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Definition of experiment

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of experiment  (Entry 2 of 2)

intransitive verb

• experimentation

Examples of experiment in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'experiment.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle English, "testing, proof, remedy," borrowed from Anglo-French esperiment, borrowed from Latin experīmentum "testing, experience, proof," from experīrī "to put to the test, attempt, have experience of, undergo" + -mentum -ment — more at experience entry 1

verbal derivative of experiment entry 1

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1a

1787, in the meaning defined above

Phrases Containing experiment

• control experiment
• controlled experiment
• experiment station
• pre - experiment
• thought experiment

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Cite this Entry

“Experiment.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/experiment. Accessed 30 Jun. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of experiment.

Kids Definition of experiment  (Entry 2 of 2)

Medical Definition

Medical definition of experiment.

Medical Definition of experiment  (Entry 2 of 2)

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Nglish: Translation of experiment for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of experiment for Arabic Speakers

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thought experiment noun

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What does the noun thought experiment mean?

There is one meaning in OED's entry for the noun thought experiment . See ‘Meaning & use’ for definition, usage, and quotation evidence.

How common is the noun thought experiment ?

Where does the noun thought experiment come from?

Earliest known use

The earliest known use of the noun thought experiment is in the 1850s.

OED's earliest evidence for thought experiment is from 1854, in a translation by Alfred Edersheim, biblical scholar.

thought experiment is formed within English, by compounding.

Etymons: thought n. , experiment n.

Nearby entries

• thought-consciousness, n. 1769–
• thought control, n. 1884–
• thought-controlled, adj. 1926–
• thought-counter, n. 1865–
• thought crime, n. 1934–
• thought criminal, n. 1935–
• thought disorder, n. 1931–
• thoughted, adj. 1593–
• thoughten, adj. 1609–1850
• thought-executing, adj. 1608–
• thought experiment, n. 1854–
• thought field, n. 1868–
• thought field therapy, n. 1995–
• thought-form, n. 1834–
• thoughtfree, adj. 1652–
• thoughtful, adj. c1175–
• thoughtfully, adv. 1479–
• thoughtfulness, n. 1569–
• thoughtiness, n. a1658–
• thoughtive, adj. 1654–
• thoughtkin, n. a1871

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Meaning & use

Entry history for thought experiment, n..

Originally published as part of the entry for thought, n.

thought, n. was revised in September 2009.

oed.com is a living text, updated every three months. Modifications may include:

• further revisions to definitions, pronunciation, etymology, headwords, variant spellings, quotations, and dates;
• new senses, phrases, and quotations.

Earlier versions of this entry were published in:

OED First Edition (1912)

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OED Second Edition (1989)

• View thought¹ in OED Second Edition

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Citation details

Factsheet for thought experiment, n., browse entry.

• 1.1 Etymology
• 1.2 Pronunciation
• 1.3.1 Derived terms
• 1.3.2 Translations
• 1.4.1 Derived terms
• 1.4.2 Translations
• 1.4.3 References
• 2.1 Etymology
• 2.2 Pronunciation
• 2.3.1 Derived terms
• 2.4 References
• 2.5 Further reading
• 3.1 Etymology
• 3.2 Pronunciation
• 3.3.1 Declension
• 3.3.2 Related terms
• 3.4 Further reading
• 4.1 Etymology
• 4.2 Pronunciation
• 4.3.1 Related terms
• 4.3.2 Descendants
• 5.1 Etymology
• 5.2.1 Related terms
• 6.1 Etymology
• 6.2.1 Declension
• 7.1 Etymology
• 7.2 Pronunciation
• 7.3.1 Declension
• 7.3.2 Related terms
• 7.4 References

From Middle English experiment , from Old French esperiment ( French expérience ), from Latin experimentum ( “ experience, attempt, experiment ” ) , from experior ( “ to experience, to attempt ” ) , itself from ex + *perior , in turn from Proto-Indo-European *per- .

Pronunciation

• ( UK ) IPA ( key ) : /ɪkˈspɛɹ.ɪ.mənt/ , /ɛkˈspɛɹ.ɪ.mənt/

• Hyphenation: ex‧per‧i‧ment

experiment ( plural experiments )

• 1837 , L[etitia] E[lizabeth] L[andon ], “The Laboratory”, in Ethel Churchill: Or, The Two Brides.   [ … ] , volume II, London: Henry Colburn ,   [ … ] , →OCLC , page 327 : From her childhood she had been accustomed to watch, and often to aid, in her uncle's chemical experiments ; she was, therefore, not at a loss, as a complete novice in the science would have been.
• 1590 , Edmund Spenser, “Book II, Canto VI”, in The Faerie Queene.   [ … ] , London: [ … ] [ John Wolfe ] for William Ponsonbie , →OCLC : Pilot [...] Vpon his card and compas firmes his eye, The maisters of his long experiment , And to them does the steddy helme apply [...].

Derived terms

• blue bottle experiment
• control experiment
• double-slit experiment
• experimental
• factorial experiment
• forbidden experiment
• ganzfeld experiment
• gedanken experiment
• Hughes-Drever experiment
• Michelson-Morley experiment
• Milgram experiment
• noble experiment
• science experiment
• sexperiment
• thought experiment
• Valsalvian experiment
• Wizard of Oz experiment

Translations

experiment ( third-person singular simple present experiments , present participle experimenting , simple past and past participle experimented )

• 1951 October, “Models Assist Rolling Stock Design”, in Railway Magazine , page 647 : As well as demonstrating operating facilities, full-size car body models are used for experimenting with new types of interior finish, systems of lighting, positioning of route diagrams and advertisements, and the best form of windscreens at doorways, and the height and location of handgrips and handrails.
• 1978 August 19, David Brill, “California Here I Come!”, in Gay Community News , volume 6, number 5, page 10 : Bob is a shameless tourist: Coit Tower, Fisherman's Wharf, Twin Peaks, ad infinitum. I think walking the streets with a map in hand looks dumb; experimenting is much more fun.
• 1662 Thomas Salusbury, Galileo's Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (Dialogue 2): The Earth, the which may have carried us about perpetually ... without our being ever able to experiment its rest.
• 1481 , The Mirrour of the World , William Caxton, 1.5.22 : Til they had experimented whiche was trewe, and who knewe most.
• experimenter

• John A. Simpson and Edmund S. C. Weiner , editors ( 1989 ), “experiment”, in The Oxford English Dictionary , 2nd edition, Oxford: Clarendon Press , →ISBN .

Borrowed from Latin experīmentum . First attested in 1460. [1]

• IPA ( key ) : ( Central ) [əks.pə.ɾiˈmen]
• IPA ( key ) : ( Balearic ) [əks.pə.ɾiˈment]
• IPA ( key ) : ( Valencia ) [eks.pe.ɾiˈment]

experiment   m ( plural experiments )

• experimentar
• ^ “ experiment ”, in Gran Diccionari de la Llengua Catalana , Grup Enciclopèdia Catalana , 2024

Further reading

• “experiment” in Diccionari de la llengua catalana, segona edició , Institut d’Estudis Catalans .
• “experiment” in Diccionari normatiu valencià , Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua .
• “experiment” in Diccionari català-valencià-balear , Antoni Maria Alcover and Francesc de Borja Moll, 1962.

Borrowed from Latin experīmentum .

• IPA ( key ) : [ˈɛkspɛrɪmɛnt]

experiment   m   inan

• experiment Synonym: pokus provést experiment ― to perform an experiment

Related terms

• experimentální
• experimentovat
• experiment in Příruční slovník jazyka českého , 1935–1957
• experiment in Slovník spisovného jazyka českého , 1960–1971, 1989
• experiment in Internetová jazyková příručka

From Middle Dutch experiment , from Old French experiment , from Latin experimentum .

• IPA ( key ) : /ˌɛks.peː.riˈmɛnt/

• Hyphenation: ex‧pe‧ri‧ment
• Rhymes: -ɛnt

experiment   n ( plural experimenten , diminutive experimentje   n )

• experiment Synonyms: proef , test
• experimentatie
• experimenteel
• experimenteren

Descendants

From Latin experīmentum .

experiment   m ( plural experiments )

Borrowed from Latin experimentum .

experiment   n ( plural experimente )

Borrowed from Latin experīmentum , attested from 1682. [1]

• IPA ( key ) : /ɛksp(ɛ)rɪˈmɛnt/

experiment   n

• experimentell
• ^ experiment in  Svensk ordbok .
• experiment in Svenska Akademiens ordlista ( SAOL )
• experiment in Svenska Akademiens ordbok ( SAOB )

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'thought experiment' can also refer to...

Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen thought experiment

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thought experiment

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In a thought experiment, instead of bringing about a course of events, as in a normal experiment, we are invited to imagine one. We may then be able to ‘see’ that some result follows, or that some description is appropriate, or our inability to describe the situation may itself have some consequences. Thought experiments played a major role in the development of physics: for example, Galileo probably never dropped two balls of unequal weight from the leaning tower of Pisa, in order to refute the Aristotelian view that a heavy body falls faster than a lighter one. He merely asked us to imagine a heavy body made into the shape of a dumbell, and the connecting rod gradually made thinner, until it is finally severed. The thing is one heavy body until the last moment, and then two light ones, but it is incredible that this final snip alters the velocity dramatically. Other famous examples include the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen thought experiment. In the philosophy of personal identity, our apparent capacity to imagine ourselves surviving drastic changes of body, brain, and mind is a permanent source of difficulty (see split-brain phenomena, teleportation). There is no general consensus on the legitimate place of thought experiments, either to substitute for real experiment, or as a reliable device for discerning possibilities. Thought experiments one dislikes are sometimes called intuition pumps.

From:   thought experiment   in  The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy »

Subjects: Philosophy

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Reference entries, thought experiment n., thought experiments.

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Definition of experiment verb from the Oxford Advanced American Dictionary

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Study/Experimental/Research Design: Much More Than Statistics

Kenneth l. knight.

Brigham Young University, Provo, UT

The purpose of study, experimental, or research design in scientific manuscripts has changed significantly over the years. It has evolved from an explanation of the design of the experiment (ie, data gathering or acquisition) to an explanation of the statistical analysis. This practice makes “Methods” sections hard to read and understand.

To clarify the difference between study design and statistical analysis, to show the advantages of a properly written study design on article comprehension, and to encourage authors to correctly describe study designs.

Description:

The role of study design is explored from the introduction of the concept by Fisher through modern-day scientists and the AMA Manual of Style . At one time, when experiments were simpler, the study design and statistical design were identical or very similar. With the complex research that is common today, which often includes manipulating variables to create new variables and the multiple (and different) analyses of a single data set, data collection is very different than statistical design. Thus, both a study design and a statistical design are necessary.

Advantages:

Scientific manuscripts will be much easier to read and comprehend. A proper experimental design serves as a road map to the study methods, helping readers to understand more clearly how the data were obtained and, therefore, assisting them in properly analyzing the results.

Study, experimental, or research design is the backbone of good research. It directs the experiment by orchestrating data collection, defines the statistical analysis of the resultant data, and guides the interpretation of the results. When properly described in the written report of the experiment, it serves as a road map to readers, 1 helping them negotiate the “Methods” section, and, thus, it improves the clarity of communication between authors and readers.

A growing trend is to equate study design with only the statistical analysis of the data. The design statement typically is placed at the end of the “Methods” section as a subsection called “Experimental Design” or as part of a subsection called “Data Analysis.” This placement, however, equates experimental design and statistical analysis, minimizing the effect of experimental design on the planning and reporting of an experiment. This linkage is inappropriate, because some of the elements of the study design that should be described at the beginning of the “Methods” section are instead placed in the “Statistical Analysis” section or, worse, are absent from the manuscript entirely.

Have you ever interrupted your reading of the “Methods” to sketch out the variables in the margins of the paper as you attempt to understand how they all fit together? Or have you jumped back and forth from the early paragraphs of the “Methods” section to the “Statistics” section to try to understand which variables were collected and when? These efforts would be unnecessary if a road map at the beginning of the “Methods” section outlined how the independent variables were related, which dependent variables were measured, and when they were measured. When they were measured is especially important if the variables used in the statistical analysis were a subset of the measured variables or were computed from measured variables (such as change scores).

The purpose of this Communications article is to clarify the purpose and placement of study design elements in an experimental manuscript. Adopting these ideas may improve your science and surely will enhance the communication of that science. These ideas will make experimental manuscripts easier to read and understand and, therefore, will allow them to become part of readers' clinical decision making.

WHAT IS A STUDY (OR EXPERIMENTAL OR RESEARCH) DESIGN?

The terms study design, experimental design, and research design are often thought to be synonymous and are sometimes used interchangeably in a single paper. Avoid doing so. Use the term that is preferred by the style manual of the journal for which you are writing. Study design is the preferred term in the AMA Manual of Style , 2 so I will use it here.

A study design is the architecture of an experimental study 3 and a description of how the study was conducted, 4 including all elements of how the data were obtained. 5 The study design should be the first subsection of the “Methods” section in an experimental manuscript (see the Table ). “Statistical Design” or, preferably, “Statistical Analysis” or “Data Analysis” should be the last subsection of the “Methods” section.

Table. Elements of a “Methods” Section

The “Study Design” subsection describes how the variables and participants interacted. It begins with a general statement of how the study was conducted (eg, crossover trials, parallel, or observational study). 2 The second element, which usually begins with the second sentence, details the number of independent variables or factors, the levels of each variable, and their names. A shorthand way of doing so is with a statement such as “A 2 × 4 × 8 factorial guided data collection.” This tells us that there were 3 independent variables (factors), with 2 levels of the first factor, 4 levels of the second factor, and 8 levels of the third factor. Following is a sentence that names the levels of each factor: for example, “The independent variables were sex (male or female), training program (eg, walking, running, weight lifting, or plyometrics), and time (2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, or 30 weeks).” Such an approach clearly outlines for readers how the various procedures fit into the overall structure and, therefore, enhances their understanding of how the data were collected. Thus, the design statement is a road map of the methods.

The dependent (or measurement or outcome) variables are then named. Details of how they were measured are not given at this point in the manuscript but are explained later in the “Instruments” and “Procedures” subsections.

Next is a paragraph detailing who the participants were and how they were selected, placed into groups, and assigned to a particular treatment order, if the experiment was a repeated-measures design. And although not a part of the design per se, a statement about obtaining written informed consent from participants and institutional review board approval is usually included in this subsection.

The nuts and bolts of the “Methods” section follow, including such things as equipment, materials, protocols, etc. These are beyond the scope of this commentary, however, and so will not be discussed.

The last part of the “Methods” section and last part of the “Study Design” section is the “Data Analysis” subsection. It begins with an explanation of any data manipulation, such as how data were combined or how new variables (eg, ratios or differences between collected variables) were calculated. Next, readers are told of the statistical measures used to analyze the data, such as a mixed 2 × 4 × 8 analysis of variance (ANOVA) with 2 between-groups factors (sex and training program) and 1 within-groups factor (time of measurement). Researchers should state and reference the statistical package and procedure(s) within the package used to compute the statistics. (Various statistical packages perform analyses slightly differently, so it is important to know the package and specific procedure used.) This detail allows readers to judge the appropriateness of the statistical measures and the conclusions drawn from the data.

STATISTICAL DESIGN VERSUS STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Avoid using the term statistical design . Statistical methods are only part of the overall design. The term gives too much emphasis to the statistics, which are important, but only one of many tools used in interpreting data and only part of the study design:

The most important issues in biostatistics are not expressed with statistical procedures. The issues are inherently scientific, rather than purely statistical, and relate to the architectural design of the research, not the numbers with which the data are cited and interpreted. 6

Stated another way, “The justification for the analysis lies not in the data collected but in the manner in which the data were collected.” 3 “Without the solid foundation of a good design, the edifice of statistical analysis is unsafe.” 7 (pp4–5)

The intertwining of study design and statistical analysis may have been caused (unintentionally) by R.A. Fisher, “… a genius who almost single-handedly created the foundations for modern statistical science.” 8 Most research did not involve statistics until Fisher invented the concepts and procedures of ANOVA (in 1921) 9 , 10 and experimental design (in 1935). 11 His books became standard references for scientists in many disciplines. As a result, many ANOVA books were titled Experimental Design (see, for example, Edwards 12 ), and ANOVA courses taught in psychology and education departments included the words experimental design in their course titles.

Before the widespread use of computers to analyze data, designs were much simpler, and often there was little difference between study design and statistical analysis. So combining the 2 elements did not cause serious problems. This is no longer true, however, for 3 reasons: (1) Research studies are becoming more complex, with multiple independent and dependent variables. The procedures sections of these complex studies can be difficult to understand if your only reference point is the statistical analysis and design. (2) Dependent variables are frequently measured at different times. (3) How the data were collected is often not directly correlated with the statistical design.

For example, assume the goal is to determine the strength gain in novice and experienced athletes as a result of 3 strength training programs. Rate of change in strength is not a measurable variable; rather, it is calculated from strength measurements taken at various time intervals during the training. So the study design would be a 2 × 2 × 3 factorial with independent variables of time (pretest or posttest), experience (novice or advanced), and training (isokinetic, isotonic, or isometric) and a dependent variable of strength. The statistical design , however, would be a 2 × 3 factorial with independent variables of experience (novice or advanced) and training (isokinetic, isotonic, or isometric) and a dependent variable of strength gain. Note that data were collected according to a 3-factor design but were analyzed according to a 2-factor design and that the dependent variables were different. So a single design statement, usually a statistical design statement, would not communicate which data were collected or how. Readers would be left to figure out on their own how the data were collected.

MULTIVARIATE RESEARCH AND THE NEED FOR STUDY DESIGNS

With the advent of electronic data gathering and computerized data handling and analysis, research projects have increased in complexity. Many projects involve multiple dependent variables measured at different times, and, therefore, multiple design statements may be needed for both data collection and statistical analysis. Consider, for example, a study of the effects of heat and cold on neural inhibition. The variables of H max and M max are measured 3 times each: before, immediately after, and 30 minutes after a 20-minute treatment with heat or cold. Muscle temperature might be measured each minute before, during, and after the treatment. Although the minute-by-minute data are important for graphing temperature fluctuations during the procedure, only 3 temperatures (time 0, time 20, and time 50) are used for statistical analysis. A single dependent variable H max :M max ratio is computed to illustrate neural inhibition. Again, a single statistical design statement would tell little about how the data were obtained. And in this example, separate design statements would be needed for temperature measurement and H max :M max measurements.

As stated earlier, drawing conclusions from the data depends more on how the data were measured than on how they were analyzed. 3 , 6 , 7 , 13 So a single study design statement (or multiple such statements) at the beginning of the “Methods” section acts as a road map to the study and, thus, increases scientists' and readers' comprehension of how the experiment was conducted (ie, how the data were collected). Appropriate study design statements also increase the accuracy of conclusions drawn from the study.

CONCLUSIONS

The goal of scientific writing, or any writing, for that matter, is to communicate information. Including 2 design statements or subsections in scientific papers—one to explain how the data were collected and another to explain how they were statistically analyzed—will improve the clarity of communication and bring praise from readers. To summarize:

• Purge from your thoughts and vocabulary the idea that experimental design and statistical design are synonymous.
• Study or experimental design plays a much broader role than simply defining and directing the statistical analysis of an experiment.
• A properly written study design serves as a road map to the “Methods” section of an experiment and, therefore, improves communication with the reader.
• Study design should include a description of the type of design used, each factor (and each level) involved in the experiment, and the time at which each measurement was made.
• Clarify when the variables involved in data collection and data analysis are different, such as when data analysis involves only a subset of a collected variable or a resultant variable from the mathematical manipulation of 2 or more collected variables.

Acknowledgments

Thanks to Thomas A. Cappaert, PhD, ATC, CSCS, CSE, for suggesting the link between R.A. Fisher and the melding of the concepts of research design and statistics.

Look up a word, learn it forever.

/ɛkˈspirɪmɪnt/, /ɛkˈspɛrɪmənt/.

Other forms: experiments; experimenting; experimented

If you see your science-loving neighbor headed home with a power cord, a handful of test tubes, a stopwatch, and a bag of potatoes, there’s probably no need to be alarmed. There’s a good chance he’s only conducting an experiment , a scientific test conducted under controlled conditions.

To refer to a scientific test, use the noun experiment . If you want to describe the work done in conducting such a test, experiment will do the trick as well, since it can also act as a verb, as in "scientists experiment with helium." You can also use it more generally to describe trying a new method or idea. For example, you could experiment with a new hairstyle or different routes to get to school or work.

• noun the act of conducting a controlled test or investigation synonyms: experimentation see more see less types: show 4 types... hide 4 types... testing the act of subjecting to experimental test in order to determine how well something works trial and error experimenting until a solution is found Michelson-Morley experiment a celebrated experiment conducted by Albert Michelson and Edward Morley; their failure to detect any influence of the earth's motion on the velocity of light was the starting point for Einstein's theory of relativity control experiment an experiment designed to control for variables affecting the results of another experiment type of: research project , scientific research research into questions posed by scientific theories and hypotheses
• noun the testing of an idea “it was an experiment in living” synonyms: experimentation see more see less types: show 7 types... hide 7 types... pilot experiment a preliminary experiment whose outcome can lead to a more extensive experiment test , trial , trial run , tryout trying something to find out about it field test , field trial a test of the performance of some new product under the conditions in which it will be used alpha test (computer science) a first test of an experimental product (such as computer software) carried out by the developer beta test (computer science) a second test of an experimental product (such as computer software) carried out by an outside organization road test a test to insure that a vehicle is roadworthy trial balloon a test of public opinion type of: enquiry , inquiry , research a search for knowledge
• noun a venture at something new or different “as an experiment he decided to grow a beard” see more see less type of: venture any venturesome undertaking especially one with an uncertain outcome
• verb conduct a test or investigation “We are experimenting with the new drug in order to fight this disease” synonyms: try out try something new, as in order to gain experience see more see less type of: investigate , look into investigate scientifically
• verb try something new, as in order to gain experience “The composer experimented with a new style” synonyms: try out

Vocabulary lists containing experiment

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Experiments

Introduction, general overviews.

• Classic Texts
• Articles and Chapters on Experimentation
• Experiments and Causality
• Assignment to Condition
• Experimental Sampling Frames
• Internal versus External Validity
• Noncompliance and Attrition
• Deception and Ethics
• Laboratory Experiments
• Field Experiments
• Survey Experiments
• Natural Experiments
• Quasi-Experiments
• Experiments on New Media Platforms
• Classic Experimental Examples
• Comparison with Alternative Methods
• Additional Experimental Artifacts
• Analytical Issues and Solutions
• Additional Challenges in Design

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Experiments by Josh Pasek , Sun Joo (Grace) Ahn LAST REVIEWED: 30 September 2013 LAST MODIFIED: 30 September 2013 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756841-0138

Experimentation is one of the central scientific techniques for understanding the world. Although researchers often have ideas about how the things they study are related, experiments make it possible to test the relations between a proposed “cause” and its expected “effect.” By manipulating purported causes and evaluating the effects, communication researchers have learned enormous amounts about the roles media content and presentation play in citizens’ attitudes and behaviors. Early experiments in communication focused on understanding the influence of propaganda during the Second World War. From that time, the use of communication experiments has ballooned from a technique primarily focused on assessing media effects in laboratory environments to a broadly used set of strategies exploring factors as diverse as racial attitudes, voter turnout, health information, and the violation of social norms. Of course, no research method is without its limitations and flaws; many problems are ill-suited for experimental methods and many attempts to induce experimental design fall short of answering the questions researchers are asking. This article attempts to showcase both the virtues and the limitations of experiments. It is hoped that the references cited will help to illuminate the power of good designs and of solid questions while exposing the potential pitfalls of the experimental framework. To this end, the references presented serve as sources for good experimental design and analysis, illustrate ways to improve experimental techniques, and contrast experiments with other inferential methods, showing where each can provide useful scientific insights.

General reference books on experimentation vary considerably in their focus on statistical methods, their target audience, and their comprehensiveness. Researchers looking to design experiments should probably start with Shadish, et al. 2001 , which provides the most comprehensive overview of a large range of designs and accompanying assumptions, or Brown and Melamed 1990 , a shorter reference text. Those interested in a more complete statistical treatment of experimentation would be well served to explore Keppel and Wickens 2004 or Ryan 2007 , both of which could serve as graduate textbooks. Those interested in teaching undergraduates might find the general research methods text Babbie 2013 useful; another good undergraduate-level general text is Frey, et al. 1991 . The more experimentally focused Harris 2008 may prove useful for undergraduates running, and writing up, their own experiments. Druckman, et al. 2011 provides a strong introduction for researchers interested in understanding the variety of experimental approaches.

Babbie, E. R. 2013. The basics of social research . 5th ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning.

This undergraduate textbook provides a straightforward basic overview of a variety of social research methods. The text provides a good introduction to experiments and various experimental concepts as well as alternative methods for data collection.

Brown, S. R., and L. E. Melamed. 1990. Experimental design and analysis . Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.

Similar to many of the SAGE series on quantitative applications in the social sciences, this little green book provides a pithy overview of simple analytical techniques for experiments and a handful of true experimental designs.

Druckman, J. N., D. P. Green, J. H. Kuklinski, and A. Lupia, eds. 2011. Cambridge handbook of experimental political science . New York: Cambridge Univ. Press.

DOI: 10.1017/CBO9780511921452

Although targeted for political scientists, this reference text provides chapters reviewing a variety of considerations when designing and analyzing experiments, with considerable focus on nonlaboratory experimental designs. A number of creative applications of experimentation are also showcased, including some from political communication.

Frey, L. R., C. H. Botan, P. G. Friedman, and G. L. Krepa. 1991. Investigating communication: An introduction to research methods . Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

This general textbook introducing both qualitative and quantitative communication research methods is well tooled for an undergraduate class. Although the section on experiments is not large, the text is well pitched for an introductory research methods class.

Harris, P. 2008. Designing and reporting experiments in psychology . 3d ed. New York: Open Univ. Press.

Describing experimental design and running simple experiments are the focus of this how-to manual of an undergraduate textbook. It is particularly useful for undergraduates engaging in experimental research during the course of a term.

Keppel, G., and T. D. Wickens. 2004. Design and analysis: A researcher’s handbook . 4th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.

This textbook focuses largely on the statistical analysis of, and assumptions behind, various experimental designs. The book is well suited to a graduate course or can be used as a general reference text.

Ryan, T. P. 2007. Modern experimental design . Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Interscience.

DOI: 10.1002/0470074353

In looking across a variety of disciplines in both the natural and the social sciences, this textbook focuses on the statistical principles in both designing and analyzing experiments. It is useful as a reference text or graduate-level textbook, although the author does not discuss the many particular challenges that social scientists can encounter.

Shadish, W. R., T. D. Cook, and D. T. Campbell. 2001. Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference . Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Unmatched as a reference text or graduate textbook; the authors carefully illustrate many of the choices in experimental design, the inferences that can be made with various design decisions, and considerations for researchers using all types of experiments.

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The chapter.

• Nicholas Dames Nicholas Dames Department of English and Comparative Literature, Columbia University
• https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190201098.013.15
• Published online: 22 November 2016

First known as a kephalaion in Greek, capitulum or caput in Latin, the chapter arose in antiquity as a finding device within long, often heterogenous prose texts, prior even to the advent of the codex. By the 4th century ce , it was no longer unusual for texts to be composed in capitula ; but it is with the advent of the fictional prose narratives we call the novel that the chapter, both ubiquitous and innocuous, developed into a compositional practice with a distinct way of thinking about biographical time. A technique of discontinuous reading or “consultative access” which finds a home in a form for continuous, immersive reading, the chapter is a case study in adaptive reuse and slow change. One of the primary ways the chapter became a narrative form rather than just an editorial practice is through the long history of the chaptering of the Bible, particularly the various systems for chaptering the New Testament, which culminated in the early 13th century formation of the biblical chaptering system still in use across the West. Biblical chapters formed a template for how to segment ongoing plots or actions which was taken up by writers, printers, and editors from the late medieval period onward; pivotal examples include William Caxton’s chaptering of Thomas Malory’s Morte d’Arthur in his 1485 printing of the text, or the several mises en proses of Chrétien de Troyes’s poems carried out in the Burgundian court circle of the 15th century. By the 18th century, a vibrant set of discussions, controversies, and experiments with chapters were characteristic of the novel form, which increasingly used chapter titles and chapter breaks to meditate upon how different temporal units understand human agency in different ways. With the eventual dominance of the novel in 19th-century literary culture, the chapter had been honed into a way of thinking about the segmented nature of biographical memory, as well as the temporal frames—the day, the year, the episode or epoch—in which that segmenting occurs; chapters in this period were of an increasingly standard size, although still lacking any formal rules or definition. Modernist prose narratives often played with the chapter form, expanding it or drastically shortening it, but these experiments usually tended to reaffirm the unit of the chapter as a significant measure by which we make sense of human experience.

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Definition of experiment – Learner’s Dictionary

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• scientific experiments
• inhumane experiments on monkeys
• The table below shows the results of the experiment.
• Parallel experiments are being conducted in both countries .
• There is a growing debate on medical experiments.

experiment verb [I] ( TRY SOMETHING )

Experiment verb [i] ( do tests ).

• experimentation

(Definition of experiment from the Cambridge Learner's Dictionary © Cambridge University Press)

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It's not as world-famous as ramen or sushi. But the humble onigiri is soul food in Japan

The word “onigiri” (OH-knee-GEEH-reeh) just became part of the Oxford English Dictionary this year

TOKYO — The word “onigiri” became part of the Oxford English Dictionary this year, proof that the humble sticky-rice ball and mainstay of Japanese food has entered the global lexicon.

The rice balls are stuffed with a variety of fillings and typically wrapped in seaweed. It’s an everyday dish that epitomizes “washoku” — the traditional Japanese cuisine that was designated a UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage a decade ago.

Onigiri is “fast food, slow food and soul food,” says Yusuke Nakamura, who heads the Onigiri Society, a trade group in Tokyo.

Fast because you can find it even at convenience stores. Slow because it uses ingredients from the sea and mountains, he said. And soul food because it’s often made and consumed among family and friends. No tools are needed, just gently cupped hands.

“It’s also mobile, food on the move,” he said.

Onigiri in its earliest form is believed to go back at least as far as the early 11th Century; it’s mentioned in Murasaki Shikibu’s “The Tale of Genji.” It appears in Akira Kurosawa’s classic 1954 film “Seven Samurai” as the ultimate gift of gratitude from the farmers.

What exactly goes into onigiri?

The sticky characteristic of Japanese rice is key.

What's placed inside is called “gu,” or filling. A perennial favorite is umeboshi, or salted plum. Or perhaps mentaiko, which is hot, spicy roe. But in principle, anything can be placed inside onigiri, even sausages or cheese.

Then the ball is wrapped with seaweed. Even one nice big onigiri would make a meal, although many people would eat more.

Some stand by the classic onigiri

Yosuke Miura runs Onigiri Asakusa Yadoroku, a restaurant founded in 1954 by his grandmother. Yadoroku, which roughly translates to “good-for-nothing,” is named for her husband, Miura’s grandfather. It claims to be the oldest onigiri restaurant in Tokyo.

There are just two tables. The counter has eight chairs. Takeout is an option, but you still have to stand in line.

“Nobody dislikes onigiri,” said Miura, smiling behind a wooden counter. In a display case before him are bowls of gu, including salmon, shrimp and miso-flavored ginger. “It’s nothing special basically. Every Japanese has 100% eaten it.”

Also a classical flautist, Miura sees onigiri as a score handed down from his grandmother, one which he will reproduce faithfully.

“In classical music, you play what’s written on the music sheet. Onigiri is the same,” he says. “You don’t try to do something new.”

Yadoruku is tucked away in the quaint old part of Tokyo called Asakusa. It opens at 11:30 a.m. and closes when it runs out of rice, usually within the hour. Then it opens again for dinner. The most expensive onigiri costs 770 yen ($4.90), with salmon roe, while the cheapest is 319 yen ($2). That includes miso soup. No reservations are taken.

Although onigiri can be round or square, animal or star-shaped, Miura’s standard is the triangular ones. He makes them to order, right before your eyes, taking just 30 seconds for each.

He places the hot rice in triangular molds that look like cookie cutters, rubs salt on his hands and then cups the rice — three times to gently firm the sides. The crisp nori, or seaweed, is wrapped like a kerchief around the rice, with one end up so it stays crunchy.

The first bite is just nori and rice. The gu comes with your second bite.

“The Yadoroku onigiri will not change until the end of Earth,” Miura said with a grin.

Others want to experiment

Miyuki Kawarada runs Taro Tokyo Onigiri, which has four outlets in Japan. She is eyeing Los Angeles, too, and then Paris. Her vision: to make onigiri “the world’s fast food.”

The name Taro was chosen because it’s common, the Japanese equivalent of John or Michael. Onigiri, she says, has mass appeal because it’s simple to make, is gluten-free and is versatile.

And other Japanese foods like ramen and sushi have found worldwide popularity , she notes.

At her cheerful, modern shop, workers wearing khaki-colored company T-shirts busily prepare the gu and rice balls in a kitchen visible behind the cash register. The shop only serves takeout.

Kawarada’s onigiri has lots of gu on top, for colorful toppings, instead of inside. Each one comes with a separately wrapped piece of nori to be placed around it right before you eat.

Her gu gets adventurous. Cream cheese is mixed with a pungent Japanese pickle called “iburigakko,” for instance, and each onigiri costs 250 yen ($1.60). Spam and egg onigiri costs 300 yen ($1.90); the one adorned with several types of “kombu,” or edible kelp, called “Dashi Punch X3,” costs 280 yen ($1.80).

“Onigiri is the infinite universe. We don’t get tied down in tradition,” said Kawarada.

The customers

Asami Hirano, who stopped in while walking her dog, took a long time choosing her meal at Taro Tokyo Onigiri on a recent day.

“I’ve always loved onigiri since I was a kid. My mother made them,” she said.

Nicolas Foo Cheung, a Frenchman who works nearby as an intern, had been to Taro Tokyo Onigiri a few times before and thinks it’s a good deal. “It’s simple food,” he said.

Miki Yamada, a food promoter, intentionally calls onigiri “omusubi,” the other common word for rice balls, because the latter more clearly refers to the idea of connections. She says her life’s mission is to bring people together, especially since the triple earthquake, tsunami and nuclear disasters hit her family’s rice farm in Fukushima, northeastern Japan, in 2011.

“By facing up to omusubi, I have encountered a spirituality, a basic Japanese-ness of sorts,” she said.

There is nothing better, she said, than plain Aizu rice omusubi with a pinch of salt and utterly nothing inside.

“It energizes you. It’s that ultimate comfort food,” she said.

Yuri Kageyama is on X: https://twitter.com/yurikageyama

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Transmembrane formins as active cargoes of membrane trafficking.

Transmembrane class I formins are cytoskeletal regulators localizing to the plasmalemma and endomembranes that may act as ‘active cargoes’ of membrane trafficking, modulating the fate of membrane compartments carrying them.

RHO OF PLANTS signalling and the activating ROP GUANINE NUCLEOTIDE EXCHANGE FACTORS: specificity in cellular signal transduction in plants

This review summarizes recent advances in RHO OF PLANTS signalling, highlighting that distinct cellular functions depend on signalling complex composition and that ROP GUANINE NUCLEOTIDE EXCHANGE FACTORS determine signalling specificity.

Vesicle trafficking pathways in defence-related cell wall modifications: papillae and encasements

Papillae and encasements are highly conserved—and seemingly effective—plant defence structures formed in response to attack by filamentous pathogens. The known membrane trafficking steps mediating this specialized form of polarized secretion are summarized.

More than meets the eye: knowns and unknowns of the trafficking of small secreted proteins in Arabidopsis

A review of small secreted protein families in Arabidopsis, with a focus on their trafficking and localization, which remain poorly understood.

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RESEARCH PAPER

Disrupting cell wall integrity impacts endomembrane trafficking to promote secretion over endocytic trafficking.

Altering cell wall integrity alters organelle number, morphology, and movement, reduces actin cytoskeleton dynamics, decreases endocytic trafficking, and increases secretion.

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