• The candidate understood the question and interpreted the question satisfactorily.
• The Candidate referred to the relevant sociological theorists as it relates to the question.
• Since the question spoke about the Caribbean in general, the candidate used her initative to confine her case study support to one country in this case Jamaica - by citing relevant data relating to the issue (matrifocality). Altogether the essay was coherent.
Suggestions for an enhanced essay:
The candidate could have included data from one or two more other Caribbean territories to drive home the point that matrifocality is prevalent in the Caribbean.
• In 1997 Mondesire and Dunn noted the percentage of female headed
households in various countries:
Antigua 41.5%, Bahamas 35.8%, Barbados 45.3%, Grenada 42.7%,
Jamaica 38.0% and Trinidad & Tobago 28.1%.
In recent years, Edward Braithwaite's creolisation thesis has become a popular framework for understanding the social and cultural milieu of Caribbean societies. This essay explores the relevance of Braithwaite's creolisation thesis to an understanding of syncretism in different forms of religion in the region, drawing on empirical evidence from Haiti, Trinidad, Cuba, and Jamaica.
Braithwaite's creolisation thesis argues that the Caribbean is a "creole society," shaped by a process of cultural mixing and hybridization that has resulted in the creation of unique cultural forms. According to Braithwaite, this process of creolisation is not just a blending of different cultural elements, but a transformative process that gives rise to new cultural practices and identities. This process of creolisation is evident in the religious traditions of the Caribbean, where different religious beliefs and practices have been combined to create new forms of syncretism.
One of the most prominent forms of syncretism in the Caribbean is found in the vodou traditions of Haiti. Vodou is a blend of West African religious practices and Catholicism, reflecting the history of slavery and colonialism in Haiti. Vodou practitioners believe in a pantheon of spirits, or lwa, who are associated with different aspects of nature and human experience. These spirits are often identified with Catholic saints, reflecting the influence of Catholicism on vodou. The creolisation of vodou has resulted in a unique religious tradition that reflects the cultural and historical context of Haiti.
A similar process of creolisation can be seen in the religious practices of Trinidad, where the Orisha tradition of the Yoruba people has been combined with Catholicism to create a new syncretic tradition known as Shango. Shango combines the Yoruba belief in powerful deities, or Orishas, with Catholic practices such as baptism and confession. The result is a unique religious tradition that reflects the cultural and historical context of Trinidad.
In Cuba, the process of creolisation has given rise to Santeria, a syncretic tradition that combines Yoruba religious beliefs with Catholicism and other African spiritual practices. Santeria practitioners believe in a pantheon of deities, known as orishas, who are associated with different aspects of human life. These orishas are often identified with Catholic saints, reflecting the influence of Catholicism on Santeria. The creolisation of Santeria has resulted in a unique religious tradition that reflects the cultural and historical context of Cuba.
In Jamaica, the creolisation of Christianity has given rise to Rastafarianism, a syncretic religion that combines elements of Christianity, African spirituality, and political radicalism. Rastafarians believe in the divinity of Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia and see him as a messianic figure who will lead them to redemption. Rastafarianism reflects the cultural and historical context of Jamaica, where the legacy of slavery and colonialism has shaped the country's social and cultural landscape.
While Braithwaite's creolisation thesis is a useful framework for understanding the syncretic religious traditions of the Caribbean, it is not without its limitations. Some scholars have criticized the thesis for its emphasis on cultural hybridity at the expense of political and economic factors. Others have argued that the thesis overemphasizes the agency of creole cultures and overlooks the power relations that shape the process of creolisation.
In conclusion, Braithwaite's creolisation thesis provides a useful framework for understanding the syncretic religious traditions of the Caribbean. The thesis recognizes the ways in which various religious traditions have blended and transformed in the Caribbean context, with the result being a unique and dynamic religious culture. The empirical evidence presented in this essay from Haiti, Trinidad, Cuba, and Jamaica highlights the diverse ways in which syncretism has manifested in the region. However, it is important to note the limitations of Braithwaite's thesis and the critiques of it. Despite these limitations, the thesis remains relevant for understanding the social and cultural milieu of the Caribbean and its religious traditions. It is through this lens of creolisation that we can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities and richness of the Caribbean's syncretic religious landscape.
Matrifocality simply defined means pertaining to, or designating a family unit or structure headed by the mother and lacking a father permanently or for extended periods. A family defined by George Peter Murdock is “a social group characterized by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexually relationship, and one or more children, own or adopted, of the sexually cohabiting adults.
The Caribbean region is often characterized by sociologists as one in which the family structure is highly dysfunctional due to the fact that matrifocal families are the most common forms of families throughout the region. The predominance of this family structure has been highlighted in many studies done on the Caribbean. These include those done by Frazier, Herskovits, Elliot Liebow and Oscar Lewis. These studies support the writer’s view that the Caribbean is characterized by Matrifocality. Frazier believed that the matrifocal family derived from slavery retentions. He claimed that the way many Caribbean families are formed and structured was as a result of the influences from the days of slavery being retained in the Caribbean. These plantation experiences include the inability of the slave fathers to cohabit with and provide for their children. This was due to the fact that the white plantation owners forbade it and to keep them separated they often sold the males and the males and females lived in different quarters. Due to this practice under slavery, it is Frazier’s view that the males have developed a lazy and reluctant attitude when it comes to being an active member of their families.
Another factor is the fact that many of the slave women had either forced or consensual sexual relations with the white plantation owners. These white men did not claim their children and so the women had to bear the burden of raising the children all alone, and these practices he believes have been carried over into modern societies. Contradicting Frazier’s view is Herskovits. He believes that the Caribbean matrifocal family form, among others is as a result of African cultural retentions brought here by the slaves. These cultural retentions include their sexual relations and family patterns such as polygamy which was reinterpreted in Caribbean to produce progressive monogamy. This type of sexual relationship leads to a man having multiple sexual partners which may lead to multiple children with different women. As a result of this the father is unable to be an active member in the lives of all his children and so has to resort to arrangements such as visiting relationships and in some cases single parent families, usually headed by the female.
Another point highlighted by Herskovits was that in African Polygamist families the women had a certain kind of economic independence and so the men played a marginal role. It was as though the man was not necessary for the family to function effectively. This pattern, he believes, continued and was transmitted to the Caribbean when the slaves came here. So this would account for the marginal roles that men play in the lives of their families in the Caribbean. Elliot Liebow argued that matrifocal families in the Caribbean were due mainly to the economic position of blacks. Liebow sees female headed families resulting from the desertion by the husbands or male figures because he has insufficient funds to play the role of father and breadwinner. Faced with a situation of failure to perform his manly duties, men often desert their families. So he is of the view that the matrifocal families that result thereafter are as a result of low income and not poverty. This is to say that some men do not earn a substantial amount to invest in improving his economic standings. Most times he earns just enough to survive and so has no guarantee of provision should he invest. As a result of this his economic standings may remain the same or deteriorate over time. If this should happen he would be unable to carry out his duties as father and provider for his family. Most men do not want to be faced with this reality and so they abandon the situation by leaving the mother alone to care for the children. On the other hand, there is Oscar Lewis, whose view is contained in the concept of the culture of poverty. He believes that matrifocal families are as a result of poverty and states that Matrifocality has become a part of the subculture of the poor.
Also supporting Lewis’ view is Ulf Hannerz who argues that female-headed families are so common that to some degree they have become an expected and accepted alternative to the standard nuclear family. Therefore matrifocal families can be seen as not only a product of poverty but also of culture. So it is the view of Lewis and Hannerz that due to poverty, the presence of matrifocal families is normal. It is widely accepted in society and as such has become a product of culture. So it can be said that matrifocal families are prevalent in the Caribbean due to the presence of poverty.
To conclude, it can be said that the family structure that dominates the Caribbean is the matrifocal family. This is supported by the works of Frazier, who believes that the matrifocal family is as a result of slavery retentions, Herskovits, who claims that Matrifocality is as a result of African retentions and reinterpretations, Liebow, who is of the belief that Matrifocality is as a result of the economic position of the black men and the combined views of Lewis and Hannerz who both believe that the matrifocal family is as a result of poverty. Due to these studies and the fact that matrifocal families are very dominant in the region, the writer concludes that the assertion that the Caribbean is characterized by Matrifocality is a true assessment.
Written by: Anya
According to Functionalism, the family is a universal social institution in society that takes care of the needs of society. George. P. Murdock states that the family is a social group characterized by common residence, economic co-operation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes, at least two of whom who maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children own or adopted of these sexually co-habiting adults. According to Murdock the nuclear family is universal and performs four functions necessary for the survival of society. However many theorists argue that the nuclear family in not universal and there are several different family forms which fulfill the need of society. These include same-sex marriages, the Nayar in Kerala, India and the single-parent household. In the Caribbean there is a prominent and distinct family form; the matrilineal family of the African community. In this essay the prominence of the matrifocal family and the reason for its prevalence as well as other family forms that exist in the Caribbean will be discussed.
Simey contends that the . He states that the West Indian family is a loose-time organisation responsible for juvenile delinquency, poor nutrition and other social ills. However M.G Smith (1962) asserts that the system of plantation slavery in the Caribbean accounts largely for mother-headed households. When slaves were sold, family units were usually broken however mother and her dependent children were usually kept together. This lead to the male slave losing authority as head of the family as he now had to defer to the clout of the white slave master who with his male white counterparts had sexual access to all female slaves. In other words the matrifocal family is still present today because the model formed under slavery seems to have persisted. This theorist also argues that the black male is absent or marginal because of socio-economic issues such job insecurity, high under or unemployment, migration and low social and racial status. Elliot Liebow through his research, “Fally’s Corner” concurs with this argument with the findings of his research which affirm that . He possesses mainstream goals and values and regards a conventional family life as ideal and strives to play the mainstream role of father and breadwinner. He cannot provide for his family because of his lack of income he develops an inferiority complex and so deserts his family.
Herskovits and Frazier (1947) maintains that . In West Africa, the culture of polygyny was practised because of this the female had to fend for herself, she had to be economically independent and this meant that the husband played a relatively marginal role in family life. They state that this practice has continued up to today with common-law type relationships where a man has relationship with woman A,B,C and D. This can be concurred with R.T Smith’s (1973) research where he coined the term visiting unions where a woman to support herself and her family would engage in relationships with other men when the “main of the house” was absent. These findings are also supported by Edith Clarke’s (1957) study ‘My Mother Who Fathered Me” who stated that marriage and wealth was positively correlated. In the poorest of the three towns that she studied she found that marriage was least common as it could not be afforded so matrifocal families were an ordinary part of life.
Oscar Lewis states that . The poor have certain norms and values which keep them poor. One of these norms would be that of single-parent households as such children inherit this custom as ordinary and typical and so transmit this onto future generations. Though, it must be noted that even though the matrilineal family is common in low income, black communities it is not rampant in other ethnic groups or classes. Even though indentureship had devastating effects on the Indian family, the communities has overcome the effects of sexual imbalance and barrack living and has been able to maintain very strong kinship ties and as such the extended family is almost ubiquitous is this society.
According to Morton Klass, . However, according to Nevadonsky and Angrosino the traditional East Indian family has reacted to the economic and political changes in wider society and has adapted their values and lifestyles to suit. The modern Indian family was developed in the Caribbean and satisfies socio-economic functions. Robert Bell states that the modern East Indian family is becoming more inclined toward the nuclear family form seeing it as a sign of more modernity, independence and economic advancement. In addition races like European descendants may be more prone to follow the nuclear family type structure. In contemporary times, the reasons for matrifocality may have changed slightly. Women have become more educated and economically dependent and as such many have chose to parent children outside of marriage as single parents.
In conclusion, one cannot say that there is a correspondence between the matrifocal family and the Caribbean society as a whole. In terms of the working-class black community in the Caribbean matrifocality does correspond to that way of life but when other races are studied it is realized that female-headed households are not common in these areas. Therefore the matrifocal family corresponds mainly with the black, working class community.
Question: Discuss the relevance of ONE sociological perspective to an understanding of the distribution of educational opportunities in a named Caribbean society. Support your response with reference to any TWO of the following: social class, gender, government policy. Reference can also be made to a relevant empirical study in a named Caribbean society
Unit & Module: Unit 1 Module 2 - Social Institutions, Family, Religion & Education Year: 2010 Essay:
Educational opportunities seem to be distributed quite unfairly and unequally, Marxists tend to agree with this. In this essay, the Marxist views on the distribution of educational opportunities with reference to social class and government policy in Jamaica will be discussed. Firstly, it is important to note what Marxists generally contend about educational systems and the opportunities they offer to students. Marxists believe that education is a mechanism for social control and seeks to create laborers for capitalists. The students they aim to make laborers are usually of the lower class. They are certain that the system to meritocracy is an illusion and only seeks to alienate its students. Secondly, when considering the social class of persons seeking education, there is clearly some unequal distribution of educational opportunities in Jamaica. Students are often banned together by their social class or position in society and given educational opportunities that do not point them towards their absolute best but rather to jobs that suit the capitalists in society. An example of this is would be teaching lower-class students vocational training rather than engaging them in classes that are geared towards academics. Also with the banding of students, Marxists believe that the educational system socializes students into accepting their positions in society and does not attempt to provide them with educational opportunities that would lead to good jobs in the future that would allow them social mobility. With the educational system pushing its students of the low social class towards vocational training, they consequently ignore any special talents those students may have. There is also an unequal distribution of educational opportunities because of government policies. National scholarships funded by the government often come in small numbers. Rewards like these are utilized to motivate students but tend to alienate them in preparation to be further alienated in the workplace. Also, with some government-funded scholarships, they are large qualifications that are hard to meet. Marxists argue, unlike functionalists, that the educational system is in fact not meritocratic as it claims to be. Also in countries like Jamaica where secondary schools are not funded by the government, it restricts any future social mobility for students who cannot afford the tuition. Secondary school education is highly valued in the Caribbean and is a stepping stone to college or university which their degrees or certifications are necessary for acquiring a job. Therefore lacking these things prevents students from moving up the social ladder and further cement the view of Marxists that the educational system aims to teach students conformity to unequal educational opportunities. In conclusion, contrary to the beliefs of Functionalists theorists, equality of educational opportunity is indeed an illusion. Factors like social class and government policies do play a significant role in how a student is socialized in the educational system and how they make it out. Marxists are of the firm view that the system’s desires are to make students “comfortable” with the unequal distribution of educational opportunities as well as to use them to create an efficient labor force for the capitalists in society.
Unit 1 Module 3 | What are the most significant processes that have affected change in the West Indian stratification system over the past two centuries? Over the last two centuries, the West Indian stratification system has experienced significant changes that resulted from numerous factors. Though the social structure of the Caribbean has been greatly influenced by the impact of colonialism and its accompanying influences, the writer wishes to discuss the factors the most significant factors that have effected change in the West Indian stratification system. Over the years, the social structure in the Caribbean has undergone significant transformation. In Trinidad and Tobago, it is evident that the social structure has moved from one that was closed to one that is open. In open societies, there are opportunities for social mobility,social status can be achieved through an individual's efforts. Thus,membership within certain social spheres are dependent upon factors that individuals can control. Several factors have accounted for the change of the Caribbean's social structure from being closed to open. Selwyn Ryan asserted that the major vehicles for the transformation of the Caribbean social structure has been political independence, transformation of the economy,education and the creation of new wealth. The emergence of self governance,policies and strategies were initiated to ensure that large numbers of the population were given equal opportunities to experience social mobility and a higher standard of living. Gender policies have become an important part of the political culture in the Caribbean , which has served to change the social structure of Caribbean states. Increasingly women have successfully been integrated into the public domain, excelling in the field of education, business,fashion, interior decoration , politics and several other fields of endeavour from which traditionally they had been restricted to participate in at all levels of society. Miller asserts that "women have been advancing their social positions through education in all levels". Thus, women have attained significant upward social mobility, over the last two centuries. Further still Miller noted that female upward social mobility has also emerged into a social phenomena known as the feminization of professions, since "the enrollment at the teacher's colleges reflects a reversal of the male dominance". Although the Caribbean enjoys an open stratification system in the contemporary period, it is worthy to note that its colonial history with the implementation of plantation slavery (an extreme and violent version of the European traditional estate system), created a new unfree society in which social mobility was unknown, status was ascribed based on ethnic, phenotypic and economic factors. The unfree lacked opportunities for upward social mobility. The different ethnic groups inhabited the same geographical space, but lived in mutual hostility towards one another. M.G . Smith surmised that sugar plantations caused a great shift in the stratification system, in which race colour and socio - economic status were linked together in a caste-like system. In conclusion, the stratification system has moved from one that was primarily a closed system to an open system of stratification. Self governance has led to the adoption of policies and strategies to ensure that the majority of the population were given equal opportunities to experience social mobility and a higher standard of living. Gender changes have also given rise to the upward social mobility of women at all levels. All of these changes have been the result of political independence, the transformation of the economy, the availability of education and the creation of wealth as succinctly stated by Selwyn Ryan. | |
Unit 1 Module 3 | Of What relevance to the Caribbean is Davis and Moore's theory on social stratification? Social stratification is the distinct division and ranking of social groups at different levels in any society. Functionalist theorists Davis and Moore in their theory of stratification argue that social stratification contributes to the maintenance of society, therefore making it useful. Generally, Davis and Moore believe that social stratification effectively provides a mechanism for role allocation and performance. Caribbean countries are highly stratified and possess an open stratification systems after having a closed social system that dominated its colonial past. In this essay, we shall attempt to discuss the relevance of Davis and Moore's theory on social stratification to the Caribbean social reality. Davis and Moore's assumptions are based on the presumption that a differential system of rewards must be offered to attract the right talent to fill the various social positions available in the social structure. This assumption may be exemplified by noting that in general professional positions such as doctors, lawyers and politicians, possess more employment and social benefits than a construction or sanitation worker. Davis and Moore assumes that more skill is involved in filling the former positions as opposed to the latter positions. Further, Davis and Moore asserts that, the more skill and training involved in becoming a trained professional such as a doctor, lawyer etc... implies that the role is functionally more important than other positions. This 'modus operandi' as outlined by Davis and Moore is in effect in the contemporary Caribbean society, since with the advent of independence and the univeralization of educational opportunities for Caribbean citizens, achievement has increasingly become based on achievement, creating a meritocracy which contrasts with the closed ascriptive social stratification system of the Caribbean's colonial past. Melvin Tumin opposes the views held by Davis and Moore, he argues that there is no unanimously accepted way of measuring the functional importance of social positions, as such all roles may be equally functional for society. Davis and Moore's second assumption for differential rewards is that natural ability an talent may not be widespread in society, therefore, high rewards should be offered in order to motivate persons with those skills to compete, resulting in the position being filled by the most talented. In Trinidad and Tobago, there is a demand for nurses and doctors, the government has sent out highly attractive incentive packages to induce Caricom nationals to fill these positions in Trinidad and Tobago. Additionally, Jamaican and continental African born hairstylists are highly sought after and charge higher fees for hair styling services in comparison with Trinidadian local born and trained hair stylists. The empirical evidence cited before supports Davis and Moore's assertion that high rewards should be offered in order to motivate persons with those skills to compete, resulting in the position being filled by the most talented. Tumin response to Davis and Moore's postulation is that there is no effective mechanism for measuring talent and ability; ultimately, it means according to Tumin, if a person chooses a career outside of the traditional highly esteemed professions (doctor, lawyer, engineer etc...) this does not necessarily mean that they lack the ability to become one of the aforementioned professionals. Further still, Tumin contends that a person may have the ability to easily become a doctor, but may not have a passion or desire to help others in this manner. Darren Ganga is a professional cricketer for the West Indies cricket team, although he is a qualified and trained lawyer, his primary passion has been cricket and as such he has devoted his time and energy into developing his skill as a professional sportsman. This example, supports Tumin's criticism of Davis and Moore's assumption. Tumin's argument against Davis and Moore's belief is that differences in rewards have been influenced by power rather than functionality. In Trinidad and Tobago, the more renowned the professional the more money he earns in comparison to his peers, for example the famous beauty Queen Wendy Fitzwilliams, would command a 'heftier' remuneration package for a 2 minute advertisement in comparison to a less known trained actor, who can perform that same task, just as well or even 'better', than the former. The factor however that influences the difference in remuneration is power according to Tumin, not skill/talent or training. Fourthly, Davis and Moore argue that differential rewards are necessary when rewarding people who undergo long training periods and personal sacrifices. In the British West Indies, for the most part of last fifty years, the University of the West Indies has the the premier tertiary institution for the region. Admission, has traditionally, been small in comparison to the literate population as a whole, ranging from 3-4% during the 1980's and 1990's and rising phenomenally to 10-12% of the population in the last decade. This empirical fact supports Davis and Moore's assumption that this minority group of tertiary trained professionals should be compensated with higher rewards for their personal sacrifice of extra years of study to become 'experts' in their various fields of endeavour. Tumin believes that this minority group, to which Davis and Moore refers to are essentially the upper and middle classes, who already have the socioeconomic advantage over the working/lower classes. According to Tumin, individuals born into the lower strata of society would always be at a major disadvantage regarding the opportunity to realize their true potential in comparison to those born into the upper strata. During colonialism, this principle also held true for the poor non-white masses. Consequently, this type of social stratification according to Tumin demotivates those in the lower classes to participate in national efforts. Lower class communities such as Beetham Gardens and Sea Lots are perpetually in conflict with the government and upper classes in the society, since they view themselves are disadvantaged, and cheated against when compared to other socioeconomic groups which are positioned higher in the social structure. To Tumin this hostility and distrust is caused by social stratification. Altogether, we have examined Davis and Moore's theory of stratification as it applies to the Caribbean, on the one hand we can say that the theory is applicable to the Caribbean, since the region has become increasingly meritocratic in the post-colonial era, with the universalization of education and modernization. However, on the other hand, Tumin's criticisms of Davis' and Moore's theory as it applies to the Caribbean is also valid, since there are vestiges of the colonial past that have lingered into the contemporary Caribbean social structure which corrupts the attempt for it to be truly meritocratic. Caribbean sociologists are yet to formulate a theory of social stratification that is best suited to explain the dynamics of Caribbean social stratification in terms of role allocation and performance. |
Unit 2 Module 1 |
Fertility control has been a topic of great debate in the Caribbean for many years. Some argue that fertility control is the key to development in the region, while others believe that it is not the only factor necessary for development. In this essay, we will discuss this statement and make reference to specific countries in the Caribbean, using population theories such as Malthusian theory, demographic transition theory, and Rostow's economic stages of development to support our arguments.
The Caribbean is a diverse region, with many different cultures, languages, and religions. However, one thing that is common among all the countries in the region is the high fertility rates. According to the World Bank, the fertility rate in the Caribbean is 2.1, which is higher than the world average of 1.8. This high fertility rate has been a concern for many regional policymakers, who believe it is hindering development.
The Malthusian theory is a population theory that argues that population growth will outstrip the earth's resources, leading to poverty and famine. In the Caribbean, Malthusian theory has been used to argue that the high fertility rates in the region are leading to poverty and underdevelopment. However, this theory has been criticized for its lack of attention to the social, economic, and political factors that contribute to poverty and underdevelopment.
Demographic transition theory, on the other hand, argues that as a country develops, its fertility rates will decline. This theory has been used to argue that fertility control is the key to development in the Caribbean. Countries like Barbados have successfully reduced fertility rates through family planning programs, leading to economic growth and development. However, this theory has also been criticized for its lack of attention to the cultural and social factors that influence fertility rates.
Rostow's economic stages of development is another theory that has been used to support the argument that fertility control is the key to development in the Caribbean. This theory argues that countries go through different stages of economic development and that fertility control is necessary for a country to move from the traditional stage to the takeoff stage. However, this theory has been criticized for its lack of attention to the historical and cultural factors that influence economic development.
When we look at specific countries in the Caribbean, we can see that there is a great deal of variation in fertility rates and development. For example, Barbados has a low fertility rate and is considered to be a developed country, while Haiti has a high fertility rate and is considered to be an underdeveloped country. Barbados has achieved this development through a combination of factors, including fertility control, while Haiti has struggled with poverty and underdevelopment due to a lack of access to resources and political instability.
In conclusion, while fertility control may be an important factor in development in the Caribbean, it is not the only factor. Population theories such as Malthusian theory, demographic transition theory, and Rostow's economic stages of development can provide useful insights into the relationship between fertility control and development, but they must be considered in the context of the social, cultural, and political factors that influence development in the region. As such, future research and development in the Caribbean must take a comprehensive approach that addresses these factors. | |
Unit 2 Module 1 |
Introduction The Caribbean is a unique region that faces distinct challenges in addressing crime. While mainstream theories of crime have some relevance to the Caribbean context, the region needs its own sociological theory of crime that takes into account its distinct historical, social, and economic conditions. This essay will analyze the applicability of mainstream theories of crime to the Caribbean reality, with a focus on the countries of Haiti and Trinidad and Tobago. The essay will then explore the historical, social, and economic factors that shape crime in these countries and their potential relevance to a Caribbean theory of crime. The essay will conclude by arguing that the Caribbean needs its own sociological theory of crime that takes into account its unique context.
Mainstream Theories of Crime Classical, positivist and critical theories of crime have all been used to explain crime in different contexts. However, these theories have limitations when it comes to explaining crime in the Caribbean. Classical theory, which emphasizes individual choice and rationality, does not take into account the social and economic factors that shape criminal behaviour. Positivist theory, which emphasizes biological and psychological factors, is also limited in its ability to explain crime in the Caribbean, as it fails to consider the historical and cultural factors that shape crime patterns. Critical theory, which emphasizes the role of power and inequality in shaping criminal behaviour, is more relevant to the Caribbean context but still does not fully capture the unique historical, social, and economic conditions of the region.
Historical Context The legacy of colonialism in the Caribbean has had a profound impact on crime patterns. The legacy of slavery and the plantation system has left a legacy of poverty and inequality, which is closely linked to crime in the region. Haiti and Trinidad and Tobago are two countries that illustrate this point. Haiti, which was the first independent black nation in the world, has struggled with political instability and poverty. The legacy of slavery and the plantation system has left a legacy of poverty and inequality, which is closely linked to crime in the region. On the other hand, Trinidad and Tobago has a history of colonialism and slavery that has left a legacy of racial and social inequality. The historical context of both countries is an important factor in understanding the root causes of crime.
Social Factors Social factors, such as poverty, family, education, and socialization, are closely linked to crime in Haiti and Trinidad and Tobago. Poverty is a major driver of crime in both countries, as it creates a context in which criminal behaviour is seen as a viable means of survival. Family and education are also important factors, as they shape the values and attitudes of individuals towards crime. The socialization process in both countries is closely linked to the cultural and religious practices of the region, which may be different from mainstream Western values. For example, in Haiti, voodoo is a religion that is widely practised and has been linked to some criminal activities.
Economic Factors Globalization, organized crime, tourism, and drug trafficking are all economic factors that are closely linked to crime in the Caribbean. These factors are especially relevant to Haiti and Trinidad and Tobago. Globalization has profoundly impacted the informal economy, which is often linked to organized crime. Tourism and drug trafficking have also created new opportunities for criminal activity. The economic factors that shape crime in the Caribbean are closely linked to the historical context of the region and the legacy of colonialism.
Theoretical Perspectives Mainstream theories of crime have limitations in explaining Caribbean crime patterns. The region's unique historical, social, and economic conditions require a theory that considers these factors. Possible theoretical frameworks that could be used to develop a Caribbean theory of crime include critical race theory, postcolonial theory, and cultural criminology. These theories emphasize the importance of understanding the historical, social, and cultural context of crime, and could provide a more nuanced understanding of crime in the Caribbean.
Strengths and Weaknesses One strength of mainstream theories of crime is that they provide a general framework for understanding criminal behaviour. However, their limitations become apparent when applied to the Caribbean context. For example, the classical theory fails to consider the role of poverty and inequality in shaping criminal behaviour, while the positivist theory does not account for the cultural and historical factors that shape crime patterns in the region. Critical theory is more relevant to the Caribbean context, but it does not provide a comprehensive understanding of crime in the region. On the other hand, a potential strength of a Caribbean theory of crime is that it could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the root causes of crime in the region. By taking into account the unique historical, social, and economic conditions of the Caribbean, a Caribbean theory of crime could provide a more nuanced understanding of criminal behaviour in the region. However, a potential weakness of a Caribbean theory of crime is that it may not apply to other regions of the world, which could limit its usefulness in a global context.
Conclusion In conclusion, the Caribbean needs a sociological theory of crime that takes into account its unique historical, social, and economic conditions. While mainstream theories of crime have some relevance to the Caribbean context, they have limitations when it comes to explaining crime in the region. A Caribbean theory of crime could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the root causes of crime in the region and could be based on theoretical frameworks such as critical race theory, postcolonial theory, and cultural criminology. By developing a Caribbean theory of crime, policymakers and practitioners could gain a better understanding of the root causes of crime in the region and develop more effective strategies to address it. | |
Unit 2 Module 1 |
Examine how the Demographic Transition Model may be applied to a named Caribbean society [25 marks]
I. Introduction A. Background information on the Demographic Transition Model B. Brief overview of the chosen Caribbean society C. Thesis statement: This essay will examine how the Demographic Transition Model can be applied to [name of Caribbean society].
II. Stage 1 of the Demographic Transition Model A. Definition and explanation of Stage 1 B. Application of Stage 1 to the chosen Caribbean society C. Factors that contribute to Stage 1 in the society
III. Stage 2 of the Demographic Transition Model A. Definition and explanation of Stage 2 B. Application of Stage 2 to the chosen Caribbean society C. Factors that contribute to Stage 2 in the society
IV. Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model A. Definition and explanation of Stage 3 B. Application of Stage 3 to the chosen Caribbean society C. Factors that contribute to Stage 3 in the society
V. Stage 4 of the Demographic Transition Model A. Definition and explanation of Stage 4 B. Application of Stage 4 to the chosen Caribbean society C. Factors that contribute to Stage 4 in the society
VI. Criticisms and limitations of the Demographic Transition Model A. Overview of criticisms and limitations B. Evaluation of the applicability of the model to the chosen Caribbean society C. Discussion of alternative models or theories that may be more applicable
VII. Conclusion A. Summary of key points B. Final evaluation of the applicability of the Demographic Transition Model to the chosen Caribbean society C. Suggestions for future research
This essay plan provides a structured approach to answering the question and ensures that all key points are covered. By using the Demographic Transition Model as the framework for the analysis, the essay will be able to provide a comprehensive understanding of the demographic patterns in the chosen Caribbean society. The essay will also evaluate the limitations of the model and suggest alternative models or theories that may be more applicable. | |
Unit 2 Module 1 |
Introduction The Demographic Transition Model is a conceptual framework that explains the changes in population patterns and demographics that occur as societies undergo economic and social development. This essay will examine how the Demographic Transition Model can be applied to Barbados, a Caribbean society with a population of approximately 290,000 people. The essay will analyze each stage of the model and examine the factors that contribute to population growth and decline in the country. Stage 1: High stationery Barbados was once in Stage 1 of the Demographic Transition Model, which is characterized by high birth rates and high death rates that result in a stable population. In the early 20th century, the country experienced high infant mortality rates due to poor sanitation and healthcare infrastructure. However, as public health initiatives were implemented and medical advancements were made, the death rates began to decline. Nonetheless, the birth rates remained high due to cultural and religious beliefs that promoted large families. Stage 2: Early Expanding Barbados entered Stage 2 of the Demographic Transition Model in the mid-20th century when death rates continued to decline and birth rates remained high. This resulted in a population explosion, with the population doubling between 1950 and 1980. The country's economic development during this period contributed to population growth, as it led to improvements in healthcare and living standards, which reduced mortality rates. Additionally, the country's agricultural sector provided employment opportunities and increased food security, which led to an increase in birth rates. Stage 3: Late Expanding In the 1980s, Barbados entered Stage 3 of the Demographic Transition Model, which is characterized by declining birth rates and declining death rates that lead to slowing population growth. During this period, the country experienced a decline in birth rates due to increased access to education and healthcare, as well as changing attitudes towards family planning. Women began to delay childbirth and have fewer children, as they pursued higher education and careers. The decline in birth rates was also attributed to the increasing urbanization of the country, which led to smaller family sizes and a shift away from traditional agricultural practices. Stage 4: Low stationery Barbados is currently in Stage 4 of the Demographic Transition Model, which is characterized by low birth rates and low death rates that result in a stable population. The country's birth rate is currently below replacement level, at 1.58 births per woman, and the population is projected to decline in the coming decades. The decline in birth rates is attributed to factors such as increased access to family planning, changing attitudes towards family size, and the increasing costs of raising children. Criticisms and Limitations While the Demographic Transition Model provides a useful framework for understanding population trends, it has been criticized for being too simplistic and not accounting for the complex social, cultural, and political factors that influence population patterns. For example, the model assumes that population growth is solely determined by economic and demographic factors, and does not account for the role of political institutions, migration, or cultural norms in shaping population patterns. Conclusion In conclusion, the Demographic Transition Model provides a useful framework for understanding the population patterns and trends in Barbados. The country has gone through each stage of the model, experiencing high birth rates and high death rates in Stage 1, a population explosion in Stage 2, declining birth rates in Stage 3, and a stable population in Stage 4. While the model has some limitations, it provides a starting point for understanding the demographic changes that occur as societies undergo economic and social development.
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Unit 2 Module 1 |
ESSAY Assess the extent to which the Malthusian theory of population can be applied to a named Caribbean territory.
Malthus’ theory of population involves the relationship between population growth and food supply. It observes that the world’s population tends to increase more rapidly than the food supply that is needed to sustain it. Malthus argued that population would increase exponentially (for example; 2, 4, 8,16), while food supply would increase arithmetically (for example; 2, 3, 4, 5); where population growth outnumbers food supply available. He claims that the population would continue to grow naturally until there was not enough food, in which case some of them would starve, move on to find a new place with food, or die due to malnutrition and weakened immune systems. This theory, however, cannot be applied to Caribbean territories as from a as well as the availability of food supply. The territory of Trinidad highlights this argument effectively.
Notes:
A postitive check according to Malthus refers to positive checks to population growth as being any causes that contributed to the shortening of human lifespans. He included in this category poor living and working conditions which might give rise to low resistance to disease, as well as more obvious factors such as disease itself, war, and famine.
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Unit 2 Module 1 |
Written by: Brianna
The Neo-Malthusian theory was born out of a number of crises within the world which resembled the predictions Malthus had made. Over the last four decades it has been reported that there have been several economic disasters which had raised concern with what Malthus had predicted. A great deal of evidence has surfaced both economic and non-economic which support what Malthus had proposed. This includes the fact that the United Nations had declared 88 nations as being unable to provide enough food for their inhabitants, 26 billion tonnes of top soil lost, six hundred thousand square miles of forest being cut and the growth of the world’s population by nearly 100 million per year. It was these factors which resulted in the re-visitation of Malthus’ theory which had been written many years ago. It is important to understand though that while Neo-Malthusians agree with Malthus on the prediction of future collapse, they state that Malthus had shortcomings especially with his failure to note the potential of birth control to stabilize populations. Jordan et al also noted that they disagreed with Malthus those factors such as war and famine being the key to population control. It has often been questioned whether the Neo-Malthusian approach can be used as an effective policy for population control in the Caribbean. It should be noted that to an extent it would be effective as in the case of its advice for the use of contraception as well as abortion as well as Planned Parenthood. But in the case of the Eugenicist movement this would be ineffective as this movement which has been seen as an ideal of the Neo-Malthusian movement is formed on the basis of racial prejudice and should not be used in any country. Paul Ehrlich was a neo-Malthusian theorist who advocated for the use of birth control methods as well as abortions. Ehrlich’s idea of the use of birth control may be applicable to a number of Caribbean countries. While abortion may be used it may not be an effective policy as a number of people in the population of Caribbean territories would be opposed to the idea of abortion which they would deem as murder as well it is illegal to have an abortion in most Caribbean countries with the exception of Cuba. Ehrlich had predicted that food for the population had been outstripped by population increase in two thirds of the developing countries between 1978 and 1988. He however did not agree with Malthus of the use of moral restraint and thus proposed alternate ideas as mentioned above. Ehrlich idea of abortion which forms part of the Neo-Malthusian approach may not be the best option to attempt to effectively control population in the Caribbean. According to the United Nations abortion in Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago is only allowed where it threatens the health of the mother or in attempt to preserve mental and physical health. In Cuba which is perhaps according to the UN reports in 2007 which allowed abortions, it is legal and has been this way since 1965 to have an abortion. In fact a number of abortions are often performed in Cuba as noted by statistics obtained from the UN the number of abortions performed in Cuba in 2007 were 66 008. The point here is abortions which is prescribed as a way of controlling the population by Ehrlich may not be the most effective option for many Caribbean countries. One reason being it is illegal in many Caribbean countries as in Trinidad and Jamaica unless needed for medical reasons as well as in these countries there would most likely be a strong united opposition towards abortions. Thus if abortions are illegal within the Caribbean they cannot be used as a population control method. Also if there is strong opposition there is no way it can be used to control the population as there is perhaps the chance that this method may not get the support of a number of Caribbean women. Ehrlich’s other suggestion was the use of other contraception. This suggestion can be tied into the suggestion made by the other neo-Malthusian theorists about Planned Parenthood. Planned Parenthood was initiated in the United States in the early 20th century. Two of the most famous advocates had been Margaret Sanger and Anne Besant. Their propositions influenced a number of co-operations and foundations to offer financial assistance to promote birth control for people in the third world in countries in Latin America, Sub-Saharan Africa and the Caribbean where the issue of population control was a problem that was thought that could never be solved. However it should be noted that Planned Parenthood also constitutes abortion which should not be considered as an alternative for the Caribbean as mentioned. However the other forms of birth control which Ehrlich and Planned Parenthood may have advocated which may include the birth control pill or patch, the use of inter uterine device (IUD), condom, as well as spermicide may be considered for use within the Caribbean. In fact it should be noted that in Trinidad during the 1960’s because there was a need to control the population there were attempts to introduce a comprehensive family planning which more than likely would have included a number of these birth control methods with the exception of abortion and perhaps the morning after pill. According to Norma Abdullah in Demographics of Trinidad and Tobago, the programme was indeed successful and by the late 1970’s about 95% of the population aware of contraceptive alternatives and the average annual growth rate which had been 3% until 1960 which had been considered detrimental was reduced to slightly above 1 %. Among other factors such as the desire to have fewer children and the change in family patterns the use of contraceptives which had become more readily available had contributed to a great decline in the population growth rate of Trinidad. Therefore as shown birth control methods as advocated by the Neo-Malthusians indeed had a positive impact on the growth rate of Trinidad and Tobago and can indeed lead to a reduction in population growth in a number of other Caribbean countries. This is mainly due to the fact that methods such as the birth control pill, patch or injection as well as the condom are common to Caribbean society and as such Caribbean people are familiar with these methods and even though some may hold religious views against its use many do not hold it in the same context as seeing abortion is murder. Neo-Malthusians also have as one of their ideas, the Eugenicist movement. According to Jordan et al the Eugenicist movement which had surfaced in the 19th century had been a key factor in population control. This movement promoted the view of population control on the grounds of racism. The basic belief which had been held by Eugenicists was that only certain ethnic groups namely only the whites should be allowed to procreate and undesirable races such as blacks, Indians and Chinese should be prevented from natural increase through procreation so that overtime only the most suitable gene the whites would populate the earth. This movement would thus be incompatible with controlling population within the Caribbean and should in fact be seen as being unsuitable for use in any part of the world. It is morally wrong and unjustified to remove persons of various races simply because they do not have the desired skin colour or the desired physical genes. Thus the Eugenicists movement should never be considered in attempting to control the population of the Caribbean which after the effects of colonialism and slavery had a population made up of a white minority and large numbers of Africans and Indians. It was noted that the Latin American country of Argentina once employed the policy of selective breeding where they removed all the blacks so that they would have a solely white population. It was also noted in South Africa that during the apartheid period a number of young African females would often go to clinics for routine check ups and actually be sterilised so as to prevent the spread of the black race. It should also be noted that citizens within the Caribbean were seen as such second class citizens that Puerto Ric became guinea pigs for birth control and as a result many years later they suffered with cervical cancer. This was thus an attempt at showing who were superior human beings. The point is regardless of whether other countries have tried selective breeding; it morally wrong and infringes upon the fundamental human right of the individual. Thus it can be said the Neo-Malthusian theory can be used to curb population growth to a certain extent in the Caribbean but it cannot be used in its entirety. The Neo-Malthusian theory of birth control as advocated by Ehrlich and Sanger and Besant can be used with the exception of abortion and the morning after pill. The Eugenicist movement however should definitely not be tried in the Caribbean. Thus the Neo-Malthusian theory may not be the best theory to be adapted for use as an effective policy control within the Caribbean.
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Unit 2 Module 1 |
This was a very good essay. Well written! The student demonstrates very good understanding of the theories under examination. Interpreted the question well, used present day example appropriately to justify and support theoretical argument. Concluded well by stating both theories should be considered for their merits and demerits.
N.B. Avoid using reproachful language, in your essay writing. Do not take a personal tone. (Dispicable) is not an appropriate word to use, in academic writing!
As we venture further into the 21st Century, the global population seems
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Unit 2 Module 2 |
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Unit 2 Module 2 | Deviance is defined as any violation of societal norms; Deviance is present within every society, as not every member of a society will observe the shared norms and values of that society. The interactionist perspective takes on a micro approach in attending to the issue of deviance in society and analyses the causes and influences of deviant behaviour, by examining small social groups. In the following essay the writer intends to outline the major assumptions of the interactionist perspective on deviance, by outlining the major assumptions of each interactionist theory of deviance and assessing their strengths and weaknesses. Several interactionist theories of deviance are of the view that deviance is prevalent amongst the lower classes. Edwin Sutherland (1939) in his theory of Differential Association stated that criminal behaviour just like any other is learnt, it is not innate. Sutherland believed that it is through the process of communication, between the individual and primary groups of socialization, such as family and friends - that this type of behaviour is learnt. Learning, according to Sutherland is dependent upon specific variables of frequency (how often the learning takes place), duration (the length the learning periods lasts), priority (at what age criminal learning begins) and intensity (the prestige of the criminal trainer/teacher). Altogether, Sutherland asserted that individuals with an excess of criminal definitions (this becomes their normal way of life) will more likely become criminal, than an individual who has less exposure to such definitions (ways/modes of conduct and rationalization). The weakness of Sutherland's explanation for criminal behaviour is that the theory fails to explain why some people who may have been in regular contact with criminal behaviour (i.e. having all of the necessary ingredients of frequency, intensity, priority and duration) do not become criminals. Travis Hirschi (1969) had similar views to that of Sutherland. Hirschi in his social control theory stated that the strength of social bonds individuals have with others determine their likelihood of committing a crime. According to Hirschi, people form social bonds through attachment, commitment, involvement and belief. Their attachment to people determines how much individuals value their relationships with others, commitment is the amount of activities an individual participates in and Hirschi believed that a lack of positive activities may cause an individual to participate in delinquent acts; involvement was another social bond outlined by Hirschi, he believed the more an individual's time is occupied with conventional interests of society the less time they will have to engage in criminal activities. Lastly, Hirschi believed that the strength of an individual's religious views will determine their likelihood of engaging in deviant acts. The weakness of this explanation is that social control theory's assumptions are derived from small scale studies of specific groups, which may not be reflective of the larger population of societal reality. Other interactionist theorists such as Albert Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin and Walter Miller focus their theories of deviance on the lower class. Albert Cohen (1955) in his theory on the subculture of delinquency stated that the delinquent behaviour of lower class boys maybe caused by their inability to achieve middle class goals. As a result of this inability to achieve middle-class goal, lower class boys develop a subculture that invests middle-class values and allows them to seek status in other ways, such as banding together and forming a gang. Now some may disagree with this theory in that it is an inaccurate generalization, as it is not to be assumed that lower-class juveniles cannot measure up to the middle-class measuring rod, or that they would even care to do so. Cloward and Ohlin (1960) look a lower-class juveniles in a somewhat similar light but offers a deeper explanation for lower-class juveniles delinquent behaviour. Cloward and Ohlin's (1960) differential opportunity theory posits that in order to become a criminal, one must have access to illegitimate means of attaining material goals and one must first be denied access to legitimate opportunities for attaining material goals. Unlike Albert Cohen's theory, they state that the illegitimate opportunity structure is as well defined as the legitimate ones and also has the ability to block people's access from it. While Cloward and Ohlin provides sound explanations of criminal behaviour, it must be noted that there has been a limitation in their theorization in that they ignore middle and upper class crime, and focus only on lower class criminal activity. Walter Miller (1962) in his theory of lower-class focal concerns proposed that middle-class values are less important to gang delinquency than Cohen and others thought. He argued, instead, that expression of lower class values is more the more the purpose of gang behaviour. Miller states that there are a number of focal concerns that are indicative of lower-class delinquency, such as autonomy, excitement, smartness or the ability to outsmart someone and toughness to name a few. Although Miller offers a different perspective to the Interactionist theory of delinquency, it is prejudiced towards lower-class juveniles and their sub-culture but it does not necessarily explain crime in and of itself. In retrospect, the majority of interactionist theories on deviance vary little from each other, in that somehow they all focus on the lower classes and fail to account for criminality amongst the other classes such as middle and upper classes. Thus, perpetuating the notion, whether (it is deliberate or not) that crime is essentially a lower- class phenomenon, which we know by fact that it is not! It should be noted that all of the aforementioned theories of deviance offer plausible explanations for the occurrence of deviance, they are biased towards lower-class juveniles who are labelled as the instigators and perpetrators of deviance within society and consequently, sociological theorizing is yet in need of a more balanced explanation of crime as a social phenomenon which is present and perpetuated by individuals in every strata of society and not limited to one social strata. | |
Unit 2 Module 2 |
Introduction:
Crime is a pervasive issue that has plagued societies worldwide for centuries. Throughout history, official statistics have shown that males are more likely to commit crimes than females. However, in recent years, the role of women in the Caribbean has been changing. This essay aims to explore the statement that males are more likely to commit crimes than females in light of the changing role of women in the Caribbean. This essay will use sociological theories of crime to support arguments and reference current case studies of crime rates in the Caribbean up to 2021.
Official statistics are important indicators of crime rates in society. However, the accuracy and reliability of these statistics can be problematic. The under-reporting of crimes, particularly gender-based crimes, can skew official statistics. This is especially true in the Caribbean, where cultural attitudes towards gender roles and sexuality can impact crime reporting. Nevertheless, official statistics have consistently shown that males are more likely to commit crimes than females in the Caribbean.
Sociological theories of crime, such as Merton's strain theory and Bandura's social learning theory, provide insight into the gendered nature of crime in the Caribbean. Strain theory posits that social structures that promote the pursuit of wealth and success create stress and strain on individuals, which can lead to criminal behaviour. Social learning theory, on the other hand, argues that individuals learn criminal behaviour through exposure to criminal role models and reinforcement of criminal behaviour. Both theories suggest that male socialization and gender roles contribute to the gendered nature of crime in the Caribbean.
The changing role of women in the Caribbean has had a significant impact on crime rates. Women's increased participation in the workforce and political sphere may have reduced their involvement in criminal activities. The Caribbean Development Bank reported that women's labour force participation rate in the Caribbean increased from 51.3% in 1990 to 57.3% in 2018. Additionally, the number of women in political office in the Caribbean has also increased, with several countries electing their first female Prime Ministers in recent years. The intersectionality of gender with other social factors, such as race and class, also impacts crime rates in the Caribbean. For example, Afro-Caribbean males have been disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system. This is due, in part, to structural inequalities that limit their access to education and employment opportunities. Similarly, low-income individuals are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour due to economic pressures and lack of access to resources.
In conclusion, the changing role of women in the Caribbean has had a significant impact on the gendered nature of the crime. Sociological theories of crime suggest that male socialization and gender roles contribute to the higher rates of crime committed by males. However, the increasing participation of women in the workforce and political sphere may be changing this dynamic. The intersectionality of gender with other social factors also impacts crime rates in the Caribbean, and policymakers must consider these factors when addressing crime in the region. Future research should continue to examine the role of gender in crime in the Caribbean to inform policy and intervention strategies. | |
Unit 2 Module 2 | ||
Unit 2 Module 2 |
Crime and deviance are complex social phenomena that have been the subject of study in the field of sociology for many years. Functionalist sociologists argue that crime and deviance function for the benefit of society and occur because of disruptions in the social equilibrium of shared values. However, this notion may not fully explain the complexities of crime and deviance in the Caribbean, as evidenced by the high crime rates in Trinidad and Haiti. This essay will critically assess the applicability of the notion that crime and deviance function for the benefit of society and occur because of disruptions in the social equilibrium of shared values in explaining crime and deviance in the Caribbean.
Functionalism is a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the importance of social order and stability in society. From this perspective, crime and deviance are seen as functional for society because they help to reinforce social norms and values and provide an opportunity for social control. For example, the punishment of criminals serves as a deterrent to others who may be considering committing crimes. However, this perspective fails to fully explain the high crime rates in Trinidad and Haiti, which are among the highest in the world.
The conflict perspective is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the role of power dynamics and social inequality in shaping social structures and processes. From this perspective, crime and deviance are seen as a result of social inequality and the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities. For example, poverty, unemployment, and lack of access to education and healthcare can lead to criminal behaviour. However, this perspective also has limitations in explaining crime and deviance in the Caribbean, as it does not account for the role of cultural factors.
Interactionism is a theoretical perspective that emphasizes the importance of how crime and deviance are socially constructed and perpetuated through social interactions and meanings. From this perspective, crime and deviance are seen as subjective and relative to social norms and values. For example, behaviours that are considered deviant in one society may be considered acceptable in another. However, this perspective may also have limitations in explaining crime and deviance in the Caribbean, as it does not account for the structural factors that contribute to high crime rates.
The Caribbean's complex history and cultural context may influence crime and deviance. For example, the legacy of colonialism and slavery has contributed to social inequality and the marginalization of certain groups, which may lead to criminal behaviour. Additionally, cultural values such as machismo and the glorification of violence may also contribute to high crime rates. However, using a universal theoretical framework to explain crime and deviance in the Caribbean may have limitations, as each society is unique and may require a specific analysis.
The latest crime statistics from Trinidad and Haiti reveal alarmingly high rates of crime and violence. In Trinidad, there were 538 murders in 2021, while in Haiti, there were 1,105 homicides in 2020. Factors contributing to these high crime rates include gang activity, the proliferation of illegal firearms in both countries and more particularly, political instability- in Haiti. The theories discussed in sections II, III, and IV can offer some explanations for these high crime rates, but none fully account for all the complex factors at play.
In conclusion, while the notion that crime and deviance function for the benefit of society and occur because of disruptions in the social equilibrium of shared values has some validity, it may not fully explain the complexities of crime and deviance in the Caribbean, particularly in Trinidad and Haiti. The functionalist perspective fails to fully account for the high crime rates, while the conflict and interactionist perspectives may not fully account for the cultural and historical factors at play. A specific analysis that takes into account the unique context of each society may be necessary to fully understand and address the issue of crime and deviance in the Caribbean. |
Unit 2 Module 3 | Written by:Student Liam Rice Caribbean political leaders such as Sir Grantley Adams (Barbados), Sir Norman Manley (Jamaica) and Dr. Eric Williams (Trinidad) believed in the principle of enhancing Human Capital. Assess the advantages and disadvantages of the Human Capital Theory in its application to Caribbean societies. As the world industrializes, the desire to optimise efficiency and maximize profits is paramount to societal development. Many have written on this, proposing numerous theories on how the worker may perform at his/her best using ethical methods or motivation. One such ideology is the Human Capital Theory. Introduced by Adam Smith, the ‘father of economics’, this theory seeks to create a link between education of the worker and enhanced productivity. This school of thought will be discussed in this essay, along with its merits and demerits in applying it to Caribbean society. Human capital theorists believe that the economic success of a business is directly proportional to the education of its labour force. It is a functionalist idea that reveres the meritocratic system of education. It advocates the moving away from manual labour and seeks to develop a specialized population whose expertise will facilitate capital accumulation and ultimately, the progress of the country as a whole. The theory has been embraced by some of our most instrumental leaders, such as Sir Grantley Adams of Barbados and Dr Eric Williams of Trinidad. As a result, these individuals placed a great emphasis on the education of the masses and constructed many schools on the islands. Perhaps the most evident and successful sign of these efforts was the birth of the University of the West Indies, which has greatly aided in the creation of a Caribbean intelligentsia. However, recently, the rapid acceptance of this model has come into question. To what extent has it been successful in the Caribbean? Firstly, the Human Capital Theory was initially beneficial because it helped to improve the socio-economic position of the socially marginal in the region. Racism and classism still permeated social institutions such as the school and the church long after emancipation. Blacks, although now free, were still discriminated against in society: they were often unemployed, by virtue of their lack of education and the white, oppressive employees. However, with independence, whites were now legally prohibited to withhold or provide employment based on colour or class, but rather base it on whether the prospective employee fulfilled the educational requirements of the job. Thus, the explosion in schooling institutions in the region allowed blacks and other socially marginal groups to begin the process of social mobility through educational and economic empowerment. Moreover, strength of the application of the HCT to Caribbean society is that it has provoked change in familial structures, which has aided economic development on the islands. Prior to independence, poor blacks were taught to identify large families with economic stability. In their view, many children would equate to many people working, which would bring in a lot of money for the family. However, this only created a type of reserve army of labour and the perpetuation of poverty. The added importance of education drastically changed this view and encouraged the schooling of women. Thus, after a while, women moved from mainly being housewives to being gainfully employed. Their perceptions of family life changed and careers became increasingly important in comparison to traditional roles such as - over child rearing. As a result, Caribbean women are now having children and marrying at a later age. This has significantly improved the economic performance of many countries, for example, Barbados. In 2009, the GDP per capita in that country was US $18,500, whilst in 1950 it was US $6755.02! (CIA Factbook) This almost 300% increase can be attributed to the added contribution of women to the workforce. However, one shortfall of the theory is that often governments spend a disproportionate amount on money on education, neglecting other areas of society that need urgent attention. This has been the case in the Caribbean, and the consequences of this have been more pronounced in some countries than others. In Trinidad for example, in 2001, 16.7% of total government expenditure was spent on education. (UNESCO) However, in the same year, only 6.4% was spent on health. (WHO). This discrepancy has had serious implications for the country. In 2001, the crude death rate increased from 7.2 per 1,000 in 1999 to 7.8 per 1,000. (WHO) As new epidemics beleaguer the country, such as HIV/AIDS and non-communicable diseases like diabetes and obesity, it is imperative that more money is invested in the development of the healthcare system in the country to combat these ills. Education alone will not solve them. In addition, perhaps the biggest flaw in the application of the Human Capital Theory to the region is that it undermines the racial, classist and sexist attitudes that inhabit the Caribbean job market. The theory assumes that society is fair and like most functionalist ideas, places much store by the power of education. It proposes that once one is educated to a certain level, acquiring a job is automatic. However, whilst this may be true in metropolitan societies, the region’s history of colonialism does not allow for this easy transition. Many Caribbean businesses continue to be owned by the while middle and upper class and lower-class blacks and females, with and without education, continue to be grossly underemployed. For instance, in Jamaica, in 2008, out of the 134,600 of those without a job, 81,800 were female. (Statistical Institute of Jamaica) This is despite the fact that the female to male ratio of educational enrolment is 6.3:3.3. This shows the social injustices that are still engrained into Caribbean society today despite the many efforts of our forefathers to promote an egalitarian society. Thus, whilst education is an essential tool in the development of human capital, other key factors must be in place to truly realise the potential of the labour force. Thus, in closing, we as a region must look further than just educating the labour force in order to enhance productivity. We are an anomalous case in the world, as our colonial history and lack of natural resources present to us our own unique problems. Important issues such as racism, sexism and improper government spending must be dealt with in conjunction with the education of the masses. Furthermore, we must be cognizant of the ever looming threat of ‘over-educating’ our population, as we simply do not have enough jobs in the region to support a fully skilled Caribbean. Such a scenario would lead to a socially and economically unstable society, with increases in brain drain and significant drops in wages due to augmented competition for jobs. Thus, there must be added importance to untapped industries such as agriculture, rather than focusing mainly on professional or service based jobs. Furthermore, there is not only need for formal education, but also the education of the society as a whole to be less judgemental and prejudiced. Such solutions, as mentioned above, will be instrumental in the drive towards economic prosperity in the region. If they are implemented, the dreams of our forefathers such as Adams, Manley and Williams stand a high chance of being realised. | |
Unit 2 Module 3 | The Poor Will Always Be With Us. Discuss. | |
Unit 2 Module 3 |
Crime is an act in violation of the criminal law and subject to official punishment, meaning formal negative sanction by the state. Deviance is an act which strays away from the norms and expectation of a particular society. It is a term that is relative TO TIME, PLACE and PERSON and it can only be defined in relation to a particular standard. Therefore deviance is culturally and socially determined. Many Caribbean theorists in attempting to explain crime and deviance in a Caribbean context use European theorists such as Walter Millar and Albert Cohen. These Caribbean theorists believe their research is suitable in describing reasons for Caribbean crime. On the other hand several theorists argue that there is a need for a Caribbean criminology. Theorists like Ken Pryce state that criminology is needed that is based of the distinctiveness of the region, attempts to illuminates the causation of crime and deviances within the Caribbean people historical and contemporary experience and that would examine the Caribbean cultural heritage of black working-class styles of protest from slavery to neo-colonialism. The essay will discuss the suitability and ability of European theories to scrutinize crime in a Caribbean society. Ken Pryce and Figuera state that rape in Trinidad and Tobago is mainly a lower class phenomenon. Violence is prevalent to the experience of the underprivileged and the oppressed. Violence helps these people to reassert their dignity. Lower-class men are exposed to goals and materialism which are usually denied to them but constantly advertised in the media. As a result they feel deprived and frustrated and rape women in an attempt to gain a reputation and personal status. Walter Miller agrees stating that crime can be explained through a distinctive lower class, this lower class has a unique set of norms and values that encourage them to break the law. Within this lower class subculture there are a number of focal concerns such as fate, autonomy, toughness, excitement, smartness and trouble which form the base of the lower class males’ offenses. Oscar Lewis agrees with his theory, ‘The Culture of Poverty’ stating that the lower-class because of their particular sub-culture is pre-disposed to a number of factors which make crime and inevitability and they transmit this subculture to their children. However it is dangerous to adopt metropolitan cultural concepts wholesale as they are sometimes based on an outdated United States of America and Britain. The conditions in these countries are very different to the conditions in the Caribbean. These models explain crime in a white, mostly homogenous society whereas the Caribbean exists in a mostly plural, heterogeneous one. In conformity with Pryce and Figuera is Hyacinth Ellis, she states that Jamaica’s history has been one of violence, racism, slavery, colonialism and low self esteem. These factors have created a sub culture of violence that applauds the infliction of violent behaviour since violence brings ego, self-esteen and realistic socio-economic gains that the lower-class was previously denied. In agreement are Albert Cohen and Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin who come closer to outlining a view of delinquency which is applicable to the Caribbean. Cohen states that lower class individuals adhere to mainstream goals but due largely to education failure and the resulting dead-end jobs; they have little opportunity to achieve these goals. As a result working class boys suffer from status frustration; they are discouraged and dissatisfied with their low status in society. Consequently they reject the success goals of mainstream culture and replace it with an alternative set of norms and values through which they commit crime. Cloward and Ohlin concur stating that deviant behaviour results from an increased access to illegitimate opportunity structures to achieve success. These theories, according to Pryce are more suitable because they discussed the experience of delinquent subcultures in terms of the class situation with reference to their restrictive life chances and the frustrations upon their inability to measure up to their aspirations. However they still have limited theoretical values in the Caribbean because the style of protest of lower-class youth cannot be adequately explained without taking into account the Caribbean experience of racism and neo-colonialism. Maureen Cain disagrees with Pryce and Figuera, she states that high levels of crime are also found in Europe where there is no colonization. She states that crime and deviance is cross-cultural and trans-national. The conventional viewpoint is that developing countries is a product of social change and modernization but according to Pryce third world countries face crime because it is a symptom of a particular type of development based on exploitation and development of underdevelopment. Also profits from the first world tend to be circulated among the upper and middle classes leaving the lower-class no other choice but to turn toward pimping, hustling prostitution and violence because of unemployment. He states that a Caribbean criminology that examines the reality of crime in the context of the Caribbean history of capitalist oppression and exploitation is best. On the contrary Carl Stone argues that pseudo-historical explanations do not allow us to understand the new patterns of social behaviour. Poverty cannot explain violence as it existed before slavery but crime took more than one century after slavery to manifest itself in such proportions. According to Carl Stone modernization and social change Is the cause of violent criminal behaviour. In conclusion, the Caribbean may very well be better equipped with criminology of its own. It is a unique region and should not be explained by theories based on evidence that was not seen to have existed in the Caribbean district. | |
Unit 2 Module 3 | Natural disasters have had a significant impact on the lives of Caribbean people and have led to an increase in the number of climate refugees seeking refuge in other Caribbean territories. The devastation caused by Hurricane Maria in 2017 provides a poignant example of this phenomenon. The impact of natural disasters and the displacement of populations has been studied through several sociological theories, including modernization, dependency, and world system theories. This essay will explore the implications of these theories for the Caribbean region and how social actors and institutions have shaped the impact of natural disasters and the provision of refuge for climate refugees.
Modernization theory emphasizes the importance of economic development and progress, arguing that societies must adopt Western economic and social models to achieve modernization. However, the persistence of natural disasters in the Caribbean region challenges this paradigm, as it is difficult for countries to achieve sustained economic growth and development when they are continually devastated by hurricanes, floods, and other natural disasters. For example, Dominica, a small island nation in the Caribbean, was severely impacted by Hurricane Maria in 2017, which destroyed much of the island's infrastructure and caused significant economic disruption. The disaster set back the country's development by years, illustrating the challenges posed by natural disasters to modernization efforts.
Dependency theory, on the other hand, argues that global economic inequalities perpetuate the underdevelopment of poorer countries. The Caribbean region is a prime example of this phenomenon, as countries in the region are often subjected to the whims of larger, more powerful nations. For instance, some Caribbean countries are more vulnerable to natural disasters and climate change than others due to their geographic location, economic dependence on larger countries, and lack of resources to address environmental concerns. These factors increase their vulnerability to natural disasters and limit their ability to respond effectively to the needs of climate refugees.
World system theory posits that the global economy is structured around a core of wealthy countries that extract resources and labour from peripheral countries to maintain their dominant position. The Caribbean region has historically been a peripheral player in this system, exporting raw materials and labour to wealthier nations in exchange for finished products. This pattern of exploitation has left the region vulnerable to economic shocks and environmental disasters, which often disproportionately affect the most vulnerable populations. As a result, many Caribbean countries struggle to cope with the influx of climate refugees, who are often among the poorest and most vulnerable members of society.
The impact of natural disasters and the provision of refuge for climate refugees in the Caribbean region are shaped by a variety of social actors and institutions. Regional organizations such as the Caribbean Disaster Emergency Management Agency (CDEMA) play an important role in managing natural disasters and supporting the displacement of climate refugees. For example, after Hurricane Maria devastated Dominica, CDEMA coordinated the efforts of regional governments, NGOs, and civil society organizations to provide assistance to affected populations. NGOs and civil society also play an important role in providing assistance to climate refugees and advocating for more sustainable development policies.
In conclusion, the impact of natural disasters on the lives of Caribbean people and the provision of refuge for climate refugees are complex issues that require a nuanced sociological analysis. By exploring the implications of modernization theory, dependency theory, and world system theory for the Caribbean region, we can better understand the challenges posed by natural disasters and climate change. The case of Dominica, which was devastated by Hurricane Maria in 2017, provides a poignant illustration of these challenges. Moreover, the role of social actors and institutions, such as CDEMA, NGOs, and civil society, is critical in shaping the impact of natural disasters and the provision of refuge for climate refugees. By working together, these actors can help to build resilience and reduce vulnerability in the Caribbean region, ensuring that those affected by natural disasters and climate change receive the assistance they need to rebuild their lives. | |
Unit 2 Module 3 |
Urbanization is a process that occurs when people migrate from rural areas to urban areas in search of better opportunities, living conditions, and quality of life. It has become a widespread phenomenon in many countries, including the Caribbean. The statement "urbanization inevitably increases environmental health issues" is a contentious one that has sparked much debate. This essay will critically discuss this statement concerning Barbados, a small island developing state in the Caribbean, and analyze how theoretical frameworks such as modernization theory, world systems theory, theory of social change, and dependency theory apply to the issue of urbanization and environmental health.
Barbados has experienced rapid urbanization since the 1950s, with urban areas now accounting for approximately 80% of the population (Barbados Statistical Service, 2022). While urbanization has brought about economic development, improved infrastructure, and better access to education and healthcare, it has also resulted in various environmental health issues. The consequences of these issues are significant, including respiratory and other illnesses, environmental degradation, and reduced quality of life.
Modernization theory asserts that as societies become more developed, they will experience a shift from traditional to modern values and institutions, leading to improvements in living standards, including environmental health. According to this theory, urbanization is a positive force that drives economic growth, social change, and modernization. In the case of Barbados, urbanization has resulted in improved living standards for some, particularly those who have benefitted from the tourism and financial services sectors. However, the benefits have not been evenly distributed, with many low-income urban dwellers experiencing inadequate housing, poor sanitation, and other environmental health issues.
World systems theory posits that global economic systems create hierarchies of wealth and power, with core countries exploiting peripheral countries for their resources and labour. Barbados has historically been a periphery country, with the tourism and financial services sectors serving as the primary sources of economic growth. The influx of tourists and the rapid development of these sectors have resulted in significant environmental health issues, including air and water pollution, which disproportionately affect the residents of urban areas.
Dependency theory suggests that peripheral countries like Barbados are trapped in a cycle of underdevelopment due to their dependence on core countries for capital and technology. This dependence makes it difficult for peripheral countries to implement policies that protect the environment and public health. In the case of Barbados, the tourism and financial services sectors have been major sources of economic growth, but they have also contributed to environmental degradation and public health issues, particularly in urban areas.
Theories of social change emphasize the role of social movements in driving change. In Barbados, numerous social movements have advocated for environmental justice and sustainable development, particularly in urban areas. Some of these include the Barbados Renewable Energy Association, which advocates for renewable energy sources, the Future Centre Trust, which promotes sustainable lifestyles and practices, and the Caribbean Youth Environment Network, which promotes environmental education and youth empowerment in the Caribbean region. These movements have been instrumental in pushing for policy changes and raising awareness about environmental health issues and the impact of urbanization on the island and region by extension.
In conclusion, the relationship between urbanization and environmental health in Barbados is complex and cannot be reduced to a simple causal relationship. While urbanization has brought about some improvements in living standards, it has also resulted in significant environmental health issues, particularly in low-income urban areas. The theoretical frameworks of modernization theory, world systems theory, dependency theory, and theories of social change can all help to explain different aspects of this relationship. However, a comprehensive understanding of the issue requires a nuanced analysis of the political, social, and economic contexts in which urbanization and environmental health interact. Policymakers, stakeholders, and citizens must work together to implement sustainable development policies and practices that prioritize | |
Unit 2 Module 3 |
Globalization refers to the process by which the world is becoming more interconnected through the increasing flow of goods, services, information, and people across national borders. As a result, the gap between rich and poor nations has become increasingly pronounced, leading some to argue that globalization is the key to the development of poor nations. This essay will examine this claim, drawing on sociological theories of development and using two Caribbean territories, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago, as case studies.
The modernization theory of development posits that economic growth and development are the results of industrialization and the adoption of Western values and institutions. According to this theory, globalization should benefit poor nations by promoting economic growth and modernization. However, critics argue that this theory overlooks the structural inequalities that perpetuate poverty in poor nations, such as unequal access to resources and power. In the case of Jamaica, the country has experienced some economic growth and development as a result of globalization, particularly in the tourism industry. However, poverty remains high, and the benefits of globalization have not been distributed equally, leading to growing inequality and social unrest.
Another theory of development is dependency theory, which argues that poor nations are structurally dependent on rich nations and that their development is hindered by this relationship. According to this theory, globalization exacerbates the dependence of poor nations on rich nations, leading to underdevelopment and economic stagnation. In the case of Trinidad and Tobago, the country has experienced economic growth and development as a result of globalization, particularly in the energy sector. However, the country remains heavily dependent on foreign investment and imports, and its economic growth has not translated into improved social conditions for all its citizens.
In conclusion, the impact of globalization on the development of poor nations is complex and depends on a range of factors, including historical and structural inequalities, political and economic institutions, and cultural values and norms. While globalization has the potential to promote economic growth and development, it can also exacerbate existing inequalities and perpetuate dependence on rich nations. Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago provide contrasting examples of the impact of globalization on development, highlighting the need for a nuanced and context-specific approach to understanding the complex relationship between globalization and development. | |
Unit 2 Module 3 | To what extent can it be argued that Sir Arthur Lewis policy of ‘Industrialisation by Invitation’ aided in the development of the B.W.I |
To explain the stigma around homelessness and housing insecurity, scholars tend to rely on urban samples and focus on the hypervisibility, what I call the physical hypervisibility, of people sleeping in public spaces, on park benches, and public transportation. Unlike in urban contexts, people experiencing housing insecurity in rural areas are often unseen: they are doubling up with friends and family, living in their vehicles, abandoned buildings, and state parks. As such, rural housing insecurity is often referred to as “hidden.” This hiddenness gives us reason to suspect that theories built on hypervisibility and urban samples cannot fully account for the stigma around homelessness and housing insecurity across different geographic contexts. Based on six months of ethnographic fieldwork and 37 in-depth interviews in five rural counties in Wisconsin, this paper finds that the relationship between stigma and rural housing insecurity hinges on its social hypervisibility . In the absence of public services and infrastructure, people experiencing housing hardships in rural areas rely on the strong ties of their dense social networks, making their struggles known to others, even when they are not directly observed, such as in urban contexts. This social hypervisibility then facilitates stigma by shaping people’s relationships, behavior, and opportunities to climb out of poverty. These findings indicate the need to further examine how the experience of stigma, poverty, and housing insecurity vary across different geographic contexts.
Assam board class 11 sociology syllabus 2025: check and download the ahsec class 11 sociology syllabus for the 2024-2025 academic session here. go through the syllabus for exam pattern and unit-wise weightage distribution..
Assam HS 1st Year Sociology Syllabus 2025: Sociology is introduced as an elective subject at the higher secondary stage with an aim to connect students' classroom learning with real-world experiences. The syllabus is designed to help students reflect on their everyday surroundings and develop a constructive attitude towards societal change.
For the AHSEC Class 11 Sociology assessment, there will be one theory paper for 80 marks and a project work for 20 marks. The time allowed to write the theory paper will be 3 hours while 15 minutes will be provided to read the question paper. Check the detailed syllabus below for the course contents for Assam board class 11 Sociology theory exam and details of the project work.
Unit- i sociology and society.
Unit –v social change and social order in rural and urban society.
As part of the curriculum, the students are required to submit project work on contemporary social problems relevant to their local area (For example, environment, education and Social change, Health and well-being, women empowerment, poverty and unemployment, etc).
Check the steps mentioned below to download the Assam Board AHSEC Class 11 Sociology Syllabus for the current academic session 2024-2025. Follow the step-wise instructions to download the syllabus.
Step 1: Go to Assam Board’s official website ahsec.assam.gov.in.
Step 2: In the title bar, select ‘Academics.’
Step 3: In the dropdown list, click on the option ‘Syllabus.’
Step 4: On the new page, select “All Syllabus for HS First Year 2024-25” link.
Step 5: Click on the subject name to open the syllabus PDF
Step 6: Check and download the syllabus PDF for future use
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The Hawaiian Humane Society's Kosasa Family Campus at Hoopili is not your average animal shelter.
The Hawaiian Humane Society’s Kosasa Family Campus at Hoopili is not your average animal shelter.
In its first year, a new campus in Hoopili saw about 6,000 pets come and go through its doors. Some 2,300 shelter pets were adopted, 3,400 animals received care and 288 lost pets were reunited with their owners.
The capital campaign to fund the project was $30 million, said Hawaiian Humane Society spokesperson Brandy Shimabukuro. The Kosasa Family Campus at Hoopili features a 27,000-square-foot shelter. Its “new generation” design accommodates behavioral, medical and socialization needs for thousands of animals and people each year.
Shimabukuro said the Ewa Beach location found homes for 1,412 dogs, 821 cats, 76 small animals, nine birds and nine reptiles in its first year.
Shimabukuro said the West Oahu campus can house 250 to 450 pets, depending on size and other factors like bonded pairs that can share space.
The facility’s 30 staff members and 60 volunteers worked a total of 3,750 hours in its first year, Shimabukuro said. Volunteers assist with tasks that include dog walking, laundry, animal care, facilities assistance and animal enrichment.
The campus is the second Oahu location for Hawaiian Humane Society’s Pet Food Bank, serving nearly 1,000 people and 5,500 pets with more than 17,000 pounds of pet food distributed in its first year, said Shimabukuro. She added, “This initiative helps pet owners facing financial difficulties continue to care for their beloved pets.”
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As vice president, J. D. Vance would elevate their disdain for American liberalism to the highest levels of government.
Produced by ElevenLabs and News Over Audio (NOA) using AI narration.
Updated at 10:24 p.m. ET on August 8, 2024
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When journalists write about ties between Donald Trump and the religious right, they usually focus on evangelical Protestants. That emphasis makes sense, given that evangelicals make up a sizable portion of the GOP’s electoral coalition, and their enduring devotion to the morally and religiously louche Republican nominee remains more than a little shocking.
But Trump’s choice of J. D. Vance as his running mate puts a spotlight on a different faction of the religious right: the so-called post-liberal Catholics, who have been Vance’s friends, allies, and interlocutors since his 2019 conversion to Catholicism (he was raised Protestant) and transformation into a MAGA Republican shortly after.
This group of Catholic intellectuals—which includes Patrick Deneen of Notre Dame, Adrian Vermeule of Harvard Law School, and Sohrab Ahmari, a founder and an editor of the eclectically populist magazine Compact —is known for its sweeping attack on classical liberalism. It claims that a long list of contemporary problems (rising rates of economic inequality, drug addiction, suicide, homelessness, childlessness) can be traced back to moral-philosophical errors made centuries ago by the American Founders and their ideological progenitors. In place of our polity’s commitment to individual rights, autonomy, and pluralism, the post-liberals aim to create a society unified around the common good , which is itself fixed on a theological vision of the Highest Good .
Hence the need for what Deneen calls “regime change” in the title of his most recent book. In concrete terms, this means replacing the people and institutions that dominate America’s cultural, economic, and political life with a new elite willing to eschew liberal norms in service of supposedly higher ideals. In this respect, Vance is the man the post-liberals have been waiting for—a self-identified member of the “post-liberal right,” and now a contender for one of the country’s highest political offices.
Adrian Vermeule: Beyond originalism
Trump and his immediate circle may not share theological convictions with the post-liberals, but the two groups do share certain political impulses. Both exhibit a populist skepticism of elites, deference toward social conservatism, and a preference for putting “America first” when it comes to immigration, trade, labor, and foreign policy. Most of all, Trump and the post-liberals share a willingness, even an eagerness, to smash the entrenched power of the liberal cultural establishment. Vance is the embodiment of these shared hopes and drive for disruption. As vice president in a second Trump administration, he would bring both to the highest levels of government, allowing, for the first time, post-liberal Catholic ideas to exert real political influence.
T hese ambitions mark a significant change in the Catholic right compared with its most recent moment of maximal influence , during the administration of George W. Bush. Then, writers such as Richard John Neuhaus, Michael Novak, and Robert P. George argued that, when properly understood, Catholic Christian revelation, American history and ideals, and the Republican Party’s platform were perfectly harmonious. These thinkers made their case by contending that American liberalism was rooted in theological sources, that Catholic orthodoxy was essentially liberal , and that the GOP was tailor-made to unite the two.
Things feel very different on the Catholic right today. Setbacks at home and at the Vatican—including the election (and reelection) of Barack Obama, Pope Francis’s efforts to push back against the conservative legacies of his predecessors, and the Obergefell decision by the U.S. Supreme Court declaring same-sex marriage a constitutional right—discredited the idea that liberalism and traditional Catholicism could go together. One radical response to these developments can be found on the furthest extreme of the Catholic right, among a group called the integralists. Despite their name, they aim to subordinate the state to the Church, not integrate them.
Vance hasn’t gone that far in his public statements. Yet his account of his conversion to the Catholic Church, published in 2020 in the magazine The Lamp , marks him as very much a man of our post-liberal moment. In his essay, Vance explains the intellectual influences on his spiritual evolution. Some are conventional, such as St. Augustine, the theologian and bishop who has been an inspiration to Christian converts down through the centuries. But one is decidedly less orthodox: the billionaire venture capitalist Peter Thiel.
Before Thiel spent roughly $15 million on Vance’s successful 2022 Senate campaign in Ohio, Vance worked as a principal for Mithril Capital, one of Thiel’s many firms. Their first encounter, however, came back in 2011, when Thiel delivered a talk at Yale Law School, where Vance was then a student. As Vance recalls in his essay, Thiel, who has described himself as Christian, observed that the meritocratic striving of smart young people (like Vance) often results in both personal existential emptiness and societal stagnation. That’s a variation on a critique of liberal democracy that Thiel has been developing for much of his career . In his idiosyncratic reading of Western history, the theological precepts of Christian civilization are what inspired the great scientific and technological achievements of the past several centuries. The ideals of liberal democracy, by contrast, are responsible for the meaninglessness and inertia that supposedly plague the present.
Read: Peter Thiel is taking a break from democracy
Over the decade following his meeting with Thiel, Vance remained broadly committed to a Bush-era vision of continuity between Christianity and the moral outlook and policy agenda of the pre-Trump Republican Party. That earlier Vance favored pro-business economic policy and saw democracy promotion as a crucial element of American foreign policy. He also emphasized the importance of personal character in public life: Poverty could be explained, in part, by moral depravity, and holding political office required integrity. But around the time that he decided to run for the Ohio Senate seat vacated by the retiring Rob Portman in 2021, Vance underwent a second conversion —to the ideas of the post-liberal Catholics and the right-wing populism associated with Donald Trump.
That’s not to say he got more conservative. This new Vance often sounds like Elizabeth Warren, the Democratic senator from Massachusetts, when he talks about economic policy—emphasizing poverty’s structural causes and advocating for a higher minimum wage. On foreign policy, he began defining American interests so narrowly that the fate of a liberal democracy on NATO’s border was a matter of indifference. (“I don’t really care what happens to Ukraine one way or another,” he said in early 2022, shortly before Russia’s invasion.)
Most strikingly, after more than four years of condemning Trump, Vance began defending the former president’s most reckless acts and ambitions. He started denouncing the American “regime” and, in September 2021, told a far-right podcaster that “we are in a late republican period” in which it would be necessary to “get pretty wild, pretty far out there, and go in directions that a lot of conservatives right now are uncomfortable with.” This included “a de-Ba’athification program” with the following directives: “seize the administrative state for our own purposes … fire every civil servant in the administrative state [and] replace them with our people.”
The post-liberal Catholics, including Deneen, in his book on regime change, insist that the moral and political revolution they seek can be accomplished peacefully. But Vance appears ready to excuse some dangerous political brinkmanship. In a recent interview with The New York Times ’ Ross Douthat, Vance defended the idea of states across the country appointing alternative slates of electors after the 2020 election. He seemed to concede that such actions could have precipitated a “constitutional crisis.” So be it.
W hat might be most strange about this unapologetically radical style of politics is how tenuous its ties are to the Catholic Church as an institution and even Christianity as a historical community of faith. Whereas the Bush-era Catholics regularly cited the New Testament, Thomas Aquinas, and John Courtney Murray, today’s post-liberals rarely invoke the Bible or theologians in their political commentary. They don’t base their policy commitments on the Catechism of the Catholic Church . They aren’t in the habit of referring to the social teachings in papal encyclicals. (As with any group, there are exceptions. Ahmari, for example, has cited Catholic teaching in support of political arguments in some works.)
Rather, their theological convictions tend to remain in the background , serving as fuel for something more central to their public thought: a politics of reactionary negation. Their faith confirms that liberalism is the great enemy that must be fought and defeated so that something more wholesome and spiritually invigorating can take its place. But until liberalism has been expunged from the world, Christianity remains mainly a civilizational symbol or identity marker whose public substance is held in abeyance.
Tom Nichols: The moral collapse of J. D. Vance
That’s quite a shift for the Catholic right in a single generation. Not long ago, the group insisted on a near-perfect identification between the Church and American liberalism as expressed by the Republican Party. Now it insists on the discontinuity between Christianity and America’s ruling ideology, which requires nothing short of political revolution to overcome.
Maybe somewhere in between these extremes, a more responsible and enriching form of political engagement for pious Catholics could be found. Regardless, we’re unlikely to see anything resembling such a theological deescalation from J. D. Vance and his post-liberal Catholic allies.
This article originally misidentified The Lamp as an online journal. The article has also been updated to note Sohrab Ahmari’s use of Catholic teaching in his political writing.
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Associate Professor Jonathan Senchyne , director of the Center for the History of Print and Digital Culture , has been named associate editor of the esteemed Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America (PBSA). PBSA was first published in 1904, and it is the journal of the oldest scholarly society in North America dedicated to the study of books and manuscripts.
“I am honored by the invitation to join the editorial team of PBSA and by the trust given me to shape and grow this important venue for scholarship in our field,” Senchyne said.
“From my perch as a literary and book historian in a library and information science department, I see students, researchers, collectors, booksellers, artists, and information workers who are deeply engaged in bibliographical thinking, many of whom do not yet recognize their connection with the tradition of bibliography,” he added. “I hope as associate editor to grow PBSA as a space where people want to publish, read, and teach exciting bibliographical thought covering a diverse range of disciplines, backgrounds, and subjects.”
Senchyne noted that connections between PBSA and UW–Madison go back more than a century. One of the founders of the Biographical Society of America (BSA), which publishes PBSA, was Rueben Gold Thwaites, who also served as executive director of the Wisconsin Historical Society from 1887 to 1913. According to WHS, “Thwaites developed excellent relations with [UW–Madison], and in 1900, largely through his efforts, the libraries of the two institutions were housed in a new building on the university campus.” In the early 20th century, Thwaites also taught bibliography in the earliest iteration of the Information School, the Wisconsin Summer School of Library Science, founded in 1895.
Now, Senchyne will carry on the long tradition of the careful scholarship of historical books and manuscripts, as well as their relationships with the cultures that produced them, as the associate editor of PBSA.
Congratulations to Jonathan Senchyne on this well-earned honor!
To learn more about Jonathan Senchye’s appointment as associate editor of PBSA, read the society’s official announcement .
To meet more iSchool faculty members, explore this page .
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Guest Essay
By Michael J. Sandel
Mr. Sandel teaches political philosophy at Harvard.
Kamala Harris has a lot to do in a short time — build a team, choose a running mate, introduce herself to the country. But her most important task is to figure out what this election should be about.
Over the past week, Ms. Harris has been campaigning on protecting democracy, the rule of law and reproductive freedom from another four years of Donald Trump. As a forceful defender of abortion rights and a former prosecutor, she is ideally equipped to make these issues the centerpiece of her campaign. She relishes reminding voters of Mr. Trump’s status as a felon. “I took on perpetrators of all kinds,” she declared in her first campaign rally, at a gym in Milwaukee on Tuesday. “So hear me when I say: I know Donald Trump’s type.”
But standing up to Mr. Trump and defending reproductive rights is not enough. To defeat him, Ms. Harris needs to address the legitimate grievances he exploits — the sense among many Americans, especially those without a college degree, that their voices aren’t heard, that their work isn’t respected and that elites look down on them. She needs a message that reconnects the Democratic Party with the working-class voters it has alienated in recent decades. Delivering this message may not come naturally to her as a former senator from California, and Mr. Trump has wasted no time attempting to brand her a “radical-left lunatic." But if she wants to shape a progressive politics that can wrest the future from the MAGA movement, then she has to try. It could be the difference between victory and defeat this November.
To begin addressing the anger and polarization gripping this country, Democrats need to recall what brought us to this volatile historical moment: An overwhelming majority of Americans — some 85 percent — believe that their leaders don’t care what they think and that they lack a meaningful say in shaping the forces that govern their lives.
This sense of disempowerment underlies the Republicans’ most potent issues in this campaign: inflation and immigration.
If Ms. Harris continues to repeat economic facts without acknowledging most voters’ feelings, she will fail to address the mood of discontent that has her running just behind Mr. Trump in the polls. Low unemployment, robust job growth, rising wages — by the usual metrics, the economy has been a success during the Biden years. And yet inflation looms so large for voters that most disapprove of the president’s handling of the economy. Why? Because inflation is not merely about the price of eggs. Many voters experience it as an assault on their agency, a daily marker of their powerlessness: No matter how hard I work or how much I make, I can’t get ahead or even keep up.
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Step 1: Make an Outline. So you have to write a sociological essay, which means that you already either received or have a topic in mind. The first thing for you to do is PLAN how you will attempt to write this essay. To plan, the best way is to make an outline. The topic you have, certainly string some thread in your mind.
Instead, sociology demands that you question why we call some behavior natural, and to look into the social factors which have constructed this "natural" state. The "society argument" often arises in response to critiques of the above styles of argumentation, and tends to appear in a form such as: "Society made me do it." Students ...
Sociology is the study of human society and its structures, institutions, and interactions. Essays about sociology serve an essential purpose in examining and understanding the complexities of social behavior, cultural dynamics, and societal issues.
What Is a Sociology Essay? A sociology essay looks at how people live together in society, studying how they behave, form relationships, and create community institutions. It studies how culture, rules, and who holds power affect different parts of life. Writing one gives you a chance to share your thoughts on society and understand how it works.
A sociology essay is an academic piece that explores various aspects of society and social behavior. It examines patterns, causes, and effects of social interactions among individuals and groups. The purpose of such an essay is to provide a detailed analysis and interpretation of social phenomena, guided by theoretical frameworks and empirical ...
For Marx, Comte's sociology was a form of idealism, a way of explaining the nature of society based on the ideas that people hold. In an idealist perspective, people invent ideas of "freedom," "morality," or "causality," etc. and then change their lives and society's institutions to conform to these ideas.
A sociology essay is an analytical piece that delves into various facets of human society. It is a scholarly paper that seeks to interpret, analyze, or critique the social phenomena that shape and are shaped by human behavior. ... Food, Culture, and Society. The sociology of food consumption and cultural identity. Veganism and vegetarianism as ...
A sociology essay is essentially an exploration and analysis of societal structures, behaviors, and dynamics using the tools and concepts provided by the field of sociology. This academic genre involves applying sociological theories, empirical research, and critical thinking to examine and interpret various aspects of human society.
Contact Us. Key to writing a good Sociology essay is a clear argument based on a careful and critical reading of the material relevant to the question. In the first instance, this will be the books and articles the paper organiser has indicated you should read in the paper guide. Pay careful attention to the language a particular author uses ...
Step-by-Step Guide to Writing Sociology Essays. Writing an essay on sociology involves a structured approach that enables you to convey your ideas effectively and engage with sociological concepts. Here is a step-by-step guide to help you navigate the process: Topic Selection; Choosing the right topic is the foundation of a successful sociology ...
Sociology is the study of society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction, and culture. It involves understanding how human actions and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding cultural and social structures. Start your essay by defining sociology and its importance in understanding complex social phenomena.
Family as an Agent of Socialization Essay. The family regardless of its nature and size is the fundamental factor in socialization. The family is a storehouse of warmth and compassion and stands in resistance to the aggressive world of trade. 3.1. Subjects: Society's Imperfections.
Our experienced sociology writers are well-versed in sociology and can help you choose a compelling topic, conduct research, and craft a well-written and insightful essay. Whether you need assistance with brainstorming ideas, refining your thesis statement, or polishing your final draft, our service is designed to support you at every stage of ...
Essays. The Department recommends that students write a total of four to six essays per paper over the course of Michalemas and Lent terms. This equates to two or three essays per paper, per term. Since students take four papers, and terms are eight weeks long, two essays per paper would work out at one essay per week (if distributed evenly).
683 Sociology Essay Topics & Good Ideas. Sociology essay topics cover broad concepts of human society, exploring varied areas, such as social behavior, norms, relationships, and structures. Some themes may scrutinize the influence of culture, gender, religion, and ethnicity on societal dynamics and consider hot issues, such as social inequality ...
In modern society, college students have endless options for scientific research. People can present academic papers about anything when they have relevant data. If you are interested in sociology, this article has many good sociology research topics! Sociology Paper: Best Topics for Your Essay 2022 Sometimes, it becomes a challenging task to think of new […]
sociology, a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes that preserve and change them. It does this by examining the dynamics of constituent parts of societies such as institutions, communities, populations, and gender, racial, or age groups.Sociology also studies social status or stratification, social movements, and social change, as well as societal ...
An essay on sociology will usually fall under the umbrella of a basic essay with a five-paragraph structure. This consists of an introduction, three body paragraphs, and a conclusion. What can you talk about in an essay on sociology Sociology is all around us, and we can see its theories and topics in our daily interactions.
Here is a brief overview of the history of sociology: 1. Precursors to Sociology (18th and early 19th centuries): Auguste Comte (1798-1857): Comte, widely considered the father of sociology, emphasized the scientific study of society. He advocated for applying the scientific method to social phenomena and coined "sociology.".
Example Introduction Paragraph for a Persuasive Sociological Imagination Essay: Sociological insights have the power to shape our understanding of pressing issues. In this persuasive essay, I will make a compelling case for the significance of promoting gender equality in the workplace, underscoring its positive effects on society as a whole.
The little Peruvian guide to public speaking that conjures up a grandiose world. Society Essays from Aeon. World-leading thinkers explore big ideas from history, politics, economics, sociology, philosophy, archaeology and anthropology, and more.
essay, the major arguments made for each viewpoint will be discussed as well as an evaluation of each position on this debate. Positivism is a sociological tradition stating that human behaviour within society can be studied using the same procedures and methods employed in studying natural sciences. Those methods include observation and ...
[In the following essay, Adorno focuses his discussion on Man and Society in an Age of Reconstruction.] The sociology of knowledge expounded by Karl Mannheim has begun to take hold in Germany again.
Erin Gaede was awarded the Master's Thesis Award by the Rural Sociological Society for her Master's thesis titled "Housing Insecurity in America's Dairyland." Abstract: To explain the stigma around homelessness and housing insecurity, scholars tend …
PART -A INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY [44 marks] Unit- I SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIETY. Introducing Society: Individual Collectivities, Pluralities and Inequalities among societies
The Hawaiian Humane Society's Kosasa Family Campus at Hoopili is not your average animal shelter. In its first year, a new campus in Hoopili saw about 6,000 pets come and go through its doors ...
In place of our polity's commitment to individual rights, autonomy, and pluralism, the post-liberals aim to create a society unified around the common good, ... In his essay, Vance explains the ...
Associate Professor Jonathan Senchyne. Associate Professor Jonathan Senchyne, director of the Center for the History of Print and Digital Culture, has been named associate editor of the esteemed Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America (PBSA). PBSA was first published in 1904, and it is the journal of the oldest scholarly society in North America dedicated to the study of books and ...
Published by the American Mathematical Society, the Journal of the American Mathematical Society (JAMS) is devoted to research articles of the highest quality in all areas of mathematics. ISSN 1088-6834 (online) ISSN 0894-0347 (print) The 2020 MCQ for Journal of the American Mathematical Society is 4.83.
Mr. Sandel teaches political philosophy at Harvard. Kamala Harris has a lot to do in a short time — build a team, choose a running mate, introduce herself to the country. But her most important ...