differentiate between research proposal and research project report

• Key Differences

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Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

On the other hand, a research report is the culmination of the research endeavour. It is a great way to explain the research work and its outcome to a group of people. It is the outcome of the study conducted at the time of the research process.

This article will help you understand the difference between research proposal and research report.

Content: Research Proposal Vs Research Report

Comparison chart, definition of research proposal.

Research Proposal can be defined as the document prepared by the researcher so as to give a description of the research program in detail. It is typically a request for research funding, for the subject under study. In other words, a research proposal is a summary of the research process, with which the reader can get quick information regarding the research project.

The research proposal seeks final approval, for which it is submitted to the relevant authority. After the research proposal is submitted, it is being evaluated, considering a number of factors like the cost involved, potential impact, soundness of the plan to undertake the project.

It aims at presenting and justifying the need and importance to carry out the study, as well as to present the practical ways, of conducting the research. And for this, persuasive evidence should be provided in the research proposal, to highlight the necessity of the research.

Further, it must discuss the main issues and questions, which the researcher will address in the study. Along with that, it must highlight the fundamental area of the research study.

A research proposal can be prepared in a number of formats, which differs on the basis of their length. It contains an introduction, problem hypothesis, objectives, assumptions, methodology, justification and implication of the research project.

Definition of Research Report

Research Report can be defined as the document in which the researched and analysed data is organized and presented by the researcher in a systematic manner. It is a publication, comprising of the purpose, scope, hypothesis, methodology, findings, limitations, recommendations and conclusion of the research project.

Simply put, a research report is the record of the research process. It is one of the most important segments of the research, as the research work is said to be incomplete if the report is not prepared.

A research report is a document containing collected and considered facts, taken to provide succinct and comprehensible information to people.

Once the research process is over, the entire work is produced in a written material, which is called a research report . It covers the description of the research activities, in an elaborated manner. It contains Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, Data Collection, Data Analysis, Discussion of Results and Findings, Bibliography and Appendices.

A research report acts as a method to record the research work and its outcome, for future reference.

Key Differences Between Research Proposal and Research Report

The difference between research proposal and research report is discussed as under:

• A research proposal signifies a theoretical framework within which the research is carried out. In finer terms, a research proposal is a sketch for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. A research report implies a scientific write-up on the research findings, which is prepared in a specific format.
• While the preparation of a research proposal is considered as the first step to research work, preparation of a research report is the final step to the research work.
• A research proposal is prepared at the beginning of the project. In contrast, the research report is prepared after the completion of the project
• A research proposal is written in the future tense, whereas the tense used in the research report is past tense, as well as it is written in the third person
• The length of a research proposal is about 4-10 pages. On the contrary, the length of the research report is about 100 to 300 pages.
• The research proposal is concerned with the problem or topic to be investigated. Conversely, the research report focuses on the results of the completed research work.
• The research proposal determines what will be researched, the relevance of the research and the ways to conduct the researched. As against, the research report determines what is researched, sources of data collection, ways of data collection (i.e. survey, interview, or questionnaire), result and findings, recommendations for future research, etc.
• Research Proposal includes three chapters i.e. Introduction, Literature Review, Research Methodology. Contrastingly, Research Report covers the following chapters – Introduction, Literature Review, Research Methodology, Results, Interpretation and Analysis, Conclusion and Recommendation.

Basically, a research proposal defines the planning stage of the research work, which is prepared in written format, to know its worth. On the other hand, the research report signifies the concluding stage of the research work.

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Research Proposal vs. Research Report

What's the difference.

A research proposal and a research report are both essential components of the research process, but they serve different purposes. A research proposal is a document that outlines the objectives, methodology, and significance of a research project. It is typically submitted to gain approval and funding for the research. On the other hand, a research report is a detailed account of the research findings, analysis, and conclusions. It presents the results of the research in a structured and organized manner, often including tables, graphs, and references. While a research proposal focuses on the planning and design of the study, a research report focuses on the actual execution and outcomes of the research.

Further Detail

Introduction.

Research is an essential component of academic and professional endeavors, providing a systematic approach to gather and analyze information. Two crucial elements of the research process are the research proposal and the research report. While both serve distinct purposes, they share common attributes that contribute to the overall success of a research project. This article aims to explore and compare the attributes of research proposals and research reports, highlighting their significance in the research process.

Research Proposal

A research proposal is a document that outlines the objectives, methodology, and potential outcomes of a research project. It serves as a blueprint for the research, providing a comprehensive plan that guides the researcher throughout the process. The key attributes of a research proposal include:

• Introduction: The research proposal begins with an introduction that provides background information on the topic, highlights the research problem, and establishes the significance of the study.
• Research Questions or Objectives: The proposal clearly states the research questions or objectives that the study aims to address. These questions or objectives guide the entire research process and help in formulating a focused approach.
• Literature Review: A research proposal includes a literature review that critically analyzes existing research and identifies gaps in knowledge. This review helps to establish the rationale for the proposed study and demonstrates the researcher's familiarity with the subject area.
• Methodology: The methodology section outlines the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques that will be employed. It provides a detailed plan for how the research will be conducted, ensuring transparency and replicability.
• Timeline and Budget: A research proposal often includes a timeline that outlines the expected duration of the study and a budget that estimates the required resources. These elements help to assess the feasibility and practicality of the proposed research.

Research Report

A research report is a comprehensive document that presents the findings, analysis, and conclusions of a research study. It serves as a means of communicating the research outcomes to the intended audience, whether it be academic peers, industry professionals, or policymakers. The key attributes of a research report include:

• Abstract: The research report begins with an abstract that provides a concise summary of the study, including the research questions, methodology, key findings, and conclusions. It allows readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.
• Introduction: Similar to the research proposal, the research report includes an introduction that provides background information and establishes the context for the study. It also outlines the research problem and objectives.
• Methodology: The methodology section in the research report describes in detail the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques employed. It allows readers to assess the validity and reliability of the study.
• Results and Analysis: The research report presents the findings of the study, often accompanied by statistical analysis, graphs, and tables. It provides a detailed account of the data collected and the outcomes of the analysis.
• Discussion and Conclusion: The discussion section interprets the results in light of the research objectives and compares them with existing literature. It highlights the significance of the findings and their implications. The conclusion summarizes the key findings and offers recommendations for future research or practical applications.
• References: A research report includes a comprehensive list of references cited throughout the document. This allows readers to access the sources and verify the accuracy of the information presented.

Comparing Attributes

While research proposals and research reports have distinct purposes, they share several common attributes that contribute to the overall success of a research project. These attributes include:

• Clarity and Structure: Both research proposals and research reports require clear and logical organization. They should be well-structured, with headings and subheadings that guide the reader through the document.
• Research Objectives: Both documents clearly state the research objectives or questions that guide the study. This ensures that the research remains focused and addresses the intended goals.
• Methodology: Both research proposals and research reports describe the research methodology, including the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques. This transparency allows others to assess the validity and reliability of the research.
• Relevance and Significance: Both documents establish the relevance and significance of the research. They provide a rationale for why the study is important and how it contributes to existing knowledge or addresses a research gap.
• Evidence-Based Approach: Both research proposals and research reports rely on evidence-based approaches. They draw upon existing literature, theories, and empirical data to support their arguments and findings.

In conclusion, research proposals and research reports are integral components of the research process, each serving distinct purposes. While the research proposal outlines the plan and objectives of the study, the research report presents the findings and conclusions. However, both documents share common attributes such as clarity, structure, research objectives, methodology, relevance, and evidence-based approaches. Understanding and effectively utilizing these attributes contribute to the success of a research project, ensuring that it is well-planned, executed, and communicated to the intended audience.

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Home » Education » Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

Main difference –  research proposal vs research report.

Research proposal and research report are two terms that often confuse many student researchers. A research proposal describes what the researcher intends to do in his research study and is written before the collection and analysis of data. A research report describes the whole research study and is submitted after the competition of the whole research project. Thus, the main difference between research proposal and research report is that a research proposal describes the proposed research and research design whereas a research report describes the completed research, including the findings, conclusion, and recommendations.

This article explains, 

1. What is a Research Proposal?      – Definition, Purpose, Content, and Characteristics

2. What is a Research Report?      – Definition, Purpose, Content, and Characteristics

What is a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a brief and coherent summary of the proposed research study, which is prepared at the beginning of a research project. The aim of a research proposal is to justify the need for a specific research proposal and present the practical methods and ways to conduct the proposed research. In other words, a research proposal presents the proposed design of the study and justifies the necessity of the specific research. Thus, a research proposal describes what you intend to do and why you intend to do it.

A research proposal generally contains the following segments:

• Introduction / Context/ Background
• Literature Review
• Research Methods and Methodology
• Research question
• Aims and Objectives
• List of Reference

Each of these segments is indispensable to a research proposal. For example, it’s impossible to write a research proposal without reading related work and writing a literature review. Similarly, it’s not possible to decide a methodology without determining specific research questions.

What is a Research Report

A research report is a document that is submitted at the end of a research project. This describes the completed research project. It describes the data collection, analysis, and the results as well. Thus, in addition to the sections mentioned above, this also includes sections such as,

• Conclusions
• Shortcomings
• Recommendations

A research report is also known as a thesis or dissertation. A research report is not research plan or a proposed design. It describes what was actually done during the research project and what was learned from it. Research reports are usually longer than research proposals since they contain step-by-step processes of the research.

Research Proposal: Research Proposal describes what the researcher intends to do and why he intends to do it.

Research Report: Research report describes what the researcher has done, why he has done it, and the results he has achieved.

Research Proposal: Research proposals are written at the beginning of a research proposal before the research project actually begins.

Research Report: Research reports are completed after the completion of the whole research project.

Research Proposal: Research proposals contain sections such as introduction/background, literature review, research questions, methodology, aims and objective.

Research Report: Research reports contain sections such as introduction/background, literature review, research questions, methodology, aims and objective, findings, analysis, results, conclusion, recommendations, citation.

Research Proposal: Research proposals are shorter in length.

Research Report: Research reports are longer than research proposals.

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Research Proposal vs. Research Report: What's the Difference?

Key Differences

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Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

The Research Proposal is the way a researcher presents the research problem and communicates the need for research. It is a crucial part of the application process. It provides a brief overview of the research questions the researcher is trying to answer. It also outlines the research methodology that the researcher will use.

A research report, on the other hand, is the result of a research project. This report is an excellent way to present the results of your research to others. It is the result of the study that was conducted during the research process.If you have any problems with writing and want someone “ do my research paper for me ”, turn to professionals.

This article will explain the differences between a research proposal and a research report.

• 1 Definition of a Research Proposal
• 2 Definition of Research Report
• 3 Conclusion

Definition of a Research Proposal

A Research Proposal is a document that the researcher creates to describe the research program in detail. This is usually a request for funding for the subject being studied. A research proposal, in other words, is a summary or description of the research process that provides quick information about the research project.

After the research proposal has been approved, it is sent to the appropriate authority.

Once the research proposal has been submitted, it will be evaluated to determine if the cost, potential impact, and soundness of the plan for the project are all considered.

The purpose of the proposal is to justify the necessity and importance of the study and to show the practical methods for conducting it. To demonstrate the necessity of the research, the proposal should contain persuasive evidence.

It must also discuss the major issues and questions that the researcher will address during the research. It must also highlight the main area of the research study.

There are many formats that can be used to create a research proposal.

The length of each format will vary. It includes an introduction, problem hypothesis, and assumptions.

Definition of Research Report

Research Report is the document that organizes and presents the data collected and analyzed. It’s a publication that includes the purpose, scope, and hypothesis of the research project, as well as the methodology, findings, limitations, recommendations, and conclusion.

A research report is simply the record of the research process. This is the most important analyzed search because it is the record of the research process.

A research report is a collection of facts that have been carefully considered and are intended to be succinct, understandable information for people.

After the research is complete, all work is written down, and this is known as a research report.

This document describes the research activities in detail. It includes Introduction, Literature Review and Methodology.

Research reports are used to document the research process and its results for future reference.

There are key differences between a Research Proposal or a Research Report.

Below is a discussion on the difference between a research proposal and a research report.

A research proposal is a framework that guides the research. A research proposal can be described as a plan for collecting, measuring, and analysing data. A research report is a written description of the research findings.

It follows a particular format.

Preparing a research proposal is the first step in research work. However, the final step is writing a research report.

The research proposal is created at the start of the project. The research report, however, is completed after the project has been completed.

Research proposals are written in future tense. However, the research report’s tense is in past tense. It is also written in third person.

A research proposal should be between 4-10 pages. The research report, on the other hand, is approximately 100 to 300 pages.

The topic or problem to be researched is the focus of the research proposal. The research report, on the other hand, focuses only on the findings of the completed research.

The research proposal outlines the scope of research, its relevance and the methods to be the used. The research report,the  on the other hand, determines the scope of the research, data sources, data collection methods (i.e. Survey, interview, questionnaire), results and conclusions, as well as recommendations for future research.

Three chapters make up the Research Proposal: Introduction, Literature Review and Methodology. Introduction, Literature Review and Research Methodology are the three chapters of Research Proposal. The Research Report, on the other hand, covers the following chapters: Introduction, Literature Review and Research Methodology. Results, Interpretation, Analysis, Conclusion, and Recommendation.

A research proposal is basically the planning stage for the research work. It must be prepared in writing format to prove its value. The research report, on the other hand is the end of the research process. Open this review to take a look at trustworthy writing services.

Research Proposal vs. Research Report — What's the Difference?

Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

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Chapter 12: Writing Research Proposals and Reports

Research is of no use unless it gets to the people who need to use it.

— Chris Whitty [1]

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, students should be able to do the following:

• Outline the main components of a research proposal.
• Explain the purpose of a method section in a research proposal.
• Identify key ethical considerations that need to be addressed in a research proposal.
• Outline the structure and format of a scholarly research report.

INTRODUCTION

Just as research is conducted for a variety of purposes, such as to explore or to explain a phenomenon of interest, as discussed at the start of this book, research is also carried out with its eventual target audience in mind, as implied by the opening quote. Basic research is generally undertaken for an academic audience, and research findings are disseminated (communicated) in reports that form the basis of conference talks or published works such as books, chapters, or journal articles read by scholars in affiliated disciplines. Disciplines recommend their own writing style for academic papers and reports. Three common documentation styles used in the social sciences throughout North America are American Psychological Association (APA) style,  American Sociological Association (ASA) style, and Modern Language Association (MLA) style. All three provide direction for quoting and paraphrasing the work of others, for setting up the format of documents (e.g., spacing, headers, and the presentation of material in tables and figures), and for referencing sources. APA format is based on the most current edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . MLA style is based on the most current edition of the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers , and ASA is based on the American Sociological Association Style Guide . Consult with your instructor, your course syllabus, your library’s writing resources, or the instructions for contributors at a journal to determine the exact style you should use for preparing course work, research proposals, or research reports.

Research Proposals versus Reports

Most everyone who takes a research methods course or who plans to carry out basic research for an honours project, an independent study, or graduate studies (e.g., master’s research or a research-based dissertation for a doctorate degree) is expected to develop a research proposal. Similarly, researchers and other academics who wish to carry out studies at universities, in community settings, and in the private or business sector typically submit a research proposal to an ethics board and/or to a funding agency prior to beginning the research project. A research proposal is a comprehensive plan, created in advance of carrying out research, that details what a research project is about and what the process entails for obtaining the data needed to address the research questions and objectives. Included in the proposal is a description of the relevant literature, the main research questions or hypotheses the study hopes to address, the methods for obtaining data, and anticipated ethical considerations. A research report , in contrast, is written after research is conducted. The report is a detailed account that describes the area of interest, provides the specific research questions or hypotheses addressed in the study, spells out the methods used to obtain the data, and communicates the main results from the study. In addition, a research report discusses the findings in relation to the wider literature on the subject matter, indicates any limitations of the study, and offers suggestions for future research on that topic. The next section provides you with some guidance for what to include in a research proposal.

The Research Proposal

A research proposal is meant to address two primary questions: (1) What purpose does the research serve? and (2) How will the research be carried out to meet the intended objective? The research purpose is articulated in the introduction section and the planned process for carrying out the research is detailed in the method section. A research proposal is usually divided into five main sections consisting of an introduction, a method section, a section on data analysis and dissemination, a section on ethical considerations, and a listing of prospective references. These sections are described in detail below.

Introduction

To explain the research purpose in a manner that is accessible to a wide audience of readers, a researcher should frame the general research interest within a theoretical context, briefly describe what other researchers have done and found on the topic, state the current research interest, and explain how the present study will contribute to the literature by posing specific research questions and/or by testing hypotheses. Begin with a broad opening statement that identifies the area of interest. For example, a student of mine who planned to compare the portrayal of masculinity in the lyrics of country versus hip-hop songs began by pointing out the increasing popularity of both genres of music and went on to point out the earnings and prevalence of the two genres in order to introduce the general topic (Holub, 2012). After introducing the general topic, a researcher can begin to narrow the topic by linking the topic to previous research on the proposed area of interest. This is where central concepts are discussed and the theoretical context is established. Continuing with the previous example, my student went on to point out prevalent masculinity themes identified in previous research on lyrics of music from the two genres. The same student ended the introduction by noting that the proposed study would compare depictions of masculinity across genres to see if there were common underlying features. A qualitative study with an exploratory focus is going to include a general question, such as “Are there similarities in the way masculinity is depicted in country and hip-hop music lyrics?” In contrast, a quantitative study with a more descriptive focus would likely include a directional hypothesis, such as “H1: The proposed study predicts that masculinity will be more evident in hip-hop than in country music lyrics.” Ask yourself the following questions as you prepare the introductory section:

• What is my broad area of interest?
• Did I identify a narrow focus within this area of interest?
• Did I summarize the relevant literature in this area?
• Did I include clear conceptual definitions for the main concepts?
• Is a theoretical context established for my study?
• What will my research contribute to this area?
• What is my research question or hypothesis?

The method section outlines who the participants will be and how they will be selected. In addition, the method section includes details about the setting and materials needed to conduct the study, the procedures for carrying out the study, and the main variables examined in the study, as discussed in more detail below.

Participants and How They Will be Obtained or Sample Selection

First, if the study will include research participants, such as interview participants, survey respondents, or experimental subjects, a researcher needs to detail who the potential research participants will be and how they will be identified and recruited. In addition, the researcher should note any relevant criteria that may be used to include or exclude participants. For example, an honours student working under one of the author’s supervision examined the prevalence of aggressive and dangerous forms of driving in a sample of 300 university students (Haje & Symbaluk, 2014). In an ethics application, Bruno Haje proposed that participants would be recruited from the university’s research subject pool in accordance with the department’s procedures for online survey research participation. Bruno also pointed out that since this study was specifically about driving behaviours, participants would need to be volunteers who drive a motor vehicle at least on occasion.

Note that not all forms of research involve research participants. A researcher planning to use unobtrusive methods, such as physical trace analysis, or wanting to carry out a content analysis would instead describe proposed units of analysis. Recall Gackenbach et al.’s (2011) study on the video game player’s online dream diary. Although there was a person to whom the dreams belonged, it was the content of 447 of his 831 dream postings that constituted the units of analysis. In a qualitative study, this section is usually titled sample selection. Here, a researcher articulates how the sample (e.g., of dream postings) will be obtained, including any inclusion or exclusion criteria that will determine eligibility (Padgett, 2012). For example, of the 831 posted dreams, a dream was included in the analysis if it was more than 50 but fewer than 500 words, had a clear date as to when it occurred, included an activity blog entry from the night before the dream, and fit one of the defined dream categories, resulting in a sample of 447 dreams (Gackenbach et al., 2011).

Setting and Materials

In addition to describing the participants and how they will be recruited or the units of analysis, the method section also indicates the proposed setting or location for data collection and any materials needed to carry out the study. Research is often carried out at a university where the primary researcher holds a faculty position. However, if the study is an in-depth qualitative interview, the setting may be the respondent’s place of residence or a public location that the respondent feels comfortable in and one that provides some degree of needed privacy, such as a booth in a local coffee shop. Similarly, if the study involves ethnographic fieldwork, the research setting is likely to be wherever that group or process is located and can best be examined from within a natural context.

Materials for a study include items that need to be purchased ahead of time to carry out the study. For example, to carry out my master’s research on pain perception and endurance, I needed to purchase a heart rate monitor to assess participants, for health and safety reasons, throughout the exercise. I also needed equipment that could be used to assist in the measurement of pain endurance. Specifically, participants performed an isometric sitting exercise above a box with a pressure plate. A participant who was too tired to continue sat down on the box, thereby activating the pressure plate to stop a timer that recorded endurance.

As another example, an online ethnography might require a computer, internet access, and possibly some kind of registration or software needed to gain access to a group of interest, such as through a membership or user account. Finally, a researcher conducting an interview-based study might wish to use incentives to compensate interviewees for their time and would therefore need to purchase gift cards or prepare some comparable remuneration in advance of the study.

Main Variables

Next, researchers describe the main variables or measures of interest. If the approach is quantitative, as in the case of an experimental method, this section describes the dependent variables. (The independent variables are discussed as part of the procedures for how the manipulation will be carried out.) For example, in the pain study, the main dependent variable was pain endurance, defined as the length of a time a participant was able to maintain an isometric sitting exercise in minutes and seconds. Each dependent variable should be listed, along with the operational definition for how it will be measured. For a quantitative survey, each main variable is likely to be measured using a question or multiple questions on a self-report questionnaire. For example, in a study on aggressive driving, aggressive behaviour might be measured using Deffenbacher et al.’s (2002) shortened version of the Driver Anger Expression Inventory, consisting of 21 items. The inventory assesses verbally aggressive behaviour (e.g., yelling at other drivers), physically aggressive behaviour (e.g., giving someone the finger), and/or constructive expressions of anger (e.g., thinking about other things). Survey items are usually summarized in this section and the full inventory is included in an appendix. If the measures are already established, you can report on the reliability and validity of the measure as described in the literature.

Alternatively, if a study is based on a qualitative content analysis, an in-depth interview, or an unstructured observation, this section elaborates on how the researcher plans to identify main themes and patterns from the data once it is collected and transcribed, as opposed to operationalizing variables ahead of time. This section is sometimes called coding procedures and it can take the place of the main variables and procedures sections. For example, a researcher who wishes to examine a television series for depictions of violence enacted by the main characters might indicate a plan to use an open coding scheme to detail every separate and distinct act of violence committed by a main character as a first-cycle coding method. This can be followed by second phase of coding directed at identifying main themes and categorizing the patterns to the violence identified in the first round of coding. Similarly, an ethnographer might plan to use descriptive coding for field notes and documents collected on a group of interest that will be later subjected to a more structured coding process. A qualitative researcher might also adopt existing coding schemes from the established literature to conduct a content analysis. When possible, the researcher should articulate the coding schemes and tie them back to the theoretical context in which they developed. Since the content of any method section is going to vary considerably depending on the approach and methodology (e.g., quantitative survey versus qualitative interview), you should examine published journal articles based on the same methodology you plan to use for a more definitive sense of what you need to include here.

Finally, the procedures section outlines the detailed plan for carrying out the study as the last main component of the method section. This section needs to include enough detail that a reader could replicate the study exactly, based on how it is described in writing. For example, if a researcher intends to conduct online survey research, the procedures will detail how the participants are to access the online survey through a link they receive in an email invitation sent to their university email account. Once a participant clicks on the study link, what happens next? The procedures walk the reader through the study. For an online survey, the first page that is likely to appear on the screen following the link to the study is the informed consent statement. The procedures will then go into detail about how the online consent form describes the study, provides details about what is expected of participants, notes the benefits and risk of participation, indicates that participation is voluntary, and explains how privacy will be maintained and what the plans are for dissemination of findings. The procedures also indicate how consent is obtained. In the case of an online survey, potential participants are likely to be asked to click on a box that reads something like “I agree to participate in this study” or “I do not agree to participate in this study.” Procedures can also note that upon agreeing to participate in the study, the participants then receive the first screen page of the survey. What happens to those who choose not to participate? The procedures should also note that participants who do not consent to participate instead receive a debriefing statement that provides additional details about the study and contact information for the principal researcher.

In addition to describing the process leading up to survey access, the procedures also describe the survey instrument by noting how many questions are on the questionnaire, indicating whether questions are grouped into sections, noting the topic of each section, and listing the order in which the information will be received by the participant. For example, perhaps the questionnaire begins with 10 items that assess background information, followed by a 5-item personality scale or a 12-item behaviour inventory. The procedures also note what happens once participants complete the survey. In most cases, after completing an online survey, participants will receive the debriefing statement mentioned above. Finally, a copy of the questionnaire in its entirety, along with the consent form and debriefing statement, should be attached at the end of the proposal as an appendix.

Again, we would advise you to look at how the procedures are described in a couple of published journal articles, based on studies like the one you are planning, for additional ideas on what you need to include as necessary steps. Ask yourself the following questions as you prepare the method section:

• Did I indicate who the target participants will be and how I plan to obtain them?
• If I don’t have participants, did I explain what my units of analysis will be and how I plan to sample for them?
• Did I explain any relevant inclusion or exclusion criteria for selection?
• Have I noted where the proposed study will take place?
• Have I identified all materials that need to be obtained in advance of the study?
• For a quantitative study, have I listed and operationalized all main variables I plan to examine in my study?
• For a qualitative study, have I explained how I plan to code or categorize the information I will be collecting?
• Have I explained all steps I will undertake to carry out the study?

Data Analysis and Dissemination

In addition to describing the main variables and/or coding procedures, a research proposal also includes a brief section outlining the plan for data analysis and dissemination of findings. A quantitative study is likely to include statistical analysis using a software package especially designed for the social sciences, such as IBM SPSS or Stata statistical software. Data analysis in a qualitative study may be carried out by developing codes through transcription and textual analysis, or it can be assisted through specialized software programs such as NVivo, which helps to manage data by treating units of analysis as cases and organizing ideas, concepts, and themes into codes so that patterns and trends can be made apparent (Jackson & Bazeley, 2019). Here researchers can also indicate any strategies they plan to use to establish reliability, including inter-rater reliability and methods for obtaining rigour. Finally, a proposal outlines the plan for what will be done with the data once it is collected. Perhaps the researcher intends to report on the findings at an upcoming conference by presenting a conference poster (see Appendix B: Sample Student Poster for an example) or submit the main findings to a journal for peer review and possible publication.

Ethical Considerations

If a researcher plans to undertake a study that will include university students (or any humans) as research participants, as in the case of an experimental design, a survey project, an in-depth qualitative interview, or a focus group, the researcher would need to first obtain ethical approval through a university’s research ethics board. Even in the case of non-reactive research, if a researcher wishes to carry out a project that will in some way involve a university’s assets (directly or indirectly), as in the case of non-participatory observation in public spaces on campus, ethical approval will need to be sought from that university’s research ethics board. A research proposal always includes relevant ethical concerns along with the ways in which the planned study will address the concerns.

Minimal Risk for Harm

Recognizing that all research involving humans has at least a minimum potential for harm, a researcher should identify whether the proposed study can be judged as a minimal risk. While it is up to the research ethics board to determine whether the study is deemed minimal risk, a researcher can and should provide rationale for why the proposed project should be assessed as such. For example, a researcher who plans to conduct a survey on driving may indicate that there are no anticipated risks associated with participating in the proposed study. However, since the participants are disclosing information about their own driving habits, there is a minimal risk that participants may experience psychological discomfort when answering questions about the extent to which they engage in dangerous or aggressive driving practices. Specifically, participants could feel remorse or embarrassment while responding to certain questions. In addition, participants could later reflect on responses given and regret having disclosed information about their driving.

Mitigating Minimal Risk of Harm

To help mitigate this potential likelihood of harm, a researcher can include explicit information in the initial consent form to give the potential participants an idea of the type of questions they can anticipate being asked during the survey. For example, participants might be informed that they will be asked to report on safe and unsafe driving practices. In addition, the researcher can even include examples of specific items on the survey (e.g., Question #25 asks “How often do you send or receive text messages while stopped at a red light?”).

Researchers can also include a statement within the questionnaire itself that reiterates that participation is voluntary, that participants may skip over questions they do not want to answer, and that they can choose to end their participation at any time without penalty. Finally, a researcher can include additional self-help resources with the debriefing statement, such as resources for driver education and training.

Addressing Beneficence

Recall from chapter 3 the importance of designing a study in a manner that minimizes harm while maximizing the overall benefit of the research. Where possible, a research proposal should include a statement about the benefits of the proposed study for the researcher. For example, might the research help to fulfill the requirements for an honours project or a master’s thesis? In addition, it is important to list potential benefits for the participants, such as the opportunity to learn more about themselves or research processes. Finally, the proposal should also indicate benefits to the wider research community and/or society more generally. For example, may the proposed study contribute toward our understanding of some group, phenomenon, or process?

Upholding Privacy and Confidentiality

A researcher also needs to detail the planned procedures for upholding privacy through the anonymity of participants, how safe and secure storage of data will be achieved, and how confidentiality will be upheld in the disclosure of findings. For example, a researcher will need to note whether any personally identifying information is going to be collected and, if so, how the researcher plans to safeguard the identity of individual participants. Note that participants need to be made aware of this prior to providing consent.

Part of the process of ensuring privacy includes a consideration and disclosure of who is going to participate in data collection (e.g., Will research assistants help to collect information?); who is expected to access to the data once it is collected (e.g., Will anyone other than the principal researcher assist in the transcription or coding?); and where data is going to be stored (e.g., Will the data be transferred onto a computer file that will be kept on a password-protected computer in a locked office of the principal researcher? Will field notes be kept in a locked cabinet in the secure office of the principal researcher?). A research ethics board will ask for information on these items as well as additional information, including how long any sensitive data will need to be stored (the recommended length being about two years) and how the data will eventually be disposed of (e.g., Will the notes be shredded?).

Prospective References

Finally, a research proposal ends with a list of relevant references. References included in a research proposal help to establish a scholarly context for the planned study. The references help identify, for example, the appropriate and relevant theories, theorists, and concepts that inform the proposed research. In addition, references can help to validate the proposed methodology. For example, perhaps the researcher plans to use a grounded theory approach such as one described by Kathy Charmaz in 2014.

References are listed on a separate page in a standard citation format such as the one provided by the seventh edition of the American Psychological Association’s (2020) publication manual (APA format). In APA format, an author of a book is listed by last name, followed by first initials, year of publication, title, edition (if applicable, and then the publisher according to specific rules for style and punctuation. As illustrated here, in APA format, only the first word of the title of a book is capitalized, and the title appears in italics. MLA and ASA format are similar, as shown below.

APA format :

Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Sage.

ASA format:

Charmaz, Kathy. (2014). Constructing Grounded Theory. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

MLA format:

Charmaz, Kathy. Constructing Grounded Theory . 2nd ed., Sage, 2014.

Activity: Research Proposals Review

Test Yourself

• What are the two primary questions addressed by a research proposal?
• Does the introduction section in a research proposal begin with a broad or narrow statement?
• In which section of a research proposal would you expect to find information on the setting and materials for a study?
• Which subsection of a research proposal walks the reader through the study?
• What suggestions might researchers propose to mitigate the risk of harm to participants?

THE RESEARCH REPORT

A research report is a formalized summary of a completed research project. A research report is written in a standard format that you can use to describe the research you have carried out for an undergraduate research class, an honours project, an independent study, a community-based project or some kind of field placement. This format includes a title page, an abstract, an introduction, a method section, a results section, a discussion section, references, and if applicable, tables, figures, and an appendix, as described in detail in this section and demonstrated in Appendix A: Sample Student Report . Research reports submitted to an academic journal may require additional elements depending on the journal submission guidelines, the most common of which are referred to below and discussed in more detail in this APA Sample Professional Paper produced by the Purdue Online Writing Lab.

The title page is much more than just a placeholder for the title of the study—it not only identifies what was studied, it provides additional information that helps to locate and establish the study within the greater context of the discipline in which it is situated. First, a title page includes a long title that summarizes what the study was about. There is no required minimum or maximum word length; however, the title should contain enough information to give the reader a sense of the specific research objectives. For example, “Sleep Quality” as a title would help identify the area of interest but not what the study was about. In contrast, Semplonius and Willoughby’s (2018) full title, “Psychosocial Adjustment Throughout University: A Longitudinal Investigation of the Roles of Sleep Quality and Emotion Dysregulation,” informs readers that the relationship between sleep and emotions is being studied over time.

In addition to the full title, a title page for a student report usually includes the names of student authors, the university, the course, the instructor, and the due date. Meanwhile, a professional paper submitted to a journal for publication usually includes the names of authors listed in order according to who contributed most to the research project and a running head , which is a shortened version of the title that appears in the header of the manuscript. Further down the page, title pages for professional papers also often include an author note that includes a recognition statement for the source of any relevant funding and how to correspond with the principal researcher for more information about the study. The recognition statement cites the source of support for the study, such as an external research grant (e.g., the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council) or an internal source of funding (e.g., a research fund from within a department or school, or a university’s research office). The correspondence statement lists the name and email address of the main contact person or the principal researcher for the study so that interested readers and other researchers can reach the person for more information about the study.

Located at the beginning of a research project, an abstract is a brief overview of the research project. It summarizes what the research is about, how many participants there were and how they were obtained (or what the units of analysis were), what the procedures were for carrying out the study, what the design consisted of, and what the main findings were. This can be considered the most important section in the entire report, as it is generally the first and sometimes the only section that is read by other academics and researchers conducting searches for relevant articles of interest. Although it appears at the beginning of a report, it should be the last thing the researcher writes, to ensure that it is both succinct (i.e., usually 150–250 words) and comprehensive. This is one of the most difficult sections to write, as it needs to include a lot of information in what amounts to only a few sentences. A good strategy for writing an abstract that is under 250 words is to first write an abstract that includes all relevant information (this will likely be about 300–400 words on your first try), and then rework it a few times, paring it down word by word, until it is as concise as possible.

If submitting an article for publication, journals may also require a short list of relevant keywords beneath the abstract, which are concepts used to locate the article via database searches once it is in print. Keywords also give the reader additional insight into the study. For example, readers interested in the interrelations between sleep , depression , emotion dysregulation , and alcohol might benefit from reading Semplonius and Willoughby’s (2018) study.

An introduction section follows the abstract. Like the research proposal, an introduction in a research report should include a general opening and a broad discussion of the research interest and area, followed by a narrowing of the research topic. In addition, the research topic should be situated within the relevant literature, and the theoretical context and key concepts should all be well articulated. After summarizing the relevant literature, the introduction ends with a statement of the research problem, key question(s), issues explored, and/or hypotheses tested.

For example, in a research project on pain that I conducted for my master’s research, the broad opening statement in the journal article I published was “Pain is a fundamental fact of life” (Symbaluk et al., 1997, p. 258). From there, the introduction narrowed to discuss forms of acute and chronic pain in everyday life. It further narrowed as we brought in the social psychology of pain and established how monetary incentives and social modelling have been used in experimental research to increase pain endurance. It continued to narrow as we identified gaps in the literature and explained how this experiment was the first to look at the role of self-efficacy and pain perception as potential mediators for the anticipated effects of money and modelling on pain endurance. The introduction ended with specific hypotheses, including one predicting that pain endurance would increase as a function of money for participants who were exposed to pain-tolerant social models.

Note that the introduction section for a qualitative research project also summarizes the relevant literature and ties that literature to the research interests of the present study. However, in lieu of hypotheses, this section is likely to conclude with a statement of the research objective or the main question (or questions) explored in the study that follow logically from the literature review (Pyrczak & Bruce, 2017). For example, a qualitative study conducted by one of my students in an introduction to research methods course focused on the reproduction of common stereotypes in popular media. Finlay’s (2012) research question was “Does the popular television series Crime Scene Investigation promote or resist common stereotypical media representations of gender?”

The method (sometimes called methodology) section of the research report is next. The method section is generally the longest in a report, as it contains subsections on the participants or selection of a sample, setting and materials, procedures or coding scheme, dependent or main variables, and data analysis.

Participants and How They Were Obtained or Sample and Sample Selection

For research involving humans as participants, this section notes how many participants were included in the study, who the participants were, and how they were obtained. For example, Sabbane et al. (2009) experiment on the effects of anti-smoking warnings on attitudes and smoking intentions included 178 teenagers ( N = 178) as participants. Specifically, participants were males and females between the ages of 12 and 17 who were non-smokers ( n = 158) or occasional smokers ( n = 15) recruited, with parental consent, from Secondary I classes in a Montreal secondary school.

As a second example, Boyd et al. (2009) analyzed the content of media representations of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), more commonly known as “mad cow disease” for the first 10 days following an outbreak in Alberta on May 20, 2003. Their sampling frame consisted of The Globe and Mail and the National Post (as leading national papers), as well as The Lethbridge Herald (as a local Alberta newspaper) and the Edmonton Journal (as a regional newspaper). The sampling procedure involved online searches of these papers for articles on mad cow disease identified through keywords. From this potential sample, articles were included if they met additional criteria. For example, articles that only peripherally mentioned BSE (i.e., it was not the focus of the study) were excluded, resulting in 309 articles in the sample used (Boyd et al., 2009).

Finally, as a third example, Dr. Rosemary Ricciardelli interviewed 14 men as part of a study on the role of hair in self-identification. The interviewees were recruited through convenience sampling via four means of advertising the study, including business card advertisements for the study given out and left in coffee shops and shopping centres in the Greater Toronto Area, an email invitation sent out to students in a small suburban university, an advertisement in Fab magazine, and an ad in a free gay publication (Ricciardelli, 2011).

As addressed in the research proposals section above, the setting refers to the location where the data collection takes place. For example, in a study looking at the meaning of recovery from the perspective of Canadian consumers receiving mental health services, Piat et al. (2009) conducted interviews at major mental health service sources, including the Wellington Centre of the Douglas Mental Health University Institute, the Canadian Mental Health Association Waterloo/Wellington-Dufferin branches, and at the Programme d’encadrement clinique et d’hébergement. If the setting does not apply, as might be the case if the study was conducted over the internet, then this section would refer to materials only.

The materials refer to the main instruments and supplies used to carry out the procedures of the study. In an experiment, whatever is manipulated as the independent variable likely constitutes a material that requires preparation in advance of the study. For example, in a study on social-information processing as a function of psychopathic traits, Wilson et al. (2008) showed participants artificially created characters and then examined recall and recognition. The characters were profiles developed ahead of time that consisted of eight stimulus characters created with images of faces from the Pictures of Facial Affect (POFA) series put together with descriptions that contained a name, an occupation, and a set of likes and dislikes.

Note that indexes, scales, and other items used to compose a questionnaire given as part of survey research are generally described as main variables or measures after the procedures (not as materials needed to carry out the study).

The procedures section of a research report details how the study was carried out. This subsection within the methods is written in the past tense, and it includes a description of all phases of the study, beginning with any instructions given to participants and the consent process, followed by details on the type of techniques employed to gather data and to later examine it. For example, if interviews were conducted, the researcher needs to indicate how many times each participant was interviewed and the time frame over which data collection (interviewing) took place. Alternatively, if observations occurred, when, where, and under what conditions did these take place? As another example, if an experiment was employed, how did participants experience the independent variable? Instead, if the study was based on ethnography, how did the researcher access the setting? Who were the gatekeepers and how was the gatekeeping process navigated? How was rapport with group members established? What role did the researcher engage in for data collection purposes (e.g., participant observation)? What methods were used to collect data? How did the researcher disengage from the setting at the completion of the study?

Note that if the study was based on content analysis, instead of procedures, a research report could include a section on coding procedures or a coding scheme. Similarly, if the study was based on secondary analysis of existing data, this section would outline why and how that source was selected and obtained, and how the archival material was organized and synthesized for subsequent data analysis (Neuman & Robson, 2024).

Main Variables or Measures

A research report always includes a section that outlines the main variables examined in the study. If the study is an experiment, the dependent variables are listed along with their operationalized definitions. For example, in the pain experiment I conducted for my master’s research, pain perception was operationalized as the time elapsed prior to the first sensation of pain in seconds, and pain endurance referred to how long a participant held an isometric sitting position in minutes and seconds (Symbaluk et al., 1997).

As another example, in a study looking at alcohol content as a mediating factor for brand preference, Segal and Stockwell (2008) employed measures of intoxication and enjoyment completed by participants after they drank two low-alcohol- or two regular-alcohol-content beers. Their measures section included a description of an objective variable based on blood-alcohol content assessed using a standard instrument called the Alco-Sensor IV, and it included a description of three subjective measures. Each subjective measure was listed along with appropriate citations for the originating source and an account of the measure. For example, one measure was The Sensation Scale, which they note was originally developed by Maisto et al. (1980) and consists of 31 items about the effects of alcohol. The measures section also notes that participants scored the items using Likert responses ranging from 0 (not at all) to 9 (extremely), with the higher ratings referring to higher intoxication.

If the study is based on qualitative research, as would be the case for in-depth interviews or most focus group sessions, the research report might not have a section for the main variables or measures. This is because concepts, themes, and main ideas may emerge during data collection and analysis in response to open-ended questions. However, if interviews or focus-group sessions are more structured, a researcher may include the questions or describe items that compose an interview guide as part of a section titled interview guide (in lieu of main variables).

Data Analysis

The last part of the method section of a research report details how data analysis was carried out. For example, if content analyses employed the frequency of occurrence of certain categories of events, how were the categories developed? Specifically, did the researcher use categories already established in the literature, modify categories based on previous literature, or develop new ones? Were categories counted once or every time there was an instance of that category? And how was reliability assessed? Did the researchers employ inter-coder reliability and, if so, what was the reliability rate achieved?

As another example, the process for data analysis in an ethnographic study of young homeless men in Calgary was described as follows: “Interviews were transcribed verbatim and checked for accuracy against the digital recordings. A thematic framework was agreed upon by the authors (SP and LM), based on the reported significance of daily routines, coping strategies, and access to services. This was used along with an open coding strategy to recursively analyze these findings using NVivo 7, a qualitative analysis software (QRS International, 2007). Data analysis was concurrent with data collection and uncovered common themes among the interviewees” (Persaud et al., 2010, p. 345).

Writing Resources

Academic writing is challenging. You want to be clear and concise, avoiding jargon and unnecessary details, while at the same time having to explain complex practices and procedures that go into conducting social research. The good news is that most universities have writing centres with online resources and expert staff to help you learn how to write research reports and other forms of scholarly communication. As an example, the University of York Writing Centre has created a useful video on how to write a methods section:

[Video transcript – See Appendix D 12.1 ] Methods: structure is by University of York Writing Centre. Used with permission.

Alongside free online resources, s everal universities also provide students with tools like Grammarly, a writing assistant that uses artificial intelligence to give you immediate feedback on your writing.

The results section of a research report outlines the main findings of the study in the appropriate technical terms. If there are several dependent variables or measures, each variable might be listed as a subheading in this section. Note that the results section states only facts, as succinctly as possible. In the case of quantitative research, the results section for an experiment is likely to report on findings based on tests of differences between means using t -tests for two groups or analysis of variance for variation between and within more than two groups or categories. The results section for quantitative survey research is likely to describe main variables (e.g., using measures of central tendency and variability), as well as report on tests for associations between variables of interest, such as correlations, regression analysis, or nonparametric measures of correlation.

The results section may include figures and tables, as discussed below, if they are necessary to help the reader understand the information being shared. If they are instead supplementary information that may distract a reader from the content, they can instead go in an appendix at the end of the report. When submitting a report to a journal for publication, you may also ask to include figures and tables after the references at the end of a report; an editor then styles and includes them to the text when preparing the file for publication. In each of these instances, the text of your paper should include a “callout” referencing each figure or table, which should be labelled sequentially, to draw the reader’s attention to this information (e.g., for an example of a pie chart included in the text, see Figure 12.1; to review how a table may appear in an appendix, see Appendix A of this book).

Coding and the Development of Categories

In a qualitative research report, results typically document the findings from the coding methods employed in the study. The coding methods involve stages or phases, beginning with initial codes. As described in various earlier chapters, data obtained in a study are assigned labels or codes. Specifically, a code “is most often a word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data” (Saldaña, 2021, p. 5). Recall that qualitative data includes a range of information, from narrative and text based on interviews and field notes to drawings and images presented in magazine ads, shown through character portrayals on television, and so on. A posting on RateMyProfessor.com, for example, might contain the passage “She really knows her stuff,” coded as “instructor” and “knowledge” since the passage refers to the instructor and it contains a comment about an attribute of the instructor. To begin with, each unit of data is usually assigned its own specific code.

After the initial codes are determined, the next phase includes going back over the data to determine if there are patterns in the data that can be coded into categories based on their common elements. For example, perhaps lots of comments refer to the instructor. Some of the comments might pertain to instructor attributes, such as comments about the instructor’s knowledge of the subject matter and comments about the instructor’s willingness to help students. Other items might have to do with an instructor’s grading, such as “The instructor is a hard marker” or “The instructor grades fairly.” Finally, other comments might pertain to assignments in the course, such as “This course has a lot of papers!” One large category to emerge from this data might be “comments about the instructor.” Another category might be “comments about the course content.” Within the “comments about the instructor” category, other subcategories could also be identified. For example, there may be a subcategory for “instructor attributes.” Within the subcategory for “instructor attributes,” researchers could also list codes for “clarity,” “helpfulness,” “knowledge,” and so on.

Qualitative data analysis is a lengthy process that eventually culminates in the development of themes, as Saldaña (2021) points out, “a theme can be an outcome of coding, categorization, or analytic reflection, but it is not something that is, in itself, coded” (p. 19). Results from qualitative studies, then, highlight main themes or claims that are descriptive outcomes identifying the main overall findings that emerged from the data collection and analysis processes. To substantiate the results, qualitative researchers need to carefully articulate each of the coding stages and categories that developed within each stage. Each main theme is generally discussed within its own subsection in the results, similar to how each main dependent variable is discussed for a quantitative study.

Results from research studies are often depicted in figures . Figures are charts or graphs used to display results based on how a variable is measured. A pie chart, for example, is used to depict the results in a picture format for a single, qualitative variable that is measured at the nominal level. For example, a researcher doing a content analysis on gender portrayals in the media might use a pie chart to convey that there are more males than females depicted as central characters on television. Or a researcher conducting an online survey on attitudes toward healthcare might use a pie chart to describe the respondents who completed the survey. Perhaps the largest slice of the pie indicates that many participants were married, followed by single, common-law, divorced, and separated (see figure 12.1). If none of the respondents claimed they were in a category (e.g., widowed), that category would not be included in the pie chart.

If it is important to indicate the frequency distribution for the categories of a variable, a bar graph would be used instead of a pie chart, since it emphasizes the number of respondents in each category of a variable and it can even be used to show the concurrent pattern of findings for two variables measured at the nominal level. In figure 12.2 we can still determine that more than half of the participants in this fictitious study on the effectiveness of a drug treatment program were married (86 + 11 = 97 out of 181). However, we can also note that there may be a relationship between treatment completion and marital status, since a higher proportion of respondents who were in a relationship (married or common-law) completed treatment relative to participants who were single or divorced (see figure 12.2).

Bar graphs can also be used to display the distributions of responses across or within categories of a nominal variable, shown in percentages. For example, figure 12.3 shows the percentage of respondents in each marital status category who completed or failed to complete treatment. This figure more clearly illustrates the relationship between relationship status and treatment completion, as it is now obvious to the reader that the clear majority of those in relationships completed treatment, whereas those who are not in relationships appear to have just slightly higher than a 50-50 chance of success (see figure 12.3).

Tables are typically summaries of the main findings from quantitative research, such as the percentage of respondents who gave answers in each category of a variable on a questionnaire or the differences in means between groups on dependent measures. For example, Symbaluk and Howell’s (2010) study showed that students gave higher ratings to teaching-award winning instructors than to research-award winners on the popular website RateMyProfessors.com. In the results section, a table compared teaching-award and research-award recipients by listing the mean rating given by students for easiness, helpfulness, and clarity for the two groups of instructors (see table 12.1). Tables are also especially useful for indicating patterns in data over time (Nardi, 2006).

In the discussion section of a research report, researchers summarize and elaborate on the main findings, highlight the importance of the findings, and tie them back into the wider literature. In addition, the discussion section notes limitations of the current study and identifies directions for future research. Since the results section focuses only on the findings, the discussion section is where the researcher can indicate what the results mean and whether the results are consistent with prior expectations, previous research, and/or the hypotheses tested in the study. In addition, researchers can elaborate on what the findings mean, why they are important, and how they can best be interpreted within the context of existing literature. A research report is often described as having the overall shape of an hourglass. Just as the introduction section began broad and narrowed to the focus of the current study, wherein the methods and the results sections are exclusive to the present study, the discussion broadens again until it finally generalizes back to the wider topic of interest.

After discussing the results in relation to the original research questions and wider literature, limitations are raised and suggestions for improvements are provided. All studies have strengths and weaknesses. Usually, a researcher will point out a few of the methodological limitations of the current study. Perhaps the sample size was smaller than desired, or perhaps the sampling method used was not ideal but was necessary under the present circumstances. Even if the most appropriate sampling method was used, as might be the case for a sample of convenience employed in an interview-based study on centenarians (people who live to be more than 100 years of age), inherent limitations such as the resulting inability to generalize the findings should be mentioned in the discussion. If secondary sources are used, there may be restrictions in terms of what can be explored given the different originating purpose of data collection. Usually, a researcher will indicate ways to improve on the present study or offer suggestions for future studies given the limitations discussed. A discussion typically ends with a statement of direction for academics interested in conducting further research in this area. Note that some authors choose to include a conclusion section as a separate section to end the report. A conclusion section summarizes the contributions of the present study and provides suggestions for future research and/or includes directives for policy initiatives.

The last section of a research report is a list of the sources cited throughout the report. The list is generally double-spaced in accordance with the rest of the report and is written in a standard style, such as the one provided by the most current version of the American Psychological Association’s (2020) style guide discussed earlier on.

Research on the Net

APA is the most commonly used citation style in the social sciences. Most, if not all, academic libraries provide students with online resources and staff support to help with citation questions. Additionally, the American Psychological Association’s APA Style website provides examples of how to reference sources , including less commonly used sources like social media posts and audiovisual materials such as podcasts and YouTube videos. The website also provides guidance on how to set up tables and figures , and how to format your paper .

• What seven sections compose a standard academic research report?
• Why is an abstract so important?
• What is provided at the end of an introduction?
• What five subsections are described in the method section of a research report?
• Which section(s) include figures or tables?
• Where would a researcher indicate whether the findings obtained were the ones anticipated prior to the onset of the study?

OTHER ITEMS

Other optional items that may be included in a research report are an appendix and a list of acknowledgements.

The appendix is a section or placeholder where a researcher can include additional information that may be relevant to other researchers, such as a scale or index used to construct questionnaire items, an interview guide used to assist a moderator in a focus group, a set of instructions provided to participants in an experiment, or a coding scheme adapted from the literature for use in a content analysis. Since the appendix is an extra section, it is generally not included in the page count for a research report.

List of Acknowledgements

A list of acknowledgements is sometimes included to pay tribute to individuals and organizations that helped to support the research. For example, research assistants, graduate students, or paid assistants who are not primary researchers or contributing authors are generally acknowledged at the end of the report. The researcher can also list agencies, groups, or organizations that provided funding in the form of grants, scholarships, and/or awards, along with any individual or organization that provided necessary materials, such as meeting space, for carrying out the study.

• Why is a list of acknowledgements important to include in a research report?

Activity: Research Reports Review

Chapter summary.

• Outline the main components of a research proposal. A research proposal includes five main sections: an introduction, a method section, a section on data analysis and dissemination, a section on ethical considerations, and a listing of prospective references.
• Explain the purpose of a method section in a research proposal. The method section outlines who the participants will be and how they will be selected or how the sample will be obtained. In addition, a method section includes information on the setting and materials needed to conduct the study, the procedures for carrying out the study, and the main variables that are examined in the study.
• Identify key ethical considerations that need to be addressed in a research proposal. If a researcher plans to conduct research using humans as participants, the proposal should indicate why the study can be deemed minimal risk and how the minimal risk will be mitigated. The proposal should also include a statement that outlines the benefits of the study for participants, for the researchers, and for the wider academic community. Finally, the proposal should also include a discussion about how privacy and confidentiality will be upheld in the planned study.
• Outline the structure and format of a scholarly research report. A research report includes a title page, an abstract, an introduction, a method section, a results section, a discussion section, and references. The method section includes subsections on participants and how they were selected or the sample and how it was obtained, the setting and materials, the main variables or measures, and how data analysis was conducted.

RESEARCH REFLECTION

• Suppose you are interested in studying the prevalence of texting while driving. What method do you think would be most suitable for examining this phenomenon? If you were going use that method to study texting while driving, what ethical considerations would you need to address in a research proposal?
• Suppose you are interested in learning about effective strategies used by university students to prepare for final exams. Indicate what you would include in a research proposal in the section on participants. Specifically, who would your sample comprise and how you would go about obtaining participants?
• Suppose you want to explore the ways in which people treat their pets in comparison to how they treat members of their immediate family in an exploratory study for your master’s thesis. What kind of method would you employ to study this topic? Based on your choice of method, what sorts of information would you need to include in the results section of a research report based on the findings?

LEARNING THROUGH PRACTICE

Objective: To develop a research outline

Directions:

• First, decide on one area of the mass media where you wish to examine gender, such as music, television, or social media.
• Next, identify relevant secondary sources for data on gender within the selected area of the mass media. For example, if you want to study gender in music, a relevant source would be music lyrics in songs within a genre, such as rap.
• Develop one or two general research questions that you could (potentially) examine using the secondary source identified in the previous step.
• Explain whether your study will be based on qualitative or quantitative research. Justify your approach.
• Describe the main method you plan to use to examine your question of interest. For example, will you be conducting a content analysis?
• Describe a main research question or hypothesis examined in the article.
• Describe the method or methods used to answer the question of interest.
• Explain whether this article has provided you with any ideas or guidance for how to develop your own study in the area.
• Do you think this source of data is a good one to include in your eventual sample? Why or why not?
• Describe the sampling procedure you would use to conduct your planned study.
• Examining the secondary source of data with your research questions in mind, what kind of data analysis do you think you would need to do? Explain the procedures for how you would carry out this analysis on a larger scale in your eventual study.

RESEARCH RESOURCES

• For step-by-step instructions on how to write research proposals and reports, refer to chapters 6 and 7 in Symbaluk, D., Hall, R., & Champoux, G. (2019). Navigating an undergraduate degree in the social sciences: Tips and strategies . MacEwan Open Books.
• For more information on ways to code qualitative data (e.g., descriptive coding, process coding, emotion coding, axial coding, theoretical coding), refer to Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (4th ed.). Sage.
• To learn how to code qualitative data using NVivo software, refer to Jackson, K., & Bazeley, P. (2019). Qualitative data analysis with NVivo (3rd ed.) . Sage.
• To learn about data analysis based on qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods, refer to Bergin, T. (2018). An introduction to data analysis: Quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods . Sage.
• Opening quote by Professor Chris Whitty, chief scientific advisor for the Department of Health, published on January 1, 2019, from the National Institute for Health Research home page at nihr.ac.uk. ↵

A comprehensive plan created in advance of carrying out research that details what the purpose of the project is and what the process will be for obtaining data.

A detailed account, following research, that describes the research interest, questions or hypotheses addressed, methods used, and findings from the study.

A brief overview of a research project, which describes the participants or units of observation, the design, the procedures, and the main findings in no more than 250 words.

Charts or graphs used to display results based on how a variable is measure.

Summaries of main findings from quantitative research, such as the percentage of respondents who gave answers in each category of a variable on a questionnaire or the differences in means between groups on dependent measures.

Research Methods: Exploring the Social World in Canadian Context Copyright © 2024 by Diane Symbaluk & Robyn Hall is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

difference between research proposal and research report

Research proposal vs. research report.

What's the difference.

A research proposal and a research report are both essential components of the research process, but they serve different purposes. A research proposal is a document that outlines the objectives, methodology, and significance of a research project. It is typically submitted to gain approval and funding for the research. On the other hand, a research report is a detailed account of the research findings, analysis, and conclusions. It presents the results of the research in a structured and organized manner, often including tables, graphs, and references. While a research proposal focuses on the planning and design of the study, a research report focuses on the actual execution and outcomes of the research.

Further Detail

Introduction.

Research is an essential component of academic and professional endeavors, providing a systematic approach to gather and analyze information. Two crucial elements of the research process are the research proposal and the research report. While both serve distinct purposes, they share common attributes that contribute to the overall success of a research project. This article aims to explore and compare the attributes of research proposals and research reports, highlighting their significance in the research process.

Research Proposal

A research proposal is a document that outlines the objectives, methodology, and potential outcomes of a research project. It serves as a blueprint for the research, providing a comprehensive plan that guides the researcher throughout the process. The key attributes of a research proposal include:

• Introduction: The research proposal begins with an introduction that provides background information on the topic, highlights the research problem, and establishes the significance of the study.
• Research Questions or Objectives: The proposal clearly states the research questions or objectives that the study aims to address. These questions or objectives guide the entire research process and help in formulating a focused approach.
• Literature Review: A research proposal includes a literature review that critically analyzes existing research and identifies gaps in knowledge. This review helps to establish the rationale for the proposed study and demonstrates the researcher's familiarity with the subject area.
• Methodology: The methodology section outlines the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques that will be employed. It provides a detailed plan for how the research will be conducted, ensuring transparency and replicability.
• Timeline and Budget: A research proposal often includes a timeline that outlines the expected duration of the study and a budget that estimates the required resources. These elements help to assess the feasibility and practicality of the proposed research.

Research Report

A research report is a comprehensive document that presents the findings, analysis, and conclusions of a research study. It serves as a means of communicating the research outcomes to the intended audience, whether it be academic peers, industry professionals, or policymakers. The key attributes of a research report include:

• Abstract: The research report begins with an abstract that provides a concise summary of the study, including the research questions, methodology, key findings, and conclusions. It allows readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.
• Introduction: Similar to the research proposal, the research report includes an introduction that provides background information and establishes the context for the study. It also outlines the research problem and objectives.
• Methodology: The methodology section in the research report describes in detail the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques employed. It allows readers to assess the validity and reliability of the study.
• Results and Analysis: The research report presents the findings of the study, often accompanied by statistical analysis, graphs, and tables. It provides a detailed account of the data collected and the outcomes of the analysis.
• Discussion and Conclusion: The discussion section interprets the results in light of the research objectives and compares them with existing literature. It highlights the significance of the findings and their implications. The conclusion summarizes the key findings and offers recommendations for future research or practical applications.
• References: A research report includes a comprehensive list of references cited throughout the document. This allows readers to access the sources and verify the accuracy of the information presented.

Comparing Attributes

While research proposals and research reports have distinct purposes, they share several common attributes that contribute to the overall success of a research project. These attributes include:

• Clarity and Structure: Both research proposals and research reports require clear and logical organization. They should be well-structured, with headings and subheadings that guide the reader through the document.
• Research Objectives: Both documents clearly state the research objectives or questions that guide the study. This ensures that the research remains focused and addresses the intended goals.
• Methodology: Both research proposals and research reports describe the research methodology, including the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques. This transparency allows others to assess the validity and reliability of the research.
• Relevance and Significance: Both documents establish the relevance and significance of the research. They provide a rationale for why the study is important and how it contributes to existing knowledge or addresses a research gap.
• Evidence-Based Approach: Both research proposals and research reports rely on evidence-based approaches. They draw upon existing literature, theories, and empirical data to support their arguments and findings.

In conclusion, research proposals and research reports are integral components of the research process, each serving distinct purposes. While the research proposal outlines the plan and objectives of the study, the research report presents the findings and conclusions. However, both documents share common attributes such as clarity, structure, research objectives, methodology, relevance, and evidence-based approaches. Understanding and effectively utilizing these attributes contribute to the success of a research project, ensuring that it is well-planned, executed, and communicated to the intended audience.

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Research Proposal vs. Research Report: What's the Difference?

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Home » Education » Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

Difference Between Research Proposal and Research Report

Main difference –  research proposal vs research report.

Research proposal and research report are two terms that often confuse many student researchers. A research proposal describes what the researcher intends to do in his research study and is written before the collection and analysis of data. A research report describes the whole research study and is submitted after the competition of the whole research project. Thus, the main difference between research proposal and research report is that a research proposal describes the proposed research and research design whereas a research report describes the completed research, including the findings, conclusion, and recommendations.

This article explains, 

1. What is a Research Proposal?      – Definition, Purpose, Content, and Characteristics

2. What is a Research Report?      – Definition, Purpose, Content, and Characteristics

What is a Research Proposal

A research proposal is a brief and coherent summary of the proposed research study, which is prepared at the beginning of a research project. The aim of a research proposal is to justify the need for a specific research proposal and present the practical methods and ways to conduct the proposed research. In other words, a research proposal presents the proposed design of the study and justifies the necessity of the specific research. Thus, a research proposal describes what you intend to do and why you intend to do it.

A research proposal generally contains the following segments:

• Introduction / Context/ Background

Literature Review

• Research Methods and Methodology
• Research question
• Aims and Objectives
• List of Reference

Each of these segments is indispensable to a research proposal. For example, it’s impossible to write a research proposal without reading related work and writing a literature review. Similarly, it’s not possible to decide a methodology without determining specific research questions.

What is a Research Report

A research report is a document that is submitted at the end of a research project. This describes the completed research project. It describes the data collection, analysis, and the results as well. Thus, in addition to the sections mentioned above, this also includes sections such as,

• Conclusions
• Shortcomings
• Recommendations

A research report is also known as a thesis or dissertation. A research report is not research plan or a proposed design. It describes what was actually done during the research project and what was learned from it. Research reports are usually longer than research proposals since they contain step-by-step processes of the research.

Research Proposal: Research Proposal describes what the researcher intends to do and why he intends to do it.

Research Report: Research report describes what the researcher has done, why he has done it, and the results he has achieved.

Research Proposal: Research proposals are written at the beginning of a research proposal before the research project actually begins.

Research Report: Research reports are completed after the completion of the whole research project.

Research Proposal: Research proposals contain sections such as introduction/background, literature review, research questions, methodology, aims and objective.

Research Report: Research reports contain sections such as introduction/background, literature review, research questions, methodology, aims and objective, findings, analysis, results, conclusion, recommendations, citation.

Research Proposal: Research proposals are shorter in length.

Research Report: Research reports are longer than research proposals.

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The Research Proposal is the way a researcher presents the research problem and communicates the need for research. It is a crucial part of the application process. It provides a brief overview of the research questions the researcher is trying to answer. It also outlines the research methodology that the researcher will use.

A research report, on the other hand, is the result of a research project. This report is an excellent way to present the results of your research to others. It is the result of the study that was conducted during the research process.If you have any problems with writing and want someone “ do my research paper for me ”, turn to professionals.

This article will explain the differences between a research proposal and a research report.

• 1 Definition of a Research Proposal
• 2 Definition of Research Report
• 3 Conclusion

Definition of a Research Proposal

A Research Proposal is a document that the researcher creates to describe the research program in detail. This is usually a request for funding for the subject being studied. A research proposal, in other words, is a summary or description of the research process that provides quick information about the research project.

After the research proposal has been approved, it is sent to the appropriate authority.

Once the research proposal has been submitted, it will be evaluated to determine if the cost, potential impact, and soundness of the plan for the project are all considered.

The purpose of the proposal is to justify the necessity and importance of the study and to show the practical methods for conducting it. To demonstrate the necessity of the research, the proposal should contain persuasive evidence.

It must also discuss the major issues and questions that the researcher will address during the research. It must also highlight the main area of the research study.

There are many formats that can be used to create a research proposal.

The length of each format will vary. It includes an introduction, problem hypothesis, and assumptions.

Definition of Research Report

Research Report is the document that organizes and presents the data collected and analyzed. It’s a publication that includes the purpose, scope, and hypothesis of the research project, as well as the methodology, findings, limitations, recommendations, and conclusion.

A research report is simply the record of the research process. This is the most important analyzed search because it is the record of the research process.

A research report is a collection of facts that have been carefully considered and are intended to be succinct, understandable information for people.

After the research is complete, all work is written down, and this is known as a research report.

This document describes the research activities in detail. It includes Introduction, Literature Review and Methodology.

Research reports are used to document the research process and its results for future reference.

There are key differences between a Research Proposal or a Research Report.

Below is a discussion on the difference between a research proposal and a research report.

A research proposal is a framework that guides the research. A research proposal can be described as a plan for collecting, measuring, and analysing data. A research report is a written description of the research findings.

It follows a particular format.

Preparing a research proposal is the first step in research work. However, the final step is writing a research report.

The research proposal is created at the start of the project. The research report, however, is completed after the project has been completed.

Research proposals are written in future tense. However, the research report’s tense is in past tense. It is also written in third person.

A research proposal should be between 4-10 pages. The research report, on the other hand, is approximately 100 to 300 pages.

The topic or problem to be researched is the focus of the research proposal. The research report, on the other hand, focuses only on the findings of the completed research.

The research proposal outlines the scope of research, its relevance and the methods to be the used. The research report,the  on the other hand, determines the scope of the research, data sources, data collection methods (i.e. Survey, interview, questionnaire), results and conclusions, as well as recommendations for future research.

Three chapters make up the Research Proposal: Introduction, Literature Review and Methodology. Introduction, Literature Review and Research Methodology are the three chapters of Research Proposal. The Research Report, on the other hand, covers the following chapters: Introduction, Literature Review and Research Methodology. Results, Interpretation, Analysis, Conclusion, and Recommendation.

A research proposal is basically the planning stage for the research work. It must be prepared in writing format to prove its value. The research report, on the other hand is the end of the research process. Open this review to take a look at trustworthy writing services.

Chapter 12: Writing Research Proposals and Reports

Research is of no use unless it gets to the people who need to use it.

— Chris Whitty [1]

Learning Objectives

After reading this chapter, students should be able to do the following:

• Outline the main components of a research proposal.
• Explain the purpose of a method section in a research proposal.
• Identify key ethical considerations that need to be addressed in a research proposal.
• Outline the structure and format of a scholarly research report.

INTRODUCTION

Just as research is conducted for a variety of purposes, such as to explore or to explain a phenomenon of interest, as discussed at the start of this book, research is also carried out with its eventual target audience in mind, as implied by the opening quote. Basic research is generally undertaken for an academic audience, and research findings are disseminated (communicated) in reports that form the basis of conference talks or published works such as books, chapters, or journal articles read by scholars in affiliated disciplines. Disciplines recommend their own writing style for academic papers and reports. Three common documentation styles used in the social sciences throughout North America are American Psychological Association (APA) style,  American Sociological Association (ASA) style, and Modern Language Association (MLA) style. All three provide direction for quoting and paraphrasing the work of others, for setting up the format of documents (e.g., spacing, headers, and the presentation of material in tables and figures), and for referencing sources. APA format is based on the most current edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association . MLA style is based on the most current edition of the MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers , and ASA is based on the American Sociological Association Style Guide . Consult with your instructor, your course syllabus, your library’s writing resources, or the instructions for contributors at a journal to determine the exact style you should use for preparing course work, research proposals, or research reports.

Research Proposals versus Reports

Most everyone who takes a research methods course or who plans to carry out basic research for an honours project, an independent study, or graduate studies (e.g., master’s research or a research-based dissertation for a doctorate degree) is expected to develop a research proposal. Similarly, researchers and other academics who wish to carry out studies at universities, in community settings, and in the private or business sector typically submit a research proposal to an ethics board and/or to a funding agency prior to beginning the research project. A research proposal is a comprehensive plan, created in advance of carrying out research, that details what a research project is about and what the process entails for obtaining the data needed to address the research questions and objectives. Included in the proposal is a description of the relevant literature, the main research questions or hypotheses the study hopes to address, the methods for obtaining data, and anticipated ethical considerations. A research report , in contrast, is written after research is conducted. The report is a detailed account that describes the area of interest, provides the specific research questions or hypotheses addressed in the study, spells out the methods used to obtain the data, and communicates the main results from the study. In addition, a research report discusses the findings in relation to the wider literature on the subject matter, indicates any limitations of the study, and offers suggestions for future research on that topic. The next section provides you with some guidance for what to include in a research proposal.

The Research Proposal

A research proposal is meant to address two primary questions: (1) What purpose does the research serve? and (2) How will the research be carried out to meet the intended objective? The research purpose is articulated in the introduction section and the planned process for carrying out the research is detailed in the method section. A research proposal is usually divided into five main sections consisting of an introduction, a method section, a section on data analysis and dissemination, a section on ethical considerations, and a listing of prospective references. These sections are described in detail below.

Introduction

To explain the research purpose in a manner that is accessible to a wide audience of readers, a researcher should frame the general research interest within a theoretical context, briefly describe what other researchers have done and found on the topic, state the current research interest, and explain how the present study will contribute to the literature by posing specific research questions and/or by testing hypotheses. Begin with a broad opening statement that identifies the area of interest. For example, a student of mine who planned to compare the portrayal of masculinity in the lyrics of country versus hip-hop songs began by pointing out the increasing popularity of both genres of music and went on to point out the earnings and prevalence of the two genres in order to introduce the general topic (Holub, 2012). After introducing the general topic, a researcher can begin to narrow the topic by linking the topic to previous research on the proposed area of interest. This is where central concepts are discussed and the theoretical context is established. Continuing with the previous example, my student went on to point out prevalent masculinity themes identified in previous research on lyrics of music from the two genres. The same student ended the introduction by noting that the proposed study would compare depictions of masculinity across genres to see if there were common underlying features. A qualitative study with an exploratory focus is going to include a general question, such as “Are there similarities in the way masculinity is depicted in country and hip-hop music lyrics?” In contrast, a quantitative study with a more descriptive focus would likely include a directional hypothesis, such as “H1: The proposed study predicts that masculinity will be more evident in hip-hop than in country music lyrics.” Ask yourself the following questions as you prepare the introductory section:

• What is my broad area of interest?
• Did I identify a narrow focus within this area of interest?
• Did I summarize the relevant literature in this area?
• Did I include clear conceptual definitions for the main concepts?
• Is a theoretical context established for my study?
• What will my research contribute to this area?
• What is my research question or hypothesis?

The method section outlines who the participants will be and how they will be selected. In addition, the method section includes details about the setting and materials needed to conduct the study, the procedures for carrying out the study, and the main variables examined in the study, as discussed in more detail below.

Participants and How They Will be Obtained or Sample Selection

First, if the study will include research participants, such as interview participants, survey respondents, or experimental subjects, a researcher needs to detail who the potential research participants will be and how they will be identified and recruited. In addition, the researcher should note any relevant criteria that may be used to include or exclude participants. For example, an honours student working under one of the author’s supervision examined the prevalence of aggressive and dangerous forms of driving in a sample of 300 university students (Haje & Symbaluk, 2014). In an ethics application, Bruno Haje proposed that participants would be recruited from the university’s research subject pool in accordance with the department’s procedures for online survey research participation. Bruno also pointed out that since this study was specifically about driving behaviours, participants would need to be volunteers who drive a motor vehicle at least on occasion.

Note that not all forms of research involve research participants. A researcher planning to use unobtrusive methods, such as physical trace analysis, or wanting to carry out a content analysis would instead describe proposed units of analysis. Recall Gackenbach et al.’s (2011) study on the video game player’s online dream diary. Although there was a person to whom the dreams belonged, it was the content of 447 of his 831 dream postings that constituted the units of analysis. In a qualitative study, this section is usually titled sample selection. Here, a researcher articulates how the sample (e.g., of dream postings) will be obtained, including any inclusion or exclusion criteria that will determine eligibility (Padgett, 2012). For example, of the 831 posted dreams, a dream was included in the analysis if it was more than 50 but fewer than 500 words, had a clear date as to when it occurred, included an activity blog entry from the night before the dream, and fit one of the defined dream categories, resulting in a sample of 447 dreams (Gackenbach et al., 2011).

Setting and Materials

In addition to describing the participants and how they will be recruited or the units of analysis, the method section also indicates the proposed setting or location for data collection and any materials needed to carry out the study. Research is often carried out at a university where the primary researcher holds a faculty position. However, if the study is an in-depth qualitative interview, the setting may be the respondent’s place of residence or a public location that the respondent feels comfortable in and one that provides some degree of needed privacy, such as a booth in a local coffee shop. Similarly, if the study involves ethnographic fieldwork, the research setting is likely to be wherever that group or process is located and can best be examined from within a natural context.

Materials for a study include items that need to be purchased ahead of time to carry out the study. For example, to carry out my master’s research on pain perception and endurance, I needed to purchase a heart rate monitor to assess participants, for health and safety reasons, throughout the exercise. I also needed equipment that could be used to assist in the measurement of pain endurance. Specifically, participants performed an isometric sitting exercise above a box with a pressure plate. A participant who was too tired to continue sat down on the box, thereby activating the pressure plate to stop a timer that recorded endurance.

As another example, an online ethnography might require a computer, internet access, and possibly some kind of registration or software needed to gain access to a group of interest, such as through a membership or user account. Finally, a researcher conducting an interview-based study might wish to use incentives to compensate interviewees for their time and would therefore need to purchase gift cards or prepare some comparable remuneration in advance of the study.

Main Variables

Next, researchers describe the main variables or measures of interest. If the approach is quantitative, as in the case of an experimental method, this section describes the dependent variables. (The independent variables are discussed as part of the procedures for how the manipulation will be carried out.) For example, in the pain study, the main dependent variable was pain endurance, defined as the length of a time a participant was able to maintain an isometric sitting exercise in minutes and seconds. Each dependent variable should be listed, along with the operational definition for how it will be measured. For a quantitative survey, each main variable is likely to be measured using a question or multiple questions on a self-report questionnaire. For example, in a study on aggressive driving, aggressive behaviour might be measured using Deffenbacher et al.’s (2002) shortened version of the Driver Anger Expression Inventory, consisting of 21 items. The inventory assesses verbally aggressive behaviour (e.g., yelling at other drivers), physically aggressive behaviour (e.g., giving someone the finger), and/or constructive expressions of anger (e.g., thinking about other things). Survey items are usually summarized in this section and the full inventory is included in an appendix. If the measures are already established, you can report on the reliability and validity of the measure as described in the literature.

Alternatively, if a study is based on a qualitative content analysis, an in-depth interview, or an unstructured observation, this section elaborates on how the researcher plans to identify main themes and patterns from the data once it is collected and transcribed, as opposed to operationalizing variables ahead of time. This section is sometimes called coding procedures and it can take the place of the main variables and procedures sections. For example, a researcher who wishes to examine a television series for depictions of violence enacted by the main characters might indicate a plan to use an open coding scheme to detail every separate and distinct act of violence committed by a main character as a first-cycle coding method. This can be followed by second phase of coding directed at identifying main themes and categorizing the patterns to the violence identified in the first round of coding. Similarly, an ethnographer might plan to use descriptive coding for field notes and documents collected on a group of interest that will be later subjected to a more structured coding process. A qualitative researcher might also adopt existing coding schemes from the established literature to conduct a content analysis. When possible, the researcher should articulate the coding schemes and tie them back to the theoretical context in which they developed. Since the content of any method section is going to vary considerably depending on the approach and methodology (e.g., quantitative survey versus qualitative interview), you should examine published journal articles based on the same methodology you plan to use for a more definitive sense of what you need to include here.

Finally, the procedures section outlines the detailed plan for carrying out the study as the last main component of the method section. This section needs to include enough detail that a reader could replicate the study exactly, based on how it is described in writing. For example, if a researcher intends to conduct online survey research, the procedures will detail how the participants are to access the online survey through a link they receive in an email invitation sent to their university email account. Once a participant clicks on the study link, what happens next? The procedures walk the reader through the study. For an online survey, the first page that is likely to appear on the screen following the link to the study is the informed consent statement. The procedures will then go into detail about how the online consent form describes the study, provides details about what is expected of participants, notes the benefits and risk of participation, indicates that participation is voluntary, and explains how privacy will be maintained and what the plans are for dissemination of findings. The procedures also indicate how consent is obtained. In the case of an online survey, potential participants are likely to be asked to click on a box that reads something like “I agree to participate in this study” or “I do not agree to participate in this study.” Procedures can also note that upon agreeing to participate in the study, the participants then receive the first screen page of the survey. What happens to those who choose not to participate? The procedures should also note that participants who do not consent to participate instead receive a debriefing statement that provides additional details about the study and contact information for the principal researcher.

In addition to describing the process leading up to survey access, the procedures also describe the survey instrument by noting how many questions are on the questionnaire, indicating whether questions are grouped into sections, noting the topic of each section, and listing the order in which the information will be received by the participant. For example, perhaps the questionnaire begins with 10 items that assess background information, followed by a 5-item personality scale or a 12-item behaviour inventory. The procedures also note what happens once participants complete the survey. In most cases, after completing an online survey, participants will receive the debriefing statement mentioned above. Finally, a copy of the questionnaire in its entirety, along with the consent form and debriefing statement, should be attached at the end of the proposal as an appendix.

Again, we would advise you to look at how the procedures are described in a couple of published journal articles, based on studies like the one you are planning, for additional ideas on what you need to include as necessary steps. Ask yourself the following questions as you prepare the method section:

• Did I indicate who the target participants will be and how I plan to obtain them?
• If I don’t have participants, did I explain what my units of analysis will be and how I plan to sample for them?
• Did I explain any relevant inclusion or exclusion criteria for selection?
• Have I noted where the proposed study will take place?
• Have I identified all materials that need to be obtained in advance of the study?
• For a quantitative study, have I listed and operationalized all main variables I plan to examine in my study?
• For a qualitative study, have I explained how I plan to code or categorize the information I will be collecting?
• Have I explained all steps I will undertake to carry out the study?

Data Analysis and Dissemination

In addition to describing the main variables and/or coding procedures, a research proposal also includes a brief section outlining the plan for data analysis and dissemination of findings. A quantitative study is likely to include statistical analysis using a software package especially designed for the social sciences, such as IBM SPSS or Stata statistical software. Data analysis in a qualitative study may be carried out by developing codes through transcription and textual analysis, or it can be assisted through specialized software programs such as NVivo, which helps to manage data by treating units of analysis as cases and organizing ideas, concepts, and themes into codes so that patterns and trends can be made apparent (Jackson & Bazeley, 2019). Here researchers can also indicate any strategies they plan to use to establish reliability, including inter-rater reliability and methods for obtaining rigour. Finally, a proposal outlines the plan for what will be done with the data once it is collected. Perhaps the researcher intends to report on the findings at an upcoming conference by presenting a conference poster (see Appendix B: Sample Student Poster for an example) or submit the main findings to a journal for peer review and possible publication.

Ethical Considerations

If a researcher plans to undertake a study that will include university students (or any humans) as research participants, as in the case of an experimental design, a survey project, an in-depth qualitative interview, or a focus group, the researcher would need to first obtain ethical approval through a university’s research ethics board. Even in the case of non-reactive research, if a researcher wishes to carry out a project that will in some way involve a university’s assets (directly or indirectly), as in the case of non-participatory observation in public spaces on campus, ethical approval will need to be sought from that university’s research ethics board. A research proposal always includes relevant ethical concerns along with the ways in which the planned study will address the concerns.

Minimal Risk for Harm

Recognizing that all research involving humans has at least a minimum potential for harm, a researcher should identify whether the proposed study can be judged as a minimal risk. While it is up to the research ethics board to determine whether the study is deemed minimal risk, a researcher can and should provide rationale for why the proposed project should be assessed as such. For example, a researcher who plans to conduct a survey on driving may indicate that there are no anticipated risks associated with participating in the proposed study. However, since the participants are disclosing information about their own driving habits, there is a minimal risk that participants may experience psychological discomfort when answering questions about the extent to which they engage in dangerous or aggressive driving practices. Specifically, participants could feel remorse or embarrassment while responding to certain questions. In addition, participants could later reflect on responses given and regret having disclosed information about their driving.

Mitigating Minimal Risk of Harm

To help mitigate this potential likelihood of harm, a researcher can include explicit information in the initial consent form to give the potential participants an idea of the type of questions they can anticipate being asked during the survey. For example, participants might be informed that they will be asked to report on safe and unsafe driving practices. In addition, the researcher can even include examples of specific items on the survey (e.g., Question #25 asks “How often do you send or receive text messages while stopped at a red light?”).

Researchers can also include a statement within the questionnaire itself that reiterates that participation is voluntary, that participants may skip over questions they do not want to answer, and that they can choose to end their participation at any time without penalty. Finally, a researcher can include additional self-help resources with the debriefing statement, such as resources for driver education and training.

Addressing Beneficence

Recall from chapter 3 the importance of designing a study in a manner that minimizes harm while maximizing the overall benefit of the research. Where possible, a research proposal should include a statement about the benefits of the proposed study for the researcher. For example, might the research help to fulfill the requirements for an honours project or a master’s thesis? In addition, it is important to list potential benefits for the participants, such as the opportunity to learn more about themselves or research processes. Finally, the proposal should also indicate benefits to the wider research community and/or society more generally. For example, may the proposed study contribute toward our understanding of some group, phenomenon, or process?

Upholding Privacy and Confidentiality

A researcher also needs to detail the planned procedures for upholding privacy through the anonymity of participants, how safe and secure storage of data will be achieved, and how confidentiality will be upheld in the disclosure of findings. For example, a researcher will need to note whether any personally identifying information is going to be collected and, if so, how the researcher plans to safeguard the identity of individual participants. Note that participants need to be made aware of this prior to providing consent.

Part of the process of ensuring privacy includes a consideration and disclosure of who is going to participate in data collection (e.g., Will research assistants help to collect information?); who is expected to access to the data once it is collected (e.g., Will anyone other than the principal researcher assist in the transcription or coding?); and where data is going to be stored (e.g., Will the data be transferred onto a computer file that will be kept on a password-protected computer in a locked office of the principal researcher? Will field notes be kept in a locked cabinet in the secure office of the principal researcher?). A research ethics board will ask for information on these items as well as additional information, including how long any sensitive data will need to be stored (the recommended length being about two years) and how the data will eventually be disposed of (e.g., Will the notes be shredded?).

Prospective References

Finally, a research proposal ends with a list of relevant references. References included in a research proposal help to establish a scholarly context for the planned study. The references help identify, for example, the appropriate and relevant theories, theorists, and concepts that inform the proposed research. In addition, references can help to validate the proposed methodology. For example, perhaps the researcher plans to use a grounded theory approach such as one described by Kathy Charmaz in 2014.

References are listed on a separate page in a standard citation format such as the one provided by the seventh edition of the American Psychological Association’s (2020) publication manual (APA format). In APA format, an author of a book is listed by last name, followed by first initials, year of publication, title, edition (if applicable, and then the publisher according to specific rules for style and punctuation. As illustrated here, in APA format, only the first word of the title of a book is capitalized, and the title appears in italics. MLA and ASA format are similar, as shown below.

APA format :

Charmaz, K. (2014). Constructing grounded theory (2nd ed.). Sage.

ASA format:

Charmaz, Kathy. (2014). Constructing Grounded Theory. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

MLA format:

Charmaz, Kathy. Constructing Grounded Theory . 2nd ed., Sage, 2014.

Activity: Research Proposals Review

Test Yourself

• What are the two primary questions addressed by a research proposal?
• Does the introduction section in a research proposal begin with a broad or narrow statement?
• In which section of a research proposal would you expect to find information on the setting and materials for a study?
• Which subsection of a research proposal walks the reader through the study?
• What suggestions might researchers propose to mitigate the risk of harm to participants?

THE RESEARCH REPORT

A research report is a formalized summary of a completed research project. A research report is written in a standard format that you can use to describe the research you have carried out for an undergraduate research class, an honours project, an independent study, a community-based project or some kind of field placement. This format includes a title page, an abstract, an introduction, a method section, a results section, a discussion section, references, and if applicable, tables, figures, and an appendix, as described in detail in this section and demonstrated in Appendix A: Sample Student Report . Research reports submitted to an academic journal may require additional elements depending on the journal submission guidelines, the most common of which are referred to below and discussed in more detail in this APA Sample Professional Paper produced by the Purdue Online Writing Lab.

The title page is much more than just a placeholder for the title of the study—it not only identifies what was studied, it provides additional information that helps to locate and establish the study within the greater context of the discipline in which it is situated. First, a title page includes a long title that summarizes what the study was about. There is no required minimum or maximum word length; however, the title should contain enough information to give the reader a sense of the specific research objectives. For example, “Sleep Quality” as a title would help identify the area of interest but not what the study was about. In contrast, Semplonius and Willoughby’s (2018) full title, “Psychosocial Adjustment Throughout University: A Longitudinal Investigation of the Roles of Sleep Quality and Emotion Dysregulation,” informs readers that the relationship between sleep and emotions is being studied over time.

In addition to the full title, a title page for a student report usually includes the names of student authors, the university, the course, the instructor, and the due date. Meanwhile, a professional paper submitted to a journal for publication usually includes the names of authors listed in order according to who contributed most to the research project and a running head , which is a shortened version of the title that appears in the header of the manuscript. Further down the page, title pages for professional papers also often include an author note that includes a recognition statement for the source of any relevant funding and how to correspond with the principal researcher for more information about the study. The recognition statement cites the source of support for the study, such as an external research grant (e.g., the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council) or an internal source of funding (e.g., a research fund from within a department or school, or a university’s research office). The correspondence statement lists the name and email address of the main contact person or the principal researcher for the study so that interested readers and other researchers can reach the person for more information about the study.

Located at the beginning of a research project, an abstract is a brief overview of the research project. It summarizes what the research is about, how many participants there were and how they were obtained (or what the units of analysis were), what the procedures were for carrying out the study, what the design consisted of, and what the main findings were. This can be considered the most important section in the entire report, as it is generally the first and sometimes the only section that is read by other academics and researchers conducting searches for relevant articles of interest. Although it appears at the beginning of a report, it should be the last thing the researcher writes, to ensure that it is both succinct (i.e., usually 150–250 words) and comprehensive. This is one of the most difficult sections to write, as it needs to include a lot of information in what amounts to only a few sentences. A good strategy for writing an abstract that is under 250 words is to first write an abstract that includes all relevant information (this will likely be about 300–400 words on your first try), and then rework it a few times, paring it down word by word, until it is as concise as possible.

If submitting an article for publication, journals may also require a short list of relevant keywords beneath the abstract, which are concepts used to locate the article via database searches once it is in print. Keywords also give the reader additional insight into the study. For example, readers interested in the interrelations between sleep , depression , emotion dysregulation , and alcohol might benefit from reading Semplonius and Willoughby’s (2018) study.

An introduction section follows the abstract. Like the research proposal, an introduction in a research report should include a general opening and a broad discussion of the research interest and area, followed by a narrowing of the research topic. In addition, the research topic should be situated within the relevant literature, and the theoretical context and key concepts should all be well articulated. After summarizing the relevant literature, the introduction ends with a statement of the research problem, key question(s), issues explored, and/or hypotheses tested.

For example, in a research project on pain that I conducted for my master’s research, the broad opening statement in the journal article I published was “Pain is a fundamental fact of life” (Symbaluk et al., 1997, p. 258). From there, the introduction narrowed to discuss forms of acute and chronic pain in everyday life. It further narrowed as we brought in the social psychology of pain and established how monetary incentives and social modelling have been used in experimental research to increase pain endurance. It continued to narrow as we identified gaps in the literature and explained how this experiment was the first to look at the role of self-efficacy and pain perception as potential mediators for the anticipated effects of money and modelling on pain endurance. The introduction ended with specific hypotheses, including one predicting that pain endurance would increase as a function of money for participants who were exposed to pain-tolerant social models.

Note that the introduction section for a qualitative research project also summarizes the relevant literature and ties that literature to the research interests of the present study. However, in lieu of hypotheses, this section is likely to conclude with a statement of the research objective or the main question (or questions) explored in the study that follow logically from the literature review (Pyrczak & Bruce, 2017). For example, a qualitative study conducted by one of my students in an introduction to research methods course focused on the reproduction of common stereotypes in popular media. Finlay’s (2012) research question was “Does the popular television series Crime Scene Investigation promote or resist common stereotypical media representations of gender?”

The method (sometimes called methodology) section of the research report is next. The method section is generally the longest in a report, as it contains subsections on the participants or selection of a sample, setting and materials, procedures or coding scheme, dependent or main variables, and data analysis.

Participants and How They Were Obtained or Sample and Sample Selection

For research involving humans as participants, this section notes how many participants were included in the study, who the participants were, and how they were obtained. For example, Sabbane et al. (2009) experiment on the effects of anti-smoking warnings on attitudes and smoking intentions included 178 teenagers ( N = 178) as participants. Specifically, participants were males and females between the ages of 12 and 17 who were non-smokers ( n = 158) or occasional smokers ( n = 15) recruited, with parental consent, from Secondary I classes in a Montreal secondary school.

As a second example, Boyd et al. (2009) analyzed the content of media representations of bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), more commonly known as “mad cow disease” for the first 10 days following an outbreak in Alberta on May 20, 2003. Their sampling frame consisted of The Globe and Mail and the National Post (as leading national papers), as well as The Lethbridge Herald (as a local Alberta newspaper) and the Edmonton Journal (as a regional newspaper). The sampling procedure involved online searches of these papers for articles on mad cow disease identified through keywords. From this potential sample, articles were included if they met additional criteria. For example, articles that only peripherally mentioned BSE (i.e., it was not the focus of the study) were excluded, resulting in 309 articles in the sample used (Boyd et al., 2009).

Finally, as a third example, Dr. Rosemary Ricciardelli interviewed 14 men as part of a study on the role of hair in self-identification. The interviewees were recruited through convenience sampling via four means of advertising the study, including business card advertisements for the study given out and left in coffee shops and shopping centres in the Greater Toronto Area, an email invitation sent out to students in a small suburban university, an advertisement in Fab magazine, and an ad in a free gay publication (Ricciardelli, 2011).

As addressed in the research proposals section above, the setting refers to the location where the data collection takes place. For example, in a study looking at the meaning of recovery from the perspective of Canadian consumers receiving mental health services, Piat et al. (2009) conducted interviews at major mental health service sources, including the Wellington Centre of the Douglas Mental Health University Institute, the Canadian Mental Health Association Waterloo/Wellington-Dufferin branches, and at the Programme d’encadrement clinique et d’hébergement. If the setting does not apply, as might be the case if the study was conducted over the internet, then this section would refer to materials only.

The materials refer to the main instruments and supplies used to carry out the procedures of the study. In an experiment, whatever is manipulated as the independent variable likely constitutes a material that requires preparation in advance of the study. For example, in a study on social-information processing as a function of psychopathic traits, Wilson et al. (2008) showed participants artificially created characters and then examined recall and recognition. The characters were profiles developed ahead of time that consisted of eight stimulus characters created with images of faces from the Pictures of Facial Affect (POFA) series put together with descriptions that contained a name, an occupation, and a set of likes and dislikes.

Note that indexes, scales, and other items used to compose a questionnaire given as part of survey research are generally described as main variables or measures after the procedures (not as materials needed to carry out the study).

The procedures section of a research report details how the study was carried out. This subsection within the methods is written in the past tense, and it includes a description of all phases of the study, beginning with any instructions given to participants and the consent process, followed by details on the type of techniques employed to gather data and to later examine it. For example, if interviews were conducted, the researcher needs to indicate how many times each participant was interviewed and the time frame over which data collection (interviewing) took place. Alternatively, if observations occurred, when, where, and under what conditions did these take place? As another example, if an experiment was employed, how did participants experience the independent variable? Instead, if the study was based on ethnography, how did the researcher access the setting? Who were the gatekeepers and how was the gatekeeping process navigated? How was rapport with group members established? What role did the researcher engage in for data collection purposes (e.g., participant observation)? What methods were used to collect data? How did the researcher disengage from the setting at the completion of the study?

Note that if the study was based on content analysis, instead of procedures, a research report could include a section on coding procedures or a coding scheme. Similarly, if the study was based on secondary analysis of existing data, this section would outline why and how that source was selected and obtained, and how the archival material was organized and synthesized for subsequent data analysis (Neuman & Robson, 2024).

Main Variables or Measures

A research report always includes a section that outlines the main variables examined in the study. If the study is an experiment, the dependent variables are listed along with their operationalized definitions. For example, in the pain experiment I conducted for my master’s research, pain perception was operationalized as the time elapsed prior to the first sensation of pain in seconds, and pain endurance referred to how long a participant held an isometric sitting position in minutes and seconds (Symbaluk et al., 1997).

As another example, in a study looking at alcohol content as a mediating factor for brand preference, Segal and Stockwell (2008) employed measures of intoxication and enjoyment completed by participants after they drank two low-alcohol- or two regular-alcohol-content beers. Their measures section included a description of an objective variable based on blood-alcohol content assessed using a standard instrument called the Alco-Sensor IV, and it included a description of three subjective measures. Each subjective measure was listed along with appropriate citations for the originating source and an account of the measure. For example, one measure was The Sensation Scale, which they note was originally developed by Maisto et al. (1980) and consists of 31 items about the effects of alcohol. The measures section also notes that participants scored the items using Likert responses ranging from 0 (not at all) to 9 (extremely), with the higher ratings referring to higher intoxication.

If the study is based on qualitative research, as would be the case for in-depth interviews or most focus group sessions, the research report might not have a section for the main variables or measures. This is because concepts, themes, and main ideas may emerge during data collection and analysis in response to open-ended questions. However, if interviews or focus-group sessions are more structured, a researcher may include the questions or describe items that compose an interview guide as part of a section titled interview guide (in lieu of main variables).

Data Analysis

The last part of the method section of a research report details how data analysis was carried out. For example, if content analyses employed the frequency of occurrence of certain categories of events, how were the categories developed? Specifically, did the researcher use categories already established in the literature, modify categories based on previous literature, or develop new ones? Were categories counted once or every time there was an instance of that category? And how was reliability assessed? Did the researchers employ inter-coder reliability and, if so, what was the reliability rate achieved?

As another example, the process for data analysis in an ethnographic study of young homeless men in Calgary was described as follows: “Interviews were transcribed verbatim and checked for accuracy against the digital recordings. A thematic framework was agreed upon by the authors (SP and LM), based on the reported significance of daily routines, coping strategies, and access to services. This was used along with an open coding strategy to recursively analyze these findings using NVivo 7, a qualitative analysis software (QRS International, 2007). Data analysis was concurrent with data collection and uncovered common themes among the interviewees” (Persaud et al., 2010, p. 345).

Writing Resources

Academic writing is challenging. You want to be clear and concise, avoiding jargon and unnecessary details, while at the same time having to explain complex practices and procedures that go into conducting social research. The good news is that most universities have writing centres with online resources and expert staff to help you learn how to write research reports and other forms of scholarly communication. As an example, the University of York Writing Centre has created a useful video on how to write a methods section:

[Video transcript – See Appendix D 12.1 ] Methods: structure is by University of York Writing Centre. Used with permission.

Alongside free online resources, s everal universities also provide students with tools like Grammarly, a writing assistant that uses artificial intelligence to give you immediate feedback on your writing.

The results section of a research report outlines the main findings of the study in the appropriate technical terms. If there are several dependent variables or measures, each variable might be listed as a subheading in this section. Note that the results section states only facts, as succinctly as possible. In the case of quantitative research, the results section for an experiment is likely to report on findings based on tests of differences between means using t -tests for two groups or analysis of variance for variation between and within more than two groups or categories. The results section for quantitative survey research is likely to describe main variables (e.g., using measures of central tendency and variability), as well as report on tests for associations between variables of interest, such as correlations, regression analysis, or nonparametric measures of correlation.

The results section may include figures and tables, as discussed below, if they are necessary to help the reader understand the information being shared. If they are instead supplementary information that may distract a reader from the content, they can instead go in an appendix at the end of the report. When submitting a report to a journal for publication, you may also ask to include figures and tables after the references at the end of a report; an editor then styles and includes them to the text when preparing the file for publication. In each of these instances, the text of your paper should include a “callout” referencing each figure or table, which should be labelled sequentially, to draw the reader’s attention to this information (e.g., for an example of a pie chart included in the text, see Figure 12.1; to review how a table may appear in an appendix, see Appendix A of this book).

Coding and the Development of Categories

In a qualitative research report, results typically document the findings from the coding methods employed in the study. The coding methods involve stages or phases, beginning with initial codes. As described in various earlier chapters, data obtained in a study are assigned labels or codes. Specifically, a code “is most often a word or short phrase that symbolically assigns a summative, salient, essence-capturing, and/or evocative attribute for a portion of language-based or visual data” (Saldaña, 2021, p. 5). Recall that qualitative data includes a range of information, from narrative and text based on interviews and field notes to drawings and images presented in magazine ads, shown through character portrayals on television, and so on. A posting on RateMyProfessor.com, for example, might contain the passage “She really knows her stuff,” coded as “instructor” and “knowledge” since the passage refers to the instructor and it contains a comment about an attribute of the instructor. To begin with, each unit of data is usually assigned its own specific code.

After the initial codes are determined, the next phase includes going back over the data to determine if there are patterns in the data that can be coded into categories based on their common elements. For example, perhaps lots of comments refer to the instructor. Some of the comments might pertain to instructor attributes, such as comments about the instructor’s knowledge of the subject matter and comments about the instructor’s willingness to help students. Other items might have to do with an instructor’s grading, such as “The instructor is a hard marker” or “The instructor grades fairly.” Finally, other comments might pertain to assignments in the course, such as “This course has a lot of papers!” One large category to emerge from this data might be “comments about the instructor.” Another category might be “comments about the course content.” Within the “comments about the instructor” category, other subcategories could also be identified. For example, there may be a subcategory for “instructor attributes.” Within the subcategory for “instructor attributes,” researchers could also list codes for “clarity,” “helpfulness,” “knowledge,” and so on.

Qualitative data analysis is a lengthy process that eventually culminates in the development of themes, as Saldaña (2021) points out, “a theme can be an outcome of coding, categorization, or analytic reflection, but it is not something that is, in itself, coded” (p. 19). Results from qualitative studies, then, highlight main themes or claims that are descriptive outcomes identifying the main overall findings that emerged from the data collection and analysis processes. To substantiate the results, qualitative researchers need to carefully articulate each of the coding stages and categories that developed within each stage. Each main theme is generally discussed within its own subsection in the results, similar to how each main dependent variable is discussed for a quantitative study.

Results from research studies are often depicted in figures . Figures are charts or graphs used to display results based on how a variable is measured. A pie chart, for example, is used to depict the results in a picture format for a single, qualitative variable that is measured at the nominal level. For example, a researcher doing a content analysis on gender portrayals in the media might use a pie chart to convey that there are more males than females depicted as central characters on television. Or a researcher conducting an online survey on attitudes toward healthcare might use a pie chart to describe the respondents who completed the survey. Perhaps the largest slice of the pie indicates that many participants were married, followed by single, common-law, divorced, and separated (see figure 12.1). If none of the respondents claimed they were in a category (e.g., widowed), that category would not be included in the pie chart.

If it is important to indicate the frequency distribution for the categories of a variable, a bar graph would be used instead of a pie chart, since it emphasizes the number of respondents in each category of a variable and it can even be used to show the concurrent pattern of findings for two variables measured at the nominal level. In figure 12.2 we can still determine that more than half of the participants in this fictitious study on the effectiveness of a drug treatment program were married (86 + 11 = 97 out of 181). However, we can also note that there may be a relationship between treatment completion and marital status, since a higher proportion of respondents who were in a relationship (married or common-law) completed treatment relative to participants who were single or divorced (see figure 12.2).

Bar graphs can also be used to display the distributions of responses across or within categories of a nominal variable, shown in percentages. For example, figure 12.3 shows the percentage of respondents in each marital status category who completed or failed to complete treatment. This figure more clearly illustrates the relationship between relationship status and treatment completion, as it is now obvious to the reader that the clear majority of those in relationships completed treatment, whereas those who are not in relationships appear to have just slightly higher than a 50-50 chance of success (see figure 12.3).

Tables are typically summaries of the main findings from quantitative research, such as the percentage of respondents who gave answers in each category of a variable on a questionnaire or the differences in means between groups on dependent measures. For example, Symbaluk and Howell’s (2010) study showed that students gave higher ratings to teaching-award winning instructors than to research-award winners on the popular website RateMyProfessors.com. In the results section, a table compared teaching-award and research-award recipients by listing the mean rating given by students for easiness, helpfulness, and clarity for the two groups of instructors (see table 12.1). Tables are also especially useful for indicating patterns in data over time (Nardi, 2006).

In the discussion section of a research report, researchers summarize and elaborate on the main findings, highlight the importance of the findings, and tie them back into the wider literature. In addition, the discussion section notes limitations of the current study and identifies directions for future research. Since the results section focuses only on the findings, the discussion section is where the researcher can indicate what the results mean and whether the results are consistent with prior expectations, previous research, and/or the hypotheses tested in the study. In addition, researchers can elaborate on what the findings mean, why they are important, and how they can best be interpreted within the context of existing literature. A research report is often described as having the overall shape of an hourglass. Just as the introduction section began broad and narrowed to the focus of the current study, wherein the methods and the results sections are exclusive to the present study, the discussion broadens again until it finally generalizes back to the wider topic of interest.

After discussing the results in relation to the original research questions and wider literature, limitations are raised and suggestions for improvements are provided. All studies have strengths and weaknesses. Usually, a researcher will point out a few of the methodological limitations of the current study. Perhaps the sample size was smaller than desired, or perhaps the sampling method used was not ideal but was necessary under the present circumstances. Even if the most appropriate sampling method was used, as might be the case for a sample of convenience employed in an interview-based study on centenarians (people who live to be more than 100 years of age), inherent limitations such as the resulting inability to generalize the findings should be mentioned in the discussion. If secondary sources are used, there may be restrictions in terms of what can be explored given the different originating purpose of data collection. Usually, a researcher will indicate ways to improve on the present study or offer suggestions for future studies given the limitations discussed. A discussion typically ends with a statement of direction for academics interested in conducting further research in this area. Note that some authors choose to include a conclusion section as a separate section to end the report. A conclusion section summarizes the contributions of the present study and provides suggestions for future research and/or includes directives for policy initiatives.

The last section of a research report is a list of the sources cited throughout the report. The list is generally double-spaced in accordance with the rest of the report and is written in a standard style, such as the one provided by the most current version of the American Psychological Association’s (2020) style guide discussed earlier on.

Research on the Net

APA is the most commonly used citation style in the social sciences. Most, if not all, academic libraries provide students with online resources and staff support to help with citation questions. Additionally, the American Psychological Association’s APA Style website provides examples of how to reference sources , including less commonly used sources like social media posts and audiovisual materials such as podcasts and YouTube videos. The website also provides guidance on how to set up tables and figures , and how to format your paper .

• What seven sections compose a standard academic research report?
• Why is an abstract so important?
• What is provided at the end of an introduction?
• What five subsections are described in the method section of a research report?
• Which section(s) include figures or tables?
• Where would a researcher indicate whether the findings obtained were the ones anticipated prior to the onset of the study?

OTHER ITEMS

Other optional items that may be included in a research report are an appendix and a list of acknowledgements.

The appendix is a section or placeholder where a researcher can include additional information that may be relevant to other researchers, such as a scale or index used to construct questionnaire items, an interview guide used to assist a moderator in a focus group, a set of instructions provided to participants in an experiment, or a coding scheme adapted from the literature for use in a content analysis. Since the appendix is an extra section, it is generally not included in the page count for a research report.

List of Acknowledgements

A list of acknowledgements is sometimes included to pay tribute to individuals and organizations that helped to support the research. For example, research assistants, graduate students, or paid assistants who are not primary researchers or contributing authors are generally acknowledged at the end of the report. The researcher can also list agencies, groups, or organizations that provided funding in the form of grants, scholarships, and/or awards, along with any individual or organization that provided necessary materials, such as meeting space, for carrying out the study.

• Why is a list of acknowledgements important to include in a research report?

Activity: Research Reports Review

Chapter summary.

• Outline the main components of a research proposal. A research proposal includes five main sections: an introduction, a method section, a section on data analysis and dissemination, a section on ethical considerations, and a listing of prospective references.
• Explain the purpose of a method section in a research proposal. The method section outlines who the participants will be and how they will be selected or how the sample will be obtained. In addition, a method section includes information on the setting and materials needed to conduct the study, the procedures for carrying out the study, and the main variables that are examined in the study.
• Identify key ethical considerations that need to be addressed in a research proposal. If a researcher plans to conduct research using humans as participants, the proposal should indicate why the study can be deemed minimal risk and how the minimal risk will be mitigated. The proposal should also include a statement that outlines the benefits of the study for participants, for the researchers, and for the wider academic community. Finally, the proposal should also include a discussion about how privacy and confidentiality will be upheld in the planned study.
• Outline the structure and format of a scholarly research report. A research report includes a title page, an abstract, an introduction, a method section, a results section, a discussion section, and references. The method section includes subsections on participants and how they were selected or the sample and how it was obtained, the setting and materials, the main variables or measures, and how data analysis was conducted.

RESEARCH REFLECTION

• Suppose you are interested in studying the prevalence of texting while driving. What method do you think would be most suitable for examining this phenomenon? If you were going use that method to study texting while driving, what ethical considerations would you need to address in a research proposal?
• Suppose you are interested in learning about effective strategies used by university students to prepare for final exams. Indicate what you would include in a research proposal in the section on participants. Specifically, who would your sample comprise and how you would go about obtaining participants?
• Suppose you want to explore the ways in which people treat their pets in comparison to how they treat members of their immediate family in an exploratory study for your master’s thesis. What kind of method would you employ to study this topic? Based on your choice of method, what sorts of information would you need to include in the results section of a research report based on the findings?

LEARNING THROUGH PRACTICE

Objective: To develop a research outline

Directions:

• First, decide on one area of the mass media where you wish to examine gender, such as music, television, or social media.
• Next, identify relevant secondary sources for data on gender within the selected area of the mass media. For example, if you want to study gender in music, a relevant source would be music lyrics in songs within a genre, such as rap.
• Develop one or two general research questions that you could (potentially) examine using the secondary source identified in the previous step.
• Explain whether your study will be based on qualitative or quantitative research. Justify your approach.
• Describe the main method you plan to use to examine your question of interest. For example, will you be conducting a content analysis?
• Describe a main research question or hypothesis examined in the article.
• Describe the method or methods used to answer the question of interest.
• Explain whether this article has provided you with any ideas or guidance for how to develop your own study in the area.
• Do you think this source of data is a good one to include in your eventual sample? Why or why not?
• Describe the sampling procedure you would use to conduct your planned study.
• Examining the secondary source of data with your research questions in mind, what kind of data analysis do you think you would need to do? Explain the procedures for how you would carry out this analysis on a larger scale in your eventual study.

RESEARCH RESOURCES

• For step-by-step instructions on how to write research proposals and reports, refer to chapters 6 and 7 in Symbaluk, D., Hall, R., & Champoux, G. (2019). Navigating an undergraduate degree in the social sciences: Tips and strategies . MacEwan Open Books.
• For more information on ways to code qualitative data (e.g., descriptive coding, process coding, emotion coding, axial coding, theoretical coding), refer to Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (4th ed.). Sage.
• To learn how to code qualitative data using NVivo software, refer to Jackson, K., & Bazeley, P. (2019). Qualitative data analysis with NVivo (3rd ed.) . Sage.
• To learn about data analysis based on qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods, refer to Bergin, T. (2018). An introduction to data analysis: Quantitative, qualitative and mixed methods . Sage.
• Opening quote by Professor Chris Whitty, chief scientific advisor for the Department of Health, published on January 1, 2019, from the National Institute for Health Research home page at nihr.ac.uk. ↵

A comprehensive plan created in advance of carrying out research that details what the purpose of the project is and what the process will be for obtaining data.

A detailed account, following research, that describes the research interest, questions or hypotheses addressed, methods used, and findings from the study.

A brief overview of a research project, which describes the participants or units of observation, the design, the procedures, and the main findings in no more than 250 words.

Charts or graphs used to display results based on how a variable is measure.

Summaries of main findings from quantitative research, such as the percentage of respondents who gave answers in each category of a variable on a questionnaire or the differences in means between groups on dependent measures.

Research Methods: Exploring the Social World in Canadian Context Copyright © 2024 by Diane Symbaluk & Robyn Hall is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

What Is A Research Proposal?

Plain Language Explainer With Examples + Free Template

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By: Dr Eunice Rautenbach | June 2020 (Updated April 2023)

Overview: Research Proposal Basics

• What a research proposal is
• What a research proposal needs to cover
• How to structure your research proposal
• Example /sample proposals
• Proposal writing FAQs
• Key takeaways & additional resources

What is a research proposal?

Simply put, a research proposal is a structured, formal document that explains what you plan to research (your research topic), why it’s worth researching (your justification), and how  you plan to investigate it (your methodology). 

The purpose of the research proposal (its job, so to speak) is to convince  your research supervisor, committee or university that your research is  suitable  (for the requirements of the degree program) and  manageable  (given the time and resource constraints you will face). 

The most important word here is “ convince ” – in other words, your research proposal needs to  sell  your research idea (to whoever is going to approve it). If it doesn’t convince them (of its suitability and manageability), you’ll need to revise and resubmit . This will cost you valuable time, which will either delay the start of your research or eat into its time allowance (which is bad news). 

What goes into a research proposal?

A good dissertation or thesis proposal needs to cover the “ what “, “ why ” and” how ” of the proposed study. Let’s look at each of these attributes in a little more detail:

Your proposal needs to clearly articulate your research topic . This needs to be specific and unambiguous . Your research topic should make it clear exactly what you plan to research and in what context. Here’s an example of a well-articulated research topic:

An investigation into the factors which impact female Generation Y consumer’s likelihood to promote a specific makeup brand to their peers: a British context

As you can see, this topic is extremely clear. From this one line we can see exactly:

• What’s being investigated – factors that make people promote or advocate for a brand of a specific makeup brand
• Who it involves – female Gen-Y consumers
• In what context – the United Kingdom

Need a helping hand?

As we touched on earlier, it’s not good enough to simply propose a research topic – you need to justify why your topic is original . In other words, what makes it  unique ? What gap in the current literature does it fill? If it’s simply a rehash of the existing research, it’s probably not going to get approval – it needs to be fresh.

But,  originality  alone is not enough. Once you’ve ticked that box, you also need to justify why your proposed topic is  important . In other words, what value will it add to the world if you achieve your research aims?

As an example, let’s look at the sample research topic we mentioned earlier (factors impacting brand advocacy). In this case, if the research could uncover relevant factors, these findings would be very useful to marketers in the cosmetics industry, and would, therefore, have commercial value . That is a clear justification for the research.

So, when you’re crafting your research proposal, remember that it’s not enough for a topic to simply be unique. It needs to be useful and value-creating – and you need to convey that value in your proposal. If you’re struggling to find a research topic that makes the cut, watch  our video covering how to find a research topic .

It’s all good and well to have a great topic that’s original and valuable, but you’re not going to convince anyone to approve it without discussing the practicalities – in other words:

• How will you actually undertake your research (i.e., your methodology)?
• Is your research methodology appropriate given your research aims?
• Is your approach manageable given your constraints (time, money, etc.)?

While it’s generally not expected that you’ll have a fully fleshed-out methodology at the proposal stage, you’ll likely still need to provide a high-level overview of your research methodology . Here are some important questions you’ll need to address in your research proposal:

• Will you take a qualitative , quantitative or mixed -method approach?
• What sampling strategy will you adopt?
• How will you collect your data (e.g., interviews , surveys, etc)?
• How will you analyse your data (e.g., descriptive and inferential statistics , content analysis, discourse analysis, etc, .)?
• What potential limitations will your methodology carry?

So, be sure to give some thought to the practicalities of your research and have at least a basic methodological plan before you start writing up your proposal. If this all sounds rather intimidating, the video below provides a good introduction to research methodology and the key choices you’ll need to make.

How To Structure A Research Proposal

Now that we’ve covered the key points that need to be addressed in a proposal, you may be wondering, “ But how is a research proposal structured? “.

While the exact structure and format required for a research proposal differs from university to university, there are four “essential ingredients” that commonly make up the structure of a research proposal:

• A rich introduction and background to the proposed research
• An initial literature review covering the existing research
• An overview of the proposed research methodology
• A discussion regarding the practicalities (project plans, timelines, etc.)

In the video below, we unpack each of these four sections, step by step.

Research Proposal Examples/Samples

In the video below, we provide a detailed walkthrough of two successful research proposals (Master’s and PhD-level), as well as our popular free proposal template.

Proposal Writing FAQs

How long should a research proposal be.

This varies tremendously, depending on the university, the field of study (e.g., social sciences vs natural sciences), and the level of the degree (e.g. undergraduate, Masters or PhD) – so it’s always best to check with your university what their specific requirements are before you start planning your proposal.

As a rough guide, a formal research proposal at Masters-level often ranges between 2000-3000 words, while a PhD-level proposal can be far more detailed, ranging from 5000-8000 words. In some cases, a rough outline of the topic is all that’s needed, while in other cases, universities expect a very detailed proposal that essentially forms the first three chapters of the dissertation or thesis.

The takeaway – be sure to check with your institution before you start writing.

How do I choose a topic for my research proposal?

Finding a good research topic is a process that involves multiple steps. We cover the topic ideation process in this video post.

How do I write a literature review for my proposal?

While you typically won’t need a comprehensive literature review at the proposal stage, you still need to demonstrate that you’re familiar with the key literature and are able to synthesise it. We explain the literature review process here.

How do I create a timeline and budget for my proposal?

We explain how to craft a project plan/timeline and budget in Research Proposal Bootcamp .

Which referencing format should I use in my research proposal?

The expectations and requirements regarding formatting and referencing vary from institution to institution. Therefore, you’ll need to check this information with your university.

What common proposal writing mistakes do I need to look out for?

We’ve create a video post about some of the most common mistakes students make when writing a proposal – you can access that here . If you’re short on time, here’s a quick summary:

• The research topic is too broad (or just poorly articulated).
• The research aims, objectives and questions don’t align.
• The research topic is not well justified.
• The study has a weak theoretical foundation.
• The research design is not well articulated well enough.
• Poor writing and sloppy presentation.
• Poor project planning and risk management.
• Not following the university’s specific criteria.

Key Takeaways & Additional Resources

As you write up your research proposal, remember the all-important core purpose:  to convince . Your research proposal needs to sell your study in terms of suitability and viability. So, focus on crafting a convincing narrative to ensure a strong proposal.

At the same time, pay close attention to your university’s requirements. While we’ve covered the essentials here, every institution has its own set of expectations and it’s essential that you follow these to maximise your chances of approval.

By the way, we’ve got plenty more resources to help you fast-track your research proposal. Here are some of our most popular resources to get you started:

• Proposal Writing 101 : A Introductory Webinar
• Research Proposal Bootcamp : The Ultimate Online Course
• Template : A basic template to help you craft your proposal

If you’re looking for 1-on-1 support with your research proposal, be sure to check out our private coaching service , where we hold your hand through the proposal development process (and the entire research journey), step by step.

Ace Your Research Proposal

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53 Comments

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You’re most welcome. We don’t have any research proposals that we can share (the students own the intellectual property), but you might find our research proposal template useful: https://gradcoach.com/research-proposal-template/

Cheruiyot Moses Kipyegon

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Bradley Kay's blog

The key difference between a research proposal and a research report.

Research is a very important part of college and work success. However, you must know the difference between a research plan and a research report if you want to be successful. We'll examine the main differences, goals, frameworks, and writing styles for these two types of academic papers

Research Proposal: What It Is and Why It's Important

The first step in any research project is to write a research paper. It is a piece of writing that describes the subject of your study, its goals, and the methods that will be used. Its main goal is to convince and educate. Research proposals are like the plans that an architect uses to make a house.

It can look like a very hard thing to write. Feel free to order the research proposal writing service Edubirdie to write your student paper. There is no shame in getting some leisure time once in a while. So that you get enough time to relax.

Research Report: What It Is and Why It's Important

On the other hand, a study report comes after the research has been done. It's an in-depth report that includes the study results, methods, analysis, and conclusions. A research report's main goal is to share the study results with others and add to what is already known. It's like the finished building—what the study led to in the end.

The main differences between these two styles

There are important differences between a research plan and a research report. To begin, think about their jobs. Research plans are persuasive papers that encourage research projects. Research reports update readers about study findings.

The time is another important difference. Research begins with an idea, and the report provides the results. Reports are reactive, while proposals are aggressive.

The structure and format

It's essential to know the structure and framework. In your paper, you should include an introduction, a literature study, research goals, and a method in a research plan. The research report, on the other hand, has an introduction, methods, data, a talk, and a conclusion. The literature review isn't as in-depth compared to scientific ones. On the other hand, a book study relies more on a plan. The reason is that you need to show the reason why you spent your precious time analyzing some old book and why anyone should bother to read it.

How to Write Guidelines

These two types of research papers have quite different writing styles that you should account for. Most of the time, research plans are more formal and persuasive. They want to show a reviewing committee why the study is important and possible. Research papers, on the other hand, are clear and objective. You just share the facts and findings.

Examples of Research Proposals

Looking at some examples of research proposals and research reports will be beneficial for you to understand how you should write your paper. Let's say a researcher wants to look into how teens' use of social media affects their mental health. It will be very clear in the proposal how they plan to do the study, why it is important, and what method they will use.

Example of a Research Report

A research report would show the real results of the same research project after the data had been gathered. It would talk about the study's findings, break them down, and draw a conclusion from the data gathered.

Ethics Things to Think About

It's important to know the basis and framework. There should be an introduction, a literature study, research goals, and a method in a research plan. While the research report has an opening, methods, data, a final speech, and an end, the research brief does not. It's not as in-depth in the literature study. It is more important to have a book study in a plan because it helps show why the research is important.

• Look over and approve

Your educational facility might look over a study report to make sure that the data collection was done honestly. So, you need to discuss criteria in the future. So, there is no miscommunication in the future

• Mistakes People Make

Humans are not ideal creatures, so there are a lot of possibilities to make mistakes in plans and reports. Some ideas aren't clear, aren't specific enough, or don't have a good literature review. The way the data were studied could be flawed, and the reports could give you the wrong idea of what the results mean.

• Getting ready to collect data

This includes getting resources, finding participants, and getting all necessary clearances to conduct proper research

• Getting and analyzing data

There are different ways to gather information for plans and reports. What are proposals and reports? Reports outline data collection methods and instruments, while proposals represent data collection strategies.

• Presenting the Results

Another important difference is presenting results. Research plans don't show the results themselves; instead, they describe how the results will be shown in the future. On the other hand, research papers give specific results to the people who are supposed to read them.

it is beneficial for researchers, teachers, and students should know the difference between a research plan and a research report. Nonetheless, it will be beneficial to understand the nuances. I hope that this material gave you all the necessary information and now you have a clear understanding of the differences between research proposals and research reports

Research Proposal vs. Research Report — What's the Difference?

Table of contents, key differences, comparison chart, primary objective, target audience, compare with definitions, research proposal, research report, common curiosities, when is a research proposal typically created, what is the purpose of a research report, why is a research proposal important, is a research report subjective or objective, can a research proposal be rejected, how long is a typical research report, what is a research proposal, what is included in a research report, do all research projects require a research proposal, who is the target audience for a research report, share your discovery.

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The goal of a research proposal is twofold: to present and justify the need to study a research problem and to present the practical ways in which the proposed study should be conducted. The design elements and procedures for conducting research are governed by standards of the predominant discipline in which the problem resides, therefore, the guidelines for research proposals are more exacting and less formal than a general project proposal. Research proposals contain extensive literature reviews. They must provide persuasive evidence that a need exists for the proposed study. In addition to providing a rationale, a proposal describes detailed methodology for conducting the research consistent with requirements of the professional or academic field and a statement on anticipated outcomes and benefits derived from the study's completion.

Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005.

How to Approach Writing a Research Proposal

Your professor may assign the task of writing a research proposal for the following reasons:

• Develop your skills in thinking about and designing a comprehensive research study;
• Learn how to conduct a comprehensive review of the literature to determine that the research problem has not been adequately addressed or has been answered ineffectively and, in so doing, become better at locating pertinent scholarship related to your topic;
• Improve your general research and writing skills;
• Practice identifying the logical steps that must be taken to accomplish one's research goals;
• Critically review, examine, and consider the use of different methods for gathering and analyzing data related to the research problem; and,
• Nurture a sense of inquisitiveness within yourself and to help see yourself as an active participant in the process of conducting scholarly research.

A proposal should contain all the key elements involved in designing a completed research study, with sufficient information that allows readers to assess the validity and usefulness of your proposed study. The only elements missing from a research proposal are the findings of the study and your analysis of those findings. Finally, an effective proposal is judged on the quality of your writing and, therefore, it is important that your proposal is coherent, clear, and compelling.

Regardless of the research problem you are investigating and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions:

• What do you plan to accomplish? Be clear and succinct in defining the research problem and what it is you are proposing to investigate.
• Why do you want to do the research? In addition to detailing your research design, you also must conduct a thorough review of the literature and provide convincing evidence that it is a topic worthy of in-depth study. A successful research proposal must answer the "So What?" question.
• How are you going to conduct the research? Be sure that what you propose is doable. If you're having difficulty formulating a research problem to propose investigating, go here for strategies in developing a problem to study.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

• Failure to be concise . A research proposal must be focused and not be "all over the map" or diverge into unrelated tangents without a clear sense of purpose.
• Failure to cite landmark works in your literature review . Proposals should be grounded in foundational research that lays a foundation for understanding the development and scope of the the topic and its relevance.
• Failure to delimit the contextual scope of your research [e.g., time, place, people, etc.]. As with any research paper, your proposed study must inform the reader how and in what ways the study will frame the problem.
• Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research . This is critical. In many workplace settings, the research proposal is a formal document intended to argue for why a study should be funded.
• Sloppy or imprecise writing, or poor grammar . Although a research proposal does not represent a completed research study, there is still an expectation that it is well-written and follows the style and rules of good academic writing.
• Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues . Your proposal should focus on only a few key research questions in order to support the argument that the research needs to be conducted. Minor issues, even if valid, can be mentioned but they should not dominate the overall narrative.

Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal.  The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Sanford, Keith. Information for Students: Writing a Research Proposal. Baylor University; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences, Articles, and Books. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal. University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

Structure and Writing Style

Beginning the Proposal Process

As with writing most college-level academic papers, research proposals are generally organized the same way throughout most social science disciplines. The text of proposals generally vary in length between ten and thirty-five pages, followed by the list of references. However, before you begin, read the assignment carefully and, if anything seems unclear, ask your professor whether there are any specific requirements for organizing and writing the proposal.

A good place to begin is to ask yourself a series of questions:

• What do I want to study?
• Why is the topic important?
• How is it significant within the subject areas covered in my class?
• What problems will it help solve?
• How does it build upon [and hopefully go beyond] research already conducted on the topic?
• What exactly should I plan to do, and can I get it done in the time available?

In general, a compelling research proposal should document your knowledge of the topic and demonstrate your enthusiasm for conducting the study. Approach it with the intention of leaving your readers feeling like, "Wow, that's an exciting idea and I can’t wait to see how it turns out!"

Most proposals should include the following sections:

I.  Introduction

In the real world of higher education, a research proposal is most often written by scholars seeking grant funding for a research project or it's the first step in getting approval to write a doctoral dissertation. Even if this is just a course assignment, treat your introduction as the initial pitch of an idea based on a thorough examination of the significance of a research problem. After reading the introduction, your readers should not only have an understanding of what you want to do, but they should also be able to gain a sense of your passion for the topic and to be excited about the study's possible outcomes. Note that most proposals do not include an abstract [summary] before the introduction.

Think about your introduction as a narrative written in two to four paragraphs that succinctly answers the following four questions :

• What is the central research problem?
• What is the topic of study related to that research problem?
• What methods should be used to analyze the research problem?
• Answer the "So What?" question by explaining why this is important research, what is its significance, and why should someone reading the proposal care about the outcomes of the proposed study?

II.  Background and Significance

This is where you explain the scope and context of your proposal and describe in detail why it's important. It can be melded into your introduction or you can create a separate section to help with the organization and narrative flow of your proposal. Approach writing this section with the thought that you can’t assume your readers will know as much about the research problem as you do. Note that this section is not an essay going over everything you have learned about the topic; instead, you must choose what is most relevant in explaining the aims of your research.

To that end, while there are no prescribed rules for establishing the significance of your proposed study, you should attempt to address some or all of the following:

• State the research problem and give a more detailed explanation about the purpose of the study than what you stated in the introduction. This is particularly important if the problem is complex or multifaceted .
• Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing; be sure to answer the "So What? question [i.e., why should anyone care?].
• Describe the major issues or problems examined by your research. This can be in the form of questions to be addressed. Be sure to note how your proposed study builds on previous assumptions about the research problem.
• Explain the methods you plan to use for conducting your research. Clearly identify the key sources you intend to use and explain how they will contribute to your analysis of the topic.
• Describe the boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus. Where appropriate, state not only what you plan to study, but what aspects of the research problem will be excluded from the study.
• If necessary, provide definitions of key concepts, theories, or terms.

III.  Literature Review

Connected to the background and significance of your study is a section of your proposal devoted to a more deliberate review and synthesis of prior studies related to the research problem under investigation . The purpose here is to place your project within the larger whole of what is currently being explored, while at the same time, demonstrating to your readers that your work is original and innovative. Think about what questions other researchers have asked, what methodological approaches they have used, and what is your understanding of their findings and, when stated, their recommendations. Also pay attention to any suggestions for further research.

Since a literature review is information dense, it is crucial that this section is intelligently structured to enable a reader to grasp the key arguments underpinning your proposed study in relation to the arguments put forth by other researchers. A good strategy is to break the literature into "conceptual categories" [themes] rather than systematically or chronologically describing groups of materials one at a time. Note that conceptual categories generally reveal themselves after you have read most of the pertinent literature on your topic so adding new categories is an on-going process of discovery as you review more studies. How do you know you've covered the key conceptual categories underlying the research literature? Generally, you can have confidence that all of the significant conceptual categories have been identified if you start to see repetition in the conclusions or recommendations that are being made.

NOTE: Do not shy away from challenging the conclusions made in prior research as a basis for supporting the need for your proposal. Assess what you believe is missing and state how previous research has failed to adequately examine the issue that your study addresses. Highlighting the problematic conclusions strengthens your proposal. For more information on writing literature reviews, GO HERE .

To help frame your proposal's review of prior research, consider the "five C’s" of writing a literature review:

• Cite , so as to keep the primary focus on the literature pertinent to your research problem.
• Compare the various arguments, theories, methodologies, and findings expressed in the literature: what do the authors agree on? Who applies similar approaches to analyzing the research problem?
• Contrast the various arguments, themes, methodologies, approaches, and controversies expressed in the literature: describe what are the major areas of disagreement, controversy, or debate among scholars?
• Critique the literature: Which arguments are more persuasive, and why? Which approaches, findings, and methodologies seem most reliable, valid, or appropriate, and why? Pay attention to the verbs you use to describe what an author says/does [e.g., asserts, demonstrates, argues, etc.].
• Connect the literature to your own area of research and investigation: how does your own work draw upon, depart from, synthesize, or add a new perspective to what has been said in the literature?

IV.  Research Design and Methods

This section must be well-written and logically organized because you are not actually doing the research, yet, your reader must have confidence that you have a plan worth pursuing . The reader will never have a study outcome from which to evaluate whether your methodological choices were the correct ones. Thus, the objective here is to convince the reader that your overall research design and proposed methods of analysis will correctly address the problem and that the methods will provide the means to effectively interpret the potential results. Your design and methods should be unmistakably tied to the specific aims of your study.

Describe the overall research design by building upon and drawing examples from your review of the literature. Consider not only methods that other researchers have used, but methods of data gathering that have not been used but perhaps could be. Be specific about the methodological approaches you plan to undertake to obtain information, the techniques you would use to analyze the data, and the tests of external validity to which you commit yourself [i.e., the trustworthiness by which you can generalize from your study to other people, places, events, and/or periods of time].

When describing the methods you will use, be sure to cover the following:

• Specify the research process you will undertake and the way you will interpret the results obtained in relation to the research problem. Don't just describe what you intend to achieve from applying the methods you choose, but state how you will spend your time while applying these methods [e.g., coding text from interviews to find statements about the need to change school curriculum; running a regression to determine if there is a relationship between campaign advertising on social media sites and election outcomes in Europe ].
• Keep in mind that the methodology is not just a list of tasks; it is a deliberate argument as to why techniques for gathering information add up to the best way to investigate the research problem. This is an important point because the mere listing of tasks to be performed does not demonstrate that, collectively, they effectively address the research problem. Be sure you clearly explain this.
• Anticipate and acknowledge any potential barriers and pitfalls in carrying out your research design and explain how you plan to address them. No method applied to research in the social and behavioral sciences is perfect, so you need to describe where you believe challenges may exist in obtaining data or accessing information. It's always better to acknowledge this than to have it brought up by your professor!

V.  Preliminary Suppositions and Implications

Just because you don't have to actually conduct the study and analyze the results, doesn't mean you can skip talking about the analytical process and potential implications . The purpose of this section is to argue how and in what ways you believe your research will refine, revise, or extend existing knowledge in the subject area under investigation. Depending on the aims and objectives of your study, describe how the anticipated results will impact future scholarly research, theory, practice, forms of interventions, or policy making. Note that such discussions may have either substantive [a potential new policy], theoretical [a potential new understanding], or methodological [a potential new way of analyzing] significance.   When thinking about the potential implications of your study, ask the following questions:

• What might the results mean in regards to challenging the theoretical framework and underlying assumptions that support the study?
• What suggestions for subsequent research could arise from the potential outcomes of the study?
• What will the results mean to practitioners in the natural settings of their workplace, organization, or community?
• Will the results influence programs, methods, and/or forms of intervention?
• How might the results contribute to the solution of social, economic, or other types of problems?
• Will the results influence policy decisions?
• In what way do individuals or groups benefit should your study be pursued?
• What will be improved or changed as a result of the proposed research?
• How will the results of the study be implemented and what innovations or transformative insights could emerge from the process of implementation?

NOTE:   This section should not delve into idle speculation, opinion, or be formulated on the basis of unclear evidence . The purpose is to reflect upon gaps or understudied areas of the current literature and describe how your proposed research contributes to a new understanding of the research problem should the study be implemented as designed.

ANOTHER NOTE : This section is also where you describe any potential limitations to your proposed study. While it is impossible to highlight all potential limitations because the study has yet to be conducted, you still must tell the reader where and in what form impediments may arise and how you plan to address them.

VI.  Conclusion

The conclusion reiterates the importance or significance of your proposal and provides a brief summary of the entire study . This section should be only one or two paragraphs long, emphasizing why the research problem is worth investigating, why your research study is unique, and how it should advance existing knowledge.

Someone reading this section should come away with an understanding of:

• Why the study should be done;
• The specific purpose of the study and the research questions it attempts to answer;
• The decision for why the research design and methods used where chosen over other options;
• The potential implications emerging from your proposed study of the research problem; and
• A sense of how your study fits within the broader scholarship about the research problem.

VII.  Citations

As with any scholarly research paper, you must cite the sources you used . In a standard research proposal, this section can take two forms, so consult with your professor about which one is preferred.

• References -- a list of only the sources you actually used in creating your proposal.
• Bibliography -- a list of everything you used in creating your proposal, along with additional citations to any key sources relevant to understanding the research problem.

In either case, this section should testify to the fact that you did enough preparatory work to ensure the project will complement and not just duplicate the efforts of other researchers. It demonstrates to the reader that you have a thorough understanding of prior research on the topic.

Most proposal formats have you start a new page and use the heading "References" or "Bibliography" centered at the top of the page. Cited works should always use a standard format that follows the writing style advised by the discipline of your course [e.g., education=APA; history=Chicago] or that is preferred by your professor. This section normally does not count towards the total page length of your research proposal.

Develop a Research Proposal: Writing the Proposal. Office of Library Information Services. Baltimore County Public Schools; Heath, M. Teresa Pereira and Caroline Tynan. “Crafting a Research Proposal.” The Marketing Review 10 (Summer 2010): 147-168; Jones, Mark. “Writing a Research Proposal.” In MasterClass in Geography Education: Transforming Teaching and Learning . Graham Butt, editor. (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2015), pp. 113-127; Juni, Muhamad Hanafiah. “Writing a Research Proposal.” International Journal of Public Health and Clinical Sciences 1 (September/October 2014): 229-240; Krathwohl, David R. How to Prepare a Dissertation Proposal: Suggestions for Students in Education and the Social and Behavioral Sciences . Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2005; Procter, Margaret. The Academic Proposal. The Lab Report. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Punch, Keith and Wayne McGowan. "Developing and Writing a Research Proposal." In From Postgraduate to Social Scientist: A Guide to Key Skills . Nigel Gilbert, ed. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2006), 59-81; Wong, Paul T. P. How to Write a Research Proposal. International Network on Personal Meaning. Trinity Western University; Writing Academic Proposals: Conferences , Articles, and Books. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; Writing a Research Proposal. University Library. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.

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Writing a Scientific Research Project Proposal

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The importance of a well-written research proposal cannot be underestimated. Your research really is only as good as your proposal. A poorly written, or poorly conceived research proposal will doom even an otherwise worthy project. On the other hand, a well-written, high-quality proposal will increase your chances for success.

In this article, we’ll outline the basics of writing an effective scientific research proposal, including the differences between research proposals, grants and cover letters. We’ll also touch on common mistakes made when submitting research proposals, as well as a simple example or template that you can follow.

What is a scientific research proposal?

The main purpose of a scientific research proposal is to convince your audience that your project is worthwhile, and that you have the expertise and wherewithal to complete it. The elements of an effective research proposal mirror those of the research process itself, which we’ll outline below. Essentially, the research proposal should include enough information for the reader to determine if your proposed study is worth pursuing.

It is not an uncommon misunderstanding to think that a research proposal and a cover letter are the same things. However, they are different. The main difference between a research proposal vs cover letter content is distinct. Whereas the research proposal summarizes the proposal for future research, the cover letter connects you to the research, and how you are the right person to complete the proposed research.

There is also sometimes confusion around a research proposal vs grant application. Whereas a research proposal is a statement of intent, related to answering a research question, a grant application is a specific request for funding to complete the research proposed. Of course, there are elements of overlap between the two documents; it’s the purpose of the document that defines one or the other.

Scientific Research Proposal Format

Although there is no one way to write a scientific research proposal, there are specific guidelines. A lot depends on which journal you’re submitting your research proposal to, so you may need to follow their scientific research proposal template.

In general, however, there are fairly universal sections to every scientific research proposal. These include:

• Title: Make sure the title of your proposal is descriptive and concise. Make it catch and informative at the same time, avoiding dry phrases like, “An investigation…” Your title should pique the interest of the reader.
• Abstract: This is a brief (300-500 words) summary that includes the research question, your rationale for the study, and any applicable hypothesis. You should also include a brief description of your methodology, including procedures, samples, instruments, etc.
• Introduction: The opening paragraph of your research proposal is, perhaps, the most important. Here you want to introduce the research problem in a creative way, and demonstrate your understanding of the need for the research. You want the reader to think that your proposed research is current, important and relevant.
• Background: Include a brief history of the topic and link it to a contemporary context to show its relevance for today. Identify key researchers and institutions also looking at the problem
• Literature Review: This is the section that may take the longest amount of time to assemble. Here you want to synthesize prior research, and place your proposed research into the larger picture of what’s been studied in the past. You want to show your reader that your work is original, and adds to the current knowledge.
• Research Design and Methodology: This section should be very clearly and logically written and organized. You are letting your reader know that you know what you are going to do, and how. The reader should feel confident that you have the skills and knowledge needed to get the project done.
• Preliminary Implications: Here you’ll be outlining how you anticipate your research will extend current knowledge in your field. You might also want to discuss how your findings will impact future research needs.
• Conclusion: This section reinforces the significance and importance of your proposed research, and summarizes the entire proposal.
• References/Citations: Of course, you need to include a full and accurate list of any and all sources you used to write your research proposal.

Common Mistakes in Writing a Scientific Research Project Proposal

Remember, the best research proposal can be rejected if it’s not well written or is ill-conceived. The most common mistakes made include:

• Not providing the proper context for your research question or the problem
• Failing to reference landmark/key studies
• Losing focus of the research question or problem
• Not accurately presenting contributions by other researchers and institutions
• Incompletely developing a persuasive argument for the research that is being proposed
• Misplaced attention on minor points and/or not enough detail on major issues
• Sloppy, low-quality writing without effective logic and flow
• Incorrect or lapses in references and citations, and/or references not in proper format
• The proposal is too long – or too short

Scientific Research Proposal Example

There are countless examples that you can find for successful research proposals. In addition, you can also find examples of unsuccessful research proposals. Search for successful research proposals in your field, and even for your target journal, to get a good idea on what specifically your audience may be looking for.

While there’s no one example that will show you everything you need to know, looking at a few will give you a good idea of what you need to include in your own research proposal. Talk, also, to colleagues in your field, especially if you are a student or a new researcher. We can often learn from the mistakes of others. The more prepared and knowledgeable you are prior to writing your research proposal, the more likely you are to succeed.

One of the top reasons scientific research proposals are rejected is due to poor logic and flow. Check out our Language Editing Services to ensure a great proposal , that’s clear and concise, and properly referenced. Check our video for more information, and get started today.

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Research Statement vs Research Proposal

If you’re in academia or planning to pursue higher education, you’ve probably come across the terms “research statement” and “research proposal.” At first glance, they might seem similar, but they serve different purposes and have distinct characteristics.

In this post, we’ll break down the differences between these two important documents and help you understand when and how to use each one.

What You'll Learn

What is a Research Statement?

A research statement is a brief document that outlines your research interests, experience, and future plans. It’s like a snapshot of your academic journey and where you want to go next.

Key Features of a Research Statement

• Length : Usually short, typically 1-3 pages.
• Purpose : To give an overview of your research background and goals.
• Audience : Often read by hiring committees or graduate school admissions teams.
• Content : Includes past research, current interests, and future directions.
• Tone : Professional and confident, showcasing your expertise.

When Do You Need a Research Statement?

You might need to write a research statement when:

• Applying for academic jobs (like professor positions)
• Submitting applications to graduate school programs
• Seeking research funding or grants
• Updating your professional portfolio

Example of a Research Statement (Excerpt)

Here’s a brief example of what part of a research statement might look like:

“As a marine biologist, my research focuses on the impact of climate change on coral reef ecosystems. Over the past five years, I have conducted extensive field studies in the Great Barrier Reef, analyzing the resilience of various coral species to rising ocean temperatures. My current work involves developing new methods for coral restoration using 3D printing technology. In the future, I plan to expand this research to other reef systems around the world, with the goal of creating a global network of coral restoration sites.”

What is a Research Proposal?

A research proposal is a detailed plan for a specific research project. It’s like a roadmap that outlines the what, why, and how of your intended research.

Key Features of a Research Proposal

• Length : Usually longer, typically 10-25 pages (can be shorter or longer depending on requirements).
• Purpose : To convince others that your research idea is worthwhile and feasible.
• Audience : Often read by funding agencies, dissertation committees, or research supervisors.
• Content : Includes research question, literature review, methodology, timeline, and budget.
• Tone : Formal and detailed, demonstrating thorough planning.

When Do You Need a Research Proposal?

You might need to write a research proposal when:

• Applying for research funding or grants
• Starting a Ph.D. program or planning your dissertation
• Pitching a new research project to your department or institution
• Collaborating with other researchers or institutions on a joint project

Example of a Research Proposal (Excerpt)

Here’s a brief example of what part of a research proposal might look like:

“Project Title: The Impact of Microplastics on Marine Mammal Health in the North Atlantic

• Introduction: Microplastic pollution has become a significant concern in marine ecosystems worldwide. This study aims to investigate the presence and effects of microplastics in the digestive systems of various marine mammal species in the North Atlantic Ocean.
• Research Questions: a) What is the prevalence of microplastic ingestion among different marine mammal species in the North Atlantic? b) How does microplastic ingestion correlate with the health status of these marine mammals? c) What are the potential long-term implications of microplastic pollution on marine mammal populations in the region?
• Methodology: We will collect and analyze stomach contents and tissue samples from stranded marine mammals along the coastlines of the North Atlantic. Additionally, we will conduct field observations and health assessments of living populations…”

Key Differences Between Research Statements and Research Proposals

Now that we’ve looked at each document separately, let’s compare them side by side to highlight the main differences:

• Research Statement: Broad overview of your entire research career and interests
• Research Proposal: Focused on a specific project or study
• Research Statement: General and concise
• Research Proposal: Highly detailed and comprehensive
• Research Statement: Covers past, present, and future research interests
• Research Proposal: Focuses on a future project with a specific timeline
• Research Statement: To showcase your research expertise and potential
• Research Proposal: To gain approval or funding for a specific research project
• Research Statement: Often less structured, more like a narrative
• Research Proposal: Highly structured with specific sections (e.g., literature review, methodology)
• Research Statement: Aims to impress and inform the reader about your capabilities
• Research Proposal: Aims to persuade the reader to support or fund your project
• Research Statement: May include some references, but not extensively
• Research Proposal: Requires extensive literature review and citations

How to Write an Effective Research Statement

Now that we understand what a research statement is, let’s look at how to write one that stands out.

1. Start with a Strong Opening

Begin your research statement with a powerful opening that grabs the reader’s attention. This could be a brief story about what inspired your research interests or a compelling statistic that highlights the importance of your work.

Example: “When I first witnessed the devastating effects of coral bleaching during a diving expedition in 2015, I knew my life’s work would be dedicated to understanding and preserving these vital marine ecosystems.”

2. Highlight Your Research Journey

Describe your research background and how your interests have evolved over time. This shows your growth as a researcher and your ability to adapt to new challenges.

Example: “My early work focused on cataloging coral species diversity in the Caribbean. As I observed the rapid decline of certain species, my research shifted towards understanding the factors contributing to coral resilience in the face of climate change.”

3. Showcase Your Achievements

Mention your key accomplishments, such as publications, grants, or impactful findings. Be specific and quantify your achievements where possible.

Example: “My research on heat-resistant coral strains led to the publication of three peer-reviewed articles in leading marine biology journals and secured a $500,000 grant from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.”

4. Explain Your Current Research Focus

Clearly articulate your current research interests and ongoing projects. This demonstrates that you’re actively engaged in your field and have a clear direction.

Example: “Currently, I’m leading a team of researchers in developing innovative coral transplantation techniques using 3D-printed reef structures. Our preliminary results show a 40% increase in coral survival rates compared to traditional methods.”

5. Outline Your Future Research Plans

Describe your future research goals and how they build upon your previous work. This shows that you have a long-term vision and are committed to making a lasting impact in your field.

Example: “In the coming years, I plan to expand our coral restoration techniques to other reef systems around the world. I’m particularly interested in establishing a global network of coral nurseries to preserve genetic diversity and enhance reef resilience.”

6. Connect Your Research to Broader Impacts

Explain how your research contributes to your field and society at large. This helps the reader understand the significance of your work beyond academia.

Example: “By developing more effective coral restoration techniques, my research not only contributes to marine conservation but also helps protect coastal communities that rely on healthy reef systems for food security and economic stability.”

7. Maintain a Clear and Concise Style

Keep your writing clear, concise, and free of jargon. Remember that your audience may include people from different academic backgrounds.

8. Proofread and Revise

Always proofread your research statement carefully and ask colleagues for feedback. A polished, error-free document shows professionalism and attention to detail.

How to Write an Effective Research Proposal

Writing a research proposal requires careful planning and attention to detail. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you create a compelling proposal:

1. Choose a Compelling Title

Your title should be clear, concise, and accurately reflect the content of your proposal. It should grab the reader’s attention and give them a good idea of what your research is about.

Example: “Harnessing Artificial Intelligence to Predict and Prevent Coral Reef Bleaching Events”

2. Write an Engaging Introduction

Start with a brief background of the research problem and explain why it’s important. State your research question or hypothesis clearly.

Example: “Coral reefs, often called the ‘rainforests of the sea,’ are facing unprecedented threats due to climate change. This research aims to develop an AI-powered early warning system for coral bleaching events, potentially revolutionizing our ability to protect these crucial ecosystems.”

3. Conduct a Thorough Literature Review

Demonstrate your knowledge of the existing research in your field. Identify gaps in the current understanding that your research will address.

Example: “While numerous studies have documented the causes and effects of coral bleaching (Smith et al., 2018; Jones & Lee, 2020), there’s a lack of predictive models that can accurately forecast bleaching events on a local scale. This research builds upon the work of Zhang (2021) on using machine learning for environmental prediction…”

4. Clearly State Your Research Objectives

List your specific research goals or questions. These should be clear, measurable, and achievable within the scope of your project.

Example: “The objectives of this study are to:

• Develop an AI model that can predict coral bleaching events with 85% accuracy at least two weeks in advance.
• Identify the most critical environmental factors contributing to bleaching events in different reef ecosystems.
• Create a user-friendly interface for reef managers to access and interpret bleaching predictions.”

5. Describe Your Methodology in Detail

Explain how you plan to conduct your research. Include information about data collection methods, analysis techniques, and any special equipment or resources you’ll need.

Example: “We will collect real-time data from a network of underwater sensors installed at 20 reef sites across the Great Barrier Reef. This data will include water temperature, pH levels, salinity, and light intensity. We’ll combine this with satellite imagery and historical bleaching data to train our AI model using deep learning algorithms…”

6. Outline Your Timeline

Provide a realistic schedule for your research activities. Break down your project into phases and estimate how long each will take.

Example: “Phase 1 (Months 1-3): Literature review and data collection setup Phase 2 (Months 4-9): Data collection and AI model development Phase 3 (Months 10-18): Model testing and refinement Phase 4 (Months 19-24): Field trials and system optimization”

7. Discuss Potential Challenges and Solutions

Show that you’ve thought about possible obstacles and have plans to overcome them. This demonstrates your problem-solving skills and realistic approach.

Example: “One potential challenge is the reliability of underwater sensors in harsh marine environments. To mitigate this, we’ll use redundant sensors and develop a maintenance schedule to ensure consistent data collection. We’ll also implement data interpolation techniques to handle any gaps in the dataset.”

8. Include a Budget

If you’re seeking funding, provide a detailed budget that outlines all the costs associated with your research. Be realistic and justify major expenses.

Example: “Equipment costs:

• Underwater sensors (20 sets): $40,000
• High-performance computing cluster: $25,000
• Field research boat rental: $10,000 per year

Personnel costs:

• Principal Investigator (25% time): $30,000 per year
• Two graduate research assistants: $25,000 each per year …”

9. Emphasize the Significance and Potential Impact

Explain why your research matters and how it could benefit your field or society at large. This helps justify the resources and support you’re requesting.

Example: “By developing an accurate early warning system for coral bleaching, this research has the potential to save countless reef ecosystems worldwide. It could provide reef managers with crucial time to implement protective measures, potentially preserving biodiversity and the livelihoods of millions who depend on healthy coral reefs.”

10. Include References

Provide a comprehensive list of all the sources you cited in your proposal. Follow the citation style required by your institution or funding agency.

11. Proofread and Seek Feedback

Carefully review your proposal for clarity, coherence, and typos. Ask colleagues or mentors to read it and provide feedback. A polished, well-written proposal greatly increases your chances of success.

Tips for Success in Both Research Statements and Proposals

Whether you’re writing a research statement or a proposal, these general tips can help you create a more effective document:

• Know Your Audience : Tailor your language and level of detail to who will be reading your document. A proposal for a highly specialized grant might use more technical language than a general research statement for a broad academic hiring committee.
• Be Clear and Concise : Avoid jargon and overly complex sentences. Your ideas should be easy to understand, even for someone who isn’t an expert in your specific field.
• Show Enthusiasm : Let your passion for your research shine through. Enthusiasm can be contagious and may help engage your readers.
• Highlight Your Unique Perspective : What makes your research or approach special? Don’t be afraid to emphasize what sets you apart from others in your field.
• Use Strong, Active Language : Instead of saying “Research was conducted,” say “I conducted research.” Active voice makes your writing more engaging and clearly shows your role in the work.
• Proofread Carefully : Typos and grammatical errors can distract from your message and make your document seem less professional. Take the time to proofread carefully or ask someone else to review your work.
• Follow Instructions : If you’re given specific guidelines for format, length, or content, make sure to follow them exactly. Failing to do so can sometimes result in automatic rejection, regardless of the quality of your content.
• Tell a Story : While maintaining a professional tone, try to create a narrative that ties your past work, current interests, and future plans together coherently. This can make your document more memorable and engaging.
• Be Realistic : Especially in research proposals, make sure your goals and timelines are achievable. Overpromising can hurt your credibility.
• Update Regularly : Especially for research statements, make sure to update your document regularly to reflect your most recent work and interests.

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Research statement

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

To wrap up our discussion, let’s address some common questions about research statements and proposals:

1. How long should a research statement be?

A research statement is typically 1-3 pages long, but always check specific guidelines as requirements can vary.

2. Do I need to include references in a research statement?

While not always required, including a few key references can strengthen your research statement. However, it shouldn’t read like a literature review.

3. How detailed should the methodology be in a research proposal?

Your methodology should be detailed enough that another researcher in your field could understand and potentially replicate your approach. However, you don’t need to include every minor detail.

4. Can I use the same research statement for different job applications?

While you can use the same basic structure, it’s best to tailor your research statement to each specific position or institution you’re applying to.

5. How often should I update my research statement?

It’s a good idea to review and update your research statement at least once a year, or whenever you have significant new research developments.

6. What if I don’t have many research accomplishments yet?

Focus on your research interests, any relevant coursework or projects, and your future research goals. Everyone starts somewhere!

7. Is it okay to discuss failed experiments in a research proposal?

If relevant, discussing how you’ve learned from past challenges can demonstrate your problem-solving skills and resilience. However, focus more on your successes and future plans.

8. How technical should my language be in these documents?

This depends on your audience. For a specialized committee in your field, you can use more technical language. For a general audience, err on the side of clarity and simplicity.

9. Should I include personal information in my research statement?

While you can briefly mention what inspired your research interests, a research statement should focus primarily on your academic and professional experiences and goals.

10. How important is the budget section in a research proposal?

Very important! A well-thought-out, realistic budget demonstrates that you’ve carefully planned your research and understand what resources you’ll need.

11. Can I submit the same research proposal to multiple funding agencies?

While the core of your proposal might remain the same, it’s important to tailor each submission to the specific requirements and priorities of each funding agency.

12. What if my research plans change after submitting a proposal?

Some degree of flexibility is usually expected in research. If you receive funding and need to make significant changes to your plan, communicate with your funding agency about the necessary adjustments.

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