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Descriptive Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

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Descriptive Research Design

Definition:

Descriptive research design is a type of research methodology that aims to describe or document the characteristics, behaviors, attitudes, opinions, or perceptions of a group or population being studied.

Descriptive research design does not attempt to establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables or make predictions about future outcomes. Instead, it focuses on providing a detailed and accurate representation of the data collected, which can be useful for generating hypotheses, exploring trends, and identifying patterns in the data.

Types of Descriptive Research Design

Types of Descriptive Research Design are as follows:

Cross-sectional Study

This involves collecting data at a single point in time from a sample or population to describe their characteristics or behaviors. For example, a researcher may conduct a cross-sectional study to investigate the prevalence of certain health conditions among a population, or to describe the attitudes and beliefs of a particular group.

Longitudinal Study

This involves collecting data over an extended period of time, often through repeated observations or surveys of the same group or population. Longitudinal studies can be used to track changes in attitudes, behaviors, or outcomes over time, or to investigate the effects of interventions or treatments.

This involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or situation to gain a detailed understanding of its characteristics or dynamics. Case studies are often used in psychology, sociology, and business to explore complex phenomena or to generate hypotheses for further research.

Survey Research

This involves collecting data from a sample or population through standardized questionnaires or interviews. Surveys can be used to describe attitudes, opinions, behaviors, or demographic characteristics of a group, and can be conducted in person, by phone, or online.

Observational Research

This involves observing and documenting the behavior or interactions of individuals or groups in a natural or controlled setting. Observational studies can be used to describe social, cultural, or environmental phenomena, or to investigate the effects of interventions or treatments.

Correlational Research

This involves examining the relationships between two or more variables to describe their patterns or associations. Correlational studies can be used to identify potential causal relationships or to explore the strength and direction of relationships between variables.

Data Analysis Methods

Descriptive research design data analysis methods depend on the type of data collected and the research question being addressed. Here are some common methods of data analysis for descriptive research:

Descriptive Statistics

This method involves analyzing data to summarize and describe the key features of a sample or population. Descriptive statistics can include measures of central tendency (e.g., mean, median, mode) and measures of variability (e.g., range, standard deviation).

Cross-tabulation

This method involves analyzing data by creating a table that shows the frequency of two or more variables together. Cross-tabulation can help identify patterns or relationships between variables.

Content Analysis

This method involves analyzing qualitative data (e.g., text, images, audio) to identify themes, patterns, or trends. Content analysis can be used to describe the characteristics of a sample or population, or to identify factors that influence attitudes or behaviors.

Qualitative Coding

This method involves analyzing qualitative data by assigning codes to segments of data based on their meaning or content. Qualitative coding can be used to identify common themes, patterns, or categories within the data.

Visualization

This method involves creating graphs or charts to represent data visually. Visualization can help identify patterns or relationships between variables and make it easier to communicate findings to others.

Comparative Analysis

This method involves comparing data across different groups or time periods to identify similarities and differences. Comparative analysis can help describe changes in attitudes or behaviors over time or differences between subgroups within a population.

Applications of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has numerous applications in various fields. Some of the common applications of descriptive research design are:

• Market research: Descriptive research design is widely used in market research to understand consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes. This helps companies to develop new products and services, improve marketing strategies, and increase customer satisfaction.
• Health research: Descriptive research design is used in health research to describe the prevalence and distribution of a disease or health condition in a population. This helps healthcare providers to develop prevention and treatment strategies.
• Educational research: Descriptive research design is used in educational research to describe the performance of students, schools, or educational programs. This helps educators to improve teaching methods and develop effective educational programs.
• Social science research: Descriptive research design is used in social science research to describe social phenomena such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs. This helps researchers to understand social behavior and develop effective policies.
• Public opinion research: Descriptive research design is used in public opinion research to understand the opinions and attitudes of the general public on various issues. This helps policymakers to develop effective policies that are aligned with public opinion.
• Environmental research: Descriptive research design is used in environmental research to describe the environmental conditions of a particular region or ecosystem. This helps policymakers and environmentalists to develop effective conservation and preservation strategies.

Descriptive Research Design Examples

Here are some real-time examples of descriptive research designs:

• A restaurant chain wants to understand the demographics and attitudes of its customers. They conduct a survey asking customers about their age, gender, income, frequency of visits, favorite menu items, and overall satisfaction. The survey data is analyzed using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation to describe the characteristics of their customer base.
• A medical researcher wants to describe the prevalence and risk factors of a particular disease in a population. They conduct a cross-sectional study in which they collect data from a sample of individuals using a standardized questionnaire. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics and cross-tabulation to identify patterns in the prevalence and risk factors of the disease.
• An education researcher wants to describe the learning outcomes of students in a particular school district. They collect test scores from a representative sample of students in the district and use descriptive statistics to calculate the mean, median, and standard deviation of the scores. They also create visualizations such as histograms and box plots to show the distribution of scores.
• A marketing team wants to understand the attitudes and behaviors of consumers towards a new product. They conduct a series of focus groups and use qualitative coding to identify common themes and patterns in the data. They also create visualizations such as word clouds to show the most frequently mentioned topics.
• An environmental scientist wants to describe the biodiversity of a particular ecosystem. They conduct an observational study in which they collect data on the species and abundance of plants and animals in the ecosystem. The data is analyzed using descriptive statistics to describe the diversity and richness of the ecosystem.

How to Conduct Descriptive Research Design

To conduct a descriptive research design, you can follow these general steps:

• Define your research question: Clearly define the research question or problem that you want to address. Your research question should be specific and focused to guide your data collection and analysis.
• Choose your research method: Select the most appropriate research method for your research question. As discussed earlier, common research methods for descriptive research include surveys, case studies, observational studies, cross-sectional studies, and longitudinal studies.
• Design your study: Plan the details of your study, including the sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis plan. Determine the sample size and sampling method, decide on the data collection tools (such as questionnaires, interviews, or observations), and outline your data analysis plan.
• Collect data: Collect data from your sample or population using the data collection tools you have chosen. Ensure that you follow ethical guidelines for research and obtain informed consent from participants.
• Analyze data: Use appropriate statistical or qualitative analysis methods to analyze your data. As discussed earlier, common data analysis methods for descriptive research include descriptive statistics, cross-tabulation, content analysis, qualitative coding, visualization, and comparative analysis.
• I nterpret results: Interpret your findings in light of your research question and objectives. Identify patterns, trends, and relationships in the data, and describe the characteristics of your sample or population.
• Draw conclusions and report results: Draw conclusions based on your analysis and interpretation of the data. Report your results in a clear and concise manner, using appropriate tables, graphs, or figures to present your findings. Ensure that your report follows accepted research standards and guidelines.

When to Use Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design is used in situations where the researcher wants to describe a population or phenomenon in detail. It is used to gather information about the current status or condition of a group or phenomenon without making any causal inferences. Descriptive research design is useful in the following situations:

• Exploratory research: Descriptive research design is often used in exploratory research to gain an initial understanding of a phenomenon or population.
• Identifying trends: Descriptive research design can be used to identify trends or patterns in a population, such as changes in consumer behavior or attitudes over time.
• Market research: Descriptive research design is commonly used in market research to understand consumer preferences, behavior, and attitudes.
• Health research: Descriptive research design is useful in health research to describe the prevalence and distribution of a disease or health condition in a population.
• Social science research: Descriptive research design is used in social science research to describe social phenomena such as cultural norms, values, and beliefs.
• Educational research: Descriptive research design is used in educational research to describe the performance of students, schools, or educational programs.

Purpose of Descriptive Research Design

The main purpose of descriptive research design is to describe and measure the characteristics of a population or phenomenon in a systematic and objective manner. It involves collecting data that describe the current status or condition of the population or phenomenon of interest, without manipulating or altering any variables.

The purpose of descriptive research design can be summarized as follows:

• To provide an accurate description of a population or phenomenon: Descriptive research design aims to provide a comprehensive and accurate description of a population or phenomenon of interest. This can help researchers to develop a better understanding of the characteristics of the population or phenomenon.
• To identify trends and patterns: Descriptive research design can help researchers to identify trends and patterns in the data, such as changes in behavior or attitudes over time. This can be useful for making predictions and developing strategies.
• To generate hypotheses: Descriptive research design can be used to generate hypotheses or research questions that can be tested in future studies. For example, if a descriptive study finds a correlation between two variables, this could lead to the development of a hypothesis about the causal relationship between the variables.
• To establish a baseline: Descriptive research design can establish a baseline or starting point for future research. This can be useful for comparing data from different time periods or populations.

Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has several key characteristics that distinguish it from other research designs. Some of the main characteristics of descriptive research design are:

• Objective : Descriptive research design is objective in nature, which means that it focuses on collecting factual and accurate data without any personal bias. The researcher aims to report the data objectively without any personal interpretation.
• Non-experimental: Descriptive research design is non-experimental, which means that the researcher does not manipulate any variables. The researcher simply observes and records the behavior or characteristics of the population or phenomenon of interest.
• Quantitative : Descriptive research design is quantitative in nature, which means that it involves collecting numerical data that can be analyzed using statistical techniques. This helps to provide a more precise and accurate description of the population or phenomenon.
• Cross-sectional: Descriptive research design is often cross-sectional, which means that the data is collected at a single point in time. This can be useful for understanding the current state of the population or phenomenon, but it may not provide information about changes over time.
• Large sample size: Descriptive research design typically involves a large sample size, which helps to ensure that the data is representative of the population of interest. A large sample size also helps to increase the reliability and validity of the data.
• Systematic and structured: Descriptive research design involves a systematic and structured approach to data collection, which helps to ensure that the data is accurate and reliable. This involves using standardized procedures for data collection, such as surveys, questionnaires, or observation checklists.

Advantages of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design has several advantages that make it a popular choice for researchers. Some of the main advantages of descriptive research design are:

• Provides an accurate description: Descriptive research design is focused on accurately describing the characteristics of a population or phenomenon. This can help researchers to develop a better understanding of the subject of interest.
• Easy to conduct: Descriptive research design is relatively easy to conduct and requires minimal resources compared to other research designs. It can be conducted quickly and efficiently, and data can be collected through surveys, questionnaires, or observations.
• Useful for generating hypotheses: Descriptive research design can be used to generate hypotheses or research questions that can be tested in future studies. For example, if a descriptive study finds a correlation between two variables, this could lead to the development of a hypothesis about the causal relationship between the variables.
• Large sample size : Descriptive research design typically involves a large sample size, which helps to ensure that the data is representative of the population of interest. A large sample size also helps to increase the reliability and validity of the data.
• Can be used to monitor changes : Descriptive research design can be used to monitor changes over time in a population or phenomenon. This can be useful for identifying trends and patterns, and for making predictions about future behavior or attitudes.
• Can be used in a variety of fields : Descriptive research design can be used in a variety of fields, including social sciences, healthcare, business, and education.

Limitation of Descriptive Research Design

Descriptive research design also has some limitations that researchers should consider before using this design. Some of the main limitations of descriptive research design are:

• Cannot establish cause and effect: Descriptive research design cannot establish cause and effect relationships between variables. It only provides a description of the characteristics of the population or phenomenon of interest.
• Limited generalizability: The results of a descriptive study may not be generalizable to other populations or situations. This is because descriptive research design often involves a specific sample or situation, which may not be representative of the broader population.
• Potential for bias: Descriptive research design can be subject to bias, particularly if the researcher is not objective in their data collection or interpretation. This can lead to inaccurate or incomplete descriptions of the population or phenomenon of interest.
• Limited depth: Descriptive research design may provide a superficial description of the population or phenomenon of interest. It does not delve into the underlying causes or mechanisms behind the observed behavior or characteristics.
• Limited utility for theory development: Descriptive research design may not be useful for developing theories about the relationship between variables. It only provides a description of the variables themselves.
• Relies on self-report data: Descriptive research design often relies on self-report data, such as surveys or questionnaires. This type of data may be subject to biases, such as social desirability bias or recall bias.

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Muhammad Hassan

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18 Descriptive Research Examples

Dave Cornell (PhD)

Dr. Cornell has worked in education for more than 20 years. His work has involved designing teacher certification for Trinity College in London and in-service training for state governments in the United States. He has trained kindergarten teachers in 8 countries and helped businessmen and women open baby centers and kindergartens in 3 countries.

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Chris Drew (PhD)

This article was peer-reviewed and edited by Chris Drew (PhD). The review process on Helpful Professor involves having a PhD level expert fact check, edit, and contribute to articles. Reviewers ensure all content reflects expert academic consensus and is backed up with reference to academic studies. Dr. Drew has published over 20 academic articles in scholarly journals. He is the former editor of the Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education and holds a PhD in Education from ACU.

Descriptive research involves gathering data to provide a detailed account or depiction of a phenomenon without manipulating variables or conducting experiments.

A scholarly definition is:

“Descriptive research is defined as a research approach that describes the characteristics of the population, sample or phenomenon studied. This method focuses more on the “what” rather than the “why” of the research subject.” (Matanda, 2022, p. 63)

The key feature of descriptive research is that it merely describes phenomena and does not attempt to manipulate variables nor determine cause and effect .

To determine cause and effect , a researcher would need to use an alternate methodology, such as experimental research design .

Common approaches to descriptive research include:

• Cross-sectional research : A cross-sectional study gathers data on a population at a specific time to get descriptive data that could include categories (e.g. age or income brackets) to get a better understanding of the makeup of a population.
• Longitudinal research : Longitudinal studies return to a population to collect data at several different points in time, allowing for description of changes in categories over time. However, as it’s descriptive, it cannot infer cause and effect (Erickson, 2017).

Methods that could be used include:

• Surveys: For example, sending out a census survey to be completed at the exact same date and time by everyone in a population.
• Case Study : For example, an in-depth description of a specific person or group of people to gain in-depth qualitative information that can describe a phenomenon but cannot be generalized to other cases.
• Observational Method : For example, a researcher taking field notes in an ethnographic study. (Siedlecki, 2020)

Descriptive Research Examples

1. Understanding Autism Spectrum Disorder (Psychology): Researchers analyze various behavior patterns, cognitive skills, and social interaction abilities specific to children with Autism Spectrum Disorder to comprehensively describe the disorder’s symptom spectrum. This detailed description classifies it as descriptive research, rather than analytical or experimental, as it merely records what is observed without altering any variables or trying to establish causality.

2. Consumer Purchase Decision Process in E-commerce Marketplaces (Marketing): By documenting and describing all the factors that influence consumer decisions on online marketplaces, researchers don’t attempt to predict future behavior or establish causes—just describe observed behavior—making it descriptive research.

3. Impacts of Climate Change on Agricultural Practices (Environmental Studies): Descriptive research is seen as scientists outline how climate changes influence various agricultural practices by observing and then meticulously categorizing the impacts on crop variability, farming seasons, and pest infestations without manipulating any variables in real-time.

4. Work Environment and Employee Performance (Human Resources Management): A study of this nature, describing the correlation between various workplace elements and employee performance, falls under descriptive research as it merely narrates the observed patterns without altering any conditions or testing hypotheses.

5. Factors Influencing Student Performance (Education): Researchers describe various factors affecting students’ academic performance, such as studying techniques, parental involvement, and peer influence. The study is categorized as descriptive research because its principal aim is to depict facts as they stand without trying to infer causal relationships.

6. Technological Advances in Healthcare (Healthcare): This research describes and categorizes different technological advances (such as telemedicine, AI-enabled tools, digital collaboration) in healthcare without testing or modifying any parameters, making it an example of descriptive research.

7. Urbanization and Biodiversity Loss (Ecology): By describing the impact of rapid urban expansion on biodiversity loss, this study serves as a descriptive research example. It observes the ongoing situation without manipulating it, offering a comprehensive depiction of the existing scenario rather than investigating the cause-effect relationship.

8. Architectural Styles across Centuries (Art History): A study documenting and describing various architectural styles throughout centuries essentially represents descriptive research. It aims to narrate and categorize facts without exploring the underlying reasons or predicting future trends.

9. Media Usage Patterns among Teenagers (Sociology): When researchers document and describe the media consumption habits among teenagers, they are performing a descriptive research study. Their main intention is to observe and report the prevailing trends rather than establish causes or predict future behaviors.

10. Dietary Habits and Lifestyle Diseases (Nutrition Science): By describing the dietary patterns of different population groups and correlating them with the prevalence of lifestyle diseases, researchers perform descriptive research. They merely describe observed connections without altering any diet plans or lifestyles.

11. Shifts in Global Energy Consumption (Environmental Economics): When researchers describe the global patterns of energy consumption and how they’ve shifted over the years, they conduct descriptive research. The focus is on recording and portraying the current state without attempting to infer causes or predict the future.

12. Literacy and Employment Rates in Rural Areas (Sociology): A study aims at describing the literacy rates in rural areas and correlating it with employment levels. It falls under descriptive research because it maps the scenario without manipulating parameters or proving a hypothesis.

13. Women Representation in Tech Industry (Gender Studies): A detailed description of the presence and roles of women across various sectors of the tech industry is a typical case of descriptive research. It merely observes and records the status quo without establishing causality or making predictions.

14. Impact of Urban Green Spaces on Mental Health (Environmental Psychology): When researchers document and describe the influence of green urban spaces on residents’ mental health, they are undertaking descriptive research. They seek purely to understand the current state rather than exploring cause-effect relationships.

15. Trends in Smartphone usage among Elderly (Gerontology): Research describing how the elderly population utilizes smartphones, including popular features and challenges encountered, serves as descriptive research. Researcher’s aim is merely to capture what is happening without manipulating variables or posing predictions.

16. Shifts in Voter Preferences (Political Science): A study describing the shift in voter preferences during a particular electoral cycle is descriptive research. It simply records the preferences revealed without drawing causal inferences or suggesting future voting patterns.

17. Understanding Trust in Autonomous Vehicles (Transportation Psychology): This comprises research describing public attitudes and trust levels when it comes to autonomous vehicles. By merely depicting observed sentiments, without engineering any situations or offering predictions, it’s considered descriptive research.

18. The Impact of Social Media on Body Image (Psychology): Descriptive research to outline the experiences and perceptions of individuals relating to body image in the era of social media. Observing these elements without altering any variables qualifies it as descriptive research.

Descriptive vs Experimental Research

Descriptive research merely observes, records, and presents the actual state of affairs without manipulating any variables, while experimental research involves deliberately changing one or more variables to determine their effect on a particular outcome.

De Vaus (2001) succinctly explains that descriptive studies find out what is going on , but experimental research finds out why it’s going on /

Simple definitions are below:

• Descriptive research is primarily about describing the characteristics or behaviors in a population, often through surveys or observational methods. It provides rich detail about a specific phenomenon but does not allow for conclusive causal statements; however, it can offer essential leads or ideas for further experimental research (Ivey, 2016).
• Experimental research , often conducted in controlled environments, aims to establish causal relationships by manipulating one or more independent variables and observing the effects on dependent variables (Devi, 2017; Mukherjee, 2019).

Experimental designs often involve a control group and random assignment . While it can provide compelling evidence for cause and effect, its artificial setting might not perfectly mirror real-worldly conditions, potentially affecting the generalizability of its findings.

These two types of research are complementary, with descriptive studies often leading to hypotheses that are then tested experimentally (Devi, 2017; Zhao et al., 2021).

Benefits and Limitations of Descriptive Research

Descriptive research offers several benefits: it allows researchers to gather a vast amount of data and present a complete picture of the situation or phenomenon under study, even within large groups or over long time periods.

It’s also flexible in terms of the variety of methods used, such as surveys, observations, and case studies, and it can be instrumental in identifying patterns or trends and generating hypotheses (Erickson, 2017).

However, it also has its limitations.

The primary drawback is that it can’t establish cause-effect relationships, as no variables are manipulated. This lack of control over variables also opens up possibilities for bias, as researchers might inadvertently influence responses during data collection (De Vaus, 2001).

Additionally, the findings of descriptive research are often not generalizable since they are heavily reliant on the chosen sample’s characteristics.

See More Types of Research Design Here

De Vaus, D. A. (2001). Research Design in Social Research . SAGE Publications.

Devi, P. S. (2017). Research Methodology: A Handbook for Beginners . Notion Press.

Erickson, G. S. (2017). Descriptive research design. In  New Methods of Market Research and Analysis  (pp. 51-77). Edward Elgar Publishing.

Gresham, B. B. (2016). Concepts of Evidence-based Practice for the Physical Therapist Assistant . F.A. Davis Company.

Ivey, J. (2016). Is descriptive research worth doing?.  Pediatric nursing ,  42 (4), 189. ( Source )

Krishnaswamy, K. N., Sivakumar, A. I., & Mathirajan, M. (2009). Management Research Methodology: Integration of Principles, Methods and Techniques . Pearson Education.

Matanda, E. (2022). Research Methods and Statistics for Cross-Cutting Research: Handbook for Multidisciplinary Research . Langaa RPCIG.

Monsen, E. R., & Van Horn, L. (2007). Research: Successful Approaches . American Dietetic Association.

Mukherjee, S. P. (2019). A Guide to Research Methodology: An Overview of Research Problems, Tasks and Methods . CRC Press.

Siedlecki, S. L. (2020). Understanding descriptive research designs and methods.  Clinical Nurse Specialist ,  34 (1), 8-12. ( Source )

Zhao, P., Ross, K., Li, P., & Dennis, B. (2021). Making Sense of Social Research Methodology: A Student and Practitioner Centered Approach . SAGE Publications.

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What is Descriptive Research? Definition, Methods, Types and Examples

Descriptive research is a methodological approach that seeks to depict the characteristics of a phenomenon or subject under investigation. In scientific inquiry, it serves as a foundational tool for researchers aiming to observe, record, and analyze the intricate details of a particular topic. This method provides a rich and detailed account that aids in understanding, categorizing, and interpreting the subject matter.

Descriptive research design is widely employed across diverse fields, and its primary objective is to systematically observe and document all variables and conditions influencing the phenomenon.

After this descriptive research definition, let’s look at this example. Consider a researcher working on climate change adaptation, who wants to understand water management trends in an arid village in a specific study area. She must conduct a demographic survey of the region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what are the water management practices and trends in village X.” Note, however, that it will not cover any investigative information about “why” the patterns exist.

Table of Contents

What is descriptive research?

If you’ve been wondering “What is descriptive research,” we’ve got you covered in this post! In a nutshell, descriptive research is an exploratory research method that helps a researcher describe a population, circumstance, or phenomenon. It can help answer what , where , when and how questions, but not why questions. In other words, it does not involve changing the study variables and does not seek to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Importance of descriptive research

Now, let’s delve into the importance of descriptive research. This research method acts as the cornerstone for various academic and applied disciplines. Its primary significance lies in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview of a phenomenon, enabling researchers to gain a nuanced understanding of the variables at play. This method aids in forming hypotheses, generating insights, and laying the groundwork for further in-depth investigations. The following points further illustrate its importance:

Provides insights into a population or phenomenon: Descriptive research furnishes a comprehensive overview of the characteristics and behaviors of a specific population or phenomenon, thereby guiding and shaping the research project.

Offers baseline data: The data acquired through this type of research acts as a reference for subsequent investigations, laying the groundwork for further studies.

Allows validation of sampling methods: Descriptive research validates sampling methods, aiding in the selection of the most effective approach for the study.

Helps reduce time and costs: It is cost-effective and time-efficient, making this an economical means of gathering information about a specific population or phenomenon.

Ensures replicability: Descriptive research is easily replicable, ensuring a reliable way to collect and compare information from various sources.

When to use descriptive research design?

Determining when to use descriptive research depends on the nature of the research question. Before diving into the reasons behind an occurrence, understanding the how, when, and where aspects is essential. Descriptive research design is a suitable option when the research objective is to discern characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories without manipulating variables. It is therefore often employed in the initial stages of a study before progressing to more complex research designs. To put it in another way, descriptive research precedes the hypotheses of explanatory research. It is particularly valuable when there is limited existing knowledge about the subject.

Some examples are as follows, highlighting that these questions would arise before a clear outline of the research plan is established:

• In the last two decades, what changes have occurred in patterns of urban gardening in Mumbai?
• What are the differences in climate change perceptions of farmers in coastal versus inland villages in the Philippines?

Characteristics of descriptive research

Coming to the characteristics of descriptive research, this approach is characterized by its focus on observing and documenting the features of a subject. Specific characteristics are as below.

• Quantitative nature: Some descriptive research types involve quantitative research methods to gather quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample.
• Qualitative nature: Some descriptive research examples include those using the qualitative research method to describe or explain the research problem.
• Observational nature: This approach is non-invasive and observational because the study variables remain untouched. Researchers merely observe and report, without introducing interventions that could impact the subject(s).
• Cross-sectional nature: In descriptive research, different sections belonging to the same group are studied, providing a “snapshot” of sorts.
• Springboard for further research: The data collected are further studied and analyzed using different research techniques. This approach helps guide the suitable research methods to be employed.

Types of descriptive research

There are various descriptive research types, each suited to different research objectives. Take a look at the different types below.

• Surveys: This involves collecting data through questionnaires or interviews to gather qualitative and quantitative data.
• Observational studies: This involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without influencing the study variables or manipulating the conditions. These may be further divided into cohort studies, case studies, and cross-sectional studies:
• Cohort studies: Also known as longitudinal studies, these studies involve the collection of data over an extended period, allowing researchers to track changes and trends.
• Case studies: These deal with a single individual, group, or event, which might be rare or unusual.
• Cross-sectional studies : A researcher collects data at a single point in time, in order to obtain a snapshot of a specific moment.
• Focus groups: In this approach, a small group of people are brought together to discuss a topic. The researcher moderates and records the group discussion. This can also be considered a “participatory” observational method.
• Descriptive classification: Relevant to the biological sciences, this type of approach may be used to classify living organisms.

Descriptive research methods

Several descriptive research methods can be employed, and these are more or less similar to the types of approaches mentioned above.

• Surveys: This method involves the collection of data through questionnaires or interviews. Surveys may be done online or offline, and the target subjects might be hyper-local, regional, or global.
• Observational studies: These entail the direct observation of subjects in their natural environment. These include case studies, dealing with a single case or individual, as well as cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, for a glimpse into a population or changes in trends over time, respectively. Participatory observational studies such as focus group discussions may also fall under this method.

Researchers must carefully consider descriptive research methods, types, and examples to harness their full potential in contributing to scientific knowledge.

Examples of descriptive research

Now, let’s consider some descriptive research examples.

• In social sciences, an example could be a study analyzing the demographics of a specific community to understand its socio-economic characteristics.
• In business, a market research survey aiming to describe consumer preferences would be a descriptive study.
• In ecology, a researcher might undertake a survey of all the types of monocots naturally occurring in a region and classify them up to species level.

These examples showcase the versatility of descriptive research across diverse fields.

Advantages of descriptive research

There are several advantages to this approach, which every researcher must be aware of. These are as follows:

• Owing to the numerous descriptive research methods and types, primary data can be obtained in diverse ways and be used for developing a research hypothesis .
• It is a versatile research method and allows flexibility.
• Detailed and comprehensive information can be obtained because the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative.
• It is carried out in the natural environment, which greatly minimizes certain types of bias and ethical concerns.
• It is an inexpensive and efficient approach, even with large sample sizes

Disadvantages of descriptive research

On the other hand, this design has some drawbacks as well:

• It is limited in its scope as it does not determine cause-and-effect relationships.
• The approach does not generate new information and simply depends on existing data.
• Study variables are not manipulated or controlled, and this limits the conclusions to be drawn.
• Descriptive research findings may not be generalizable to other populations.
• Finally, it offers a preliminary understanding rather than an in-depth understanding.

To reiterate, the advantages of descriptive research lie in its ability to provide a comprehensive overview, aid hypothesis generation, and serve as a preliminary step in the research process. However, its limitations include a potential lack of depth, inability to establish cause-and-effect relationships, and susceptibility to bias.

Frequently asked questions

When should researchers conduct descriptive research.

Descriptive research is most appropriate when researchers aim to portray and understand the characteristics of a phenomenon without manipulating variables. It is particularly valuable in the early stages of a study.

What is the difference between descriptive and exploratory research?

Descriptive research focuses on providing a detailed depiction of a phenomenon, while exploratory research aims to explore and generate insights into an issue where little is known.

What is the difference between descriptive and experimental research?

Descriptive research observes and documents without manipulating variables, whereas experimental research involves intentional interventions to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Is descriptive research only for social sciences?

No, various descriptive research types may be applicable to all fields of study, including social science, humanities, physical science, and biological science.

How important is descriptive research?

The importance of descriptive research lies in its ability to provide a glimpse of the current state of a phenomenon, offering valuable insights and establishing a basic understanding. Further, the advantages of descriptive research include its capacity to offer a straightforward depiction of a situation or phenomenon, facilitate the identification of patterns or trends, and serve as a useful starting point for more in-depth investigations. Additionally, descriptive research can contribute to the development of hypotheses and guide the formulation of research questions for subsequent studies.

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Bridging the Gap: Overcome these 7 flaws in descriptive research design

Descriptive research design is a powerful tool used by scientists and researchers to gather information about a particular group or phenomenon. This type of research provides a detailed and accurate picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or subject. By observing and collecting data on a given topic, descriptive research helps researchers gain a deeper understanding of a specific issue and provides valuable insights that can inform future studies.

In this blog, we will explore the definition, characteristics, and common flaws in descriptive research design, and provide tips on how to avoid these pitfalls to produce high-quality results. Whether you are a seasoned researcher or a student just starting, understanding the fundamentals of descriptive research design is essential to conducting successful scientific studies.

Table of Contents

What Is Descriptive Research Design?

The descriptive research design involves observing and collecting data on a given topic without attempting to infer cause-and-effect relationships. The goal of descriptive research is to provide a comprehensive and accurate picture of the population or phenomenon being studied and to describe the relationships, patterns, and trends that exist within the data.

Descriptive research methods can include surveys, observational studies , and case studies, and the data collected can be qualitative or quantitative . The findings from descriptive research provide valuable insights and inform future research, but do not establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Importance of Descriptive Research in Scientific Studies

1. understanding of a population or phenomenon.

Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics and behaviors of a particular population or phenomenon, allowing researchers to gain a deeper understanding of the topic.

2. Baseline Information

The information gathered through descriptive research can serve as a baseline for future research and provide a foundation for further studies.

3. Informative Data

Descriptive research can provide valuable information and insights into a particular topic, which can inform future research, policy decisions, and programs.

4. Sampling Validation

Descriptive research can be used to validate sampling methods and to help researchers determine the best approach for their study.

5. Cost Effective

Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods , making it a cost-effective way to gather information about a particular population or phenomenon.

6. Easy to Replicate

Descriptive research is straightforward to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.

Key Characteristics of Descriptive Research Design

The primary purpose of descriptive research is to describe the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon.

2. Participants and Sampling

Descriptive research studies a particular population or sample that is representative of the larger population being studied. Furthermore, sampling methods can include convenience, stratified, or random sampling.

3. Data Collection Techniques

Descriptive research typically involves the collection of both qualitative and quantitative data through methods such as surveys, observational studies, case studies, or focus groups.

4. Data Analysis

Descriptive research data is analyzed to identify patterns, relationships, and trends within the data. Statistical techniques , such as frequency distributions and descriptive statistics, are commonly used to summarize and describe the data.

5. Focus on Description

Descriptive research is focused on describing and summarizing the characteristics of a particular population or phenomenon. It does not make causal inferences.

6. Non-Experimental

Descriptive research is non-experimental, meaning that the researcher does not manipulate variables or control conditions. The researcher simply observes and collects data on the population or phenomenon being studied.

When Can a Researcher Conduct Descriptive Research?

A researcher can conduct descriptive research in the following situations:

• To better understand a particular population or phenomenon
• To describe the relationships between variables
• To describe patterns and trends
• To validate sampling methods and determine the best approach for a study
• To compare data from multiple sources.

Types of Descriptive Research Design

1. survey research.

Surveys are a type of descriptive research that involves collecting data through self-administered or interviewer-administered questionnaires. Additionally, they can be administered in-person, by mail, or online, and can collect both qualitative and quantitative data.

2. Observational Research

Observational research involves observing and collecting data on a particular population or phenomenon without manipulating variables or controlling conditions. It can be conducted in naturalistic settings or controlled laboratory settings.

3. Case Study Research

Case study research is a type of descriptive research that focuses on a single individual, group, or event. It involves collecting detailed information on the subject through a variety of methods, including interviews, observations, and examination of documents.

4. Focus Group Research

Focus group research involves bringing together a small group of people to discuss a particular topic or product. Furthermore, the group is usually moderated by a researcher and the discussion is recorded for later analysis.

5. Ethnographic Research

Ethnographic research involves conducting detailed observations of a particular culture or community. It is often used to gain a deep understanding of the beliefs, behaviors, and practices of a particular group.

Advantages of Descriptive Research Design

1. provides a comprehensive understanding.

Descriptive research provides a comprehensive picture of the characteristics, behaviors, and attributes of a particular population or phenomenon, which can be useful in informing future research and policy decisions.

2. Non-invasive

Descriptive research is non-invasive and does not manipulate variables or control conditions, making it a suitable method for sensitive or ethical concerns.

3. Flexibility

Descriptive research allows for a wide range of data collection methods , including surveys, observational studies, case studies, and focus groups, making it a flexible and versatile research method.

4. Cost-effective

Descriptive research is often less expensive and less time-consuming than other research methods. Moreover, it gives a cost-effective option to many researchers.

5. Easy to Replicate

Descriptive research is easy to replicate, making it a reliable way to gather and compare information from multiple sources.

6. Informs Future Research

The insights gained from a descriptive research can inform future research and inform policy decisions and programs.

Disadvantages of Descriptive Research Design

1. limited scope.

Descriptive research only provides a snapshot of the current situation and cannot establish cause-and-effect relationships.

2. Dependence on Existing Data

Descriptive research relies on existing data, which may not always be comprehensive or accurate.

3. Lack of Control

Researchers have no control over the variables in descriptive research, which can limit the conclusions that can be drawn.

The researcher’s own biases and preconceptions can influence the interpretation of the data.

5. Lack of Generalizability

Descriptive research findings may not be applicable to other populations or situations.

6. Lack of Depth

Descriptive research provides a surface-level understanding of a phenomenon, rather than a deep understanding.

7. Time-consuming

Descriptive research often requires a large amount of data collection and analysis, which can be time-consuming and resource-intensive.

7 Ways to Avoid Common Flaws While Designing Descriptive Research

1. Clearly define the research question

A clearly defined research question is the foundation of any research study, and it is important to ensure that the question is both specific and relevant to the topic being studied.

2. Choose the appropriate research design

Choosing the appropriate research design for a study is crucial to the success of the study. Moreover, researchers should choose a design that best fits the research question and the type of data needed to answer it.

3. Select a representative sample

Selecting a representative sample is important to ensure that the findings of the study are generalizable to the population being studied. Researchers should use a sampling method that provides a random and representative sample of the population.

4. Use valid and reliable data collection methods

Using valid and reliable data collection methods is important to ensure that the data collected is accurate and can be used to answer the research question. Researchers should choose methods that are appropriate for the study and that can be administered consistently and systematically.

5. Minimize bias

Bias can significantly impact the validity and reliability of research findings.  Furthermore, it is important to minimize bias in all aspects of the study, from the selection of participants to the analysis of data.

6. Ensure adequate sample size

An adequate sample size is important to ensure that the results of the study are statistically significant and can be generalized to the population being studied.

7. Use appropriate data analysis techniques

The appropriate data analysis technique depends on the type of data collected and the research question being asked. Researchers should choose techniques that are appropriate for the data and the question being asked.

Have you worked on descriptive research designs? How was your experience creating a descriptive design? What challenges did you face? Do write to us or leave a comment below and share your insights on descriptive research designs!

extremely very educative

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• What is descriptive research?

Last updated

5 February 2023

Reviewed by

Cathy Heath

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Descriptive research is a common investigatory model used by researchers in various fields, including social sciences, linguistics, and academia.

Read on to understand the characteristics of descriptive research and explore its underlying techniques, processes, and procedures.

Analyze your descriptive research

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Descriptive research is an exploratory research method. It enables researchers to precisely and methodically describe a population, circumstance, or phenomenon.

As the name suggests, descriptive research describes the characteristics of the group, situation, or phenomenon being studied without manipulating variables or testing hypotheses . This can be reported using surveys , observational studies, and case studies. You can use both quantitative and qualitative methods to compile the data.

Besides making observations and then comparing and analyzing them, descriptive studies often develop knowledge concepts and provide solutions to critical issues. It always aims to answer how the event occurred, when it occurred, where it occurred, and what the problem or phenomenon is.

• Characteristics of descriptive research

The following are some of the characteristics of descriptive research:

Quantitativeness

Descriptive research can be quantitative as it gathers quantifiable data to statistically analyze a population sample. These numbers can show patterns, connections, and trends over time and can be discovered using surveys, polls, and experiments.

Qualitativeness

Descriptive research can also be qualitative. It gives meaning and context to the numbers supplied by quantitative descriptive research .

Researchers can use tools like interviews, focus groups, and ethnographic studies to illustrate why things are what they are and help characterize the research problem. This is because it’s more explanatory than exploratory or experimental research.

Uncontrolled variables

Descriptive research differs from experimental research in that researchers cannot manipulate the variables. They are recognized, scrutinized, and quantified instead. This is one of its most prominent features.

Cross-sectional studies

Descriptive research is a cross-sectional study because it examines several areas of the same group. It involves obtaining data on multiple variables at the personal level during a certain period. It’s helpful when trying to understand a larger community’s habits or preferences.

Carried out in a natural environment

Descriptive studies are usually carried out in the participants’ everyday environment, which allows researchers to avoid influencing responders by collecting data in a natural setting. You can use online surveys or survey questions to collect data or observe.

Basis for further research

You can further dissect descriptive research’s outcomes and use them for different types of investigation. The outcomes also serve as a foundation for subsequent investigations and can guide future studies. For example, you can use the data obtained in descriptive research to help determine future research designs.

• Descriptive research methods

There are three basic approaches for gathering data in descriptive research: observational, case study, and survey.

You can use surveys to gather data in descriptive research. This involves gathering information from many people using a questionnaire and interview .

Surveys remain the dominant research tool for descriptive research design. Researchers can conduct various investigations and collect multiple types of data (quantitative and qualitative) using surveys with diverse designs.

You can conduct surveys over the phone, online, or in person. Your survey might be a brief interview or conversation with a set of prepared questions intended to obtain quick information from the primary source.

Observation

This descriptive research method involves observing and gathering data on a population or phenomena without manipulating variables. It is employed in psychology, market research , and other social science studies to track and understand human behavior.

Observation is an essential component of descriptive research. It entails gathering data and analyzing it to see whether there is a relationship between the two variables in the study. This strategy usually allows for both qualitative and quantitative data analysis.

Case studies

A case study can outline a specific topic’s traits. The topic might be a person, group, event, or organization.

It involves using a subset of a larger group as a sample to characterize the features of that larger group.

You can generalize knowledge gained from studying a case study to benefit a broader audience.

This approach entails carefully examining a particular group, person, or event over time. You can learn something new about the study topic by using a small group to better understand the dynamics of the entire group.

• Types of descriptive research

There are several types of descriptive study. The most well-known include cross-sectional studies, census surveys, sample surveys, case reports, and comparison studies.

Case reports and case series

In the healthcare and medical fields, a case report is used to explain a patient’s circumstances when suffering from an uncommon illness or displaying certain symptoms. Case reports and case series are both collections of related cases. They have aided the advancement of medical knowledge on countless occasions.

The normative component is an addition to the descriptive survey. In the descriptive–normative survey, you compare the study’s results to the norm.

Descriptive survey

This descriptive type of research employs surveys to collect information on various topics. This data aims to determine the degree to which certain conditions may be attained.

You can extrapolate or generalize the information you obtain from sample surveys to the larger group being researched.

Correlative survey

Correlative surveys help establish if there is a positive, negative, or neutral connection between two variables.

Performing census surveys involves gathering relevant data on several aspects of a given population. These units include individuals, families, organizations, objects, characteristics, and properties.

During descriptive research, you gather different degrees of interest over time from a specific population. Cross-sectional studies provide a glimpse of a phenomenon’s prevalence and features in a population. There are no ethical challenges with them and they are quite simple and inexpensive to carry out.

Comparative studies

These surveys compare the two subjects’ conditions or characteristics. The subjects may include research variables, organizations, plans, and people.

Comparison points, assumption of similarities, and criteria of comparison are three important variables that affect how well and accurately comparative studies are conducted.

For instance, descriptive research can help determine how many CEOs hold a bachelor’s degree and what proportion of low-income households receive government help.

• Pros and cons

The primary advantage of descriptive research designs is that researchers can create a reliable and beneficial database for additional study. To conduct any inquiry, you need access to reliable information sources that can give you a firm understanding of a situation.

Quantitative studies are time- and resource-intensive, so knowing the hypotheses viable for testing is crucial. The basic overview of descriptive research provides helpful hints as to which variables are worth quantitatively examining. This is why it’s employed as a precursor to quantitative research designs.

Some experts view this research as untrustworthy and unscientific. However, there is no way to assess the findings because you don’t manipulate any variables statistically.

Cause-and-effect correlations also can’t be established through descriptive investigations. Additionally, observational study findings cannot be replicated, which prevents a review of the findings and their replication.

The absence of statistical and in-depth analysis and the rather superficial character of the investigative procedure are drawbacks of this research approach.

• Descriptive research examples and applications

Several descriptive research examples are emphasized based on their types, purposes, and applications. Research questions often begin with “What is …” These studies help find solutions to practical issues in social science, physical science, and education.

Here are some examples and applications of descriptive research:

Determining consumer perception and behavior

Organizations use descriptive research designs to determine how various demographic groups react to a certain product or service.

For example, a business looking to sell to its target market should research the market’s behavior first. When researching human behavior in response to a cause or event, the researcher pays attention to the traits, actions, and responses before drawing a conclusion.

Scientific classification

Scientific descriptive research enables the classification of organisms and their traits and constituents.

Measuring data trends

A descriptive study design’s statistical capabilities allow researchers to track data trends over time. It’s frequently used to determine the study target’s current circumstances and underlying patterns.

Conduct comparison

Organizations can use a descriptive research approach to learn how various demographics react to a certain product or service. For example, you can study how the target market responds to a competitor’s product and use that information to infer their behavior.

• Bottom line

A descriptive research design is suitable for exploring certain topics and serving as a prelude to larger quantitative investigations. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the “what” of the group or thing you’re investigating.

This research type acts as the cornerstone of other research methodologies . It is distinctive because it can use quantitative and qualitative research approaches at the same time.

What is descriptive research design?

Descriptive research design aims to systematically obtain information to describe a phenomenon, situation, or population. More specifically, it helps answer the what, when, where, and how questions regarding the research problem rather than the why.

How does descriptive research compare to qualitative research?

Despite certain parallels, descriptive research concentrates on describing phenomena, while qualitative research aims to understand people better.

How do you analyze descriptive research data?

Data analysis involves using various methodologies, enabling the researcher to evaluate and provide results regarding validity and reliability.

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• Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples

Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples

Published on 5 May 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 10 October 2022.

Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can answer what , where , when , and how   questions , but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods  to investigate one or more variables . Unlike in experimental research , the researcher does not control or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them.

Table of contents

When to use a descriptive research design, descriptive research methods.

Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can research why something happens, you need to understand how, when, and where it happens.

• How has the London housing market changed over the past 20 years?
• Do customers of company X prefer product Y or product Z?
• What are the main genetic, behavioural, and morphological differences between European wildcats and domestic cats?
• What are the most popular online news sources among under-18s?
• How prevalent is disease A in population B?

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Descriptive research is usually defined as a type of quantitative research , though qualitative research can also be used for descriptive purposes. The research design should be carefully developed to ensure that the results are valid and reliable .

Survey research allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analysed for frequencies, averages, and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:

• Describing the demographics of a country or region
• Gauging public opinion on political and social topics
• Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or an organisation’s services

Observations

Observations allow you to gather data on behaviours and phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents. This method is often used by psychological, social, and market researchers to understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses , models, or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the subject under investigation.

Case studies

A case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject (such as a person, group, event, or organisation). Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalisable facts, case studies often focus on unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or reveal something new about a research problem .

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McCombes, S. (2022, October 10). Descriptive Research Design | Definition, Methods & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 21 October 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/research-methods/descriptive-research-design/

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• Descriptive Research Designs: Types, Examples & Methods

One of the components of research is getting enough information about the research problem—the what, how, when and where answers, which is why descriptive research is an important type of research. It is very useful when conducting research whose aim is to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, correlations, and categories.

This research method takes a problem with little to no relevant information and gives it a befitting description using qualitative and quantitative research method s. Descriptive research aims to accurately describe a research problem.

In the subsequent sections, we will be explaining what descriptive research means, its types, examples, and data collection methods.

What is Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research is a type of research that describes a population, situation, or phenomenon that is being studied. It focuses on answering the how, what, when, and where questions If a research problem, rather than the why.

This is mainly because it is important to have a proper understanding of what a research problem is about before investigating why it exists in the first place. 

For example, an investor considering an investment in the ever-changing Amsterdam housing market needs to understand what the current state of the market is, how it changes (increasing or decreasing), and when it changes (time of the year) before asking for the why. This is where descriptive research comes in.

What Are The Types of Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research is classified into different types according to the kind of approach that is used in conducting descriptive research. The different types of descriptive research are highlighted below:

• Descriptive-survey

Descriptive survey research uses surveys to gather data about varying subjects. This data aims to know the extent to which different conditions can be obtained among these subjects.

For example, a researcher wants to determine the qualification of employed professionals in Maryland. He uses a survey as his research instrument , and each item on the survey related to qualifications is subjected to a Yes/No answer. 

This way, the researcher can describe the qualifications possessed by the employed demographics of this community. 

• Descriptive-normative survey

This is an extension of the descriptive survey, with the addition being the normative element. In the descriptive-normative survey, the results of the study should be compared with the norm.

For example, an organization that wishes to test the skills of its employees by a team may have them take a skills test. The skills tests are the evaluation tool in this case, and the result of this test is compared with the norm of each role.

If the score of the team is one standard deviation above the mean, it is very satisfactory, if within the mean, satisfactory, and one standard deviation below the mean is unsatisfactory.

• Descriptive-status

This is a quantitative description technique that seeks to answer questions about real-life situations. For example, a researcher researching the income of the employees in a company, and the relationship with their performance.

A survey will be carried out to gather enough data about the income of the employees, then their performance will be evaluated and compared to their income. This will help determine whether a higher income means better performance and low income means lower performance or vice versa.

• Descriptive-analysis

The descriptive-analysis method of research describes a subject by further analyzing it, which in this case involves dividing it into 2 parts. For example, the HR personnel of a company that wishes to analyze the job role of each employee of the company may divide the employees into the people that work at the Headquarters in the US and those that work from Oslo, Norway office.

A questionnaire is devised to analyze the job role of employees with similar salaries and who work in similar positions.

• Descriptive classification

This method is employed in biological sciences for the classification of plants and animals. A researcher who wishes to classify the sea animals into different species will collect samples from various search stations, then classify them accordingly.

• Descriptive-comparative

In descriptive-comparative research, the researcher considers 2 variables that are not manipulated, and establish a formal procedure to conclude that one is better than the other. For example, an examination body wants to determine the better method of conducting tests between paper-based and computer-based tests.

A random sample of potential participants of the test may be asked to use the 2 different methods, and factors like failure rates, time factors, and others will be evaluated to arrive at the best method.

• Correlative Survey

Correlative surveys are used to determine whether the relationship between 2 variables is positive, negative, or neutral. That is, if 2 variables say X and Y are directly proportional, inversely proportional or are not related to each other.

Examples of Descriptive Research

There are different examples of descriptive research, that may be highlighted from its types, uses, and applications. However, we will be restricting ourselves to only 3 distinct examples in this article.

• Comparing Student Performance:

An academic institution may wish 2 compare the performance of its junior high school students in English language and Mathematics. This may be used to classify students based on 2 major groups, with one group going ahead to study while courses, while the other study courses in the Arts & Humanities field.

Students who are more proficient in mathematics will be encouraged to go into STEM and vice versa. Institutions may also use this data to identify students’ weak points and work on ways to assist them.

• Scientific Classification

During the major scientific classification of plants, animals, and periodic table elements, the characteristics and components of each subject are evaluated and used to determine how they are classified.

For example, living things may be classified into kingdom Plantae or kingdom animal is depending on their nature. Further classification may group animals into mammals, pieces, vertebrae, invertebrae, etc. 

All these classifications are made a result of descriptive research which describes what they are.

• Human Behavior

When studying human behaviour based on a factor or event, the researcher observes the characteristics, behaviour, and reaction, then use it to conclude. A company willing to sell to its target market needs to first study the behaviour of the market.

This may be done by observing how its target reacts to a competitor’s product, then use it to determine their behaviour.

What are the Characteristics of Descriptive Research?  

The characteristics of descriptive research can be highlighted from its definition, applications, data collection methods, and examples. Some characteristics of descriptive research are:

• Quantitativeness

Descriptive research uses a quantitative research method by collecting quantifiable information to be used for statistical analysis of the population sample. This is very common when dealing with research in the physical sciences.

• Qualitativeness

It can also be carried out using the qualitative research method, to properly describe the research problem. This is because descriptive research is more explanatory than exploratory or experimental.

• Uncontrolled variables

In descriptive research, researchers cannot control the variables like they do in experimental research.

• The basis for further research

The results of descriptive research can be further analyzed and used in other research methods. It can also inform the next line of research, including the research method that should be used.

This is because it provides basic information about the research problem, which may give birth to other questions like why a particular thing is the way it is.

Why Use Descriptive Research Design?  

Descriptive research can be used to investigate the background of a research problem and get the required information needed to carry out further research. It is used in multiple ways by different organizations, and especially when getting the required information about their target audience.

• Define subject characteristics :

It is used to determine the characteristics of the subjects, including their traits, behaviour, opinion, etc. This information may be gathered with the use of surveys, which are shared with the respondents who in this case, are the research subjects.

For example, a survey evaluating the number of hours millennials in a community spends on the internet weekly, will help a service provider make informed business decisions regarding the market potential of the community.

• Measure Data Trends

It helps to measure the changes in data over some time through statistical methods. Consider the case of individuals who want to invest in stock markets, so they evaluate the changes in prices of the available stocks to make a decision investment decision.

Brokerage companies are however the ones who carry out the descriptive research process, while individuals can view the data trends and make decisions.

Descriptive research is also used to compare how different demographics respond to certain variables. For example, an organization may study how people with different income levels react to the launch of a new Apple phone.

This kind of research may take a survey that will help determine which group of individuals are purchasing the new Apple phone. Do the low-income earners also purchase the phone, or only the high-income earners do?

Further research using another technique will explain why low-income earners are purchasing the phone even though they can barely afford it. This will help inform strategies that will lure other low-income earners and increase company sales.

• Validate existing conditions

When you are not sure about the validity of an existing condition, you can use descriptive research to ascertain the underlying patterns of the research object. This is because descriptive research methods make an in-depth analysis of each variable before making conclusions.

• Conducted Overtime

Descriptive research is conducted over some time to ascertain the changes observed at each point in time. The higher the number of times it is conducted, the more authentic the conclusion will be.

What are the Disadvantages of Descriptive Research?  

• Response and Non-response Bias

Respondents may either decide not to respond to questions or give incorrect responses if they feel the questions are too confidential. When researchers use observational methods, respondents may also decide to behave in a particular manner because they feel they are being watched.

• The researcher may decide to influence the result of the research due to personal opinion or bias towards a particular subject. For example, a stockbroker who also has a business of his own may try to lure investors into investing in his own company by manipulating results.
• A case-study or sample taken from a large population is not representative of the whole population.
• Limited scope:The scope of descriptive research is limited to the what of research, with no information on why thereby limiting the scope of the research.

What are the Data Collection Methods in Descriptive Research?  

There are 3 main data collection methods in descriptive research, namely; observational method, case study method, and survey research.

1. Observational Method

The observational method allows researchers to collect data based on their view of the behaviour and characteristics of the respondent, with the respondents themselves not directly having an input. It is often used in market research, psychology, and some other social science research to understand human behaviour.

It is also an important aspect of physical scientific research, with it being one of the most effective methods of conducting descriptive research . This process can be said to be either quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative observation involved the objective collection of numerical data , whose results can be analyzed using numerical and statistical methods. 

Qualitative observation, on the other hand, involves the monitoring of characteristics and not the measurement of numbers. The researcher makes his observation from a distance, records it, and is used to inform conclusions.

2. Case Study Method

A case study is a sample group (an individual, a group of people, organizations, events, etc.) whose characteristics are used to describe the characteristics of a larger group in which the case study is a subgroup. The information gathered from investigating a case study may be generalized to serve the larger group.

This generalization, may, however, be risky because case studies are not sufficient to make accurate predictions about larger groups. Case studies are a poor case of generalization.

3. Survey Research

This is a very popular data collection method in research designs. In survey research, researchers create a survey or questionnaire and distribute it to respondents who give answers.

Generally, it is used to obtain quick information directly from the primary source and also conducting rigorous quantitative and qualitative research. In some cases, survey research uses a blend of both qualitative and quantitative strategies.

Survey research can be carried out both online and offline using the following methods

• Online Surveys: This is a cheap method of carrying out surveys and getting enough responses. It can be carried out using Formplus, an online survey builder. Formplus has amazing tools and features that will help increase response rates.
• Offline Surveys: This includes paper forms, mobile offline forms , and SMS-based forms.

What Are The Differences Between Descriptive and Correlational Research?  

Before going into the differences between descriptive and correlation research, we need to have a proper understanding of what correlation research is about. Therefore, we will be giving a summary of the correlation research below.

Correlational research is a type of descriptive research, which is used to measure the relationship between 2 variables, with the researcher having no control over them. It aims to find whether there is; positive correlation (both variables change in the same direction), negative correlation (the variables change in the opposite direction), or zero correlation (there is no relationship between the variables).

Correlational research may be used in 2 situations;

(i) when trying to find out if there is a relationship between two variables, and

(ii) when a causal relationship is suspected between two variables, but it is impractical or unethical to conduct experimental research that manipulates one of the variables. 

Below are some of the differences between correlational and descriptive research:

• Definitions :

Descriptive research aims is a type of research that provides an in-depth understanding of the study population, while correlational research is the type of research that measures the relationship between 2 variables. 

• Characteristics :

Descriptive research provides descriptive data explaining what the research subject is about, while correlation research explores the relationship between data and not their description.

• Predictions :

 Predictions cannot be made in descriptive research while correlation research accommodates the possibility of making predictions.

Descriptive Research vs. Causal Research

Descriptive research and causal research are both research methodologies, however, one focuses on a subject’s behaviors while the latter focuses on a relationship’s cause-and-effect. To buttress the above point, descriptive research aims to describe and document the characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena of a particular or specific population or situation. 

It focuses on providing an accurate and detailed account of an already existing state of affairs between variables. Descriptive research answers the questions of “what,” “where,” “when,” and “how” without attempting to establish any causal relationships or explain any underlying factors that might have caused the behavior.

Causal research, on the other hand, seeks to determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. It aims to point out the factors that influence or cause a particular result or behavior. Causal research involves manipulating variables, controlling conditions or a subgroup, and observing the resulting effects. The primary objective of causal research is to establish a cause-effect relationship and provide insights into why certain phenomena happen the way they do.

Descriptive Research vs. Analytical Research

Descriptive research provides a detailed and comprehensive account of a specific situation or phenomenon. It focuses on describing and summarizing data without making inferences or attempting to explain underlying factors or the cause of the factor. 

It is primarily concerned with providing an accurate and objective representation of the subject of research. While analytical research goes beyond the description of the phenomena and seeks to analyze and interpret data to discover if there are patterns, relationships, or any underlying factors. 

It examines the data critically, applies statistical techniques or other analytical methods, and draws conclusions based on the discovery. Analytical research also aims to explore the relationships between variables and understand the underlying mechanisms or processes involved.

Descriptive Research vs. Exploratory Research

Descriptive research is a research method that focuses on providing a detailed and accurate account of a specific situation, group, or phenomenon. This type of research describes the characteristics, behaviors, or relationships within the given context without looking for an underlying cause. 

Descriptive research typically involves collecting and analyzing quantitative or qualitative data to generate descriptive statistics or narratives. Exploratory research differs from descriptive research because it aims to explore and gain firsthand insights or knowledge into a relatively unexplored or poorly understood topic. 

It focuses on generating ideas, hypotheses, or theories rather than providing definitive answers. Exploratory research is often conducted at the early stages of a research project to gather preliminary information and identify key variables or factors for further investigation. It involves open-ended interviews, observations, or small-scale surveys to gather qualitative data.

Read More – Exploratory Research: What are its Method & Examples?

Descriptive Research vs. Experimental Research

Descriptive research aims to describe and document the characteristics, behaviors, or phenomena of a particular population or situation. It focuses on providing an accurate and detailed account of the existing state of affairs. 

Descriptive research typically involves collecting data through surveys, observations, or existing records and analyzing the data to generate descriptive statistics or narratives. It does not involve manipulating variables or establishing cause-and-effect relationships.

Experimental research, on the other hand, involves manipulating variables and controlling conditions to investigate cause-and-effect relationships. It aims to establish causal relationships by introducing an intervention or treatment and observing the resulting effects. 

Experimental research typically involves randomly assigning participants to different groups, such as control and experimental groups, and measuring the outcomes. It allows researchers to control for confounding variables and draw causal conclusions.

Related – Experimental vs Non-Experimental Research: 15 Key Differences

Descriptive Research vs. Explanatory Research

Descriptive research focuses on providing a detailed and accurate account of a specific situation, group, or phenomenon. It aims to describe the characteristics, behaviors, or relationships within the given context. 

Descriptive research is primarily concerned with providing an objective representation of the subject of study without explaining underlying causes or mechanisms. Explanatory research seeks to explain the relationships between variables and uncover the underlying causes or mechanisms. 

It goes beyond description and aims to understand the reasons or factors that influence a particular outcome or behavior. Explanatory research involves analyzing data, conducting statistical analyses, and developing theories or models to explain the observed relationships.

Descriptive Research vs. Inferential Research

Descriptive research focuses on describing and summarizing data without making inferences or generalizations beyond the specific sample or population being studied. It aims to provide an accurate and objective representation of the subject of study. 

Descriptive research typically involves analyzing data to generate descriptive statistics, such as means, frequencies, or percentages, to describe the characteristics or behaviors observed.

Inferential research, however, involves making inferences or generalizations about a larger population based on a smaller sample. 

It aims to draw conclusions about the population characteristics or relationships by analyzing the sample data. Inferential research uses statistical techniques to estimate population parameters, test hypotheses, and determine the level of confidence or significance in the findings.

Related – Inferential Statistics: Definition, Types + Examples

Conclusion  

The uniqueness of descriptive research partly lies in its ability to explore both quantitative and qualitative research methods. Therefore, when conducting descriptive research, researchers have the opportunity to use a wide variety of techniques that aids the research process.

Descriptive research explores research problems in-depth, beyond the surface level thereby giving a detailed description of the research subject. That way, it can aid further research in the field, including other research methods .

It is also very useful in solving real-life problems in various fields of social science, physical science, and education.

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Descriptive research: what it is and how to use it.

8 min read Understanding the who, what and where of a situation or target group is an essential part of effective research and making informed business decisions.

For example you might want to understand what percentage of CEOs have a bachelor’s degree or higher. Or you might want to understand what percentage of low income families receive government support – or what kind of support they receive.

Descriptive research is what will be used in these types of studies.

In this guide we’ll look through the main issues relating to descriptive research to give you a better understanding of what it is, and how and why you can use it.

Free eBook: 2024 global market research trends report

What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research is a research method used to try and determine the characteristics of a population or particular phenomenon.

Using descriptive research you can identify patterns in the characteristics of a group to essentially establish everything you need to understand apart from why something has happened.

Market researchers use descriptive research for a range of commercial purposes to guide key decisions.

For example you could use descriptive research to understand fashion trends in a given city when planning your clothing collection for the year. Using descriptive research you can conduct in depth analysis on the demographic makeup of your target area and use the data analysis to establish buying patterns.

Conducting descriptive research wouldn’t, however, tell you why shoppers are buying a particular type of fashion item.

Descriptive research design

Descriptive research design uses a range of both qualitative research and quantitative data (although quantitative research is the primary research method) to gather information to make accurate predictions about a particular problem or hypothesis.

As a survey method, descriptive research designs will help researchers identify characteristics in their target market or particular population.

These characteristics in the population sample can be identified, observed and measured to guide decisions.

Descriptive research characteristics

While there are a number of descriptive research methods you can deploy for data collection, descriptive research does have a number of predictable characteristics.

Here are a few of the things to consider:

Measure data trends with statistical outcomes

Descriptive research is often popular for survey research because it generates answers in a statistical form, which makes it easy for researchers to carry out a simple statistical analysis to interpret what the data is saying.

Descriptive research design is ideal for further research

Because the data collection for descriptive research produces statistical outcomes, it can also be used as secondary data for another research study.

Plus, the data collected from descriptive research can be subjected to other types of data analysis .

Uncontrolled variables

A key component of the descriptive research method is that it uses random variables that are not controlled by the researchers. This is because descriptive research aims to understand the natural behavior of the research subject.

It’s carried out in a natural environment

Descriptive research is often carried out in a natural environment. This is because researchers aim to gather data in a natural setting to avoid swaying respondents.

Data can be gathered using survey questions or online surveys.

For example, if you want to understand the fashion trends we mentioned earlier, you would set up a study in which a researcher observes people in the respondent’s natural environment to understand their habits and preferences.

Descriptive research allows for cross sectional study

Because of the nature of descriptive research design and the randomness of the sample group being observed, descriptive research is ideal for cross sectional studies – essentially the demographics of the group can vary widely and your aim is to gain insights from within the group.

This can be highly beneficial when you’re looking to understand the behaviors or preferences of a wider population.

Descriptive research advantages

There are many advantages to using descriptive research, some of them include:

Cost effectiveness

Because the elements needed for descriptive research design are not specific or highly targeted (and occur within the respondent’s natural environment) this type of study is relatively cheap to carry out.

Multiple types of data can be collected

A big advantage of this research type, is that you can use it to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. This means you can use the stats gathered to easily identify underlying patterns in your respondents’ behavior.

Descriptive research disadvantages

Potential reliability issues.

When conducting descriptive research it’s important that the initial survey questions are properly formulated.

If not, it could make the answers unreliable and risk the credibility of your study.

Potential limitations

As we’ve mentioned, descriptive research design is ideal for understanding the what, who or where of a situation or phenomenon.

However, it can’t help you understand the cause or effect of the behavior. This means you’ll need to conduct further research to get a more complete picture of a situation.

Descriptive research methods

Because descriptive research methods include a range of quantitative and qualitative research, there are several research methods you can use.

Use case studies

Case studies in descriptive research involve conducting in-depth and detailed studies in which researchers get a specific person or case to answer questions.

Case studies shouldn’t be used to generate results, rather it should be used to build or establish hypothesis that you can expand into further market research .

For example you could gather detailed data about a specific business phenomenon, and then use this deeper understanding of that specific case.

Use observational methods

This type of study uses qualitative observations to understand human behavior within a particular group.

By understanding how the different demographics respond within your sample you can identify patterns and trends.

As an observational method, descriptive research will not tell you the cause of any particular behaviors, but that could be established with further research.

Use survey research

Surveys are one of the most cost effective ways to gather descriptive data.

An online survey or questionnaire can be used in descriptive studies to gather quantitative information about a particular problem.

Survey research is ideal if you’re using descriptive research as your primary research.

Descriptive research examples

Descriptive research is used for a number of commercial purposes or when organizations need to understand the behaviors or opinions of a population.

One of the biggest examples of descriptive research that is used in every democratic country, is during elections.

Using descriptive research, researchers will use surveys to understand who voters are more likely to choose out of the parties or candidates available.

Using the data provided, researchers can analyze the data to understand what the election result will be.

In a commercial setting, retailers often use descriptive research to figure out trends in shopping and buying decisions.

By gathering information on the habits of shoppers, retailers can get a better understanding of the purchases being made.

Another example that is widely used around the world, is the national census that takes place to understand the population.

The research will provide a more accurate picture of a population’s demographic makeup and help to understand changes over time in areas like population age, health and education level.

Where Qualtrics helps with descriptive research

Whatever type of research you want to carry out, there’s a survey type that will work.

Qualtrics can help you determine the appropriate method and ensure you design a study that will deliver the insights you need.

Our experts can help you with your market research needs , ensuring you get the most out of Qualtrics market research software to design, launch and analyze your data to guide better, more accurate decisions for your organization.

Related resources

Mixed methods research 17 min read, market intelligence 10 min read, marketing insights 11 min read, ethnographic research 11 min read, qualitative vs quantitative research 13 min read, qualitative research questions 11 min read, qualitative research design 12 min read, request demo.

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Child Care and Early Education Research Connections

Descriptive research studies.

Descriptive research is a type of research that is used to describe the characteristics of a population. It collects data that are used to answer a wide range of what, when, and how questions pertaining to a particular population or group. For example, descriptive studies might be used to answer questions such as: What percentage of Head Start teachers have a bachelor's degree or higher? What is the average reading ability of 5-year-olds when they first enter kindergarten? What kinds of math activities are used in early childhood programs? When do children first receive regular child care from someone other than their parents? When are children with developmental disabilities first diagnosed and when do they first receive services? What factors do programs consider when making decisions about the type of assessments that will be used to assess the skills of the children in their programs? How do the types of services children receive from their early childhood program change as children age?

Descriptive research does not answer questions about why a certain phenomenon occurs or what the causes are. Answers to such questions are best obtained from  randomized and quasi-experimental studies . However, data from descriptive studies can be used to examine the relationships (correlations) among variables. While the findings from correlational analyses are not evidence of causality, they can help to distinguish variables that may be important in explaining a phenomenon from those that are not. Thus, descriptive research is often used to generate hypotheses that should be tested using more rigorous designs.

A variety of data collection methods may be used alone or in combination to answer the types of questions guiding descriptive research. Some of the more common methods include surveys, interviews, observations, case studies, and portfolios. The data collected through these methods can be either quantitative or qualitative. Quantitative data are typically analyzed and presenting using  descriptive statistics . Using quantitative data, researchers may describe the characteristics of a sample or population in terms of percentages (e.g., percentage of population that belong to different racial/ethnic groups, percentage of low-income families that receive different government services) or averages (e.g., average household income, average scores of reading, mathematics and language assessments). Quantitative data, such as narrative data collected as part of a case study, may be used to organize, classify, and used to identify patterns of behaviors, attitudes, and other characteristics of groups.

Descriptive studies have an important role in early care and education research. Studies such as the  National Survey of Early Care and Education  and the  National Household Education Surveys Program  have greatly increased our knowledge of the supply of and demand for child care in the U.S. The  Head Start Family and Child Experiences Survey  and the  Early Childhood Longitudinal Study Program  have provided researchers, policy makers and practitioners with rich information about school readiness skills of children in the U.S.

Each of the methods used to collect descriptive data have their own strengths and limitations. The following are some of the strengths and limitations of descriptive research studies in general.

Study participants are questioned or observed in a natural setting (e.g., their homes, child care or educational settings).

Study data can be used to identify the prevalence of particular problems and the need for new or additional services to address these problems.

Descriptive research may identify areas in need of additional research and relationships between variables that require future study. Descriptive research is often referred to as "hypothesis generating research."

Depending on the data collection method used, descriptive studies can generate rich datasets on large and diverse samples.

Limitations:

Descriptive studies cannot be used to establish cause and effect relationships.

Respondents may not be truthful when answering survey questions or may give socially desirable responses.

The choice and wording of questions on a questionnaire may influence the descriptive findings.

Depending on the type and size of sample, the findings may not be generalizable or produce an accurate description of the population of interest.

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Descriptive Research: Definition, Characteristics, Methods + Examples

Suppose an apparel brand wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends among New York’s buyers, then it must conduct a demographic survey of the specific region, gather population data, and then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment.

The study will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but will not cover any investigative information about “ why ” the patterns exist. Because for the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the nature of their market is the study’s main goal. Let’s talk about it.

What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research is a research method describing the characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This descriptive methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than the “why” of the research subject.

The method primarily focuses on describing the nature of a demographic segment without focusing on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the research subject without covering “why” it happens.

Characteristics of descriptive research

The term descriptive research then refers to research questions, the design of the study, and data analysis conducted on that topic. We call it an observational research method because none of the research study variables are influenced in any capacity.

Some distinctive characteristics of descriptive research are:

• Quantitative research: It is a quantitative research method that attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool that allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.
• Uncontrolled variables: In it, none of the variables are influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behavior is not in the hands of the researcher.
• Cross-sectional studies: It is generally a cross-sectional study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
• The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data collected and analyzed from descriptive research using different research techniques. The data can also help point towards the types of research methods used for the subsequent research.

Applications of descriptive research with examples

A descriptive research method can be used in multiple ways and for various reasons. Before getting into any survey , though, the survey goals and survey design are crucial. Despite following these steps, there is no way to know if one will meet the research outcome. How to use descriptive research? To understand the end objective of research goals, below are some ways organizations currently use descriptive research today:

1. Define respondent characteristics

The aim of using close-ended questions is to draw concrete conclusions about the respondents. This could be the need to derive patterns, traits, and behaviors of the respondents. It could also be to understand from a respondent their attitude, or opinion about the phenomenon. For example, understand millennials and the hours per week they spend browsing the internet. All this information helps the organization researching to make informed business decisions.

2. Measure data trends

Researchers measure data trends over time with a descriptive research design’s statistical capabilities. Consider if an apparel company researches different demographics like age groups from 24-35 and 36-45 on a new range launch of autumn wear. If one of those groups doesn’t take too well to the new launch, it provides insight into what clothes are like and what is not. The brand drops the clothes and apparel that customers don’t like.

3. Conduct comparisons

Organizations also use a descriptive research design to understand how different groups respond to a specific product or service. For example, an apparel brand creates a survey asking general questions that measure the brand’s image. The same study also asks demographic questions like age, income, gender, geographical location, geographic segmentation , etc. This consumer research helps the organization understand what aspects of the brand appeal to the population and what aspects do not. It also helps make product or marketing fixes or even create a new product line to cater to high-growth potential groups.

4. Validate existing conditions

Researchers widely use descriptive research to help ascertain the research object’s prevailing conditions and underlying patterns. Due to the non-invasive research method and the use of quantitative observation and some aspects of qualitative observation , researchers observe each variable and conduct an in-depth analysis . Researchers also use it to validate any existing conditions that may be prevalent in a population.

5. Conduct research at different times

The analysis can be conducted at different periods to ascertain any similarities or differences. This also allows any number of variables to be evaluated. For verification, studies on prevailing conditions can also be repeated to draw trends.

Advantages of descriptive research

Some of the significant advantages of descriptive research are:

• Data collection: A researcher can conduct descriptive research using specific methods like observational method, case study method, and survey method. Between these three, all primary data collection methods are covered, which provides a lot of information. This can be used for future research or even for developing a hypothesis for your research object.
• Varied: Since the data collected is qualitative and quantitative, it gives a holistic understanding of a research topic. The information is varied, diverse, and thorough.
• Natural environment: Descriptive research allows for the research to be conducted in the respondent’s natural environment, which ensures that high-quality and honest data is collected.
• Quick to perform and cheap: As the sample size is generally large in descriptive research, the data collection is quick to conduct and is inexpensive.

Descriptive research methods

There are three distinctive methods to conduct descriptive research. They are:

01. Observational method

The observational method is the most effective method to conduct this research, and researchers make use of both quantitative and qualitative observations.

A quantitative observation is the objective collection of data primarily focused on numbers and values. It suggests “associated with, of or depicted in terms of a quantity.” Results of quantitative observation are derived using statistical and numerical analysis methods. It implies observation of any entity associated with a numeric value such as age, shape, weight, volume, scale, etc. For example, the researcher can track if current customers will refer the brand using a simple Net Promoter Score question .

Qualitative observation doesn’t involve measurements or numbers but instead just monitoring characteristics. In this case, the researcher observes the respondents from a distance. Since the respondents are in a comfortable environment, the characteristics observed are natural and effective.

In a descriptive research design, the researcher can choose to be either a complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or a full participant. For example, in a supermarket, a researcher can from afar monitor and track the customers’ selection and purchasing trends. This offers a more in-depth insight into the purchasing experience of the customer.

02. Case study method

Case studies involve in-depth research and study of individuals or groups. T hose studies lead to a hypothesis and widen a further scope of studying a phenomenon. However, case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect as they can’t make accurate predictions because there could be a bias on the researcher’s part.

The other reason why case studies are not a reliable way of conducting descriptive research is that there could be an atypical respondent in the survey. Describing them leads to weak generalizations and moving away from external validity.

03. Survey research

In survey research, respondents answer through surveys or questionnaires or polls . They are a popular market research tool to collect feedback from respondents. A study to gather useful data should have the right survey questions. It should be a balanced mix of open-ended questions and close ended-questions . The survey method can be conducted online or offline, making it the go-to option for descriptive research where the sample size is enormous.

Examples of descriptive research

Some examples of descriptive research are:

• A specialty food group launching a new range of barbecue rubs would like to understand what flavors of rubs are favored by different people. To understand the preferred flavor palette, they conduct this type of research study using various methods like observational methods in supermarkets. By also surveying while collecting in-depth demographic information, offers insights about the preference of different markets. This can also help tailor make the rubs and spreads to various preferred meats in that demographic. Conducting this type of research helps the organization tweak their business model and amplify marketing in core markets.
• Another example of where this research can be used is if a school district wishes to evaluate teachers’ attitudes about using technology in the classroom. By conducting surveys and observing their comfortableness using technology through observational methods, the researcher can gauge what they can help understand if a full-fledged implementation can face an issue. This also helps in understanding if the students are impacted in any way with this change.

Some other research problems and research questions that can lead to descriptive research are:

• Market researchers want to observe the habits of consumers.
• A company wants to evaluate the morale of its staff.
• A school district wants to understand if students will access online lessons rather than textbooks.
• To understand if its wellness questionnaire programs enhance the overall health of the employees.

Use QuestionPro Research Suite for Descriptive Research

QuestionPro Research Suite is a versatile tool suitable for supporting exploratory research (which seeks to generate new ideas) and incredibly descriptive research that strives to describe features of populations or a phenomenon.

You can use descriptive research with this method as follows:

01. Survey Design

With QuestionPro, online surveys can be highly customized. You have access to many different survey templates. This is great for a quick but descriptive study that you need up and running in hours rather than days. If you are still familiar with how surveys should be set up, this space will provide some structure.

02. Data Collection

Surveys can be disseminated in various ways, such as via email, social media/website pop-ups, QR codes, or mobile devices, to target a large and diverse audience.

03. Real-Time Analytics

QuestionPro is equipped with a set of tools to analyze data and responses after the survey has started. Visualizing trends and patterns is extremely important in descriptive research.

04. Advanced Reporting

Reports can be automatically made and described in detail about your research findings. This will make your descriptive research data results easier by creating reports that can incorporate graphs, charts, and summaries.

05. Panel Integration

You may need a measurement over research samples. In this case, you can take advantage of the integrated QuestionPro respondent panel to provide a more diverse set of participants so that your data will reflect the person about whom it was collected.

Using QuestionPro’s Research Suite, you can efficiently design and conduct descriptive research, gaining valuable insights into your research questions with robust data collection and analysis tools.

Descriptive research is a powerful method for understanding and summarizing a population’s or phenomenon’s characteristics. It provides a clear snapshot of “what is” without manipulating variables, making it invaluable for gathering factual data, identifying patterns, and informing decision-making.

While it doesn’t establish cause-and-effect relationships, it serves as a foundational tool in research, helping researchers and organizations gain insights into trends, behaviors, and conditions within a specific context.

Utilizing tools like QuestionPro Research Suite can enhance the effectiveness of descriptive research. With its customizable survey design, real-time analytics, and robust data collection capabilities, QuestionPro empowers researchers to gather and analyze data efficiently.

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Frequently Asked Questions( FAQs)

Descriptive research is a method for observing and describing the characteristics of a population or phenomenon without manipulating variables. It focuses on providing a clear snapshot of “what is,” helping researchers gather factual information, identify patterns, and inform decision-making.

For Example: A survey measuring the average age, income level, and shopping habits of customers at a local grocery store.

The goal of descriptive research is to systematically define and summarize the characteristics of a population or phenomenon, providing a clear understanding of “what is” without establishing cause-and-effect relationships. It aims to gather factual data, identify patterns, and inform decision-making.

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Survey descriptive research: Method, design, and examples

• November 2, 2022

What is survey descriptive research?

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Survey descriptive research is a quantitative method that focuses on describing the characteristics of a phenomenon rather than asking why it occurs. Doing this provides a better understanding of the nature of the subject at hand and creates a good foundation for further research.

Descriptive market research is one of the most commonly used ways of examining trends and changes in the market. It is easy, low-cost, and provides valuable in-depth information on a chosen subject.

This article will examine the basic principles of the descriptive survey study and show how to make the best descriptive survey questionnaire and how to conduct effective research.

It is often said to be quantitative research that focuses more on the what, how, when, and where instead of the why. But what does that actually mean?

The answer is simple. By conducting descriptive survey research, the nature of a phenomenon is focused upon without asking about what causes it.

The main goal of survey descriptive research is to shed light on the heart of the research problem and better understand it. The technique provides in-depth knowledge of what the research problem is before investigating why it exists.

Survey descriptive research and data collection methods

Descriptive research methods can differ based on data collection. We distinguish three main data collection methods: case study, observational method, and descriptive survey method.

Of these, the descriptive survey research method is most commonly used in fields such as market research, social research, psychology, politics, etc.

Sometimes also called the observational descriptive method, this is simply monitoring people while they engage with a particular subject. The aim is to examine people’s real-life behavior by maintaining a natural environment that does not change the respondents’ behavior—because they do not know they are being observed.

It is often used in fields such as market research, psychology, or social research. For example, customers can be monitored while dining at a restaurant or browsing through the products in a shop.

When doing case studies, researchers conduct thorough examinations of individuals or groups. The case study method is not used to collect general information on a particular subject. Instead, it provides an in-depth understanding of a particular subject and can give rise to interesting conclusions and new hypotheses.

The term case study can also refer to a sample group, which is a specific group of people that are examined and, afterward, findings are generalized to a larger group of people. However, this kind of generalization is rather risky because it is not always accurate.

Additionally, case studies cannot be used to determine cause and effect because of potential bias on the researcher’s part.

The survey descriptive research method consists of creating questionnaires or polls and distributing them to respondents, who then answer the questions (usually a mix of open-ended and closed-ended).

Surveys are the easiest and most cost-efficient way to gain feedback on a particular topic. They can be conducted online or offline, the size of the sample is highly flexible, and they can be distributed through many different channels.

When doing market research , use such surveys to understand the demographic of a certain market or population, better determine the target audience, keep track of the changes in the market, and learn about customer experience and satisfaction with products and services.

Several types of survey descriptive research are classified based on the approach used:

• Descriptive surveys gather information about a certain subject.
• Descriptive-normative surveys gather information just like a descriptive survey, after which results are compared with a norm.
• Correlative surveys explore the relationship between two variables and conclude if it is positive, neutral, or negative.

A descriptive survey research design is a methodology used in social science and other fields to gather information and describe the characteristics, behaviors, or attitudes of a particular population or group of interest. While there may not be a single definition provided by specific authors, the concept is widely understood and defined similarly across the literature.

Here’s a general definition that captures the essence of a descriptive survey research design definition by authors:

A descriptive survey research design is a systematic and structured approach to collecting data from a sample of individuals or entities within a larger population, with the primary aim of providing a detailed and accurate description of the characteristics, behaviors, opinions, or attitudes that exist within the target group. This method involves the use of surveys, questionnaires, interviews, or observations to collect data, which is then analyzed and summarized to draw conclusions about the population of interest.

It’s important to note that descriptive survey research is often used when researchers want to gain insights into a population or phenomenon, but without manipulating variables or testing hypotheses, as is common in experimental research. Instead, it focuses on providing a comprehensive overview of the subject under investigation. Researchers often use various statistical and analytical techniques to summarize and interpret the collected data in descriptive survey research.

The characteristics and advantages of a descriptive survey questionnaire

There are numerous advantages to using a descriptive survey design. First of all, it is cheap and easy to conduct. A large sample can be surveyed and extensive data gathered quickly and inexpensively.

The data collected provides both quantitative and qualitative information , which provides a holistic understanding of the topic. Moreover, it can be used in further research on this or related topics.

Here are some of the most important advantages of conducting a survey descriptive research:

The descriptive survey research design uses both quantitative and qualitative research methods. It is used primarily to conduct quantitative research and gather data that is statistically easy to analyze. However, it can also provide qualitative data that helps describe and understand the research subject.

Descriptive research explores more than one variable. However, unlike experimental research, descriptive survey research design doesn’t allow control of variables. Instead, observational methods are used during research. Even though these variables can change and have an unexpected impact on an inquiry, they will give access to honest responses.

The descriptive research is conducted in a natural environment. This way, answers gathered from responses are more honest because the nature of the research does not influence them.

The data collected through descriptive research can be used to further explore the same or related subjects. Additionally, it can help develop the next line of research and the best method to use moving forward.

Descriptive survey example: When to use a descriptive research questionnaire?

Descriptive research design can be used for many purposes. It is mainly utilized to test a hypothesis, define the characteristics of a certain phenomenon, and examine the correlations between them.

Market research is one of the main fields in which descriptive methods are used to conduct studies. Here’s what can be done using this method:

Understanding the needs of customers and their desires is the key to a business’s success. By truly understanding these, it will be possible to offer exactly what customers need and prevent them from turning to competitors.

By using a descriptive survey, different customer characteristics—such as traits, opinions, or behavior patterns—can be determined. With this data, different customer types can be defined and profiles developed that focus on their interests and the behavior they exhibit. This information can be used to develop new products and services that will be successful.

Measuring data trends is extremely important. Explore the market and get valuable insights into how consumers’ interests change over time—as well as how the competition is performing in the marketplace.

Over time, the data gathered from a descriptive questionnaire can be subjected to statistical analysis. This will deliver valuable insights.

Another important aspect to consider is brand awareness. People need to know about your brand, and they need to have a positive opinion of it. The best way to discover their perception is to conduct a brand survey , which gives deeper insight into brand awareness, perception, identity, and customer loyalty .

When conducting survey descriptive research, there are a few basic steps that are needed for a survey to be successful:

• Define the research goals.
• Decide on the research method.
• Define the sample population.
• Design the questionnaire.
• Write specific questions.
• Distribute the questionnaire.
• Analyze the data .
• Make a survey report.

First of all, define the research goals. By setting up clear objectives, every other step can be worked through. This will result in the perfect descriptive questionnaire example and collect only valuable data.

Next, decide on the research method to use—in this case, the descriptive survey method. Then, define the sample population for (that is, the target audience). After that, think about the design itself and the questions that will be asked in the survey .

If you’re not sure where to start, we’ve got you covered. As free survey software, SurveyPlanet offers pre-made themes that are clean and eye-catching, as well as pre-made questions that will save you the trouble of making new ones.

Simply scroll through our library and choose a descriptive survey questionnaire sample that best suits your needs, though our user-friendly interface can help you create bespoke questions in a process that is easy and efficient.

With a survey in hand, it will then need to be delivered to the target audience. This is easy with our survey embedding feature, which allows for the linking of surveys on a website, via emails, or by sharing on social media.

When all the responses are gathered, it’s time to analyze them. Use SurveyPlanet to easily filter data and do cross-sectional analysis. Finally, just export the results and make a survey report.

Conducting descriptive survey research is the best way to gain a deeper knowledge of a topic of interest and develop a sound basis for further research. Sign up for a free SurveyPlanet account to start improving your business today!

Photo by Scott Graham on Unsplash

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Descriptive Research: Definition, Methods & Examples

• August 19, 2021

Voxco’s Descriptive Research guide helps uncover the how, when, what, and where questions in a research problem

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When you are a store manager in a convenience store, and you have to make a report. Any finding such as which product is selling most, what time of the day you have the most crowd, or which product customers are demanding most, all these observations and reporting is descriptive research. 

It is often the first step of any research since the data you gather sets the stage for the research question. It is used to determine the problem you want to explore before fully realizing it. The information helps you identify the problem. 

In this blog, we’ll discuss the characteristics, types, pros & cons, and three ways to conduct this research type to help you in your next market research.

What is descriptive research?

Descriptive research refers to the research method that describes the characteristics of the variables you are studying. This methodology focuses on answering questions to the “WHAT” than the “WHY” of the research question. The primary focus of this research method is to describe the nature of the demographics understudy instead of focusing on the “why”.

It is called an observational research method as none of the variables in the study are influenced during the research process.

For example, let’s assume that a UK-based brand is trying to establish itself in New York and wants to understand the demographics of the buyers who generally purchase from brands similar to it. 

In descriptive research, the information gathered from the survey will only focus on the population’s demographics. It will uncover details on the buying patterns of different age cohorts in New York. It will not study why such patterns exist because the brand is trying to establish itself in New York. 

They want to understand the buying behavior of the population, not why such associations exist. It is a part of quantitative market research or social research study, which involves conducting survey research using quantitative variables on a market research software or social research software .

Voxco’s omnichannel survey software helps you collect insights from multiple channels using a single platform.

See the true power of using an integrated survey platform to conduct online, offline, and phone surveys along with a built-in analytical suite.

What are the characteristics of descriptive research?

Among the many, the following are the main characteristics of this research type:

• Quantitative research
• Nature of variables
• Cross-sectional studies
• Directs future research

Let’s discuss these four characteristics in detail. 

1. Quantitative research:

It is quantitative as it attempts to collect and statistically analyze information. This research type is a powerful research tool that permits a researcher to collect data and describe the demographics of the same with the help of statistical analysis. Thus, it is a quantitative research method .

2. Nature of variables:

The variables included in this research are uncontrolled. They are not manipulated in any way. Descriptive research mostly uses observational methods; thus, the researcher cannot control the nature and behavior of the variables under study.

3. Cross-sectional studies:

In this research type, different sections of the same group are studied. For instance, in order to study the fashion preferences of New York, the researcher can study Gen Z as well as Millennials from the same population in New York.

4. Directs future research:

Since this research identifies the patterns between variables and describes them, researchers can further study the data collected here. It guides researchers to discover further why such patterns have been found and their association. Hence, it gives researchers a direction toward insightful market research.

What are the methods of conducting descriptive research?

Primarily, there are three descriptive research methods: 

• Observation,
• Survey, & 

We have explained how you can conduct this research type in three different ways. Each method helps gather descriptive data and sets the scene for thorough research.

1. Observational method

All research has some component of observation, this observation can be quantitative or qualitative. A quantitative observation includes objectively collecting data that is primarily in numerical form. 

The data collected should be related to or understood in terms of quantity.

Quantitative observations are analyzed with the help of survey analytics software . 

Examples of quantitative observations include observation of any variable related to a numerical value such as age, shape, weight, height, scale, etc.

For example, a researcher can understand a customer’s satisfaction with their recent purchases by asking them to rate their satisfaction on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (extremely unsatisfied) to 7 (extremely satisfied).

Qualitative observations monitor the characteristics of a phenomenon and do not involve numerical measurements.

Using this type of descriptive research, you can observe respondents in a naturalistic environment from a distance. Since the respondents are in a natural environment, the observed characteristics enrich and offer more insights. 

For instance, you can monitor and note down the observations of customers in a supermarket by observing their selection and purchasing patterns. This offers a detailed cognizance of the customer.

In any kind of research, you should ensure high survey response rates for improved quality of insights.  

2. Survey method

The survey method includes recording the answers of respondents through surveys or questionnaires. Surveys can include polls as well. They are the most common tool for collecting market research data. 

Surveys are generally used to collect feedback from the respondents. It should have a survey that taps into both open-ended and closed-ended questions .

The biggest advantage of the survey method is that it can be conducted using online or offline survey tools . One of the reasons why the survey method is the go-to option for descriptive research is that it entails the collection of large amounts of data in a limited span of time.

3. Case study method

The in-depth study of an individual or a group is known as a case study. Case studies usually lead to developing a hypothesis to explore a phenomenon further. Case studies are limited in their scope in that they don’t allow the researcher to make cause-effect conclusions or accurate predictions. 

This is because these associations could reflect the bias on the researchers’ part instead of a naturally occurring phenomenon. Another reason why case studies are limited in scope is that they could just be reflecting an atypical respondent in the survey. 

An atypical respondent refers to someone who is different from the average consumer, and if researchers make judgments about the entire target population based on this consumer, it can affect the external validity of the study.

[ Related read: Descriptive vs experimental research ]

Read how Voxco helped Brain Research improve research productivity by 60%.

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What are the types of descriptive research?

There are seven types of descriptive research based on when you conduct them and what type of data research you conduct. We have explained these seven types in brief with examples to help you better understand them.

1. Cross-sectional: 

A descriptive method of studying a particular section of the target population at a specific point in time. 

Example : Tracking the use of social media by Gen Z in the Netherlands. 

2. Longitudinal: 

This type of descriptive study is conducted for an extended period on a group of people. 

Example : Monitoring changes in the volume of cyber-bullying among Millenials from 2022 to 2024. 

3. Normative: 

In this descriptive method, we compare the result of a study with an existing norm. 

Example : Comparing legal verdicts in similar types of cases. 

4. Relational/Correlational:

We investigate the type of relationships (correlation) between two variables in this type of descriptive research. 

Example : Investigating the relationship between video games and mental health. 

5. Comparative: 

A descriptive study that compares two or more people, groups, or conditions based on a specific aspect. 

Example : Comparing the salary of two employees in similar job roles from two companies. 

6. Classification: 

This type of research arranges collected data into classes based on specific criteria to analyze them. 

Example : Classification of customers based on their buying behavior. 

7. Archival: 

A descriptive study where you search for past records and extract information.

Example : Tracking company’s sales data over the decade. 

We have been discussing the descriptive method with examples. So now let’s see how you can use this research type in a real-world application.

Guide to Descriptive Research

Learn the key steps of conducting descriptive research to uncover breakthrough insights into your target market.

Examples of Descriptive Research Under Market Research

This research type helps you gather the necessary information you need to understand the problem. It sets the scene to conduct further research. But how can you use this research method in the real world? 

We have explained its real-world application in three scenarios to help you determine where and where you want to use this research type. 

1. Sales Studies

You can use this research type to analyze the potential of the market, what is currently trending in the market, and which products may perform well in terms of sales. You can also study what circumstances influence the market shares and when they are likely to increase or decrease. 

This research type can help you gather the demographic data of the consumers.

2. Consumer Perception and Behavior Studies

You can use this research method to analyze what consumers think about the brand. You can evaluate their perceptions about the products sold by a particular brand and the uses of other competitive products. 

Using descriptive research, you can also analyze what advertising strategies have worked to increase the positive perceptions of the brand. You can assess consumers’ consumption behavior and how it is influenced by product pricing.

3. Market Characteristics Studies

Another way you can use this research method is by analyzing the distribution of the products in the market. You can gather contextual data on questions such as “which countries have more sales”, “which countries have fewer products but the product is sold out quickly” , etc. 

You can also analyze the brand management of competitors ; what strategy is working for them and what is not.

What are the applications of descriptive research?

This research method is used for a variety of reasons. Even after outlining survey goals, and survey designs as well as collecting information through surveys, there is no way of knowing whether or not the research you are conducting will meet the predictions that you have made. 

Here are some popular ways in which organizations use this research type:

1. Defining the characteristics of respondents

Since most descriptive research methods use close-ended questions for the collection of data, it helps in drawing objective conclusions about the respondents.

It helps in deriving patterns, traits, and behaviors of respondents. It also aims to understand respondents’ attitudes and opinions about certain phenomena.

For instance , researchers can understand how many hours young adults spend on the internet, their opinions about social media platforms, and how important they consider these platforms to be. This information will help the company make informed decisions regarding its products and brands. 

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2. Analyzing trends in data

You can use statistical data analysis to understand the trends in data over time. 

For instance, consider an apparel company that drops a new line of clothing; they may research how Gen Z and Millennials react to the new launch. If they discover that the new range of clothes has worked effectively for one group (Gen Z) but not the other, the company may stop producing clothes for the other group.

Leverage a data analysis platform that allows you to conduct advanced statistical analysis and offers a data analytics dashboard to track real-time data.

3. Comparing different groups

Something closely knit to the previous point is also comparing different groups of customers based on their demographics. With descriptive research, you can study how different groups of people respond to specific services offered by a company. 

For instance , what is the influence of income, age, gender, income, etc. influence the spending behaviors of consumers?

This research method helps companies understand what they should do to increase their brand appeal in different groups of the population. 

4. Validating existing patterns of respondents

Since it is non-invasive and makes use of quantitative data (mostly), you can make observations about why the current patterns of purchasing exist in customers. 

You can also use the findings as the basis of a more in-depth study in the future. 

5. Conducting research at different times

Descriptive research can be conducted at different periods of time in order to see whether the patterns are similar or dissimilar at different points in time. You can also replicate the studies to verify the findings of the original study to draw accurate conclusions.

6. Finding correlations among variables

This method is also used to draw correlations between variables and the degree of association between the variables. 

For instance, if the focus is on men’s age and expenditure. 

There is a possibility of finding a negative correlation between the two variables, indicating that as the age of men increases, the less they spend on sports products.

Descriptive research Examples

A descriptive method of research aims to gather answers for how, what, when, and where. 

Let’s use some examples to understand how a descriptive method of research is used. 

Before investing in housing at any location, you would want to conduct your own research to understand 

• How is the market changing?
• When or at what time of year is it changing?
• Where would you make more profit?

This type of research is an example of a descriptive study. 

A company studies the behavior of its customers to identify its target market before it launches a new product. This is another use case of how brands use descriptive research. 

The company may conduct this research by observing the customer’s reaction and behavior toward a competitor’s product. 

Or, they can also conduct surveys to ask customer opinions on the new product by the company before its launch. 

A restaurant planning to open a branch in a new locality will research to understand the behavior of the people living there. They will survey the people to know their choice of flavor, taste, foods, drinks, and more. 

Now that we’ve seen how you can use this research method for your research purpose, let’s also see the advantages & disadvantages of the research.

What Are the Advantages of Descriptive Research?

It is the preliminary research method. Most researchers use this method to discover the problem they should prioritize. Before diving into the experiments, let’s see some of the reasons why you should be conducting this research. 

1. Primary data collection

In this type of descriptive research, the data is collected through primary data collection methods such as case studies, observational methods, and surveys. This kind of data collection provides us with rich information and can be used for future research as well. It can also be used for developing hypotheses or your research objective.

2. Multiple data collection

Descriptive research can also be conducted by collecting qualitative or quantitative data . Hence, it is more varied, flexible, and diverse and tends to be thorough and elaborate.

[ Related read: Data Collection: All you need to know! ]

3. Observational behavior 

The observational method of this research allows researchers to observe the respondent’s behavior in natural settings. This also ensures that the data collected is high in quality and honest.

4. Cost-effective

It is cost-effective and the data collection of this research can be done quickly. You can conduct descriptive research using an all-in-one solution such as Voxco. Leverage a platform that gives you the capability of the best market research software to conduct customer, product, and brand research.

What Are the Disadvantages of Descriptive Research?

Descriptive research also has some disadvantages. Let’s learn about these cons so you can wisely decide when you should use this research to keep the disadvantages to a minimum. 

1. Misleading information

Respondents can give misleading or incorrect responses if they feel that the questions are assessing intimate matters. Respondents can also be affected by the observer’s presence and may engage in pretending. This is known as the observer effect.

2. Biases in studies

The researchers’ own opinions of biases may affect the results of the study. This is known as the experimenter effect.

3. Representative issue 

There is also the problem of data representativeness. It occurs when a case study or the data of a small sample does not adequately represent the whole population.

4. Limited scope

Descriptive research has limited scope, wherein it only analyzes the “what” of research, it does not evaluate the “why” or “how” questions of research.

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Wrapping up;

So that sums up our descriptive research guide. It is a wide concept that demands a conceptual framework for descriptive design and a thorough understanding of descriptive survey design . 

Naturally, it becomes essential that you adopt online survey tools that facilitates all of the above and provides ample room for insightful research.  

Voxco’s omnichannel survey software allows you to create interactive surveys, deploy them across multiple channels, and conduct data analysis in one platform.

This research method enables you to explain and describe the characteristics of a target population. The descriptive research method helps you uncover deeper insights into various aspects of the target population, such as who, what, when, where, and how. 

There are many data collection methods you can use to collect descriptive research data. For example, you can perform the research via surveys (online, phone, or offline), case studies, observations, and archival research.

Here are some key characteristics of this research methodology: 

This research type helps you describe the characteristics, behavior, opinions, and perspectives of the population or research subject. 

The data gathered from descriptive research is a reliable and comprehensive source of explanation of the research subject. 

In this methodology, the researcher focuses on observing and reporting on the natural relationship between the variables. There is no manipulation of variables or establishing a cause-and-effect relationship.

Descriptive research offers many advantages. 

Descriptive research methods are simple and easy to design and conduct. You don’t need research expertise for this research design in comparison to conducting more complex research. 

This research method is more cost-effective than other research methodologies, particularly experimental research designs. 

The descriptive research method enables you to collect qualitative and quantitative data. The research data helps extract valuable insights and supports further root-cause analysis.

Descriptive research methodology also has some limitations, here are some of those: 

Descriptive research data may generate insights specific to a population under study. This limits your ability to generalize the results to a wider population, which makes the data less representative. 

The data collection approaches and observation biases can lead to bias in the research method, which can negatively impact the accuracy and reliability of the research findings.

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• Kaymarlin Govender 8 &
• Russell Armstrong 8  

BMC Public Health volume  24 , Article number:  1937 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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Limited research has been conducted on the forms, manifestations and effects of intersectional stigma among young HIV-positive men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender women (TGW) in Zambia. In this study, we aimed to address this gap by elucidating the experiences of these in a small group of young, HIV + MSM and TGW in Zambia.

We applied a mixed-methods design. Data were collected from January 2022 to May 2022. Qualitative data were collected using in-depth interviews while quantitative data were collected using a questionnaire. Qualitative transcripts were coded using thematic analysis while paper-based questionnaire data were entered into Kobo Connect. Descriptive statistics, using chi-squared tests were calculated using Excel. In this paper, we provide a descriptive profile of the sample and then focus on the qualitative findings on intersectional stigma, depression, and contemplation of suicide.

We recruited 56 participants from three sites: Lusaka, Chipata, and Solwezi districts. Participants’ mean age was 23 years. The study found that 36% of all participants had moderate to significant symptoms of depression, 7% had major depression, 30% had moderate signs of anxiety, 11% had high signs of anxiety, 4% had very high signs of anxiety and 36% had contemplated suicide at least once. A greater proportion of TGW had moderate to significant symptoms of depression (40%) or major depression (10%) compared to MSM, at 33% and 6%, respectively ( X 2  = 0.65; p  = 0.42). Similarly, more TGW (55%) had contemplated suicide than MSM peers (36%, X 2 =1.87; p  = 0.17). In the qualitative data, four emergent themes about the forms, manifestations, and effects of intersectional stigma were (1) HIV, sexual orientation, and gender identity disclosure; (2) Dual identity; (3) Challenges of finding and maintaining sexual partners; (4) Coping and resilience. Overall, having to hide both one’s sexuality and HIV status had a compounding effect and was described as living “a private lie.”

Effectively addressing stigmas and poor mental health outcomes among young HIV-positive MSM and TGW will require adopting a socio-ecological approach that focuses on structural interventions, more trauma-informed and identity-supportive care for young people with HIV, as well as strengthening of authentic community-informed public health efforts.

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Introduction

Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is severely affected by the HIV epidemic, with Zambia being one of the most affected countries [ 1 , 2 ]. The most current (2018) Zambia Demographic Health Survey indicates that the adult (15–49 years) HIV prevalence was 11.1% in Zambia [ 3 ]. The higher rates were among key populations reaching 21% among men who have sex with men (MSM) and 22% among transgender women (TGW) in 2020 [ 4 ]. While coverage of life-saving antiretroviral therapy (ART) was estimated to be 90% of all people living with HIV (PLHIV) in SSA, significant inequities remain in enrolling and sustaining people on ART [ 1 , 2 ]. There are significant variations in the estimates across countries [ 1 , 2 ]. Even though key populations accounted for 46% of new HIV infections across southern Africa in 2022 [ 5 ], MSM and TGW tend to be the least targeted by programs [ 6 ]. There are disparities in programs targeting and supporting alleviation of HIV-related health burden among MSM and TGW who simultaneously face various challenges, including mental health issues and stigmas, compounding their overall health vulnerabilities [ 1 , 2 , 7 ].

Young MSM and TGW, compared to the young heterosexual group, experience more mental health challenges [ 8 , 9 , 10 ], arising from victimization, bullying, internalized homophobia and discrimination [ 11 ], violence, socio-cultural and religious attitudes regarding sexual or gender diversity [ 12 ], and criminalization of sexual or gender diversity in Zambia and other African settings [ 10 , 13 ]. Sections 155–157 of the Zambian Penal Code criminalize any form of consensual same- sex conduct [ 10 , 13 ]. Legal challenges and socio-cultural contextual barriers such as high risks of stigma, discrimination, and violence linked to the criminalization of practices regarding sexual or gender diversity tend to compound mental health challenges within this population [ 14 ]. These mental health stressors negatively interact with important HIV-related health outcomes, including uptake and retention in HIV programmes, medication adherence, and achieving and sustaining viral suppression [ 15 , 16 ]. It is important to understand in detail the mental health issues in this group given that the developmental stage is associated with increased independence, risk-taking, and changing social support [ 17 ].

Young key populations living with HIV (YPLWH) aged between 18 and 24 years face disproportionate HIV stigma [ 18 , 19 ] that negatively affects HIV health management [ 19 ]. In addition to HIV stigma, some of these key populations have to also deal with sexual orientation and gender identity (SOGI) related stigma [ 19 ]. The convergence of multiple stigmatized identities within a person or group, or intersectional stigma tends to further worsen health outcomes in key populations [ 20 ]. An intersectional perspective provides an opportunity to think holistically about how living with multiple stigmatized identities affects behaviours, and different health outcomes [ 21 ], and to critically examine how systems of oppression interact at the societal, community, and individual levels [ 22 ].

Country -specific knowledge about the forms, manifestations and effects of intersectional stigma as experienced by young MSM and TGW with HIV in Zambia is beginning to emerge, largely relying on survey-based, cross-sectional research [ 3 ]. How contextual factors work as drivers of stigma, and how these drivers then manifest themselves as intersectional stigma in the lives of young MSM and TGW with HIV and the consequences of this manifestation including negative influences on different aspects of mental health has not been fully explored especially for HIV-positive MSM [ 23 ], and TGW in African settings [ 24 , 25 ]. It is critical to consider multiple stigmatized identities in order to develop effective intervention strategies and improve the psychosocial well-being of marginalized populations [ 26 ].

While there is a substantive presence of sexual and gender minorities in Zambia, very little research in any form has emerged [ 10 ]. As the country increases its efforts to address HIV and to improve its capacity to reach or exceed its 2030 targets and commitments, it becomes important to address these knowledge gaps. The target is to test 95% of all PLHIV, have 95% of those diagnosed on ART and achieve viral suppression for 95% by 2025 in order to end AIDS by 2030 [ 10 ]. This study used a mixed-methods design to arrive at an intersectional view of the experiences of young, HIV-positive MSM and TGW in Zambia to understand how intersectional stigma is constructed and how it affects mental health outcomes in Zambia. This study is part of the regional study on exploring the influence of intersectional stigma on uptake and retention in ART programmes for selected key population groups in three Southern African Development Community (SADC) countries – Malawi, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

The conceptual framework for the research draws on emerging trends in stigma theory and research, including the concepts of minority stress, intersectionality and intersectional stigma [ 27 , 28 ]. In the framework, stigma is defined as the “the co-occurrence of labelling, stereotyping, separation, status loss, and discrimination in a context in which power is exercised” [ 29 ]. In this view, stigma is a product of social and structural relations where status and value are contested and resolved through gains and losses in social position and worth. This is similar to Parker and Aggleton who describe HIV-related stigma and discrimination as “social processes linked to the reproduction of inequality and exclusion” [ 28 ]. While the mechanics of stigma may emanate from structural forces, what matters most is how these interact with and affect the health and well-being of individuals in communities [ 28 ].

Intersectional stigma, sexual and gender diversity and HIV: a conceptual framework

Given this range and depth of issues needing further exploration, a flexible conceptual framework was proposed for this research project. While, on the one hand, it took account of evolving theory and practice related to stigma in the southern African region and beyond, it did not pre-define or preclude the emergence of a more nuanced and context-specific understanding given the dearth of previous research to date that asks similar questions( Fig.  1 , below):

Conceptual framework

At the outset, the social environment (1) in Zambia included social and structural processes that may drive and perpetuate stigma or prevent or limit stigma. Within this context, stigma manifests itself (2) and is experienced by individuals (3) in a variety of forms, largely as either enacted stigma, anticipated or feared stigma, or internalised stigma. The effects of stigma is felt by individuals (4) with a range of physical, mental or social consequences. The individuals respond with different strategies and behaviours to cope with these effects (5), to become resilient, or to resist and transform stigma [ 13 , 30 ]. One measure of the success of these efforts is behavioural intentions to enrol in and/or remain in HIV care and intentions towards positive prevention [ 22 ]. How these links and pathways operate for individuals are influenced by mediators and moderators. Mediators (6) intensity stigma effects [ 13 ]. Moderators (7) operate more broadly across the framework and include an individual’s background conditions or starting point as experiences of stigma accumulate [ 13 ]. An intersectional approach (8) posits that all of the relationships and linkages described previously are “interdependent and mutually constitutive” and that these generate some degree of “causal complexity” [ 31 ]. Intersectionality opens up the possibility that such interactions are, “synergistic, producing different and distinct experiences of oppression and opportunity“ [ 32 ].

Methodology

Study design.

The study followed a mixed-methods, parallel design with simultaneous collection of qualitative and quantitative data from the same study sample. Mixed methods designs are preferable for intersectionality research since intersectionality is conceptualised as a multilevel and multidimensional framework [ 33 , 34 ]. The different methodologies may be advantageous as they might effectively apply to the different levels and particular features of intersectionality [ 33 , 34 ]. Using the two approaches allowed for triangulation and a richer analysis of the complex phenomena underlying intersectional stigma for the study participants [ 30 , 35 ]. This study largely reports qualitative data on experiences of intersectional stigma as well as depression and suicide thoughts. The qualitative study component adopted a phenomenological study design as the aim was to document experiences of mental health and causes of mental health among young, HIV positive MSM and TGW [ 36 ].

Study population

The study population involved young MSM and TGW in Zambia, all self-disclosed as HIV-positive and currently on ART. The inclusion criteria consisted of age (18 to 24 years); self-identifying as gay, bisexual or MSM, or TGW or female with a gender at birth being male; self-identifying as HIV-positive; and self-identifying as currently on ART. All potential participants who were screened for eligibility enrolled or agreed to participate in the study. Participants who did not meet all of these criteria, as administered through an eligibility test at the start of the data collection encounter, were excluded. At total of 56 young people agreed to participate and completed both the questionnaire and the in-depth interview. There were 29 from Lusaka, 14 from Chipata and 13 from Solwezi. Lusaka was selected because it is the capital city of Zambia. Chipata was included as it is a border town while Solwezi is an emerging mining town. Further, these districts are among those with the highest HIV cases.

Given the Zambian context where sexual/ gender diversity has been criminalized, and the lack of previous research experience within the study population, snow-ball sampling was used to recruit potential participants in three locations (Chipata, Lusaka and Solwezi) [ 10 ]. This is a sampling method in which one interviewee provides a name of at least one more potential interviewee; and in turn this interviewee also recommends another or more potential interviewees, and so on [ 37 ]. Before recruiting participants, a mobiliser (a member of the MSM community) and members of the peer interview team confidentially promoted the study within their different social networks. In addition, organisations providing HIV services were also contacted to promote the study and encourage participation. To reduce bias, we started with a sample with seeds that were as diverse as possible. This was done by recruiting participants through seven peer interview team members [ 37 ].

Data collection

Data collection occurred in secure, confidential settings. Data were collected from January 2022 to May 2022. Locations were chosen based on the recommendations of the study team and by representatives of sexual minority organisations consulted during the study design. The qualitative component involved semi-structured interviews while the quantitative component involved a self-administered, confidential questionnaire. The data collection tools were translated into the local languages (Nyanja and Bemba). The interviews were conducted once. Each participant was screened in terms of eligibility criteria and then was asked to complete informed consent form. A survey was administered followed by short break and then a semi-structured interview. Each survey took about 30 min while the semi-structured interviews ranged between 35 min and 1 h. We provided for a 30 min break between the survey and semi-structured interviews to ensure that the timing of the survey and semi-structured interviews did not compromise participant response. During the break, the respondent was provided with refreshments.

The self-administered survey was constructed of multiple-choice, closed-ended items that gathered data on SOGI, socio-economic characteristics, living arrangements and relationships status, length of time living with HIV, preferred providers for HIV services, self-reported ART adherence and knowledge of viral suppression. Participants were asked ‘Do you consider yourself as: male, female, which we said was ‘self-defined’. In terms of sexual orientation, participants had five choices: gay, bisexual, transgender, heterosexual, and other. No TGW identified as heterosexual. It also included sections on alcohol and drug use (using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test [AUDIT] and the Drug Use Disorders Identification Test [DUDIT]), and experiences with physical or sexual violence (having experienced violence or having done such things to others) [ 38 , 39 ]. Three specific items addressed mental health: the Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D)-10 scale, the General Anxiety Disorder (GAD)-7 scale, and the Suicide Behaviors Questionnaire-Revised (SBQ-R), all of which had been previously validated in Zambia or a similar African setting although not with the specific population for this study [ 40 , 41 , 42 ]. Additional sections addressed experiences of stigma and discrimination related to SOGI and HIV status using questions adapted from the PLHIV Stigma Index 2.0 tool [ 23 ].

To provide insight into the potential effects of intersectional stigma on an individual’s mental well-being, as part of the questionnaire, participants completed the CESD-10 (symptoms of depression) and the SBQ-R screening tools (thoughts and experiences of suicide) [ 40 , 41 , 42 ]. According to the CESD-10 methodology, a score of 0–10 means low to no symptoms of depression, 11–15 moderate symptoms of depression, and 16–25 moderate to severe symptoms of depression [ 40 , 41 , 42 ].

The semi structured guide explored the following topics: experiences growing up in family and community; future expectations; self-concept, including sexuality, gender identity and HIV status; strategies for day-to-day living, including managing disclosure, protection of social status and resilience; negative experiences (stigma, discrimination or violence, actual or feared) related to SOGI and HIV status; effects of stigma and discrimination on mental health, and coping and recovering strategies, including experiences seeking mental health support; experiences with ART, including adherence enablers and challenges; and, finally, ideas for change and improvement. The interviews were conducted by experienced members of the key populations network who had been engaged as research assistants in two other studies on young key populations. The research assistants also participated in transcribing the data and data validation process.

Data analysis

For qualitative data, audio recordings were transcribed verbatim by the trained research team. Thematic analysis based on structural coding aligned to the conceptual framework was used to analyse the data [ 43 ]. Data saturation, which is the stage when no additional new information can be attained was reached during data collection [ 44 ]. This was discussed with the data collection team and also validated during coding process in the coding team. The two lead investigators developed a coding manual and initially coded four transcripts (JMZ and RA). The manual and coded transcripts were reviewed by a third researcher for clarity and consistency (PN). Subsequently, the code book and all transcripts were loaded to Nvivo (12 pro). Transcripts were independently coded with periodic quality assurance checks using Nvivo.

For quantitative data, survey results were entered into Excel and analysed using descriptive statistical techniques to generate descriptors and other insights regarding the study participants on key dimensions linked to the conceptual framework. The paper survey results were entered into Kobo Connect by a data manager. Periodic quality assurance checks were performed by the research coordinator to minimize data entry errors. Chi-square tests (including fisher’ exact tests) to examine the differences in proportions between the two groups were done. Excel data were converted into SAS data for analysis. Statistical significance was set at p  < 0.05. A validation workshop was held in Lusaka in order to validate the findings of the study.

This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Zambia, the National Health Research Authority as well as Biomedical Health Research Ethics Committee of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. At no time was personal identifying information collected. Following administration of an eligibility assessment and verbal informed consent procedures, participants completed an anonymous questionnaire in English and placed it in a sealed envelope. Subsequently, participants were asked again to consent to audio recording and, if agreeable, proceeded through a semi-structured, in-depth interview lasting between 30 and 40 min. Participants in the study volunteered to take part, and interviewees had the freedom to withdraw from the study at any time. Additionally, participants were given details about counselling and care referral options if needed.

The results section has been divided into quantitative and qualitative research sections. The quantitative results are presented first.

Quantitative results

The characteristics of the study’s participants are summarised in Table  1 below.

Of the total number of participants, 64% (36) initially identified as MSM and 36% (20) as transgender women. In terms of self-assigned gender, two thirds (66%) defined themselves as male, 12% as female, and 22% as transgender. With regard to sexual orientation, over half of the participants (55%) described themselves as gay; eight participants (14%) described themselves as bisexual. The remaining 31% identified themselves as transgender women with primarily male sexual partners (Table 1 ).

More than two-thirds of participants (69%) indicated that they had been diagnosed with HIV within the past two years. One TGW participant indicated that she had acquired HIV at birth. Almost three-quarters (72%) indicated they had been on ART for two years or less. Almost half of participants (47%) were diagnosed at government facilities and a similar proportion (50%) indicated that they were also receiving their ongoing care at these facilities. Place of service was mainly government facilities or NGO facilities-with higher proportion of MSM visiting these services (Table 2 ).

Effects on mental health

The range of stigma-related effects on the participants - included a negative influence on mental health as well as other emotional, social, or physical harms, and an increase in anxiety about recurrent experiences in the future.

Symptoms of depression

From the responses, over half of the participants (55%) had a score < 10, indicating that they had low to no symptoms of depression while 36% had moderate to significant symptoms of depression and 7% had major depression. This proportion was higher for the MSM participants (61%) compared to the TGW participants (45%). It was also observed that a greater proportion of TGW participants had moderate to significant symptoms of depression (40%) or major depression (10%) compared to the MSM participants, at 33% and 6% respectively ( X 2 =0.65; p  = 0.42). These results were statistically non-significant, possibly due to small sample sizes in the study.

Thoughts and experiences of suicide

The questionnaire further inquired about thoughts and experiences of suicide using the SBQ-R tool. The results are shown below (Fig.  2 ):

The study found that 57% of all participants had never contemplated suicide. Of the remainder, 36% had contemplated suicide at least once, and 13% had done so in the previous year. TGW participants (55%) had contemplated suicide more than their MSM peers (36%) ( X 2 = 1.87; p  = 0.17). Few had disclosed such thoughts to others (18% for all participants, 25% for TGW). Finally, four (7%) of the young participants (three MSM and one TGW) indicated that it was likely they may still attempt suicide at some point in the future. These states of mental health and what influenced them were also explored in detail in the qualitative results. In addition, the study found that 30% of the all participants had moderate signs of anxiety, 11% had high signs of anxiety while 4% had very high signs of anxiety. Of these participants, 11% of MSM and 25% of TGW reported high or very high GAD-7 scores ( p  = 0.110). It should the noted that the above trends were statistically non-significant , possibly due to small sample sizes in the study.

SBQ-R results

Qualitative results

This section presents qualitative findings of countries about the forms, manifestations and effects of intersectional stigma among young, HIV + MSM and TGW in Zambia. The first part presents results on intersectional stigmas - origins, experiences, and fears. The emergent themes of the nature and extent of these experiences include (1) HIV, sexual orientation and gender identity disclosure; (2) Dual identity; (3) Challenges of finding and maintaining sexual partners; (4) Coping and resilience.

The nature and extent of these experiences

Anxieties about, or experiences of stigma influenced disclosures and sometimes lead to complex arrangements for managing who could know what about them, whether about their sexual orientation, gender identity or health status. There were a number of differences between participants in terms of what they chose to disclose, why and to whom. There was as similar range of differences in terms of the reactions and consequences of such disclosures. For many participants, disclosing information about SOGI had much higher risks than disclosure about health status; perhaps an expected result given the Zambian context where HIV has a greater degree of public visibility and acceptance. This was not the case for all participants, however.

HIV, sexual orientation and gender identity disclosure

While a small number of participants had disclosed their sexual orientation or gender identity to almost no one beyond sexual or romantic partners, others had shared this information and had expressed a degree of need to do so. As one participant stated when responding to the question why he had shared his sexual orientation with (highly) selective friends and family members:

Because I was being suffocated with my secret! [ZMA-LSK-MB-MSM5] .

For this participant, since he felt that his identity would eventually reveal itself, it was important for him to take the first step and to share it with others he trusted, including members of his family. For both the above participants, actively disclosing their sexuality to family and friends was an important, affirming step, despite the risks.

Because I love myself the way I am, that’s why I told them…. It wasn’t easy. They were suspecting, so I thought through it and just ended up telling them. But it took some time, but in the end they accepted. [ ZAM-LSK-MB-MSM1] .

With regard to disclosure of HIV status, while the reasons and circumstances for sharing or not sharing information were different, they were only slightly less difficult for many participants and still carried real or feared risks of different types of harm linked to stigma. The reasons given by participants to disclose their HIV status were often pragmatic. Some had shared information about their HIV status with others so that they could be better supported, including being reminded to take medication, or being helped with collecting it from health facilities. Others had shared their HIV status to be assured of emotional, financial, and physical support from family members, friends, or partners. For some, sharing information about their health status was a practical move, something to be done for good reason:

Because they [family members] need to know. You may find that they discover and get surprised that I am on treatment. They need to know my status. They need to know everything about me. [ZAM-LSK-MB-MSM1] .

Similar to information about their SOGI, some participants were more selective and careful with whom they told and why. The reasons for these considerations were, for the most part, the avoidance of stigma, as well as availability of a supportive and accommodative family environment as this TWG participant explained:

It’s my family because they are aware of this. And they give me courage to push and be strong. Maybe it was not difficult for them to accept because one of my siblings was born with HIV. So they accept me and force me to drink. [ZAM-LSK-NN-TGW-02] .

Meanwhile, once information began to circulate in this wider social context, whether initiated by the participants themselves, or happenings despite their efforts to conceal or keep these things hidden, the influence of stigma and the fear surrounding it intensified;

Ah challenges. The most painful thing is you know you are in a group people are just talking about HIV and so on. You know you feel that guilt to say maybe these people know about me or maybe someone told them -----, so you just feel that and it will be paining inside you, you feel it just in you. [ZAM-CHP-NN-TGW-03] .

This situation sometimes lead to complex arrangements for managing who could know what about them, whether about their SOGI or health status. As a result of these concerns, in some cases, people who received information about their health status were different from who received information about sexual orientation or gender identity. As shown below, the respondent thought that friends would not accept his HIV status, family would not accept his sexual orientation, so the two identities and groups must remain distinct at all times. This type selective disclosure was classified as “ two persons in one.”

It’s very easy, actually. Okay, I can’t say it’s easy. Those that know about my sexual orientation are friends from Lusaka and basically I am in Lusaka for school and when I am in school they know about my sexual orientation but not my HIV status. When I go back home, they know about my HIV status, but not my sexual orientation. So I, like, I am two persons in one. --MSM, 22 years, Lusaka, Zambia. [ZAM-LSK-CW-MSM6] .

Participants explained that they struggled on a daily basis to carefully assess individuals before disclosing either their HIV status or SOGI or both. There was a skill that was acquired to read “the way someone looks” and their level of “maturity” that makes it safe or not to share information. “Manners and behaviour” determined who could keep the “secret” of an individual’s identity and their HIV status:

I only see someone who is close to me and someone who is matured enough, or someone who can really understand, that is when I can disclose to say no… Not someone who is immature, they start telling everybody, no this guy is on medication, this guy is on this, this guy, eh. [ZAM-CHP-MB-MSM9] .

The burden or cost of hiding both HIV stigma and SOGI could become unbearable. The need to compromise, to hide, had a weight that accumulated to the extent that it pierced and deflated self-confidence and self-acceptance. Constant denial in social setting can lead to a more profound internal denial. The trajectory from external to internalised stigma is clear in the example below.

So, it affects me because you cannot, like, live the whole lot of your life hiding, yes? So, it does affect me a lot, yes….It affects me psychologically, sometimes I feel like denying myself, It affects me physically, mentally. -- [ZAM-CHP-MB-MSM1] .

Intersectional stigma was also evident in norms around sexuality and HIV status and ART uptake. HIV disclosure especially to family members and close friends was a challenge as these people had never seen them with girlfriends. A participant shared his account of people would potentially attribute SOGI in this case being gay as the reason for being HIV positive. For them, it was important to hide including not telling the truth when asked about sexual orientation in order to maintain social support and reduce stress.

It comes to my sexual orientation, it’s kind of difficult for me to tell them that I am attracted to men because what if they send me away from home? That will be difficult. I might get stressed and even stop maybe taking my drugs and then my family members will conclude that it’s because of this (gay) maybe which led me to have HIV. [ZAM-LSK-CW-MSM9] .

Participants reported that they preferred to keep their HIV status to themselves as disclosing it would indirectly lead to disclosing one’s sexual orientation, and possibly lose social support. The difficult to openly disclose SOGI made some respondents fail to also disclose their HIV status as in this example.

I wouldn’t even dare to tell my uncle. He is too tough. He might just ask me, ‘I have never seen you with a girl, so where did you get this from? [ZAM-LSK-NN- TGW 3] .

For the young participants, intersectional stigma was indeed a potent force in their contexts, one that was experienced with intricate variations in its forms, manifestations, intensities and effects across many respondents. Handling the double burden of SOGI and HIV stigmatization from society was in general mentally challenging as they always feared to be laughed at and blamed by society. Due to fear of experiencing this double stigma, some participants reported that they preferred not to disclose that the they were gay and also living with HIV- a situation on one respondent classified as a “a private lie” .

It’s not easy am telling you. I don’t just come out in open and tell people that am HIV positive. I don’t. I do hide myself. Reason being scared of the society they will start laughing at me, pointing fingers at me…. So its like am living like a private lie where I have to be hiding for who I am (MSM). It’s like I just can’t come out and tell people that am HIV positive, am gay. — [ZAM-SOL-WC-MSM-06] .

Dual identity

For those who reported experiencing stigma, traces of intersectional stigma emerged in how participants described themselves, as sexual minorities and individuals living with HIV. Some described how the awareness of being HIV positive at the time when they still struggling to accept their SOGI complicated the self-acceptance process as explained by this young man.

So at first before I was even diagnosed having HIV I, you know, I had negative thoughts about my sexual orientation …I thought I wasn’t normal …… and then I looked away when I discovered I had HIV, I had two burdens I had my sexual orientation and I had the HIV status so I thought why have two problems …. I had anxiety I because I was thinking a lot I didn’t know what will what will become of my life . [ZAM- LSK- MB- MSM- 03] .

Another MSM described the burden or struggle of living and accepting both the HIV and SOGI as living a ‘cursed’ life.

It’s really hard. At times you just feel maybe it’s a curse and you having in this world and here is you trying to accept your sexual orientation and you are HIV positive so it’s hard . [ ZAM-LSK-WC-MSM-02 ] .

Some young people narrated that the HIV status had brought an additional challenge on top of the law that criminalizes SOGI. The burden of managing or navigating issues related to both the criminalization of SOGI and their HIV status was explained by one MSM who hoped that things can change for better in the future.

It even becomes worse now, because in Zambia they have not legalized gay rights, and on top of that, you have HIV. So, it’s a burden on me unless maybe in the future, if God allows, that they legalize gay rights, then at least I will have one less burden! --MSM, 23 years, Lusaka. [ZAM-LSK-WC-MSM1] .

A few explained that having to hide both identities was emotionally stressful as the they could not trust anyone with information about any of their identities

Especially my emotions, I never wanted to trust anyone. I was stressed, my emotions were bad -…Even my physical experience, I started getting fat. I get fat whenever I’m stressed . [ZAM-LSK-NN-TGW-02] .

The degree to which they accepted these things about themselves, the influence of stigma became more prominent as they expressed themselves in their social environments, beginning with who they told about themselves, what they disclosed and why. Anxieties about, or experiences of double stigma influenced these disclosures with some of them stating that both HIV and SOGI were the same, and preferred to hide both.

There is nothing simple, they are both the same. Since you need to hide for both. You just can’t randomly tell someone that you are on medication and you also just go and tell someone who is not gay that you are gay. So, these things are the same . [ZAM-SOl-CW-MSM-07] .

Although participants gave a range of descriptions with regard to these identities, most were anchored in a strong sense of understanding and acceptance that SOGI were a fundamental and enduring part of who they were as persons. This is how one young participant described himself:

I was born like this and there is a purpose as to why I am like this. So, whatever people might say about me is not what or who I am. I am who I am today. [ZAM-LSK-CW-MSM5] .

For another respondent, his sexual orientation had a “purpose” that is given at “birth” and this anchors his confidence and assurance: “I am who I am today” and not anything else. Another participant had a similar level of self-assurance:

I am gay and I love who I am, because it’s something I didn’t just come up with, but it’s something that I feel is in me and I was born with it…So, I feel okay with it myself.-- [ZAM-CHP-MB-MSM8] .

A TGW had a similar level of confidence, as in this example:

Being a TGW, it is not something that you just wake up today and just say, ‘I am a TGW.’ No, it is about the way you feel yourself. The way I feel myself it is important. I feel like a woman; I see the woman in me. So, it is very important to me.-- [ZAM-LSK-NN- TGW 3] .

Similarly, some respondents did not struggle living with HIV. The fact that there are family, friends and others also living with HIV brings a sense of solidarity and hope and greatly facilitates accepting and integrating one’s health status into one’s self identity. Those that had initially struggled to accept their HIV status also described how social support from health workers, friends and family members greatly facilitated acceptance. Health workers provided support when young people visited the health facilities. Health workers also played a key role to encourage them to start taking HIV medication as in this example:

Because the person I found [at the health facility] counselled me about how people who are living with HIV might also survive, explaining how many (medication) to take…So I said, let me try, just try. [ZAM-SOL-WC-MSM8] .

Challenges of finding and maintaining sexual partners

Romantic and sexual relationships for all young people are important, regardless of SOGI or health status. They propel personal development and help young people to know themselves. For the study participants, finding and keeping partners was critical to coping and resilience. Being rejected was challenging and contributed to mental health risks. What was surprising in the data was how much of the stigma and rejection was driven by peers who should otherwise be less prejudiced or fearful. Participants reported that it was hard to balance the tension regarding finding romantic and sexual partners given the complex legal context, and HIV risk of stigma from peers.

The challenge… is that it is difficult to balance the two because while you are thinking about HIV you also have to think of having sex with your fellow men. [ZAM-CHP-MB-MSM-02] .

They reported that if not well managed disclosing ones HIV while trying to get into a sexual relationship could damage social reputations, limit sexual or romantic attractiveness in an environment with limited sexual options, and lower self-worth amongst the participants as explained by one TWG who was into sex work.

It is an embarrassment for every person to know that you are on drugs (ART) ….because my business will be affected as people will run away or avoid being with me. So my business can be affected in so many ways like men who want to sleep with me they can avoid me once they know that I am HIV positive. [ZAM-LSK-TC-TGW-04] .

This risk of intra-community stigma and its consequences appeared both more potent from sexual minority peers. Some participants struggled accepting themselves and integrating their HIV status with the tension regarding finding romantic and sexual partners given the complex legal context, which made some participants to pretend that they were HIV negative whenever they were with their partners, as this young man explained.

Being a [gay] young man living with HIV is very, very hard. There come people that would really want to start a stable and nice relationship with you. And then there is just something there in your heart that will tell, ‘Okay, should I tell this person I am HIV or I shouldn’t? Should I just play along?’ And then it’s very hard. That person is also a human being….I hide my status because I never want to lose the people that are dear to me. -- [ZAM-LSK-MB-MSM5] .

Some young HIV-positive MSM and TGW narrated that they always worried that people might know that they were on ART. One person experienced involuntary disclosure (outing) by her boyfriend:

I felt bad, he spilled the secret because he drinks and if he was negative, I would have ended our relationship from there but I understand him, that’s how he is. [ZAM-LSK-NN-TGW-02] .

Respondents reported that they feared that people within the community might make fun of or stigmatize them once they knew that they were HIV positive which could result into rejection within the relationships.

I disclosed it to someone I had met, who I thought we would be together forever. I decided to let them know that I insist on using condoms because I am on medication. The person didn’t take it well, he said “Ah okay, but we just have to part ways. [ZAM-LSK-CW-MSM-10].

Rejection from the current partner or potential partner was painful and could trigger suicidal thoughts as explained below.

My partner wasn’t comfortable with me living with HIV, he was like I can’t date you this and that but I was like no, it wasn’t my fault but never the less it happened. So, it’s up to you to accept me or leave me because I don’t mind, this is the way I am and later on he started having like this mind of thought to say oh I feel like killing myself . [ZAM-LSK-CW-MSM-05] .

Coping strategies and resilience

Many respondents reported that they had developed different positive ways of coping with the effects of stigma. These positive coping strategies helped them to cope with many mental health challenges that they experienced. These positive experiences included exercise (sports, walking, and swimming), meditation and prayer, reading, or just keeping busy, as in these examples:

I work out, I go to the gym, I do a bit of meditation, I read certain books that usually sharpen my mental faculties. [ZAM-CHP-MB-MSM8] . I worship my Lord, and I know that everything is possible with Him by my side. [ZAM-CHP-NN- TGW 2] .

A TGW explained that she managed the mental health challenges through undertaking many duties at home. By keeping busy, she was able to keep her mind focused and refreshed as explained below.

I keep my mind off things that are making me feel bad and I do different kinds of chores around the house, to remove the pressure I have. [ZAM-LSK-NN- TGW 4] .

Focussing on positive or purposeful activities relieved stress or lifted the burden of poor mental health for these young people. Staying sexually activity was also important as explained below:

So, when I have sex, it helps me to think better. [ZAM-CHP-MB-MSM2] .

Finally, some participants had very positive and empowering ways of recovering from stress or poor mental health. These attitudes and practices put them in a position of becoming resilient and being able to resist the negative aspects of their experiences as sexual minorities and as PLHIV. This young participant found such resilience after recovering from a violent attack:

It [the attack] affected in a way that they attacked me and I didn’t like it. But it also strengthened me such that when someone passes a comment, I can stand and say, ‘So!?’ I can just tell them what they want to hear. I would say, okay this is me, if you won’t accept me, bypass me. [ZAM-LSK-WC-MSM10] .

Another young person found a way to become more self-reliant and handle his own issues. He explained that he did not like to involve other people in his problems as they might think that he is not resilient enough to address the problems.

I handle my issues on my own. I do not like to involve too many people because they can look down on me that, every day, I have issue, like I’m always having the same issues, every day. So, you will find that I handle my issues on my own in whatever situation I am in. Unless when the issue is too big that is when I can go to a counsellor. [ZAM-LSK-WC-MSM4] .

A few narrated that they were able to cope by taking to friends who work with NGOs that provide services to young key populations. Such discussions helped the young key populations to manage the challenges associated with being HIV and MSM as explained below.

First of all, it makes me feel terrible about myself and it also made me feel I amount to nothing because am now a person living with HIV and I have this sexual orientation going on so it’s really hard but then with the help of these Non-governmental organizations I have friends that I can talk to that really understand yah. [ZAM-LSK-WC-MSM-02] .

This individual found a way to be immune to disturbances. A TGW participant explained that she preferred not to think too much about what people say about her as doing so might stress her much more.

I just sit back and relax, and not think too much about people, because one day they might get sick as well. Because we are all sick in the world, nobody is perfect. So, I just sit back and relax, and cool myself down, and say to myself that everything will just be okay, yah.[ZAM-LSK-TC- TGW 2] .

This study aimed at exploring how intersectional stigma is constructed among young, HIV-positive MSM and TGW in Zambia and how it affects mental health outcomes. This is one of the rare studies done in Zambia on MSM and TGW on intersectional stigma, depression and suicidal thoughts. The study showed that a convergence of multiple stigmatized identities or experiences among MSM and TGW affected their mental health. Most of the participants experienced dual stigma, that is SOGI stigma and HIV stigma. More TGW participants had moderate to significant symptoms of depression (40%) or major depression (10%) compared to the MSM participants, at 33% and 6% respectively. Similarly, more TGW participants (55%) had contemplated suicide than MSM (36%). These findings align with a literature review on intersectional stigma which demonstrated that intersecting forms of stigma can impact mental and physical health, as well as related health behaviors [ 45 ]. In this context, Logie et al. [ 46 ] have mapped the relationships between intersectional stigmas, depression, and adverse HIV outcomes among HIV-positive women in Canada which they assert can be synergistic and compounding.

Stigma coupled with the existence of the law that criminalize same sex relationships, made some MSMs and TGW not only to hide their HIV status and ART but also their SOGI. Thus, in the context of this study, intersectional stigma was shaped by prevalent views and perceptions that a given identity (SOGI) and respective HIV status was deviation from accepted social norms. Each identity worsened levels of stress, and vulnerability levels among MSM and TGW. These findings align with a recent scoping review of HIV-related intersectional stigma among sexual and gender minorities in sub-Saharan Africa [ 47 ]. We thus agree on the need for increased recognition of how an individual’s membership in multiple stigmatized groups including HIV-related stigma may not only be a manifestation of fears related to the health condition itself, but also negative attitudes regarding behaviors and identities originally associated with HIV transmission including sexual orientation [ 48 ].

The double burden of hiding SOGI and HIV status from relatives, friends, partners and community members triggered loneliness, more stress, loss of self-esteem, anxiety, depression and suicidal thoughts among MSM and TWG. We note that if not well managed, these mental health challenges could undermine HIV self-management behaviour among MSM and TGW which could affect both the physical and mental wellbeing. This finding corresponds with previous research that has documented an association between HIV-related stigma experienced by young MSM in Chicago and other psychosocial factors related to HIV (i.e., psychological distress, lower self-esteem, loneliness) [ 49 ].

The findings suggest the existence of a social structure which constrains young, HIV-positive MSM and TGW’s ability to freely live out their HIV status, take and adhere to ART, as well as disclose their HIV status and SOGI. Such a limiting social structure could affect their health status not only by reducing their ability to adhere to treatment but also constrain safe sexual practices. Examples of unsafe practices included some participants in this study reporting engaging in unprotected sex and not disclosing their HIV status to their partners for fear of losing them. We thus conclude that this discriminatory social structure is problematic as it limits MSM and TGW’s agency which is ‘the capacity to transpose and extend personal schemas to new contexts [ 50 ], including disclosing their HIV status and identity to new sexual partners, friends, health workers and in some cases family members.

Further, an excluding structure could have negative implications on MSM and TGWs’ ability to confidently define, understand and accept their HIV positive identity, and live positively given that significant others, such as partners, friends, health workers are the key drivers of stigmatization. It has been argued that ‘feedback about one’s position can provide a sense of security or sense of threat to self’ [ 51 ]. Thus, feedback in the form of stigma and mistrust, can over time make the MSM and TGW living with HIV to view themselves as lesser members of the family, school and society. Hence, it is crucial for interventions targeting intersectional stigma to emphasize the significance of thoroughly examining the impact that stigmatizing language, behaviors, and attitudes can have on individuals, potentially leading to the categorization of individuals into “us” and “others” [ 52 ]. In this study, we note that this classification could have strongly led to a limited sense of belonging to their families by some MSM and TGW and possible suicidal thoughts or a wish of dying from AIDS by stopping ART.

These excluding social structures could also make the young participants not chose to access social support, including from other MSM or TGW peers. As a way of responding to these negative mental health outcomes, MSM and TGW adopted different forms of positive or wellbeing enabling coping strategies. The positive coping strategies included exercising, listening to music, singing, chatting and praying. We also note that others reported adopting negative (dysfunctional) coping behaviours, a finding which is similar to another study on mental coping behaviours among young MSM in Zambia [ 10 ].

Strengths and limitations of the study

The adoption of the mixed study design enhanced the strength of the study. Triangulating data collection methods helped in developing a comprehensive account of experiences of intersectional stigma and mental health challenges among young MSM and TGW living with HIV. Credibility of the findings was enhanced through thoroughly documenting the research process including recruitment, as well as data collection, entry, transcribing and analysis processes. In addition, sharing the results with stakeholders including young TGW and MSM living with HIV helped in clarifying and validating the findings. Our findings cannot be generalized to whole country as the participants in our study were only drawn from three provinces. Further the sample size was small as it consisted of 56 participants. Despite these limitations, the study provides useful information to enhance programming for young TGW and MSM living with HIV as there is dearth of such studies in Zambia and arguably across much of Africa that address the many challenges that key populations face on a day-to-day.

Most young HIV-positive MSM and TGW experienced intersecting forms of stigma at household, community and health system levels. The intersectional stigma was rooted within different salient historical, cultural, and socioeconomic contexts. Fear of disclosure of both SOGI and HIV status from relatives, friends, partners and community members triggered poor mental health outcomes which included anxiety, depression and suicidal thoughts. Socio-cultural and religious attitudes regarding SOGI and criminalization of sexual or gender diversity in Zambia also contributed this intersectional stigma. In trying to respond to these mental health challenges, young, HIV-positive MSM and TGW adopted several positive coping strategies. To address intersectional stigma and related mental health challenges, we recommend strengthening implementation of laws and policies that provide a favourable environment for MSM and TGW living with HIV, including stigma reduction policies that ameliorate the negative impacts of multiple intersecting stigmas. There is also a need to meaningfully engage MSM and TGW who are at the centre of experiencing these intersectional stigmas, as well as political and community leaders in the development of interventions aimed at addressing social, cultural and legal practices that lead to stigmatisation. We further recommend mixed methods implementation research on community based interventions for reducing mental health challenges among young, HIV positive MSM and TGW in an African setting. These interventions should focus more on trauma-informed and identity-supportive care for young people with HIV.

Data availability

The datasets during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

This research project was funded under the HIV/AIDS Special Fund Round III Initiative of the Southern African Development Community. We would like to extend our sincere gratitude to the study participants for their time and valuable insight/input during the interviews.

We acknowledge the financial support from the HIV/AIDS Special Fund Round III Initiative of the Southern African Development Community.

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Contributions

JMZ, MZ, PN, KG and RA contributed towards the design of the study including the data collection tools and collecting data. JMZ, MZ, PN, BW, HB, AM, DK, PN and RA participated in analysing of the results of the study. All the authors contributed towards the revision of analysis of the results, the draft manuscript, and approved the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Joseph Mumba Zulu .

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Zulu, J.M., Budhwani, H., Wang, B. et al. Living a private lie: intersectional stigma, depression and suicidal thoughts for selected young key populations living with HIV in Zambia. BMC Public Health 24 , 1937 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19278-z

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Received : 17 February 2024

Accepted : 26 June 2024

Published : 19 July 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-024-19278-z

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• Intersectional stigma
• Suicidal thoughts
• Young key populations living with HIV

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