a place. For example, satellite imagery can depict the extent of human impact on rainforests in the Amazonian rainforest of Brazil ( Figure 1.9 ). Imagery can also depict information that humans cannot see with the naked eye, such as the temperature of the Earth’s surface. One example is a thermal infrared image, which can show warm temperatures in red tones and cooler temperatures in blue tones ( Figure 1.10 ). Drones are used more and more frequently immediately following natural disasters like flooding and hurricanes since showing a before and after snapshot of damages can be critical to disaster recovery.

Figure 1.9 | Deforestation; Author | NASA; Source | Earth Observatory; License | Public Domain. Deforestation in the state of Rondônia, western Brazil.

Figure 1.10 Thermal Imaging; Author | NASA; Source | Wikimedia Commons; License | Public Domain; Thermal imagery of Atlanta, GA.

Digital imagery like the one in Figure 1.9 is in a format that can be entered into  Geographic Information Systems (GIS) , the second important tool employed by geographers. GIS combines computer hardware and software in a system that stores, analyzes, and displays geographic data with a “computer mapping” capability. Geographic data is stored in layers, and these layers of data can be queried in several sophisticated ways to analyze some aspect of an area ( Figure 1.11, Videos 3, 4, and 5 ). Each data point in a GIS is georeferenced to a precise location on the Earth’s surface (latitude and longitude, for example), and these data points have different attributes corresponding to the data layer they are associated with. Data layers can represent a myriad of characteristics about that data point, such as elevation, soils, the presence of water, per-capita income, ethnicity, etc. Overlaying the data layers can provide incredible insights into the connections between characteristics/factors in places, such as the connection between per-capita income and ethnicity or the links between soil types and vegetative cover. GIS also has a vast suite of other capabilities such as least-cost paths for transportation, line-of-sight perspectives from a particular location, or 3-D models of urban areas. Because of their multi-faceted capacity to present geographic information, businesses and government agencies around the world use GIS to answer questions, plan development, chart delivery routes, and even monitor crime and first responder activity ( Figure 1.12 ). It is not surprising that one of the fastest-growing job markets is in GIS technology, as GIS jobs exist at the local, state, and national levels as well as in many businesses in the private sector. Even the U.S. Census Bureau maintains an extensive GIS database known as Topologically Integrated Geographic Encoding and Referencing (TIGER). Another growing community that is very popular in GIS is OpenSource mapping and software. The QGIS movement was founded in 2002 by Gary Sherman. The idea was to provide free mapping software and data to the geospatial community and to ensure high-quality methodologies and practices. ( https://www.qgis.org/en/site/ )

Video 3 . How to Download & Install QGIS 3.28.0

Video 4 Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners 2022.

Video 5 QGIS Absolute Beginner’s Guide

Figure 1.11 Dat a layers in a Geographic Information System (GIS);   Author | US Government Accountability Office; Source | National Geographic;  License | Public Domain.

Figure 1.12 Crime Analysis; Author | Lea Skene;  Source | The Advocate;  License | CC BY SA 2.5. Crime analysis of Baton Rouge, Louisiana

1.7 CHANGES IN PLACES: DIFFUSION

Thus far, we have examined the Earth in a rather static fashion by learning about places and regions, how maps are created, and how geographic information is gathered and analyzed. However, the Earth is dynamic and constantly changing, and one of the reasons places change is because of diffusion.  Diffusion is the spread of ideas, objects, inventions, and other practices from place to place. As people migrate or move to a new area, they bring their ideas, objects, and the like with them in a process called relocation diffusion . Another diffusion process involves the spread outward from a core area that contains the idea, cultural practice, etc. This type of diffusion is  expansion diffusion , and this type of diffusion can occur from person-to-person contact (as with a contagious disease) or through a hierarchy, or stratified condition, where the idea might originate in a major city, spread to medium-sized cities, and so on to smaller cities ( Figure 1.13 ).

Figure 1.13 Diffusion; Author | Corey Parson;  Source | Original Work;  License | CC BY SA 4.0.

H5P Activity: True False

1.8 THE HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP

The process of spatial diffusion can be profoundly affected by the physical terrain, such as in the case of a mountain range. Because migration and transportation over mountain ranges can be limited, diffusion can be slowed or even stopped by these physical barriers. This example is but one instance of the relationship between humans and their environment. The environment can significantly affect human activities, and vice versa, humans can shape and change the Earth’s surface and its atmosphere. Two major perspectives on the human-environment relationship in the field of geography are environmental determinism, which has been largely rejected, and possibilism. Environmental determinism is the idea that the natural or physical environment shapes and creates cultures; in other words, the environment essentially dictates culture. For example, environmental determinists in the 1920s thought that people who lived in the tropics were slothful and backward because finding food in the tropics was thought to be rather easy. In contrast, Europeans, who lived in “stimulating” climates with a sharp change in seasons, were more industrious and inventive. The racist undertones of this sort of perspective are clear, but modern geographers still recognize the definitive impact of the environment on societies, as can be seen, for example, in the theorized demise of the Anasazi people in the American Southwest because of extended drought ( Figure 1.14 ).

The Anasazi, who are believed to have inhabited the Southwestern U.S. from 100 B.C. to 1300 A.D., were ill-equipped to deal with drought, compared to those who inhabit the modern-day states of New Mexico and Arizona. In the view of  possibilism , people can adapt to their environmental conditions, despite the limitations they might pose, and if society has better technology, people are better able to adapt and develop their culture in several possible ways.

Figure 1.14 | Indigenous People of the Four Corners, Author |  Corey Parson, User “Theshibboleth,”  Source |  Wikimedia Commons,  License |  CC BY SA 3.0

The possibilities are greater, hence the term possibilism. One excellent example of possibilism is found in Dubai, in the United Arab Emirates. Although snow skiing in the Middle East may seem preposterous, plans are in place to build the longest indoor ski slope in the world in this city, where one ski slope already exists ( Figure 1.15 ). Even technologically advanced societies, however, can still be tremendously affected by the environment and have little or no control over the power of nature. The devastating impacts of hurricanes in Louisiana, tsunamis in Japan, and fire in the United States are but a few examples (Figures 1.16  and  1.17 ).

Figure 1.15 Ski Dubai; Author | Filipe Fortes; Source | Wikimedia Commons; License | CC BY SA 2.0. Indoor ski slope at Ski Dubai located in the Mall of the Emirates.

Figure 1.16 Colby Fire, California, 2014; Author | User “Eeekster”; Source | Wikimedia Commons; License | CC BY 3.0. Colby Fire in the San Gabriel Mountains foothills.

Figure 1.17 Tennessee Wildfires, 2016; Author | Tennessee National Guard; Source | Flickr; License | CC BY 3.0. An aerial shot of the wildfires in Sevier County.

1.9 KEY TERMS DEFINED

Diffusion  – the spread of ideas, objects, inventions, and other practices from place to place.

Environmental determinism  – the idea that the natural or physical environment shapes and creates cultures; in other words, the environment essentially dictates culture.

Expansion diffusion – this type of diffusion involves the spread outward from a core area that contains the idea, cultural practice, etc. and can occur from person-to-person contact (as with a contagious disease) or through a hierarchy.

Formal region – a region defined by homogeneity in one or several different characteristics.

Functional region  – a region that is defined by a central node or focal point to which other places in the region are connected.

Geographic Information Systems  – combines computer hardware and software in a system that stores, analyzes, and displays geographic data with a “computer mapping” capability in a system of data layers.

Geography – literally, writing about the Earth; the study of the physical and environmental aspects of the world, from a spatial perspective.

International Date Line – roughly follows 180° longitude.

Latitude  – the numbering system for parallels.

Longitude  – the numbering system for meridians.

Meridians – half circles that connect the north and south poles.

Parallels  – circles that encompass the Earth and are parallel to the equator.

Possibilism  – the theory people can adapt to their environmental conditions and choose from many alternatives (possibilities), despite the limitations that the environment poses.

Prime Meridian – 0° longitude, passes through Greenwich, England.

Projection  – the process of transferring locations from the Earth’s curved surface to a flat map.

Region  – an area that shares some sort of common characteristic that binds the area as a whole.

Relocation diffusion – the diffusion process in which people migrate or move to a new area and bring their ideas, objects, and the like with them.

Remote sensing  – acquisition of data about the Earth’s surface from aerial platforms such as satellites, airplanes, or drones.

Scale – the ratio of the length or distance on the map versus the length or distance on the Earth or ground (actual); can also refer to the spatial extent of some phenomenon.

Site  – a way to describe a location; refers to the physical characteristics, such as the topography, vegetative cover, climatic conditions, etc.

Situation – a way to describe a location by referring to the area surrounding the place and is sometimes referred to as relative location.

1.10 WORKS CONSULTED AND FURTHER READING

Bjelland, Mark, Daniel R. Montello, Jerome D. Fellmann, Arthur Getis, and Judith Getis. 2013. Human Geography: Landscapes of Human Activities . 12 edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

Boyle, Mark. 2014. Human Geography: A Concise Introduction . 1 edition. Chichester, West Sussex: Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

deBlij, Harm, and Peter O. Muller. 2010. Geography: Regions, Realms, and Concepts . Fourteenth edition. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.

Fouberg, Erin H., Alexander B. Murphy, and Harm J. de Blij. 2015. Human Geography: People, Place, and Culture . 11 edition. Hoboken: Wiley.

Knox, Paul L., and Sallie A. Marston. 2015. Human Geography: Places and Regions in Global Context . 7 edition. Boston: Pearson.

Malinowski, Jon, and David H. Kaplan Professor. 2012. Human Geography . 1 edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Education.

National Aeronautics and Space Administration. “Earth Observatory.” https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Accessed August 16, 2018.

National Geographic Society. “Encyclopedia Entries.” https://www. nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia. Accessed August 16, 2018.

Rubenstein, James M. 2016. The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography . 12 edition. Boston: Pearson.

U.S. Government Accountability Office. 2015. “GEOSPATIAL DATA: Progress Needed on Identifying Expenditures, Building and Utilizing a Data Infrastructure, and Reducing Duplicative Efforts (GAO-15-193).” https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-15-193

1.11 ENDNOTES

• “Western Illinois University.” Liberal Arts Lecture 2011 – University News – Western Illinois University. Accessed April 26, 2018. http://www.wiu.edu/news/lecture_ archive/liberalArts2011.php.
• Fellmann, Jerome D., Arthur Getis, Judith Getis, and Jon C. Malinowski. Human Geography: Landscapes of Human Activities . Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education, 2005.
• The Anasazi. Accessed April 27, 2018. http://sangres.com/features/anasazi.htm#.

Media Attributions

• 1730_Stoopendaal_Map_of_the_World_in_two_Hemispheres_-_Geographicus_-_WereltCaert-stoopendaal-1730
• scale map © Molly McGraw, Google Maps is licensed under a CC BY-NC-SA (Attribution NonCommercial ShareAlike) license
• US Southern Region
• Deforestation
• Thermal Imaging
• GIS Layers source GAO
• Relocation Diffusion

Introduction to Human Geography Copyright © 2024 by LOUIS: The Louisiana Library Network is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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2024 AP Human Geography Exam Guide

10 min read • june 18, 2024

Your Guide to the 2024 AP Human Geography Exam

We know that studying for your AP exams can be stressful, but Fiveable has your back! We created a study plan to help you crush your AP Human Geography exam. This guide will continue to update with information about the 2024 exams, as well as helpful resources to help you do your best on test day.  Unlock Cram Mode for access to our cram events—students who have successfully passed their AP exams will answer your questions and guide your last-minute studying LIVE! And don't miss out on unlimited access to our database of thousands of practice questions. 

Format of the 2024 AP Human Geography Exam

Going into test day, this is the exam format to expect:

• 60 multiple-choice questions with 1 hour to complete them.- - About 30-40% of these questions will have a stimulus attached (data, image, map, etc.).
• 3 free-response questions with 1 hour and 15 minutes to complete them.- - Question 1 will have text only.- - Question 2 will have one stimulus (data, image, or map).- - Question 3 includes two stimuli (data, images, and/or maps).- - Each question is worth 7 points. 👉 Check out the 2023 AP Human Geography Free-Response Section posted on the College Board site. 

Scoring Rubric for the AP Human Geography Exam

View an example set of questions and the  corresponding scoring guidelines (page 178) from the College Board to get an idea of what they look for in your responses! The first provided question models a free-response question with no stimulus, while the second provided question models an FRQ with two stimuli. 

Check out our study plan below to find resources and tools to prepare for your AP Human Geography exam.

When is the 2024 AP Human Geography Exam and How Do I Take it?

Tests will be taken in person at your school. Here is what we know from College Board so far:

• The exam will be in-person and on paper at your school on Tuesday, May 7, 2024, at 8 am, your local time. You will have 2 hours and 15 minutes to take the exam. We will have more updates from the College Board soon, but as of now, this is what we know!

How should I prepare for the exam?

• First, download the  AP Human Geography Cheatsheet PDF - a single sheet that covers everything you need to know at a high level. Take note of your strengths and weaknesses!
• We've put together the study plan found below to help you study between now and May. This will cover all of the units and essay types to prepare you for your exam. Pay special attention to the units that you need the most improvement in.- - Study vocab! The exam (especially the multiple-choice) is very vocabulary and terminology heavy, so make flashcards, Quizlets...whatever works best for you.
• Study, practice, and review for test day with other students during our live cram sessions via  Cram Mode . Cram live streams will teach, review, and practice important topics from AP courses, college admission tests, and college admission topics. These streams are hosted by experienced students who know what you need to succeed. 

Pre-Work: Set Up Your Study Environment

Before you begin studying, take some time to get organized. 

🖥 Create a study space.

Make sure you have a designated place at home to study. Somewhere you can keep all of your materials, where you can focus on learning, and where you are comfortable. Spend some time prepping the space with everything you need and you can even let others in the family know that this is your study space. 

📚 Organize your study materials.

Get your notebook, textbook, prep books, or whatever other physical materials you have. Also create a space for you to keep track of review. Start a new section in your notebook to take notes or start a Google Doc to keep track of your notes. Get yourself set up!

📅 Plan designated times for studying.

The hardest part about studying from home is sticking to a routine. Decide on one hour every day that you can dedicate to studying. This can be any time of the day, whatever works best for you. Set a timer on your phone for that time and really try to stick to it. The routine will help you stay on track.

🏆 Decide on an accountability plan.

How will you hold yourself accountable to this study plan? You may or may not have a teacher or rules set up to help you stay on track, so you need to set some for yourself. First set your goal. This could be studying for x number of hours or getting through a unit. Then, create a reward for yourself. If you reach your goal, then x. This will help stay focused!

🤝 Get support from your peers.  

There are thousands of students all over the world who are preparing for their AP exams just like you! Join  Rooms  🤝to chat, ask questions, and meet other students who are also studying for the spring exams. You can even build study groups and review material together! 

AP Human Geography 2024 Study Plan

🗺 unit 1: thinking geographically, big takeaways:.

The first unit of AP Human Geography contains an introduction in maps and how to understand geographic data. It also covers how to effectively analyze different factors of regional areas, as well as the role spatial concepts and identification have on the impacts of human and environmental changes and development.

Definitely do this:

🎥 Watch these videos:

• Everything You Need to Know about Maps

Overview of Unit 1 📰 Check out these Fiveable Study Guides:

• Unit 1 Overview: Thinking Geographically
• 1.1 Introduction to Maps and Types of Maps 
• 1.2 Geographic Data 
• 1.3 The Power and Uses of Geographic Data 
• 1.4 Spatial Concepts 
• 1.5 Humans and Environmental Interaction
• 1.6 What are Scales of Analysis? 
• 1.7 Regional Analysis ✍️ Practice:  
• Best Quizlet Deck:   AP Human Geography Unit 1 by kshi94033

If you have more time or want to dig deeper:

• How to Effectively Take Notes
• Unit 1 Review on Geographic Thinking

👪Unit 2: Population and Migration  

Unit 2 focuses on the various patterns and processes that human populations demonstrate. It will also examine the various population distributions and population pyramids. Students must understand the short term and the long term impacts of population migration, as well as the impact on the culture’s economy and the society. 

Unit 2 Population Review

Population and Migration

• Causes of Migration

Population Growth and Decline

Population Pyramids

Malthusian Theory Explanation 📰 Check out these Fiveable Study Guides:

• Unit 2 Overview: Population and Migration Patterns and Processes
• 2.1 Population & Migration
• 2.2 Consequences of Population Distribution 
• 2.3 Population Composition 
• 2.4 Population Dynamics 
• 2.5 The Demographic Transition Model
• 2.6 Malthusian Theory and Geography
• 2.7 Population Policies 
• 2.8 Women and Demographic Change 
• 2.9 Aging Populations
• 2.10 Push and Pull Factors in Migration 
• 2.11 Forced vs. Voluntary Migration 
• 2.12 Effects of Migration

Unit 2 FRQ Review and Q&A

Unit 2 and 3 Complete Review ✍️ Practice:  

• Best Quizlet Deck:   AP Human Geography Unit 2 by carriebowman

🕌Unit 3: Cultural Patterns and Processes

This unit focuses on all of the patterns, conditions, and customs that create cultural identities throughout the world. You should be able to analyze and understand images and their roles in religion, language, attitudes, beliefs, and other cultural values. This unit also covers diffusion of culture, and how cultures grow, change, and spread as humans interact and become more technologically advanced. This unit creates a foundation for future units and makes sure that students are able to understand and identify the important cultural values and how those values impact politics, society, the economy, and other factors that are a part of a community.

What is culture?

Diffusion of Culture

The Role of Language and Culture

Race and Ethnicity Part 1 and   Part 2

Unit 3 Review of Cultural Patterns and Processes 📰 Check out these Fiveable Study Guides:

• Unit 3 Overview: Cultural Patterns & Processes
• 3.1 Introduction to Culture
• 3.2 Cultural Landscapes
• 3.3 Cultural Patterns
• 3.4 Types of Cultural Diffusion
• 3.5 Historical Causes of Cultural Diffusion
• 3.6 Contemporary Causes of Cultural Diffusion
• 3.7 Diffusion of Religion and Language
• 3.8 Effects of Cultural Diffusion
• Unit 2 and 3 Complete Review
• All about Diffusion
• The Cultural Landscape

🗳Unit 4: Political Patterns and Processes

Unit 4 focuses on the landscape of politics and how it impacts different cultures and relationships between different cultures. Students will work to understand the political boundaries and contemporary issues relating to both internal and international problems. This unit also covers devolution and the many different forms of government that are present throughout the world. Additionally, this unit highlights centrifugal and centripetal forces and puts emphasis on having students understand the causes and effects that lead to cultural shifts and changes.

What is a state?

Territories, Boundaries, and Governances 

Types of Boundaries, Disputes, and Territorial Morphology

Supranationalism 📰 Check out Fiveable Study Guides:

• Unit 4 Overview: Political Patterns and Processes
• 4.1 Introduction to Political Geography
• 4.2 Political Processes
• 4.3 Political Power and Territoriality
• 4.4 Defining Political Boundaries
• 4.5 The Function of Political Boundaries
• 4.6 Internal Boundaries
• 4.7 Forms of Governance
• 4.8 Defining Devolutionary Factors
• 4.9 Challenges to Sovereignty
• 4.10 Consequences of Centrifugal and Centripetal Forces
• Shapes of States
• Sovereignty and Centripetal and Centrifugal Force

👨‍🌾Unit 5: Agriculture and Rural Land-Use

This unit of AP Human Geography focuses on the impacts of agriculture and the changes as societies and communities have evolved. Students use their knowledge of spatial patterns to consider and understand the roles that various resources and agricultural techniques play in the contemporary world. Students will learn about the diffusion of agriculture and the important technological innovations that have changed global markets and individual communities. This unit will lay the foundation for an understanding of economic development and change, covered in later units, and will allow for new perspectives on modern problems.

Agricultural History and Revolutions

Changes in Agriculture

Spatial Organization and Settlement Patterns

The Green Revolution 📰 Check out these Fiveable Study Guides:

• Unit 5 Overview: Agriculture and Rural Land-Use Patterns and Processes
• 5.1 Introduction to Agriculture
• 5.2 Settlement Patterns and Survey Methods
• 5.3 Agricultural Origins and Diffusions
• 5.4 The Second Agricultural Revolution
• 5.5 The Green Revolution
• 5.6 Agricultural Production Regions
• 5.7 Spatial Organization of Agriculture
• 5.8 The Von Thunen Model
• 5.9 The Global System of Agriculture
• 5.10 Consequences of Agricultural Practices
• 5.11 Challenges of Contemporary Agriculture
• 5.12 Women in Agriculture
• The Development of Agriculture
• Rural Land-Use Patter__ns__

🌇Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land-Use

Unit 6 is all about cities, their development, and being able to understand the role globalization had in forming the contemporary world. Students should be able to use spatial distribution, census data, and other forms of information to gain a better understanding of urban settings and the patterns within them. In addition, this unit covers sustainability and the necessary steps on a local and global level. This unit ties together past units about politics and the economy, so students have a wider sense of the impacts and problems facing urban areas and cities today.

Globalization and Urbanization

Urban Challenges

Urban Location Theories

Sustainability and Challenges to Sustainable Cities 📰 Check out these Fiveable Study Guides:

• Unit 6 Overview: Cities & Urban Land-Use
• 6.1 The Origin and Influences of Urbanization
• 6.2 Cities Across the World
• 6.3 Cities and Globalization
• 6.4 The Size and Distribution of Cities
• 6.5 The Internal Structure of Cities
• 6.6 Density and Land Use
• 6.7 Infrastructure in Urban Development
• 6.8 Urban Sustainability
• 6.9 Urban Data
• 6.10 Challenges of Urban Changes
• 6.11 Challenges of Urban Sustainability
• Urban Models and the Hierarchy of Cities

💸Unit 7: Industrial and Economic Development

The final unit covers the industrial revolution and the continued industrialization occurring in modern day, as well as its impact. After this unit, students will be able to understand social, economic, and cultural growth and the impact of globalization, industrialization, migration, and other topics covered in this course. This unit will also teach you about the global and local markets, economies, and industries throughout the world and their relationships to one another. This final unit will pull together the rest of the topics so students leave the course with a well-rounded understanding of the global patterns and processes that fuel the growth of countries and their cultures.

The Industrial Revolution

Socioeconomic and Sustainable Development

Economic Interdependence

The Global Economy 📰 Check out these Fiveable Study Guides:

• Unit 7 Overview: Industrial and Economic Development Patterns and Processes
• 7.1 The Industrial Revolution
• 7.2 Economic Sectors and Patterns
• 7.3 Measures of Development
• 7.4 Women and Economic Development
• 7.5 Theories of Development
• 7.6 Trade and the World Economy
• 7.7 Changes as a Result of the World Economy
• 7.8 Sustainable Development
• Measures of Development
• Changes in Industrial Geography

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How to Write Geography Essay: Topics and Examples

Table of contents

• 1 What Is Geography Essay
• 2 Choosing a Topic
• 3 Research and Data Collection
• 4 Planning the Essay
• 5 Writing the Essay
• 6 Examples of Geography Essays
• 7 Unlocking the World: Key Insights from Our Geographic Exploration

Welcome to the dynamic world of geography essays, where understanding the Earth’s surface becomes an enlightening journey. This article serves as a comprehensive guide to writing a geography essay, starting with the crucial step of selecting a captivating topic. We’ll navigate through various popular topics, emphasizing the importance of effective research and data collection.

In this article, we’ll cover:

• How to select engaging and relevant geography essay topics.
• The importance of thorough research and effective data collection methods.
• Strategies for planning and organizing your geography essay for clarity and impact.
• Tips for writing a compelling geography essay, including structuring and presenting arguments.
• Analyzing examples of successful geography essays to guide and inspire your work.

As we transition into the details, prepare to enhance your understanding and skills in geography essay writing.

What Is Geography Essay

As we delve into the essence of a geography essay, it’s important to understand that it meticulously examines Earth’s landscapes and human activities. Furthermore, it aims to analyze how these two aspects interact, focusing on spatial relationships and patterns. Transitioning into the specifics, such essays often delve into particular geographic issues, aiming to broaden our comprehension of the world.

Moreover, when writing a geography essay, one must include accurate geographical data. This data, encompassing maps, statistics, and case studies, is crucial for a well-grounded analysis. Consequently, the essay should present facts and interpret them, offering fresh insights into the discussed topic.

Additionally, it’s noteworthy that an essay on geography stands out from others due to its unique subject matter approach. It demands a keen eye for detail and a profound understanding of the world’s physical and human dimensions. This requirement makes crafting such an essay a challenging yet fulfilling endeavor.

Lastly, the primary goal of a geography essay is to enlighten and inform. It persuades readers to view the world through a geographical lens, grasping the complex interplay between humans and their environment. This type of essay transcends mere academic exercise, serving as a means to foster a deeper appreciation for our world and its complex dynamics.

Choosing a Topic

The crucial point for a successful geography essay is selecting an engaging and appropriate topic. To choose a topic that resonates, consider current events, your interests, and the scope of your assignment. A good topic should captivate your interest and offer sufficient scope for in-depth study and analysis.

Popular geography essay topics often revolve around climate change , urban development, and cultural landscapes. These topics provide a rich ground for exploration and allow for diverse perspectives and interpretations. For example, a thematic essay on geography could focus on how urbanization affects local ecosystems or how cultural practices shape landscape use.

• Analyzing the Direct Impact of Climate Change on the Amazon Rainforest’s Biodiversity
• Urbanization in Mega Cities: Environmental Consequences and Sustainable Solutions
• Wind and Solar Power: Pioneers of Sustainable Energy Landscape
• Managing Water Scarcity in the Middle East: Strategies and Challenges
• The Amazon Deforestation Crisis: Causes, Impacts, and Global Responses
• Spatial Inequality: A Detailed Look at Poverty in Sub-Saharan Africa
• The Dynamics of Population Growth and Overconsumption in Asia
• Cultural Preservation of Indigenous Peoples in the Amazon Basin
• Earthquakes in Japan: Analyzing Causes, Effects, and Preparedness Strategies
• Geography’s Role in the Rise and Fall of the Roman Empire
• Implementing Sustainable Agricultural Practices in India for Food Security
• The Kashmir Conflict: A Geopolitical Analysis of Border Disputes
• The Growing Crisis of Climate Refugees in the Pacific Islands
• The Importance of Urban Green Spaces in New York City’s Environmental Health
• The Impact of Globalization on Maori Culture in New Zealand
• Ecotourism in Costa Rica: Balancing Economic Benefits and Environmental Preservation
• Addressing Ocean Plastic Pollution: Case Studies from the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
• The Nile River Conflict: Water Politics in a Changing Climate
• Preventing Desertification in the Sahel: Strategies and International Cooperation
• GIS in Disaster Management: Case Studies of Earthquake Response and Recovery
• Measuring the Effects of Glacial Melting on Greenland’s Coastal Communities
• Tracing the Economic Geography of the Silk Road in the 21st Century
• The Health Impacts of Air Pollution in Beijing: Urban Policies and Challenges
• Vulnerable Communities: Assessing the Socioeconomic Impacts of Climate Change in Bangladesh
• The New Face of Migration: Syrian Refugees and European Response
• The Critical Role of Metropolitan Areas in Combating Global Warming
• Saving Madagascar’s Rainforest: Conservation Strategies and Challenges
• The Transition to Renewable Energy in Germany: A Model for the World?
• Satellite Imagery in Land Use Changes: A Study of the Brazilian Amazon
• Arctic Sovereignty: The Geopolitical Implications of Melting Ice Caps for Global Powers

To guide and inspire your topic selection, you can use geography essay examples. These examples showcase a range of topics and approaches, helping you understand what makes a topic both engaging and feasible for study. Remember, a well-chosen topic is the first step toward a compelling and insightful geography essay.

Research and Data Collection

To talk about thorough research, it is the backbone of any geography study, providing the factual and theoretical foundation to understand complex geographical phenomena. To explain why the study of geography is important, one must delve into diverse and reliable sources that offer insights into how geographical factors shape our world and affect our lives. This research underpins the type of geography being studied, whether physical, human, or environmental.

Collecting geographical data can be done through various methods. Firstly, fieldwork is essential, especially for physical geography, as it allows for the direct observation and measurement of geographical features and processes. For human geography, surveys and interviews can yield valuable data on human behaviors and social patterns. Moreover, a thorough literature review also helps understand existing research and theories, providing a critical context for new findings.

Furthermore, evaluating sources for their credibility and relevance is vital. This involves checking the qualifications of the authors, the rigor of their methodologies, and the recency of their findings. Reliable sources are peer-reviewed and come from reputable academic or scientific institutions. What is more, ensuring the credibility of sources strengthens the arguments made in a geography essay and enhances the overall understanding of the topic.

In summary, comprehensive research and careful data collection are fundamental in geography. They enable a deeper understanding of how geographical aspects shape our environment and lives, which is central to the discipline.

Planning the Essay

When you start planning a geography essay, it begins with creating an outline to organize thoughts and research. This step is crucial as it helps structure the essay logically, ensuring a smooth flow of ideas. Start by listing major points and supporting evidence. This framework guides the writing process and maintains focus on the chosen topic. Planning involves outlining the essay and crafting a compelling thesis. Planning involves outlining the essay and crafting a compelling thesis. This process ensures the essay remains focused and coherent, addressing the chosen geography topic. By establishing a clear roadmap for the essay, writers can navigate their arguments and evidence with precision, avoiding common pitfalls such as digression or ambiguity. Now, with our plan in place, let’s transition to examining the structure more closely, exploring how to effectively organize our thoughts and research into a well-structured essay that engages and informs the reader.

Writing the Essay

When you finally start writing, a geographical essay involves several key steps, each demanding attention to detail and a balance between descriptive and analytical writing. This balance is crucial in creating an essay about geography that informs, engages, and persuades.

The introduction sets the stage. Start with a hook that grabs the reader’s attention, followed by background information that provides context to the topic. This section should conclude with a clear and concise thesis statement that guides the rest of the essay.

In the body, organize paragraphs thematically or chronologically , depending on the essay’s focus. Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence that relates to the thesis. Following this, present your arguments and support them with geographical theories and data. This is where you incorporate detailed information from your research, including statistics, case studies, and examples. Make sure to explain how this data supports your arguments. A geography research paper demands precision in presenting data and clarity in its interpretation.

When discussing geographical theories, link them directly to your topic. This shows your understanding of the subject and how these theories apply to real-world scenarios. Remember, each paragraph should have a smooth transition to the next, maintaining a coherent flow of ideas.

In the conclusion, summarize the key points of your essay. Restate the thesis in light of the arguments and evidence presented. The conclusion should not introduce new information but encapsulate what the essay has covered. It’s also an opportunity to emphasize the importance of the topic, suggesting potential areas for future research or implications of your findings.

Throughout the essay, maintain a balance between descriptive and analytical writing . Descriptive writing helps paint a picture for the reader, making the data and theories more relatable. Analytical writing, on the other hand, demonstrates your ability to think critically about the topic, evaluating and interpreting the information in a meaningful way.

Examples of Geography Essays

Diversity in style and approach marks the essence of geography writing. A popular method is the comparative approach, contrasting different geographical phenomena. This method often appears in works comparing landscapes or urban vs. rural areas. Another common technique is the case study, focusing on a specific location or event for in-depth analysis of a particular issue.

Thematic approaches cover broader topics like climate change, globalization, or human migration, weaving together various theories and data for a comprehensive view. Additionally, argumentative compositions present a thesis supported by geographical evidence, frequently seen in discussions about environmental policies or land use conflicts.

Each style offers unique insights, providing varied ways to explore and understand geographical concepts and issues. For an in-depth exploration and diverse perspectives on these topics, consider reviewing geography essay examples. This resource can enrich your understanding and offer a broad spectrum of approaches to geographical analysis, from case studies on environmental conservation to essays on urban development and spatial inequalities.

• Geography Unveiled: Costa Rica’s Absolute Location Revealed
• Geography Unveiled: Navigating Earth’s Spatial Tapestry through Five Themes
• The Ever-Changing Canvas of New England Weather
• The Mystique and Marvels of the Desert Biome
• The Impact of Geography on the Development of Egypt

Unlocking the World: Key Insights from Our Geographic Exploration

This journey through the realm of geography reveals the field’s depth and complexity. From initial planning to diverse writing methods, the main insight stands out: geography compositions are more than maps and data; they are about comprehending our world’s rich tapestry. They balance descriptive narrative and critical analysis, backed by meticulous research and credible sources.

Whether exploring climate change impacts, urban developments, or cultural landscapes, these works offer a lens to see and understand the world anew. They prompt critical thinking about our environment and our place in it. Navigating various geographic topics brings not just academic insights but also life lessons in appreciating our world’s complexity and beauty.

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College Board AP Human Geography

Tools to help you ace your exams, including: past papers, revision notes, and exam-style questions (organised by topic)

• Past papers
• Mark schemes

Human Geography: Urbanization Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Urbanization refers to the development of urban areas. It involves population growth as well as physical development in such areas. Many global south countries like India, Brazil and Nigeria have high rates of urbanization than northern countries like England, Canada and Japan.

This can be attributed to the natural increase in population of these areas through birth or migration of people from rural areas to urban areas. Most of these countries are developing countries. They have potential for industrialization and people migrate from rural areas to urban areas to offer labor to the growing industries.

There is also rapid development of rural areas in these areas that transforms them into urban centers. On the other hand, in developed countries, there is little migration to urban areas due to decentralization of the countries’ economies. This gives the rural people favorable conditions to stay there. There is also reduced natural population increase through birth than in most of the southern countries.

People move to cities for various reasons. Cities provide employment opportunities to people because of the growth of industries that takes place in them. Most cities also offer people better social facilities and services like entertainment and health care. There are also better economic and market opportunities in cities than can be found in most rural areas of most countries.

People therefore migrate to cities so as to come closer to these opportunities and exploit them for improving their economic status and living standards (Knox, Marston & Nash, 2007). Most rural family farms also produce hardly enough to support their family members with the required food and other basic needs. As a result, some members of such families move to cities and work hard to earn extra income which they send back home to support the needs of their family members.

Most of the rural population in most countries depends on agricultural production in order to survive. Therefore, the importation of similar low priced food materials as those produced in these countries lead to general reduction in the crops’ prices. This leads to low benefit for the farmers. Such farmers in most cases abandon their farms and move to urban areas where they look for jobs mostly in the industrial areas. Population increase in rural areas is another factor that leads to rural- urban migrations.

Increasing population in most cities of the world comes with many problems associated with settlement, infrastructure, environmental issues and service delivery. The urban poor stay in slums where there are poor infrastructure especially housing and other associated services like electricity, running water, sewage system, and roads. To make these cities livable, some of these situations and services have to be improved. The cities of the world should address issues of urban planning, urban development and urban governance.

If these three aspects are well addressed in the cities, then they will be comfortable places to stay in. Urban planning should involve proper laying out of water distribution patterns and networks in the cities, planning sanitation systems and methods of waste management, transport network as well as health systems. Each city should also develop urban development strategies that adequately address the circumstances surrounding its regions.

Urban governance is also important as it directs the way the city is administered and directs the service delivery within the city. The city governance is responsible for urban development and planning and ensures that the residents live in a sound environment by providing them with essential services like rubbish collection and disposal. The city governance should be able to transform the city slums into legitimate residential areas and improve the living standards of its urban poor.

There is lack of food security in most countries of the world. Despite enough production of foodstuffs in many parts of the world, still there are high levels of food insecurity even in countries that produce more than they need. According to UN’s FAO and USDA, a country is food secure when all its citizens have physical and economic access to enough, safe and nutritious food at all times to meet their needs and provide them with a healthy life.

Through this, we understand that in order for a country or a region to be food secure, there must be enough quantity of food, high quality of food, food access for all people and food use by the people. Over 920 million in the world are starving while a good percentage of people in some countries like the United States, United Kingdom and Australia are facing obesity epidemics.

Various stakeholders in food issues react differently and contribute to this problem either positively or negatively. These stakeholders include food producers, markets and trade unions and blocks, governments, non-governmental organizations, various policy makers and food users.

Food producers ensure that there is enough production of food to feed the population of a country and there is surplus for export. Agricultural mechanization in many countries has made it possible to produce large volumes of food substances with little labor requirements. However, cheap foreign imports of food lead to low prices of food products in the local markets making farmers in some countries to put their land to other uses like cash crop production.

This leads to reduction in local production, which can lead to high levels of starvation in these countries. The low farm produce prices discourage some people; consequently, they abandon their farms and move to urban areas to look for other jobs. Even though this is the case, there is generally high food production in the world enough to feed its population.

Individual consumers also play an important role in this scenario. The economic status of individuals determines whether they access food when it is available. Those individuals with enough money are able to buy food in the quantity and quality they desire while those who are limited financially are unable to buy what they need and end up depending on relief food. The high prices of food in some regions of the world make most of the people to starve.

Most of the people in developed countries like in US, UK, Canada and Australia are well endowed financially and get access to food in high quantities. Their high consumption rate leads to many cases of obesity. High rates of food wastage by individuals also contribute to food scarcity, which in the end lead to starvation of some people.

Individual countries’ governments also play an important role in distributing food to their citizens. They also set important policies that govern imports and exports of food. Importation of low price food commodities may lead to reduction of local food production. The governments are also responsible for food distribution to its citizens. If there is poor food distribution, then there is a likelihood of increased starvation in the country.

The governments also offer services of educating its people on the appropriate use of food so as to avoid wastage and disorders associated with food misuse. Various Non-governmental organizations and international organizations such as the UN, FAO, World Bank, and WHO also help in educating people on appropriate food use as well as aiding in their distribution to the needy. In addition, they give financial assistance to other organizations to distribute food to people.

In conclusion, people generally move to urban centers where they seek for better living conditions and increased economic and social gain. This migration may constrain the infrastructure and facilities available in the towns. The migration also deprives the rural areas of farm labor, which is important for food production. Low food productivity and distribution to all parts of the world lead to starvation of a number of people. Food wastage and misuse also aggravates this problem and creates other problems such as the rising cases of obesity in the world.

Reference List

Knox, P. L., Marston, S. A. & Nash, A. E. (2007). Human Geography: places and regions in global context . Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall.

• Geography, its Evolution and Future
• Urbanization and Environment
• How do Migration and Urbanization Bring About Urban Poverty in Developing Countries?
• Physical Geography: Climatology and Geomorphology
• Urban-Rural Variations in Health: Living in Greener Areas
• Physical, Human, and Economic Geography of Italians
• Germany; History, Geography, Legal and Politics
• GIS Project: Environmental Hazards in the USA
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2018, July 27). Human Geography: Urbanization . https://ivypanda.com/essays/human-geography/

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Bibliography

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AP Human Geography Exam Tips

The following strategies for answering the free-response questions will help you on exam day.

Plan your responses before you start writing.

Don’t start to write immediately; that can lead to a string of disconnected, poorly planned thoughts. Carefully analyze the question: think about what is being asked and identify the elements that must be addressed in the response. For example, some questions may require you to consider the similarities between people or events, and then to think of the ways they are different. Others may ask you to develop an argument with examples to support it. Be sure to answer exactly what is being asked in the question prompt!

Integrate evidence into your response.

After you have determined how to answer the question, consider what geographic themes you can incorporate into your response. If there is a map, chart, graph, or diagram with the question, study it carefully before beginning your answer. Think about the evidence you studied during the course that relates to the question and then decide how it fits into the analysis or explanation. Does it demonstrate a similarity or a difference? Does it argue for or against a point that is being addressed? Does it ask you to identify and explain a certain number of examples or reasons?

Elaborate on the evidence.

Don’t just paraphrase or summarize your evidence. Clearly state your intent, then use additional information or analysis to elaborate on how these pieces of evidence are similar or different. If there is evidence that refutes a statement, explain why. Your answer should show that you understand the subtleties of the question. Carefully answer each part of the question. Be sure to use appropriate geographic terms, and refer to models or theories when appropriate.

Answering free-response questions from previous AP Exams is a great way to practice: it allows you to compare your own responses with those that have already been evaluated and scored. Go to the Exam Questions and Scoring Information section of the   AP Human Gography Exam page on AP Central  to review the latest released free-response questions and scoring guidelines. Older questions and scoring information are available on the   Past Exam Questions page.  

Pay close attention to the task verbs used in the free-response questions. Each one directs you to complete a specific type of response. Here are the task verbs you’ll see on the exam:

• Compare: Provide a description or explanation of similarities and/or differences.
• Define: Provide a specific meaning for a word or concept.
• Describe: Provide the relevant characteristics of a specified topic.
• Explain: Provide information about how or why a relationship, process, pattern, position, or outcome occurs, using evidence and/or reasoning.
• Identify: Indicate or provide information about a specified topic, without elaboration or explanation.

Introduction to Human Geography - 2nd Edition

(5 reviews)

David Dorrell, Georgia Gwinnett College

Joseph P. Henderson, Georgia Gwinnett College

Copyright Year: 2018

Last Update: 2019

Publisher: University of North Georgia Press

Language: English

Formats Available

Conditions of use.

Learn more about reviews.

Reviewed by Patrick Kennelly, GIS Program Director, Central Oregon Community College on 9/8/22

This is a comprehensive textbook that covers the topics typical to a course in Human Geography at the college level. It is organized into the following chapters: 1. Population and Health 2. Migration 3. Folk Culture and Popular... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 5 see less

This is a comprehensive textbook that covers the topics typical to a course in Human Geography at the college level. It is organized into the following chapters: 1. Population and Health 2. Migration 3. Folk Culture and Popular Culture 4. Geography of Language 5. Religion 6. Ethnicity and Race 7. Political Geography 8. Development and Wealth 9. Industry 10. Human Settlements 11. Environment and Resources These also follow the typical topics covered in Advanced Placement Human Geography and college courses in Cultural Geography. Comparing it to non-OER resources, this book groups Agriculture and Rural Landscapes and Urban Geography into the Human Settlements chapter, and touches on Globalization in the Industry and Development and Wealth chapters. Each chapter is further subdivided into sections for more detailed organization, and these sections appear in a clickable Table of Content at the beginning of the book for quick reference.

Content Accuracy rating: 5

I found the content accurate and free of errors, but I have not yet used this textbook for teaching a course.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 5

It seems like the text is written in such a way as to make updates relatively easy and straightforward. The big topics here seem to be consistent in most human geography textbooks over the years, and they serve as the foundation for this book. Supporting materials including text examples, maps, diagrams, etc. should be relatively straightforward to revise with future revisions.

Clarity rating: 5

I found the materials to be clearly written. I like that the authors bold new terminology on first use and associate these bolded terms with a clear explanation or definition. They also have a section called “Key Terms Defined” at the end of chapters to further reinforce the terminology that students studying human geography will need to use.

Consistency rating: 4

I found the materials to be consistent and useful. Chapters begin with a list of student learning outcomes followed by a chapter outline that is presented as a numbered list with the chapter number before the decimal, and the section after the decimal. For example: CHAPTER 2 OUTLINE 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Thinking About Population 2.3 Population and Development 2.4 Population is Dynamic 2.5 The Demographic Transition 2.6 Measuring the Impact of Population 2.7 Future Population 2.8 Geography of Health 2.9 Summary 2.10 Key Terms Defined 2.11 Works Consulted and Further Reading 2.12 Endnotes These are good for quick reference, and to assess the relative weight the authors assign various topics, such as population versus health in this case. As indicated in the outline, chapters end with a summary, glossary of terms defined in the chapter, works consulted/further readings and endnotes. The only of these that was a bit inconsistent was the summary section, which in some chapters goes by “conclusions” but in other chapters is not included at all.

Modularity rating: 5

With well-organized chapters and sections within chapters, I think this book allows instructors to easily divide out portions based on their needs. Each chapter also seems to stand up pretty easily on its own for instructors wishing to present the material in a different order when compared to the chapter sequence in this book.

Organization/Structure/Flow rating: 5

I thought that topics were presented in a logical and clear fashion. For example, the chapter on Political Geography begins by explaining how politics is organized spatially, discusses how states cooperate, stresses the importance of boundaries and the types of disputes that arise, and talks about the election process as a geographic phenomenon. This seems like a logical flow of discussion that touches on the most important points of political geography.

Interface rating: 5

The textbook can be downloaded from this URL https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/geo-textbooks/2/ (also given above). It can be saved as a 57 Mb PDF file and used as a traditional textbook. Additionally, the authors have provided a MS Word file, sample questions, exercises, Powerpoint slide decks for each chapter, and the 1st edition of the book for download.

Inside the book the authors provide internal links from the Table of Contents into each chapter and section. Additionally, hyperlinks are included in the PDF to external websites, and most but not all of the links I checked worked. There are some especially good links in the endnotes for students or instructors especially interested in a topic.

The authors also include a nicely formatted and consistent “Author | Source | License” citation for their graphs, images, maps etc. It’s nice to see that many of these are licensed with the Creative Commons or in the public domain. I would have liked the “Source” to also be a clickable link so that readers can further explore such images, graphs or maps as they work through the book.

Grammatical Errors rating: 5

I didn’t notice any grammatical errors for the portions of this book that I read in detail.

Cultural Relevance rating: 5

I didn’t find anything culturally insensitive or offensive in this book, and thought that the authors made good efforts to include examples from underrepresented cultures.

Reviewed by Serena St. Clair, Adjunct Faculty (formerly full time faculty-retired), Rogue Community College on 1/2/22

Human Geography is a dynamic subject because of the changes the world experiences in culture, climate, communication, and politics. As someone who has been teaching this course for several decades and used at least six different texts (including... read more

Comprehensiveness rating: 4 see less

Human Geography is a dynamic subject because of the changes the world experiences in culture, climate, communication, and politics. As someone who has been teaching this course for several decades and used at least six different texts (including subsequent editions), the topics in this course continue to evolve. Intro to Human Geography provides all the traditional topics typically covered in textbooks for this subject/course. It is a challenge to keep all the material relevant and current.

There is an omission of "Gender" in Chapter Seven that has become a standard in most texts when discussing Identity: Ethnicity and Race. Chapter 12: Human Settlements addresses Urban topics but does not address Urban Planning with a more comprehensive foundation for students who may choose land use or urban planning for further study or careers. Chapter Ten: Agriculture discusses many aspects of food access to communities but did not mention in the chapter or under "Key Terms Defined" the idea of a "food desert" which is an important concept to understand as a Geographer.

Content Accuracy rating: 4

Dorrell et. al, text was accurate in that it leads the reader through all the important topics that make up the basics in the study of Human Geography. They cover the basic concepts consistent with the subject. The chapters are all relatively short (20-25 pages of content) therefore the depth of ideas is not present in the text. The information provided was accurate and learning outcomes are consistent with other HG textbooks.

Relevance/Longevity rating: 4

I think the challenge for writing a textbook in this subject is the ever changing nature of the human-environment experience. The world, from a geographical standpoint, is a dynamic system. This textbook covers the basic framework for HG which hasn't changed for several decades, however, the living examples of geographical concepts will need to be illustrated by accompanying lessons, assignments, instructor lectures, and current event/media.

The last chapter on the environment was the only chapter that was sorely inadequate in what it introduced. It was half the length of every other chapter in the book. While not a physical geography course, all human-environment interaction (one of the five themes of Human Geography) has an impact and relationship with the planet. This was a missed opportunity to put into context the physical implications from the twelve chapters prior.

This textbook is written with a combined matter-of-fact and conversational style. I found the book to be very accessible and think for an introductory class it has a good tone to engage students with this subject.

Each textbook chapter follows the same format listing: Student Learning Outcomes, Chapter Outline, and then numbered subtopics under the main focus of the chapter. At the conclusion of each chapter, they provide a Summary, Key Terms Defined, Works Consulted and Further Reading and Endnotes. The chapters are all about the same length with the exception of the final chapter (13) titled "Environment and Resources". This chapter was eleven pages of content for a topic that is critical to this academic study.

Each chapter ends with a section "Key Terms Defined". There was inconsistency on the length and scope of these key terms. Some chapters had as few as a half page, while others had 2-3 pages of terms. It appeared as if the author was indicating that key terms were left out of the text but still relevant to the chapter topic.

The book was well organized. The chapters are relatively short and cover key concepts to this subject. The consistency of "Key Terms" and "Works Consulted and Further Reading" could be a launch point for students to do research and go deeper in their learning process.

This textbook is very consistent in its sequence of topics with other Human Geography textbooks I've used over the past two decades. There were maps presented in each chapter to illustrate the topic. However, there were not many images/pictures which help engage students in the seeing the topic of the chapter in real life. I understand copyright access can limit these options when developing an OER, therefore it offers the instructors of this course the job of finding other ways to create these connections

None noted.

Grammatical Errors rating: 3

I found a handful of grammatical, format, and spelling errors in the book which could easily be corrected.

Cultural Relevance rating: 4

There are several ways to assess this book's cultural competence. All the chapter topics were approached in a relatively unbiased presentation. There were occasional informal comments from the author but not as commentary on cultural bias. The chapters that directly addressed culture (Chapters 3,4,6,7,12) provided basic structures of how these topics are viewed through the perspective of geographers. There were a few places in these book chapters where there could have been more forthright discussion about the cultural conflicts and shifts that have been happening in different places in the world and our country, e.g Chapter 3: Migration: More discussion needed on influence of migration on local/regional cultures; Chapter 7: Civil Rights/Black Lives Matter, Indigenous -Reservation Issues, could have been used as examples of the role of place, resource access, political boundaries; Ch. 6, section 6.4 "Religious Conflict" could emphasize the role of "Place and Location" in the situations they only briefly mention.

As a Human Geography professor who is using this book for an online class, I think this book offers me and the students an excellent opportunity to learn together and apply the concepts presented in real time context. The book covers the basics of this subject, and it challenges me to build learning activities that bring them to life in the current world. I believe that the primary learning outcome for Human Geography is to support the development of "systems thinkers". To me, that means that for every chapter/topic we read about, I want students to "SEE" how this looks right now on the planet. I use current events, videos such as: YouTube, Ted Talks, documentaries, News Publications, and other Library resources to have students interpret world events through the newly acquired lens of a geographer. I often use the following quote to frame our learning in this class. "Everything is related to everything else. But near things are more related than distant things." This is considered "the first law of Geography" and was introduced by Waldo R. Tobler in 1969. I believe you can apply this idea to almost anything we study in this course knowing that the meaning of this statement will change over time.

Reviewed by Margaret Stephens, Associate Professor, Community College of Philadelphia on 6/24/21

The book provides comprehensive coverage suitable for an introductory human/cultural geography course. The Student Learning Outcomes, Chapter Outlines, maps, tables and graphs are useful guides for reading online or in print. The supplemental... read more

The book provides comprehensive coverage suitable for an introductory human/cultural geography course. The Student Learning Outcomes, Chapter Outlines, maps, tables and graphs are useful guides for reading online or in print. The supplemental resources/further reading sections (Works Consulted and Further Reading) are helpful for students or instructors who want to delve more deeply. At the end of each chapter, Key Terms Defined offers easy reference and a good way for students to build vocabulary and facility with terminology. It would be helpful to include a comprehensive glossary at the end of the book, along with a full index. Sample Questions, exercises and slides accompany each chapter. Instructors can use them as they are or revise as they see fit.

The content is accurate and avoids value judgments and bias.

The content is relevant and up to date. It includes a sufficient amount of comparative information from a broad spectrum of regions and cultures, something that many texts do not provide. The organizational structure facilitates incorporating new and timely information without requiring major revision to the text. Research, data and examples from current events can be added as appropriate.

The text is clear, concise, free of unnecessary jargon and suitable for an introductory course. Terminology from the discipline is defined and introduced in context, often using illustrative examples. The language is not complicated, overly academic or excessively wordy. For courses that are more rigorous are for majors, instructors may wish to provide additional readings from research or professional publications.

Consistency rating: 5

The chapters are consistent in language, structure, organization and flow. It appears to be edited well for internal consistency.

The sequence of topics and chapter structure readily allow for course material to be presented in different order or modular units. The text avoids excessive self-references. While the text illuminates connections among fundamental geographic concepts, the information in each chapter is presented so that it does not require reading in sequence.

The topic sequence is logical. Further, it can be adapted easily for courses that present information in a different order or thematic arrangement.

I did not encounter any interface or navigation issues of concern. As one would expect, there may be slight differences in page numbers and display of graphics depending on the format selected (e.g. PDF vs Word, online or print).

No obvious grammatical errors were detected.

The text presents information in a culturally sensitive way. It does not convey value judgment or questionable cultural comparisons. It offers a variety of examples featuring different races, ethnicities and backgrounds. The text could include links to supplementary resources to expand these further.

Overall, this is a sound, suitable choice for introductory human geography courses. It presents the basic information that instructors can supplement easily if they choose to cover specific topics in more depth. A few areas that might be included or expanded as the materials are revised: gender and identity; examples or features about research methods, current research and careers related to geography; references to multimedia on geographic topics.

Reviewed by Dimitar Dimitrov, Geography Instructor, Portland Community College on 6/16/21

The text provides a comprehensive introduction to the traditional topics in human geography and covers all areas and concepts appropriately. Each chapter starts with Student Learning Outcomes and Chapter Outline sections, and ends up with two very... read more

The text provides a comprehensive introduction to the traditional topics in human geography and covers all areas and concepts appropriately. Each chapter starts with Student Learning Outcomes and Chapter Outline sections, and ends up with two very helpful to the students sections – Key Terms Defined and Works Consulted and Further Reading. Most of the chapters have also Summary sections. The text is illustrated with maps, tables and figures, but the use of these illustrative materials should be more balanced between the chapters. Chapter 5 The Geography of Language for example, contains only one map, whereas in the following chapter (about religions) the reading material is supported with 13 maps. Some of the maps are from 2015 and need updating.

I didn’t find any inaccurate information. The text is unbiased.

The textbook is up to date. Due to the constantly changing subject matter of human geography the examples, the maps, and the figures in all of the chapters should be updated every three or four years.

The textbook is clearly written and easily understandable even for students who are encountering the basics of human geography for the first time.

The textbook is consistent in terms of structure, terminology and framework.

The chapters are arranged by topics, and each chapter is organized into smaller reading sections that can be easily assigned for individual or group work. Most of the chapters include short introductions.

The textbook is organized in 13 chapters, each one covering a specific topic. The flow is traditional for human geography texts.

I didn’t find any interface issues. Also, the textbook is easy to navigate.

I found no grammatical errors when reviewing the book.

I didn’t find any offensive language or culturally insensitive issues. All of the races, ethnicities, and cultural backgrounds are addressed with respect.

This textbook entirely meets my expectations for an OER in the field of human geography.

Reviewed by TUBA KAYAARASI, INSTRUCTOR, Portland Community College on 6/13/21

There are thirteen chapters. Each chapter focuses on a subdiscipline of human geography. However the chapters are not as comprehensive as a regular human geography textbook. Most of the relevant theory for each subdiscipline of human geography is... read more

There are thirteen chapters. Each chapter focuses on a subdiscipline of human geography. However the chapters are not as comprehensive as a regular human geography textbook. Most of the relevant theory for each subdiscipline of human geography is covered, but postmodern geographic theory is missing.

There are no major errors that I noticed. It looks unbias. It presents multiple perspectives. However it does not use enough information from different sources.

Most data that is used for each chapter is up-to-date. The text can be easily updated as the editions change. However it might be difficult to update maps and images.

The text is written with a clear language. It is easy to follow the content. Even if English is not the first language of a student, the theory and concepts can be understood easily.

Each chapter is arranged in a way that is consistent. Chapters are introduced with chapter outlines and student learning outcomes.

The book is divided into various chapters. Each chapter has subtitles with small reading sections.

The structure of the book is very well organized. The order of the chapters are logical, follows one another. It helps connect one topic to another.

There is good amount of images inserted in to the text. Images are small but easy to read. Images make content easy to understand.

English is my second language. It is hard for me to evaluate the grammatical mistakes. I have noticed no grammatical errors.

Most chapters are written with great cultural sensitivity. Examples that are provided are inclusive of a variety of backgrounds. However the book could include a chapter on cultural geography that focuses on issues of identity, such as gender and sexuality. Also there could be more cultural examples from various parts of the world. Most of the examples that are provided are from North America.

It is an average quality textbook for an open resource. The book is formatted in a way that it is easy to read for first year college course. The content is easy to follow for students who do not have prior knowledge on the topic.

Table of Contents

• Chapter 1: Introduction to Geography
• Chapter 2: Population and Health
• Chapter 3: Migration
• Chapter 4: Folk Culture and Popular Culture
• Chapter 5: The Geography of Language
• Chapter 6: Religion
• Chapter 7: Ethnicity and Race
• Chapter 8: Political Geography
• Chapter 9: Development and Wealth
• Chapter 10: Agriculture and Food
• Chapter 11: Industry
• Chapter 12: Human Settlements
• Chapter 13: Environment and Resources

Ancillary Material

About the book.

Geography is a diverse discipline that has some sort of connection to most every other academic discipline. This connection is the spatial perspective, which essentially means if a phenomenon can be mapped, it has some kind of relationship to geography. Studying the entire world is a fascinating subject, and geographical knowledge is fundamental to a competent understanding of our world. In this chapter, you will learn what geography is as well as some of the fundamental concepts that underpin the discipline. These fundamental terms and concepts will be interwoven throughout the text, so a sound understanding of these topics is critical as you delve deeper into the chapters that follow. 

About the Contributors

David Dorrell

Joseph P. Henderson

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Choose Your Test

Sat / act prep online guides and tips, the complete guide to ap human geography frqs.

Advanced Placement (AP)

The free-response section is the hardest part of any AP test. Although AP Human Geography is much more straightforward than some other humanities AP exams, if you don't have your stuff down, the free-response section can still hit you where it hurts.

In this article, we'll go through the structure of the free-response section, some helpful tips for answering AP Human Geography FRQs , examples of what these free-response questions look like, and a few places where you can find the best practice materials.

AP Human Geography Free Response Section Format

There are three questions on the free-response section, each worth 7 raw points. You'll get one hour and 15 minutes to answer all three questions, or about 25 minutes per question. Your free-response score accounts for half your AP Human Geography test score (the other half comes from your multiple-choice section score).

Here's what you must do for each question, according to the College Board :

• Describe, explain, apply geographic situation or scenario (no stimulus)
• Describe, explain, apply geographic data using data, image, or map (one quantitative or qualitative source)
• Describe, explain, apply geographic data using data, image, and/or map (two sources, qualitative and/or quantitative)

Note that a "stimulus" is a quantitative or qualitative source , such as a chart or table. As you can see above, you'll get no source for question 1, one for question 2, and two for question 3.

How to Answer AP Human Geography FRQs: 4-Step Guide

Before we get into examples with answer explanations, let's go over the essential steps you must take in order to effectively answer these types of questions .

AP Human Geography free-response questions are typically pretty straightforward so you can attack them in a methodical fashion. Here's a sample question from the 2020 Course and Exam Description that I'll use as a reference so you can see how the different steps apply:

Step 1: Read the Introductory Statement

Before you start in on the first part of the question, be sure to read the short introductory blurb. It sets up the topic you'll be analyzing and gives you firmer ground to stand on when addressing the rest of the question.

In the sample question above, the introductory statement makes it clear that the question will deal with states, national governments, and tensions between the two.

Reading all the introductory statements for the three free-response questions in the section before you start answering any of the individual parts can help you decide where to begin. If you see a topic that is especially familiar, you might go for that question first as you'll be able to answer it the fastest.

Step 2: Identify the Task Verb (and Understand What It Means)

In each part of the question (A-G), it's a good idea to underline the specific task verb at play, that is, what it's asking you to do. This should help you keep yourself on track when responding to the question. Identifying these verbs will also get you in the habit of paying closer attention to the differences between each of the tasks.

Here are the most commonly used task verbs on the exam, according to the College Board :

Compare: Provide a description or explanation of similarities and/or differences.

Define: Provide a specific meaning for a word or concept.

Describe: Provide the relevant characteristics of a specified topic.

Explain: Provide information about how or why a relationship, process, pattern, position, or outcome occurs, using evidence and/or reasoning.

Identify: Indicate or provide information about a specified topic, without elaboration or explanation.

For example, a question that asks you to "identify" something will merit a much more succinct answer than one that asks you to "describe" it.

In part A of the sample question, the key command is "define," meaning you could just give a one-sentence answer that clearly outlines what a multinational state is. In part E, the task verb is "describe," which denotes a longer answer that elaborates on an example of a centripetal force that governments use.

Finally, parts B, C, D, F, and G all use the command verb "explain," which means you will really have to go into detail to earn a point for each part of the question.

Ultimately, you'll save time and earn points if you're careful to make these distinctions among task verbs!

Step 3: Reread and Double-Check Your Answer

Once you've finished writing your answer, reread the question and your response to make sure you've done everything it asked you to do . If you're satisfied, move on to the next part of the question, and repeat the process of identifying task verbs and trying to get the full point offered at each part of the question (always labeled A-G).

After you finish the last part of a particular free-response question, check over all your answers for that question one last time to ensure that everything is the way you want it to be. Then you can move on to the next free-response question.

Step 4: Pace Yourself

This is more of a general tip for the AP Human Geography test, but as you work through the three free-response questions, make sure that you're keeping track of time and pacing yourself .

As a reminder, you'll have one hour and 15 minutes to complete three FRQs. This means you'll get about 25 minutes per question; however, it'll be better for you to try to complete each question within 20 minutes . This way you'll have some extra time at the end to go back and look over your answers and tweak them if needed.

Review your answers with a second, more critical eye. I think this picture is photoshopped, but I don't know for sure because I don't feel like Googling, "Can you have two pupil/iris combos within one eyeball?" Just kidding, I did Google it, and it's probably not a thing, but not even the internet knows for sure . OoOoOoOo.

AP Human Geography FRQ Example + Answers

In this section, we'll go through the answer to a sample free-response question from the 2020 AP Human Geography Course and Exam Description .

This question is an example of question 3 on the Human Geography exam. As you can see, there are two stimuli (a table and a photograph) and seven parts (A-G), each worth 1 point .

In order to earn full credit, here is what you'd need to write down as your answer, per the official scoring guidelines . (Note that there are multiple possible answers you could put down for A-G.) As always, pay careful attention to the task verbs being used!

(A) Answer Options

• Delhi is classified as a megacity because it has a total population greater than 10 million.
• From 1991 to 2011, Delhi's total population grew to over 10 million.

(B) Answer Options

Many people move to Delhi from rural areas and smaller cities ...

• in search of employment opportunities.
• in the hopes of improving their income or quality of life.
• to join family members or friends already living in Delhi.
• to have better access to services, health care, or education.

(C) Answer Options

• The city's center increases in the size, height, and/or number of large apartment buildings and condominium that attract a growing population of middle-class workers in the country's capital.
• Infilling occurs where open space presents an economic opportunity for landowners to build small multi-family housing units, placing more people into existing city blocks.
• The government is increasing its provision of public housing in apartment blocks within the city, which provide larger buildings with multi-family housing units.

(D) Answer Options

• A need for additional public transportation lines and/or added capacity on existing transit systems.
• A need for improved sanitation, water supply, waste disposal, or wastewater treatment facilities.
• A need for more housing, especially for lower-income residents.
• A need for improved communication or electric utility infrastructure.
• A need for additional public schools, colleges, universities, and/or libraries.

(E) Answer Options

Increased number of vehicles on the roadways results in visible air pollution, fog, smog, and/or airborne chemicals that lead to ...

• health problems.
• transportation accidents.
• diverting potential economic investment in the city.

(F) Answer Options

• India is a less developed country which has limited government funding to pay for pollution abatement programs (such as alternative fuels) or large investments in public transit.
• India has a growing industrial sector which has limited environmental regulations such as controls on air pollution. Industrial air emissions contribute to the city's air pollution levels.
• India has a large rural population and urban poor population who are dependent on burning wood for home heating and cooking. The smoke increases the city's air pollution levels.
• During the dry season, farmers in northern India will burn the dead vegetation in their fields (following the harvest) to improve soil nutrients. The smoke can increase the city's air pollution levels.
• As India's economy grows, more people can afford to own cars or buy trucks for their businesses. The additional vehicle increases the total amount of air pollution.

(G) Answer Options

• Transportation-oriented development of new housing, industrial and retailing areas. Or, laws requiring new developments be constructed with bus lanes, train lines, and stations.
• Vehicle restrictions, high-occupancy requirements, tolls, or congestion pricing to limit the number of vehicles on the roads.
• Smart-growth policies, slow-growth, or zoning policies that restrict the amount of land that can be developed or create a development boundary or greenbelt around the city.
• Alternative electrical energy and/or alternative fuel programs that are cleaner-burning or have zero emissions.
• New Urbanism or mixed land-use developments where workers live, shop, and work within walkable distances.

How to Practice AP Human Geography FRQs

You can find plenty of AP Human Geography free-response questions (and their corresponding answer guidelines) online.

The College Board maintains a collection of real free-response exam questions that were administered between 2001 and 2021 with sample responses and scoring guidelines. This is the best resource for FRQs because you can rest assured that they're accurate representations of what you'll see on the exam in terms of content and difficulty level.

While there's nothing wrong with using free-response questions crafted by test-prep companies for preliminary practice, you should always incorporate official questions into your studying at frequent intervals.

Other free options include high-quality, unofficial practice tests . Check out our guide to all AP Human Geography practice tests you can use for tips on what to prioritize in your prep.

What's Next?

Want an overview of the whole AP Human Geography exam with examples of both multiple-choice and free-response questions? Then take a look at our expert guide to Human Geography .

Looking for more resources to use in preparing for this tricky AP test? Check out my ultimate study guide for AP Human Geography !

If you want more free-response practice, then you might consider getting an AP review book to supplement the online resources listed in this article . Here is a list of the best review books for AP Human Geography .

Samantha is a blog content writer for PrepScholar. Her goal is to help students adopt a less stressful view of standardized testing and other academic challenges through her articles. Samantha is also passionate about art and graduated with honors from Dartmouth College as a Studio Art major in 2014. In high school, she earned a 2400 on the SAT, 5's on all seven of her AP tests, and was named a National Merit Scholar.

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The Ultimate Guide to Acing the AP Human Geography Exam

By Eric Eng

Every year, high school students can take Advanced Placement (AP) Exams offered by the College Board . Although each exam has an associated AP Course, any student can take the AP tests. The AP Human Geography Exam is one of the most popular options for self-studiers.

While many students still opt to enroll in the AP Human Geography Course, the exam is conducive to self-studying because of the intense focus on specific theory and vocabulary. Regardless of whether you’ve taken the AP Course, you’ll need to understand major field-related concepts thoroughly and possess relevant skills to successfully handle the AP Human Geography Exam. AdmissionSight has answered some of the most common questions regarding this exam in the following guide. To help students make the most of this exam, we explain what you’ll be tested on, how the exam is broken down, and the most effective study methods.

What is the AP Human Geography Exam?

The AP Human Geography Exam is a standardized test administered by the College Board. It is designed to assess students’ knowledge and understanding of human geography. The exam consists of multiple-choice questions and free-response questions. It is typically taken by high school students who have completed a course in AP Human Geography.

Human geography is a fascinating field that explores the relationship between people and their environments. It delves into the patterns and processes that shape our world, examining population, migration, culture, language, religion, and urbanization. By studying human geography, students understand how societies are organized and how they interact with their surroundings.

The AP Human Geography Exam allows students to showcase their understanding of these complex concepts. The multiple-choice section tests their knowledge of key terms, concepts, and theories, while the free-response section allows them to apply their knowledge to real-world scenarios. This comprehensive assessment ensures that students have a solid grasp of the subject matter and are prepared for further studies in geography or related fields.

Preparing for the AP Human Geography Exam involves more than just memorizing facts and figures. It requires critical thinking skills, the ability to analyze data and maps, and the capacity to make connections between different geographic phenomena. Students must be able to think spatially and understand how various factors interact to shape human behavior and the physical landscape.

During the exam, students are challenged to think critically and apply their knowledge to solve problems. They may be asked to analyze demographic data, interpret maps and graphs, or explain the impact of human activities on the environment. Students can earn college credit and stand out in college admissions by demonstrating their understanding of these complex concepts.

Furthermore, the AP Human Geography Exam provides students with valuable skills that extend beyond the classroom. The ability to think critically, analyze data, and make informed decisions is highly sought in many careers, including urban planning, environmental management, international relations, and market research. By mastering the content and skills tested on the exam, students are better prepared for future academic and professional success.

Why is the AP Human Geography Exam important?

The AP Human Geography Exam is essential because it can earn you college credit or advanced placement in college. By earning a high score on the exam, you can demonstrate your proficiency in the subject and potentially save time and money by skipping introductory college courses. Additionally, the exam can be a valuable evaluation tool for measuring your understanding of human geography.

Human geography is a fascinating field that explores the relationship between people and their environment. It delves into population distribution, cultural patterns, economic systems, urban development, and political organization. The AP Human Geography Exam allows students to showcase their knowledge and skills in these areas.

One of the key benefits of taking the AP Human Geography Exam is the potential to earn college credit. Many colleges and universities offer credit or advanced placement to students who score well on the exam. This means that you can start your college journey with a head start, having already completed a college-level course in human geography. Not only does this save you time, but it can also save you money by reducing the number of studies you need to take in college.

Moreover, the exam is a valuable evaluation tool for students and educators. For students, it provides an opportunity to assess their understanding of human geography and identify areas where they may need to develop their knowledge further. It allows them to gauge their progress and determine their strengths and weaknesses.

The AP Human Geography Exam helps educators evaluate the effectiveness of their teaching methods and curriculum. It provides valuable feedback on how well students have grasped the concepts and skills taught throughout the course. This feedback can improve instruction and ensure students are adequately prepared for college-level work.

Furthermore, the AP Human Geography Exam encourages critical thinking and analytical skills. It requires students to analyze and interpret data, maps, and other geographic information. This enhances their understanding of human geography and develops their ability to think critically and make informed decisions based on evidence.

Taking the AP Human Geography Exam, students also gain exposure to the rigors of a college-level assessment. The exam is designed to reflect the type of work students will encounter in college, helping them develop the necessary skills and mindset for success in higher education. It challenges students to think critically, synthesize information, and effectively communicate their ideas.

How long is the AP Human Geography Exam?

The AP Human Geography Exam is 2 hours and 15 minutes long. It consists of two sections, each contributing 50% to the total exam score:

Section I: Multiple Choice

• 60 questions
• 1-hour duration
• This section accounts for 50% of the exam score
• Approximately 30%–40% of the multiple-choice questions will reference stimulus material, including maps, tables, charts, graphs, images, infographics, and/or landscapes, roughly evenly divided between quantitative and qualitative sources.

Section II: Free Response

• 3 questions
• 1 hour 15 minutes duration
• This section also accounts for 50% of the exam score
• At least one of the free-response questions assesses students’ ability to analyze across geographic scales to explain spatial relationships .

What is on the AP Human Geography Exam?

The AP Human Geography Exam covers a wide range of topics that fall under the umbrella of human geography. This includes population, migration, culture, political geography, economic geography, urbanization, and more. The exam assesses your ability to analyze geographic patterns, understand spatial relationships, and apply geographic principles to real-world scenarios.

Multiple-Choice Section

The multiple-choice section of the AP Human Geography Exam is 1 hour long and consists of 60 questions, which account for 50% of the total exam score. The questions test students’ skills in defining, explaining, analyzing, and interpreting geographic data and concepts. Students will be asked to analyze geographic concepts, processes, patterns, and relationships, interpret geographic information represented visually in maps, satellite images, photographs, cartoons, and landscapes, and analyze spatial relationships using geographic scales. 

Tackling the Multiple-Choice Section

To tackle the multiple-choice section of the AP Human Geography exam effectively, students can follow these strategies:

• Utilize resources that offer practice tests and questions similar to those on the AP Human Geography exam .
• Aim to tackle at least two multiple-choice questions every day to reinforce critical concepts .
• Develop skills in defining, explaining, analyzing, and interpreting geographic data and concepts, as these are the focus of the multiple-choice questions .
• Approximately 30%–40% of the multiple-choice questions will reference stimulus material, including maps, tables, charts, graphs, images, infographics, and/or landscapes, so it’s essential to practice interpreting and analyzing such visual information .
• Since the multiple-choice section consists of 60 questions to be completed in 1 hour, it’s crucial to practice time management and ensure that each question is answered within the allocated time .
• Consider using reputable resources such as UWorld’s Learning Tools for AP Courses, which provides timed practice questions replicating the time constraints of the AP Human Geography exam .

By consistently practicing with multiple-choice questions, analyzing geographic data and concepts, and effectively managing time, students can approach the multiple-choice section of the AP Human Geography exam with confidence and perform at their best

Free-Response Section

The free-response section of the AP Human Geography Exam is 1 hour and 15 minutes long and consists of three questions, each contributing 7 raw points to the total exam score. The free-response questions present students with authentic geographic situations or scenarios and assess their ability to describe, explain, and apply geographic concepts, processes, or models as they analyze geographic patterns, relationships, and outcomes in applied contexts.

The free-response section includes three questions, and each question has a different format:

• Question 1 does not include any stimuli.
• Question 2 includes 1 stimulus (data, image, or map).
• Question 3 includes 2 stimuli (data, images, and/or maps).

At least one of the free-response questions assesses students’ ability to analyze across geographic scales to explain spatial relationships. Students will be asked to demonstrate their knowledge and critical thinking about the content of AP Human Geography and demonstrate a well-thought-out structure that is easy for a reader to follow.

Here are some sample questions and answers from previous exams so you’d know what to expect:

Tackling the free-response section

To tackle the free-response section of the AP Human Geography exam effectively, students can follow these strategies:

• Before writing, read the prompt carefully and plan your response to ensure you address all parts of the question .
• Allocate time for each question and ensure that you have enough time to answer all three questions .
• Develop skills in describing, explaining, and applying geographic concepts, processes, or models as they analyze geographic patterns, relationships, and outcomes in applied contexts .
• Use evidence from the course to support your analysis and explanation .
• If there is a map, chart, graph, or diagram with the question, study it carefully before beginning your answer .
• Pay close attention to the task verbs used in the free-response questions, as each directs you to complete a specific type of response .
• Structure your response by using task verbs such as compare, define, explain, analyze, and evaluate.
• Practice with free-response questions from previous AP exams to compare your responses with those already evaluated and scored .
• Use the College Board’s Exam Questions and Scoring Information section to review the latest released free-response questions and scoring guidelines .

By planning responses, analyzing geographic data and concepts, interpreting stimulus material, using task verbs, and practicing with free-response questions, students can approach the free-response section of the AP Human Geography exam with confidence and perform at their best.

Topics Covered on the AP Human Geography Exam

The AP Human Geography Exam covers a wide range of topics, including:

1. Population

One important aspect of human geography is the study of population. This includes understanding population growth, distribution, and density. You will explore concepts such as birth rates, death rates, fertility rates, and migration patterns. Additionally, you will analyze the impact of population growth on resources, urbanization, and the environment.

2. Migration

Migration is another crucial topic in human geography. You will examine different types of migration, including internal migration (within a country) and international migration (between countries). You will explore the reasons behind migration, such as economic opportunities, political factors, and environmental factors. Understanding migration patterns and their consequences is essential to grasp the complexities of human geography.

Culture plays a significant role in shaping human geography. You will delve into the study of cultural traits, including language, religion, ethnicity, and customs. Understanding cultural landscapes and how they evolve is crucial to analyzing the spatial distribution of different cultures. You will also explore the impact of cultural diffusion and globalization on local and regional cultures.

4. Political Geography

Political geography focuses on studying political systems, boundaries, and territorial divisions. You will examine concepts such as states, nations, sovereignty, and governance. Additionally, you will analyze geopolitical issues, including conflicts, alliances, and the impact of political decisions on human geography. Understanding political geography is essential to comprehend the complexities of power dynamics and their spatial implications.

5. Economic Geography

Economic geography explores the spatial distribution of economic activities, including industries, trade, and development. You will analyze financial systems, globalization, and regional disparities. Understanding the factors that influence economic growth, such as resources, infrastructure, and labor, is crucial to grasp the economic dimensions of human geography.

6. Urbanization

The urbanization process and its impact on human geography is another significant topic covered in the exam. You will explore the growth of cities, urban planning, and the social, economic, and environmental challenges associated with urban areas. Understanding the spatial organization of cities, including land use patterns, transportation systems, and urban sprawl, is essential to analyze the complexities of urban geography.

These are just a few examples of the topics covered in the AP Human Geography Exam. The exam requires you to apply your knowledge of these subjects to analyze real-world scenarios and make connections between different geographic concepts. By studying these topics in-depth, you will develop a comprehensive understanding of human geography and its relevance in today’s world.

As outlined in the CED, the framework for AP Human Geography delineates specific skills that students should engage in throughout the year. These skills are designed to cultivate their ability to think and act like geographers:

How hard is the AP Human Geography Exam?

Determining the difficulty level of the AP Human Geography exam is subjective, but factors such as pass rate, amount of study materials, and existing subject skills are significant considerations. Students tend to regard the course content as “easy,” while the exam is difficult.

The course material and the amount of material the curriculum covers can also influence the difficulty of the exam. AP Human Geography requires seven units of study in topics designed to build spatial perception and comparative skills. The exam is designed to test a higher level of content synthesis and critical thinking, which can make it more challenging than a regular human geography course.

How to study for the AP Human Geography Exam

Test your knowledge – The best place to start preparing for the AP Human Geography Exam – and any test for that matter – is to get an accurate assessment of your current knowledge. These formative assessments conducted at the onset of your studying can help you better understand what you already know and what you need to study more. As we’ll explain later, this initial test also makes it easier to see your progress throughout your preparation for the exam.

The College Board site for the AP Human Geography Exam is a great place to start since it provides visitors with accurate sample test questions. If you’re looking for something more comprehensive, you’ll want to invest in a complete sample test that can be found for free online in a few places (like here and here ) or in book form through various sources. We’ll explore a few of these options in the following section.

Study the material – After you better understand your knowledge regarding significant topics covered on the Human Geography Exam, you can study some of the material in greater detail. Since the exam includes questions regarding maps, figures, and vocab, it’s best to get reliable study resources to make your test preparation more efficient and accurate.

AdmissionSight strongly recommends the Barron AP Human Geography study resource. This is easily one of the most comprehensive, complete, and reputable study guides. However, some people suggest that the book is too lengthy. If you find studying textbook-like resources helpful, this is the best option. For those students looking for something less dense, the Princeton Review has another popular resource: Cracking the AP Human Geography Exam . This concise resource comes with a handy vocab list and detailed maps.

The long-standing format of the AP Human Geography Exam makes it easier to find reliable and relevant studying resources online. Many AP teachers post comprehensive study guides and outlines online that anyone can access. Even one high school in Florida offers its entire AP Human Geography Course content online. This includes selected readings, test reviews, notes, and presentations. You can find another thorough 66-page study guide here . The test’s stress on vocabulary and specific theories makes studying with flashcards very efficient. You can search Quizlet for free flashcards created by fellow students or buy a set along with the Barron study guide.

Practice multiple-choice questions – The simplicity of multiple-choice questions can lead students to assume that preparation for the first section of the AP Human Geography Exam isn’t necessary. However, the skills and concepts tested in this format shouldn’t be taken lightly. You can put your abilities to the test by answering some practice multiple-choice questions you find in study guides or through various online sources. You can take the whole multiple-choice section if you can get a few complete practice exams. As you practice, keep track of what bits of information are still giving you trouble. You’ll want to review this theory before taking the actual exam.

Practice free-response essays – The section portion of the AP Human Geography test is significantly more involved than the multiple-choice section. Most of this exam’s free-response questions consist of multiple parts that request you to prove your understanding of a specific topic differently. You should watch for the task verbs to answer the question, including terms like forecast, predict, describe, explain, contrast, compare, and define. It’s a good idea to circle or underline these words to keep track of each response you need. One of the quickest ways to lose points on this test is not to answer the free-response questions thoroughly.

When we divide this section’s time limit by the number of free-response questions on the exam, we see that students are left with roughly 25 minutes per answer. Outlining your main ideas before starting your essay is a great way to organize your thoughts for a more composed response. You’ll probably have to ditch a typical intro and conclusion to dive directly into the meat of the content. Many of the study resources we mentioned previously contain example free-response questions you can use to prepare for the AP Human Geography Exam. While the answers to the multiple-choice questions are straightforward and objective, you might need to have a friend or teacher grade your free-response sample questions since they’re a little more subjective.

Mimic the test settings – As you’ve probably experienced in the past, studying theory and question types doesn’t prepare you for other factors present during the actual exam. One of the best ways to determine your readiness for the real AP Human Geography Exam is to stage a mock test day yourself. Try to recreate the test settings by finding a quiet space where you won’t be distracted. Ensure all your notes, textbooks, and flashcards are out of reach. Use a comprehensive sample test the same length as the AP Human Geography Exam. Don’t forget to set a timer on your phone or alarm clock.

Tips on the day of the exam

On the day of the AP Human Geography Exam, it is crucial to be well-prepared and ensure you are in the right mindset. Here are some tips to help you perform at your best:

• Get a Good Night’s Sleep : Get enough sleep the night before the exam to be well-rested and mentally sharp.
• Eat a Healthy Breakfast: Fuel your brain and body with a nutritious meal before the exam to enhance focus and concentration.
• Arrive Early : Plan to arrive at the exam location early to avoid any unexpected delays or stress.
• Read the Instructions Carefully: Take the time to carefully read and understand each exam section’s instructions.
• Manage Your Time: Keep track of the time allotted for each section and pace yourself accordingly to ensure you have enough time to answer all the questions.
• Stay Calm and Confident: Stay calm and confident throughout the exam. Trust in your preparation and abilities.

When is the AP Human Geography Exam in 2024?

The AP Human Geography exam in 2024 is scheduled for Tuesday, May 7, at 8:00 AM local time. For a complete list of the 2024 AP Exam dates, here’s a full list:

For more specific test dates and times, visit this College Board page .

When do AP scores come out?

AP scores are typically released in early to mid-July of the year the exams were taken. The exact release date may vary slightly from year to year, but students who took their AP exams in May can generally expect their scores to become available.

You can check for updates on the College Board’s official AP scores website if you are waiting for your AP scores. They will also email you when your scores are added to your score report. If you haven’t received your scores by mid-August, contacting AP Services for Students is recommended for assistance.

Post-exam tips

Once the AP Human Geography Exam is over, there are a few things you can do to make the most of the experience:

• Reflect on Your Performance: Take some time to reflect on your performance in the exam and identify areas where you did well and areas where you could improve.
• Learn from Mistakes : If you made any mistakes during the exam, use them as learning opportunities for future exams or assessments.
• Review Exam Content: Review the content covered in the exam to reinforce your understanding of the subject and fill in any gaps in your knowledge.
• Celebrate Your Achievements: Regardless of your score, be proud of your efforts and celebrate the completion of the AP Human Geography Exam. It’s a significant accomplishment!

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Human Geography

• Defining human geography
• Cultural geography
• Economic geography
• Feminist geography
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New Books on Human Geography in the Library's Collections

Find new titles about Human Geography in the library's collections.

A short definition for Human Geography

The study of the interrelationships between people, place, and environment, and how these vary spatially and temporally across and between locations. Whereas physical geography concentrates on spatial and environmental processes that shape the natural world and tends to draw on the natural and physical sciences for its scientific underpinnings and methods of investigation, human geography concentrates on the spatial organization and processes shaping the lives and activities of people, and their interactions with places and nature. Human geography is more allied with the social sciences and humanities, sharing their philosophical approaches and methods ( see physical geography for a discussion on the relationship between human and physical geography; environmental geography ).

Human geography consists of a number of sub-disciplinary fields that focus on different elements of human activity and organization, for example, cultural geography , economic geography , health geography , historical geography , political geography , population geography , rural geography , social geography , transport geography , and urban geography . What distinguishes human geography from other related disciplines, such as development, economics, politics, and sociology, are the application of a set of core geographical concepts to the phenomena under investigation, including space , place , scale , landscape , mobility , and nature . These concepts foreground the notion that the world operates spatially and temporally, and that social relations do not operate independently of place and environment, but are thoroughly grounded in and through them. With respect to methods, human geography uses the full sweep of quantitative and qualitative methods from across the social sciences and humanities, mindful of using them to provide a thorough geographic analysis. It also places emphasis on fieldwork and mapping ( see cartography ), and has made a number of contributions to developing new methods and techniques, notably in the areas of spatial analysis , spatial statistics , and GIScience . The long-term development of human geography has progressed in tandem with that of the discipline more generally ( see geography ). Since the Quantitative Revolution in the 1950s and 1960s, the philosophy underpinning human geography research has diversified enormously. The 1970s saw the introduction of behavioural geography , radical geography , and humanistic geography . These were followed in the 1980s by a turn to political economy , the development of feminist geography , and the introduction of critical social theory underpinning the cultural turn . Together these approaches formed the basis for the growth of critical geography , and the introduction of postmodern and post-structural thinking into the discipline in the 1990s. These various developments did not fully replace the theoretical approaches developed in earlier periods, but rather led to further diversification of geographic thought. For example, quantitative geography continues to be a vibrant area of geographical scholarship, especially through the growth of GIScience. The result is that geographical thinking is presently highly pluralist in nature, with no one approach dominating.

Castree, N., Kitchin, R., & Rogers, A. (2013). " Human geography ." In A Dictionary of Human Geography . Oxford University Press. Retrieved 24 Jan. 2022  

Pages under the Human Geography guide include: Cultural geography ; Economic geography ; Feminist geography ; Geopolitics ; Migration studies ; Political geography ; Population studies ; Travel & Tourism ; and Urban geography .

In the Library's collection

Although Human Geography is scattered throughout the collections, there is a main section or call number range for the subject. That is GF . You can browse in that section of the stacks, Berry Level 4 , to see what's there.

Below is the subject search in the online catalog.

• human geography This is the main subject heading for searching the catalog.

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Articles and other writings about Human Geography can be found in many publications. Our collection includes several journals which look at Human Geography. A short list follows. You can also use the search box at the top of the page to find relevant articles.

• Next: Cultural geography >>
• Last Updated: May 16, 2024 3:20 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.dartmouth.edu/human_geography

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Theory and Methods

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This volume tackles the complex terrain of theory and methods, seeking to exemplify the major philosophical, social-theoretic and methodological developments - some with clear political and ethical implications - that have traversed human geography since the era of the 1960s when spatial science came to the fore. Coverage includes Marxist and humanistic geographies, and their many variations over the years, as well as ongoing debates about agency-structure and the concepts of time, space, place and scale. Feminist and other 'positioned' geographies, alongside poststructuralist and posthumanist geographies, are all evidenced, as well as writings that push against the very 'limits' of what human geography has embraced over these fifty plus years. The volume combines readings that are well-known and widely accepted as 'classic', with readings that, while less familiar, are valuable in how they illustrate different possibilities for theory and method within the discipline. The volume also includes a substantial introduction by the editor, contextualising the readings, and in the process providing a new interpretation of the last half-century of change within the thoughts and practices of human geography.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part i | 72  pages, spatial science and its critics, chapter 1 | 40  pages, a geographic methodology, chapter 2 | 12  pages, sensations and spatial science: gratification and anxiety in the production of ordered landscapes, chapter 3 | 20  pages, retheorizing economic geography: from the quantitative revolution to the “cultural turn”, part ii | 52  pages, marxist geography and its early reconstructions, chapter 4 | 14  pages, revolutionary and counter revolutionary theory in geography and the problem of ghetto formation, chapter 5 | 20  pages, the socio-spatial dialectic, chapter 6 | 16  pages, the matter of nature, part iii | 54  pages, humanistic geography and its early reconstructions, chapter 7 | 12  pages, humanistic geography, chapter 8 | 22  pages, practicing humanistic geography, chapter 9 | 18  pages, prospect, perspective and the evolution of the landscape idea, part iv | 62  pages, agency and structure, chapter 10 | 18  pages, human agency and human geography, chapter 11 | 18  pages, human agency and human geography revisited: a critique of new models’ of the self, chapter 12 | 24  pages, space and causality, or whatever happened to the subject, part v | 48  pages, time, space, place and space-time, chapter 13 | 18  pages, social reproduction and the time-geography of everyday life, chapter 14 | 8  pages, geography and the realm of passages, chapter 15 | 20  pages, politics and space/time, part vi | 66  pages, scaling human geographies, chapter 16 | 22  pages, is there a place for the rational actor a geographical critique of the rational choice paradigm*, chapter 17 | 24  pages, beyond state-centrism space, territoriality, and geographical scale in globalization studies, chapter 18 | 18  pages, human geography without scale, part vii | 2  pages, feminist and other ‘positioned’ geographies, chapter 19 | 20  pages, the geography of women: an historical introduction, chapter 20 | 18  pages, changing ourselves: a geography of position, chapter 21 | 18  pages, postcolonialising geography: tactics and pitfalls, chapter 22 | 28  pages, i lost an arm on my last trip home: black geographies, part viii | 2  pages, poststructuralist geographies, chapter 23 | 10  pages, geography and power: the work of michel foucault, chapter 24 | 18  pages, understanding diversity: the problem of/for “theory”, chapter 25 | 14  pages, my dinner with derrida, or spatial analysis and poststructuralism do lunch, chapter 26 | 26  pages, poststructuralist geographies: the essential selection, part ix | 2  pages, posthumanist geographies, chapter 27 | 26  pages, inhuman/nonhuman/human: actor-network theory and the prospects for a nondualistic and symmetrical perspective on nature and society, chapter 28 | 24  pages, the body as “place”, chapter 29 | 16  pages, making connections and thinking through emotions: between geography and psychotherapy, chapter 30 | 14  pages, from born to made: technology, biology and space, part x | 2  pages, limits to human geography, chapter 31 | 12  pages, hemming the way, chapter 32 | 15  pages, coming out of geography: towards a queer epistemology, chapter 33 | 14  pages, neo-critical geography, or, the flat pluralist world of business class.

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Human Geography

An Overview of Human Geography

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• Physical Geography
• Political Geography
• Country Information
• Key Figures & Milestones
• Urban Geography
• M.A., Geography, California State University - East Bay
• B.A., English and Geography, California State University - Sacramento

Human geography is one of the two major branches of geography, together with physical geography . Human geography is also called cultural geography. It is the study of the many cultural aspects found throughout the world and how they relate to the spaces and places where they originate and the spaces and places they then travel to, as people continually move across various areas.

Some of the main cultural phenomena studied in human geography include language, religion, different economic and governmental structures, art, music, and other cultural aspects that explain how and/or why people function as they do in the areas in which they live. Globalization is also becoming increasingly important to the field of human geography as it is allowing these specific aspects of culture to travel across the globe easily.

Cultural landscapes are important to the field because they link culture to the physical environments in which people live. A cultural landscape can either limit or nurture the development of various aspects of culture. For instance, people living in a rural area are often more culturally tied to the natural environment around them than those living in a large metropolitan area. This is generally the focus of the "Man-Land Tradition" in the Four Traditions of geography, which studies the human impact on nature, the impact of nature on humans, and people's perception of the environment.

History of Human Geography

Human geography developed out of the University of California, Berkeley and was led by Professor Carl Sauer . He used landscapes as the defining unit of geographic study and said that cultures develop because of the landscape and also, conversely, help to develop the landscape. Sauer's work and the cultural geography of today are highly qualitative in contrast to the quantitative methodology used in physical geography.

Human Geography Today

Human geography is still practiced, and more specialized fields within it have developed to further aid in the study of cultural practices and human activities as they relate spatially to the world. Such specialized fields include feminist geography, children's geography, tourism studies, urban geography , the geography of sexuality and space, and political geography .

• An Overview of Cultural Geography
• The 5 Themes of Geography
• What Is Physical Geography?
• Geography 101
• Biography of Carl O. Sauer
• Major Sub-Disciplines of Geography
• Geography Definition
• Geography Degree
• Overview of Political Geography
• Important Geographical Journals
• Definition of Geography
• Geography for Kids
• The Four Traditions of Geography
• Regional Geography Overview
• Cultural Ecology

1st Edition

Regions Critical Essays in Human Geography

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Description

This volume gathers a collection of the most seminal essays written by leading experts in the field, which identify or signal many of the changing directions of regional research in geography during the past fifty years. Various forms of 'new regionalism' or 'new regional geography' have emerged over the last several decades, especially in political and economic geography, but in general the region has been a concept in declining use. Despite this, the region has gained new currency in sub-areas of political and economic geography and a so-called 'new regionalism' has emerged in studies of the changing nature of the nation-state in a globalizing economy. Taken together, the essays in this volume provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of academic developments in this area of geographical research.

Table of Contents

J. Nicholas Entrikin

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Africa: human geography.

Africa is sometimes nicknamed the "Mother Continent" as it's the oldest inhabited continent on Earth.

Geology, Geography, Human Geography, Physical Geography, Social Studies, World History

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Africa, the second-largest continent , is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the Indian Ocean, and the Atlantic Ocean. It is divided in half almost equally by the Equator . The continent includes the islands of Cape Verde, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, and Comoros. Africa’s physical geography , environment and resources , and human geography can be considered separately. The origin of the name “Africa” is greatly disputed by scholars . Most believe it stems from words used by the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Romans. Important words include the Egyptian word Afru-ika , meaning “Motherland”; the Greek word aphrike , meaning “without cold”; and the Latin word aprica , meaning “sunny.” Today, Africa is home to more countries than any other continent in the world. These countries are: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, Sudan, South Sudan, Chad, Niger, Mali, Mauritania, Senegal, The Gambia, Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Burkina Faso, Togo, Benin, Nigeria, Cameroon, Central Africa Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Angola, Namibia, Botswana, South Africa, Lesotho, Eswatini, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Ethiopia, Djibouti, Eritrea and the island countries of Cape Verde, Madagascar, Mauritius, Seychelles, and Comoros. Cultural Geography Historic Cultures The African continent has a unique place in human history. Widely believed to be the “cradle of humankind,” Africa is the only continent with fossil evidence of human beings ( Homo sapiens ) and their ancestors through each key stage of their evolution . These include the Australopithecines, our earliest ancestors; Homo habilis , our tool-making ancestors; and Homo erectus , a more robust and advanced relative to Homo habilis that was able to walk upright. These ancestors were the first to develop stone tools, to move out of trees and walk upright, and, most importantly, to explore and migrate . While fossils of Australopithecines and Homo habilis have only been found in Africa, examples of Homo erectus have been found in the Far East, and their tools have been excavated throughout Asia and Europe. This evidence supports the idea that the species of Homo erectus that originated in Africa was the first to successfully migrate and populate the rest of the world. This human movement, or migration, plays a key role in the cultural landscape of Africa. Geographers are especially interested in migration as it relates to the way goods, services, social and cultural practices, and knowledge are spread throughout the world. Two other migration patterns, the Bantu Migration and the African slave trade , help define the cultural geography of the continent. The Bantu Migration was a massive migration of people across Africa about 2,000 years ago. The Bantu Migration is the most important human migration to have occurred since the first human ancestors left Africa more than a million years ago. Lasting for 1,500 years, the Bantu Migration involved the movement of people whose language belonged to the Kongo-Niger language group. The common Kongo-Niger word for human being is bantu . The Bantu Migration was a southeastern movement. Historians do not agree on why Bantu-speaking people moved away from their homes in West Africa’s Niger Delta Basin. They first moved southeast, through the rain forests of Central Africa. Eventually, they migrated to the savannas of the southeastern and southwestern parts of the continent, including what is today Angola and Zambia. The Bantu Migration had an enormous impact on Africa’s economic , cultural, and political practices. Bantu migrants introduced many new skills into the communities they interacted with, including sophisticated farming and industry . These skills included growing crops and forging tools and weapons from metal. These skills allowed Africans to cultivate new areas of land that had a wide variety of physical and climatic features. Many hunter-gatherer communities were assimilated , or adopted, into the more technologically advanced Bantu culture. In turn, Bantu people adopted skills from the communities they encountered, including animal husbandry , or raising animals for food. This exchange of skills and ideas greatly advanced Africa’s cultural landscape, especially in the eastern, central, and southern regions of the continent. Today, most of the population living in these regions is descended from Bantu migrants or from mixed Bantu- indigenous origins. The third massive human migration in Africa was the African slave trade. Between the 15th and 19th centuries, more than 15 million Africans were transported across the Atlantic Ocean to be sold as slaves in North and South America. Millions of slaves were also transported within the continent, usually from Central Africa and Madagascar to North Africa and the European colony of South Africa. Millions of Africans died in the slave trade. Most slaves were taken from the isolated interior of the continent. They were sold in the urban areas on the West African coast. Thousands died in the brutal process of their capture, and thousands more died on the forced migration to trading centers. Even more lost their lives on the treacherous voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. The impacts of slavery on Africa are widespread and diverse . Computerized calculations have projected that if there had been no slave trade, the population of Africa would have been 50 million instead of 25 million in 1850. Evidence also suggests that the slave trade contributed to the long-term colonization and exploitation of Africa. Communities and infrastructure were so damaged by the slave trade that they could not be rebuilt and strengthened before the arrival of European colonizers in the 19th century.

While Africans suffered greatly during the slave trade, their influence on the rest of the world expanded. Slave populations in North and South America made tremendous economic , political, and cultural contributions to the societies that enslaved them. The standard of living in North and South America—built on agriculture, industry , communication , and transportation —would be much lower if it weren’t for the hard, forced labor of African slaves. Furthermore, many of the Western Hemisphere’s cultural practices, especially in music, food, and religion , are a hybrid of African and local customs. Contemporary Cultures Contemporary Africa is incredibly diverse , incorporating hundreds of native languages and indigenous groups. The majority of these groups blend traditional customs and beliefs with modern societal practices and conveniences. Three groups that demonstrate this are the Maasai, Tuareg, and Bambuti. Maasai peoples are the original settlers of southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. The Maasai are nomadic pasturalists . Nomadic pastoralists are people who continually move in order to find fresh grasslands or pastures for their livestock . The Maasai migrate throughout East Africa and survive off the meat, blood, and milk of their cattle. The Maasai are famous for their striking red robes and rich traditional culture. Young Maasai men between the ages of 15 and 30 are known as moran , or “warriors.” Moran live in isolation in unpopulated wilderness areas, called “the bush.” During their time as moran, young Maasai men learn tribal customs and develop strength, courage, and endurance. Even though some remain nomadic, many Maasai have begun to integrate themselves into the societies of Kenya and Tanzania. Modern ranching and wheat cultivation are becoming common. Maasai also support more tribal control of water resources . Women are pressuring the tribe for greater civil rights, as the Maasai is one of the most male-dominated societies in the world. The Tuareg are a pastoralist society in North and West Africa. The harsh climate of the Sahara and the Sahel has influenced Tuareg culture for centuries. Traditional Tuareg clothing serves historical and environmental purposes. Head wraps called cheches protect the Tuareg from the Saharan sun and help conserve body fluids by limiting sweat. Tuareg men also cover their face with the cheche as a formality when meeting someone for the first time. Conversation can only become informal when the more powerful man uncovers his mouth and chin. Light, sturdy gowns called bubus allow for cool airflow while deflecting heat and sand. Tuaregs are often called the “blue men of the Sahara” for the blue-colored bubus they wear in the presence of women, strangers, and in-laws . The Tuareg have updated these traditional garments, bringing in modern color combinations and pairing them with custom sandals and silver jewelry they make by hand. These updated styles are perhaps best seen during the annual Festival in the Desert. This three-day event, held in the middle of the Sahara, includes singing competitions, concerts, camel races, and beauty contests. The festival has rapidly expanded from a local event to an international destination supported by tourism . The Bambuti is a collective name for four populations native to Central Africa—the Sua, Aka, Efe, and Mbuti. The Bambuti live primarily in the Congo Basin and Ituri Forest. Sometimes, these groups are called “pygmies,” although the term is often considered offensive. Pygmy is a term used to describe various ethnic groups whose average height is unusually low, below 1.5 meters (5 feet). The Bambuti are believed to have one of the oldest existing bloodlines in the world. Ancient Egyptian records show that the Bambuti have been living in the same area for 4,500 years. Geneticists are interested in the Bambuti for this reason. Many researchers conclude that their ancestors were likely one of the first modern humans to migrate out of Africa. Bambuti groups are spearheading human rights campaigns aimed at increasing their participation in local and international politics . The Mbuti, for instance, are pressuring the government to include them in the peace process of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Mbuti leaders argue that their people were killed, forced into slavery, and even eaten during the Congo Civil War, which officially ended in 2003. Mbuti leaders have appeared at the United Nations to gather and present testimony on human rights abuses during and after the war. Their efforts led to the presence of U.N. peacekeeping forces in the Ituri Forest. Political Geography Africa’s history and development have been shaped by its political geography. Political geography is the internal and external relationships between various governments, citizens, and territories. Historic Issues The great kingdoms of West Africa developed between the 9th and 16th centuries. The Kingdom of Ghana (Ghana Empire ) became a powerful empire through its gold trade, which reached the rest of Africa and parts of Europe. Ghanaian kings controlled gold-mining operations and implemented a system of taxation that solidified their control of the region for about 400 years. The Kingdom of Mali (Mali Empire ) expanded the Kingdom of Ghana’s trade operations to include trade in salt and copper. The Kingdom of Mali’s great wealth contributed to the creation of learning centers where Muslim scholars from around the world came to study. These centers greatly added to Africa’s cultural and academic enrichment. The Kingdom of Songhai (Songhai Empire ) combined the powerful forces of Islam , commercial trade, and scholarship . Songhai kings expanded trade routes , set up a new system of laws, expanded the military , and encouraged scholarship to unify and stabilize their empire . Their economic and social power was anchored by the Islamic faith.

Colonization dramatically changed Africa. From the 1880s to the 1900s, almost all of Africa was exploited and colonized, a period known as the “Scramble for Africa.” European powers saw Africa as a source of raw materials and a market for manufactured goods. Important European colonizers included Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, and Italy. The legacy of colonialism haunts Africa today. Colonialism forced environmental , political, social, and religious change to Africa. Natural resources , including diamonds and gold, were over- exploited . European business owners benefitted from trade in these natural resources , while Africans labored in poor conditions without adequate pay. European powers drew new political borders that divided established governments and cultural groups. These new boundaries also forced different cultural groups to live together. This restructuring process brought out cultural tensions, causing deep ethnic conflict that continues today. In Africa, Islam and Christianity grew with colonialism. Christianity was spread through the work of European missionaries, while Islam consolidated its power in certain undisturbed regions and urban centers. World War II (1939-1945) empowered Africans to confront colonial rule. Africans were inspired by their service in the Allies ’ forces and by the Allies ’ commitment to the rights of self- government . Africans’ belief in the possibility of independence was further supported by the independence of India and Pakistan in 1947. Mahatma Gandhi, an Indian independence leader who began his career in South Africa, said: “I venture to think that the Allied declaration that the Allies are fighting to make the world safe for the freedom of the individual and for democracy sounds hollow so long as India, and for that matter Africa, are exploited by Great Britain.” By 1966, all but six African countries were independent nation-states. Funding from the Soviet Union and independent African states was integral to the success of Africa’s independence movements. Regions in Africa continue to fight for their political independence . Western Sahara, for instance, has been under Moroccan control since 1979. The United Nations is currently sponsoring talks between Morocco and a Western Sahara rebel group called the Polisario Front, which supports independence . Contemporary Issues Managing inter-ethnic conflict continues to be an important factor in maintaining national, regional, and continent -wide security . One of the chief areas of conflict is the struggle between sedentary and nomadic groups over control of resources and land. The conflict in Sudan’s Darfur region, for example, is between nomadic and sedentary communities who are fighting over water and grazing rights for livestock . The conflict also involves religious, cultural, and economic tensions. In 2003, the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA) and Justice and Equality Movement (JEM), groups from Darfur, attacked government targets in Sudan’s capital, Khartoum. The SLA and JEM were from different religious and cultural backgrounds than the government of Sudan. The Darfurians were mostly Christians, while the Sudanese government is mostly Muslim . Darfurians are mostly “black” Africans, meaning their cultural identity is from a region south of the Sahara. The Sudanese government is dominated by Arabs , people from North Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. The SLA and JEM were mostly farmers. They claimed their land and grazing rights were consistently being trespassed by nomadic Arab groups. The Sudanese government responded violently to the attacks by the SLA and JEM. Many international organizations believe the government had a direct relationship with the Arab Janjaweed. The Janjaweed are militias , or independent armed groups. The Janjaweed routinely stole from, kidnapped, killed, and raped Darfurians to force them off their land. The United Nations says up to 300,000 people have died as a result of war, hunger, and disease. More than 2.7 million people have fled their homes to live in insecure and impoverished camps. The international community’s response to this conflict has been extensive. Thousands of African Union-United Nation peacekeepers remain in the region. Other groups have organized peace talks between government officials and JEM, culminating in a 2009 peace deal signed in Qatar. The International Criminal Court in The Hague has issued an arrest warrant for Sudanese President Omar al-Bashir for war crimes and crimes against humanity . As a result of ethnic conflicts like the one in Darfur, Africa has more internally displaced people (IDPs) than any other continent . IDPs are people who are forced to flee their home but who, unlike a refugee , remain within their country’s borders. In 2009, there were an estimated 11.6 million IDPs in Africa, representing more than 40 percent of the world’s total IDP population. Regional and international political bodies have taken important steps in resolving the causes and effects of internal displacement. In October 2009, the African Union adopted the Kampala Convention, recognized as the first agreement in the world to protect the rights of IDPs. Future Issues Africa’s most pressing issues can be framed through the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). All 192 members of the United Nations and at least 23 international organizations have agreed to meet the goals by 2015. These goals are: 1) eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; 2) achieve universal primary education; 3) promote gender equality and empower women; 4) reduce child mortality rates; 5) improve maternal health; 6) combat HIV / AIDS , malaria , and other diseases; 7) ensure environmental sustainability; 8) develop a global partnership for development. These issues disproportionately affect Africa. Because of this, the international community has focused its attention on the continent . Many parts of Africa are affected by hunger and extreme poverty . In 2009, 22 of 24 nations identified as having “Low Human Development” on the U.N.’s Human Development Index were located in Sub-Saharan Africa. In many nations, gross domestic product per person is less than $200 per year, with the vast majority of the population living on less than $1 per day. Africa’s committee for the Millennium Development Goals focuses on three key issues: increasing agricultural productivity, building infrastructure , and creating nutrition and school feeding programs. Key goals include doubling food yields by 2012, halving the proportion of people without access to adequate water supply and sanitation , and providing universal access to critical nutrition . Scholars , scientists, and politicians believe climate change will negatively affect the economic and social well-being of Africa more than any other continent . Rising temperatures have caused precipitation patterns to change, crops to reach the upper limits of heat tolerance, pastoral farmers to spend more time in search of water supplies, and malaria and other diseases to spread throughout the continent . International organizations and agreements, such as the Copenhagen Accord, have guaranteed funding for measures to combat or reduce the effects of climate change in Africa. Many African politicians and scholars , however, are critical of this funding . They say it addresses the effects of climate change after they occur, rather than creating programs to prevent global warming , the current period of climate change . African leaders also criticize developed countries for not making more of an internal commitment to reducing carbon emissions . Developed countries, not Africa, are the world’s largest producers of carbon emissions . What is certain is that Africa will need foreign assistance in order to successfully combat climate change . Leaders within Africa and outside it will need to seek greater international cooperation for this to become a reality.

Population Density 41.9 people per square kilometer (109 per square mile), as of 2020

Highest Point Kilimanjaro, Tanzania (5,895 meters/19,340 feet)

Most Renewable Energy Capacity South Africa (6,065 megawatts), as of 2019

Largest Urban Area Cairo, Egypt (15.6 million people)

Largest Watershed Congo River (4 million square kilometers/1.55 million square miles)

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