leadership case study analysis

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Leadership Case Studies

Here is a sample of three case studies from the book, Leadership Case Studies, that are most instructive and impactful to developing leadership skills.

For the past 30 years, I have conducted seminars and workshops and taught college classes on leadership.

I used a variety of teaching aids including books, articles, case studies, role-plays, and videos.

I recently created a book, Leadership Case Studies that includes some of the case studies and role-plays that I found to be most instructive and impactful.

Here is a sample of three case studies.

Peter Weaver Case Study

Peter Weaver doesn’t like to follow the crowd. He thinks groupthink is a common problem in many organizations. This former director of marketing for a consumer products company believes differences of opinion should be heard and appreciated. As Weaver states, “I have always believed I should speak for what I believe to be true.”

He demonstrated his belief in being direct and candid throughout his career. On one occasion, he was assigned to market Paul’s spaghetti-sauce products. During the brand review, the company president said, “Our spaghetti sauce is losing out to price-cutting competitors. We need to cut our prices!”

Peter found the courage to say he disagreed with the president. He then explained the product line needed more variety and a larger advertising budget. Prices should not be cut. The president accepted Weaver’s reasoning. Later, his supervisor approached him and said, “I wanted to say that, but I just didn’t have the courage to challenge the president.”

On another occasion, the president sent Weaver and 16 other executives to a weeklong seminar on strategic planning. Weaver soon concluded the consultants were off base and going down the wrong path. Between sessions, most of the other executives indicated they didn’t think the consultants were on the right path. The consultants heard about the dissent and dramatically asked participants whether they were in or out. Those who said “Out” had to leave immediately.

As the consultants went around the room, every executive who privately grumbled about the session said “In.” Weaver was fourth from last. When it was his turn, he said “Out” and left the room.

All leaders spend time in reflection and self-examination to identify what they truly believe and value. Their beliefs are tested and fine-tuned over time. True leaders can tell you, without hesitation, what they believe and why. They don’t need a teleprompter to remind them of their core beliefs. And, they find the courage to speak up even when they know others will disagree.

• What leadership traits did Weaver exhibit?
• If you were in Weaver’s shoes, what would you have done?
• Where does courage come from?
• List your three most important values.

Dealing with a Crisis Case Study

Assume you are the VP of Sales and Marketing for a large insurance company. Once a year your company rewards and recognizes the top 100 sales agents by taking them to a luxury resort for a four-day conference. Business presentation meetings are held during the morning. Afternoons are free time. Agents and spouses can choose from an assortment of activities including golf, tennis, boating, fishing, shopping, swimming, etc.

On day 2 at 3:00 p.m., you are at the gym working out on the treadmill, when you see Sue your administrative assistant rushing towards you. She says, “I need to talk to you immediately.”

You get off the treadmill and say, “What’s up?” Sue states, “We’ve had a tragedy. Several agents went boating and swimming at the lake. Randy, our agent from California died while swimming.”

(Background information – Randy is 28 years old. His wife did not come on the trip. She is home in California with their three children).

• Explain what you would communicate to the following people.
• Your Human Resources Department
• The local police
• The attendees at the conference (Would you continue the conference?)
• How will you notify Randy’s wife?
• If Randy’s wife and a few family members want to visit the location of Randy’s death, what would you do?
• What are some “guiding principles” that leaders need to follow in a crisis situation?

 Arsenic and Old Lace Case Study

Review the YouTube video, “ I’ll show them who is boss Arsenic and Old Lace.”   

Background Information

The Vernon Road Bleaching and Dyeing Company is a British lace dyeing business. It was purchased in bankruptcy by the father/son team of Henry and Richard Chaplin. Richard has been acting as “Managing Director” which is the same as a general manager or president of a company.

The company has had 50-to-150 employees with 35-to-100 being shop floor, production employees. The company produces and sells various dyed fabrics to the garment industry.

Gerry Robinson is a consultant who was asked to help transform methods of conducting business to save the company.

Jeff is the factory manager.

• What are Richard’s strengths and weaknesses as a leader?
• What could Richard have done to make the problems of quality and unhappy customers more visible to the workforce?
• What do you think Richard’s top three priorities should be for the next 12 months?
• What could Richard have done to motivate the workforce?
• Evaluate Jeff’s approach and effectiveness as a leader.

The book contains 16 case studies, four role-plays, and six articles. I hope you find some of the content useful and helpful in your efforts to teach leadership.

Click for additional leadership case studies and resources .

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The Ethical Leadership Case Study Collection

The Ted Rogers Leadership Centre’s Case Collection, developed in collaboration with experienced teaching faculty, seasoned executives, and alumni, provides instructors with real-life decision-making scenarios to help hone students’ critical-thinking skills and their understanding of what good leaders do. They will be able to leverage the theories, models, and processes being advanced. Students come to understand that workplace dilemmas are rarely black and white, but require them to think through and address competing claims and circumstances. Crucially, they also appreciate how they can, as new leaders and middle managers, improve decisions by creating realistic action plans based on sound stakeholder analysis and communication principles. These case studies are offered free of charge to all instructors.

Cases come in both long and short forms. The long cases provide instructors with tools for delving deeply into subjects related to a variety of decision making and organizational development issues. The short cases, or “minis,” are quick in-class exercises in leadership.

For both the long cases and the minis, teaching-method notes are provided, which include not only recommended in-class facilitation methods, but also grading rubrics, references, and student feedback.

Testimonials

“I have been invited to judge the Leadership Centre’s Annual Ethical Leadership National Case Competition since its inception. Each year, competitors are given a Centre’s case to analyze and present. These cases are like nothing else. They bring the student into the heart of the situation. To excel, students must not only be able to cogently argue the options, but also demonstrate how to implement a decision based on a clear-eyed stakeholder analysis and an understanding of the dynamics of change.” Anne Fawcett, Special Advisor, Caldwell Partners

“I have worked with the Ted Rogers Leadership Centre to both develop and pilot test case materials. Feedback consistently shows that the Centre’s cases resonate with students, providing them with valuable learning experiences.” Chris Gibbs, BComm, MBA, PhD, Associate Professor

"As a judge in the recent national Ted Rogers Ethical Leadership Case Competition, I was very impressed with the quality of the case study prepared by the Leadership Centre. It was brief but well-composed. It exposed the students to ethical quandaries, of the sort they may well face in their business careers. It not only tested their reasoning, but it challenged them to develop a plan of action when faced with incomplete information and imminent deadlines.” Lorne Salzman, Lawyer

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How To Write A Leadership Case Study (Sample) 

Table of Contents

Writing a case study isn’t as straightforward as writing essays. But it has proven to be an effective way of teaching complex topics, even in organizations. Want to know how to write a leadership case study ? That’s not surprising. Leadership is a dynamic topic. Hence, a case study simplifies the analysis of various leadership techniques and complexities. Since you’ve got to learn how to write one, let’s talk leadership case studies .

What Is a Case Study?

A case study is a research method that analyzes an in-depth, detailed look at a particular situation or event . It may involve examining specific events or contexts in detail and considering their implications for similar events. A case study may require gathering information from multiple sources, like interviews or observations, to understand the context of a problem or phenomenon. The research results help you develop insights and an understanding of how individual experiences fit into the broader framework of their environment. Case studies are commonly used in business research, social science, education, psychology, and health sciences.

Benefits Of Case Study In Leadership

Case reports are time-consuming and tiring. But is it worth the stress? What are the benefits of the case study? Case studies in leadership can be highly beneficial, offering invaluable lessons and insights into becoming an effective leader. They provide a practical approach to understanding the complexities of real-world leadership experiences. Here are some of the benefits that case study in leadership provides: 1) Increased knowledge – By examining specific examples from history or current events, leaders can gain new perspectives on various leadership styles. 2) Improved decision-making – Case studies allow for critical analysis of existing data. It also covers potential future scenarios, which helps leaders make more informed decisions. 3) Greater self-awareness – Examining other leaders’ successes and failures gives insight into our values, beliefs, and biases, leading to better self-knowledge and development. 4) Enhanced problem-solving skills – Studying successful strategies used by other leaders provides ideas and frameworks for dealing with similar challenges in the future. 5) Increased collaboration – Through discussions surrounding case studies, team members can develop a greater understanding of each others’ viewpoints and work together more effectively.

How To Write A Leadership Case Study

A leadership case study effectively shares real-life leadership success or failure. To write such a study, one should include inspiring and educational details for readers. Begin by researching the subject thoroughly to ensure accuracy in facts and figures. Then, craft the narrative around this data, adding a personal flair with anecdotes and quotes from those who have worked directly with the subject. Emphasize key points with relevant examples and create impactful transitions between ideas. Finally, consider providing insight into possible lessons learned from the experience to help others facing similar challenges.

Leadership Case Study Example

Kiara, a tech executive at a startup, is an exemplary leader. She has been in her position for over two years and continues to be successful despite the challenges of managing a rapidly growing team. Kiara’s leadership style is based on empathy and trust-building. Her primary focus is creating an environment where each person can reach their fullest potential and feel supported by their colleagues. Kiara frequently facilitates meetings with open dialogue and encourages her team to voice their opinions without fear of judgment. She also emphasizes direct communication whenever possible so that everyone knows what is expected of them and feels connected to one another. Kiara puts forth additional effort when it comes to decision-making. Before any significant changes or initiatives are implemented, she thoroughly researches and solicits feedback from other leaders. She also consults experts within the company. This ensures that choices are well thought out and align with the organization’s mission. Kiara seeks regular employee feedback to continue fostering a healthy work culture. She holds weekly “check-ins” with individuals and teams to address issues as they arise. Ultimately she creates a congenial working atmosphere for all. Kiara exemplifies authentic leadership – putting the needs of her team before her own. She takes calculated risks, trusts her gut intuition, and communicates effectively with those around her. Through these actions, she demonstrates excellent tenacity and selflessness while pushing her team toward success. This case study highlights the importance of feedback and seeking quality counsel to make appropriate decisions for your organization. It shows that leaders who are willing to put more effort into communication can find ways to thrive even under challenging circumstances.

Final Words

A good leadership case study should be an engaging read. It’s crucial to present your expertise in clear language that is easy for readers to follow. Include real examples of successes or failures when possible, as this adds substance to your writing. Draw inspiration from the sample in this article to learn how to write a leadership case study . Or use INK’s Command Mode to craft a personalized case study!

Abir Ghenaiet

Abir is a data analyst and researcher. Among her interests are artificial intelligence, machine learning, and natural language processing. As a humanitarian and educator, she actively supports women in tech and promotes diversity.

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The teaching cases in this section are designed to provoke critical thinking on various domestic and international leadership challenges. Students will find themselves in the shoes of leaders from many positions—whether it be in the nonprofit or public sectors—and will have to navigate the complex reality of what it means to be an effective leader.

A Fork in the Road: Simulating Lyndon Johnson's Choices in Vietnam in Early 1965

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Leadership Case Study

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Learn about theories, skills, and the impact of world leaders in this case study about leadership.

Introduction

Leadership theories, steve jobs leadership, skills approach leadership, list of references.

Leadership is one of the concepts in the world, which has received massive coverage and attention. Although there are several reasons behind this trend, the commonest one is the fact that leaders have a significant influence in the society. Not to mention that some people and organizations have become what they are today because of the impact of certain leaders (Grint 2010, p. 1).

Even though there is a wide range of definitions that describe a leader, it has been universally agreed that a leader is a person who gives direction to others in order to attain a common goal (Gallos 2008, p. 1). This is mainly achieved through setting a pace in serving as a role model and creation of a working environment that allows members of the organization or employees to feel honored as part of the advancement process.

Importantly, a leader cannot be viewed as a boss since he or she remains committed to the full course of achieving set goals and objectives. It is noteworthy that there are numerous qualities, which define the character of a good leader. While these factors may vary from one person to another, common traits include being a good listener, focused, organized, available, ready to delegate duties, confident and decisive (Gallos 2008, p. 2).

Twentieth century saw the demand and interest in leadership rise to an advanced stage. While early leaders laid emphasis on existing differences between leaders and followers in terms of their qualities, subsequent leadership theorists approached the issue by considering certain variable like qualifications and situations in establishing an understanding of leadership traits (Grint 2010, p. 1). Some of these theories have been discussed under this segment of the analysis.

The first one is the “great man” theory, which assumes that good leaders are born and that what is considered to be good traits are naturally obtained. In other words, these leaders are born, which is against the notion that favors making of leaders. This school of thought normally depicts leaders to be heroic and ready to take up leadership positions in the corporate world whenever there is need.

It is also paramount to note that the term was developed when the society thought that leadership was strictly meant for males (Bolden et al. 2003). This theory is believed to have been first developed by Thomas Carlyle, a time when gender equality was not being talked about as it is today. Men were therefore given leadership preference as women dominated other domestic areas of society management.

It is also believed that the trait theory resembles the great man philosophy, as it assumes that certain qualities observed among some leaders are inherited, thus making them better than other leaders. This theory generally focuses on a behavior or trait, which is common among leaders. Even though this has been the case, it is hard to explain the existence of some of these qualities among people who are not leaders (Bolden et al. 2003). This is considered as the main obstacle in adopting this theory when explaining the concept of leadership.

On the other hand, contingency theories address certain variables, which are connected to the environment and influence the type of leadership style suitable for a given situation. A very important fact under this theory is that situations in life cannot be addressed by one leadership style.

This is based on a wide range of ways in which the situations are manifested. Basically, success is coupled with leadership styles, different situational aspects and traits carried by followers (Bolden et al. 2003). This leadership theory is closely related to situational theories, which affirm that situational variables are key in influencing the decision made by leaders. It follows that a decision-making process may require several leadership styles to ensure that the best position is reached.

Unlike of the ideas discussed above, behavioral theories of leadership are inclined towards the fact that good leaders are made. It is solely based on behaviorism and the overall manner in which leaders act. In essence, the theory suggests that good leadership can be attained through learning and observation as opposed to being natural traits in human beings (Bolden et al. 2003).

Moreover, participative theories of leadership support the fact good leadership seeks to incorporate the ideas of others in decision-making. They motivate other people to be part of the course of achieving set goals and objectives. Nevertheless, a leader may choose not to consider the input of his or her followers.

Management leadership focuses on concepts of performance, supervision and organization. It is founded on the use of rewards and punishments in ensuring that the course is retained by all parties involved. This is the commonest leadership theory in business, where employees are recognized according to their input.

The last theory of leadership is the relationship theory, which is also referred to as transformational theory. This emphasizes on the bond between leaders and their followers. Through motivation, these leaders show their followers the benefits, which are hidden in the future. As much as they are concerned with performance, exploitation of each person’s potential is always at the heart of their performance. These leaders equally possess high standards in terms of ethics and morality (Bass & Riggio 2006).

The name of Steve Paul Jobs has dominated the world of leadership especially in the 21 st century; at the peak of technological advancements in computer technology. Born in 1955, Steve Jobs was a man of his caliber in terms of innovation of business ideas. Until his death in 2011, Jobs remained an icon of transformational leadership (Peña 2005).

Among other successes and leadership positions, Jobs was well known for as the chairman and co-founder of the famous Apple Inc. Unlike his counterparts who have a clear-cut of their leadership styles, Jobs could not be described by a single style of leadership; he was endowed with several qualities, which helped him to traverse the business world, to achieve such massive success. Importantly, his life experiences right from teenage played a major role in molding his personality, having failed to graduate from college.

In his 2005 address at the Stanford University, Steve Jobs highlighted several life experiences, which had shaped his life and challenged graduates to see success and opportunities in setbacks, which life offers. He believed in having faith, by connecting dots in life even during hard moments and hardly regretted for his decisions, including the selection of an expensive college that became a challenge to his parents in paying tuition fees.

As a result, he dropped out, and registered for calligraphy, which was significant in designing fonts while designing the first Macintosh. The love for his job was unwavering. Together with his friend, they founded Apple and even after being kicked out of the company, he moved on to launch NeXT Software Inc., which was acquired by Apple in 1997, giving a chance to rejoin Apple. His ill-health was a further source of inspiration in life.

After surviving a pancreatic surgery necessitated by cancer, he considered it as a wakeup call; to maximize the use of available time in doing what he loved most (Peña 2005). It is this path that shaped Steve Paul Jobs to become a leader with countless styles and qualities.

Firstly, Jobs was a charismatic leader. He was widely known for his ability to give captivating speeches, a trait that was equally employed in his career. His storytelling skills favored him capturing the attention of not only his audience but also his employees at Apple and other companies (Kramer 2010).

He was able to communicate the benefits of using Apple products as compared to other products by use of metaphors and analogies. His charismatic nature was essential in developing enthusiastic leaders who remained focused towards achieving that which seemed impossible in the eyes of many and convince his customers that his company had the best products in the market.

Jobs inherent and learned traits seemed to define his character and leadership path. Due to this, he earned himself several titles, which mainly described his attachment to perfection (Kramer 2010). His leadership was therefore described as personalized; he sometimes expected too much from an employee.

According to Jobs, he was interested in making people better, a leadership approach that was sometimes misinterpreted as being autocratic and rude especially in meetings. As an autocratic leader, Jobs insisted on being in control and showing people what to do even as a role model. While at Apple, Jobs had over a hundred employees who directly reported to him directly. His degree as a participatory leader was therefore low (Peña 2005).

Importantly, Steve Jobs remains an icon of transformational leadership. Throughout his career, Steve Jobs managed to transform different companies like Pixar. He also led by example, showing employees and other managers what was to be done in order to overcome the challenges of a competitive business world (Kramer 2010). This was essential in bringing out the best in every employee and promoting performance.

He is the founder of Amazon.com, its CEO and chair of the company’s board. Bezos is highly recognized in the money market and was valued at $3.6 billion, according to Forbes’ survey in the year 2006. He was listed as the personality of the year in 1999 by the Time magazine. Besides Amazon.com, Jeff Bezos founded Blue Origin, with an aim of promoting tourism. He is definitely influential and his leadership style is worth studying to understand his success secrets.

Unlike some of company owners who choose to delegate managerial positions, Bezos runs Amazon.com as its founder and CEO. He therefore battles out by transiting from a small company to the head of thousands of employees.

He is generally overwhelmed with fun and innovations, having carried his laughing character to the company. In analyzing his leadership qualities, Bezos has been described using a wide range of approaches (‘Taking the long view’ 2012).

He is a transformational leader. Based on the path he has used to get Amazon.com where it is today, it is doubtless that he has been instrumental in promoting the company’s performance. He has always made choices based on his desire to move to another level, a reasons he gives for marrying his wife. His visionary has definitely landed him to a place he dreamed, decades ago.

He is also concerned in the performance of managers and other company employees. In order to impact his management team, he organizes weekly meeting, reporting on experiences and answering questions from him. The Just Do It program launched by Bezos was highly applauded for promoting participatory management at Amazon (‘Taking the long view’ 2012).

According to the program, managers are promoted for their innovative ideas, which are aimed at improving the company’s performance. His perfectionism in performance means that he has to higher new managers consistently, who are intelligent and highly skilled.

This approach is mainly leader-centered. In other words, it focuses on certain skills, which can be learned and improve the leadership potential of an individual. It is obvious that knowledge and skills are essential for one to be recognized as a strong leader. Furthermore, skills denote what is achievable by a leader, while traits mainly focus on a leader’s identity ( Leadership Skills Approach 2012). This leadership approach requires a leader to master three important areas, which are conceptual, technical and human.

Technical skills determine a leader’s proficiency in performing certain tasks. For instance, Steve Jobs’ skills as a computer scientist were paramount in navigating through the world of computers. Despite his lack of a college degree, he had relevant knowledge in the world of technology (Peña 2005).

He also had innovative skills, which transformed several companies including Apple Inc. Mr. Bezos equally has computer skills in science and business, which have been significant in internet business, marketing and cloud computing. Bezos has experience in garage operations, having been a garage inventor during his early years of entrepreneurship.

Skills approach of leadership further emphasizes on human skills, which are vital in dealing with people ( Leadership Skills Approach 2012). Although Steve Jobs was sometimes considered to be rude autocratic in handing employees, his sense of charisma made him an outstanding leader in handling people. He was a role model and encouraged his employees to exploit their potential. On the other hand, Bezos enhances his human skills through weekly training and hiring of intelligent and smart employees.

The last aspect is having conceptual skills, which are necessary in making long-term decisions ( Leadership Skills Approach 2012). Steve jobs had a long-term vision and remained focused on the course despite his failure to graduate from university. While serving with various companies, he invested in getting higher.

He transformed Apple, making it one of the leading technological companies in the world. Similarly, Amazon culture is dominated with long-term strategies. Since its inception, Amazon always invests its short-term profits for long-term benefits. Bezos takes risks, venturing into fields, which are less considered. These included cloud computing and the Blue Origin.

The question we need to ask is how Steve Jobs and Jeff Bezos would lead a conservative industry like banking or construction. As mentioned before, the contingency theory of leadership focuses on external and internal factors, which determine the kind of leadership necessary. In other words, it may require the application of several styles in order to achieve reputable skills.

The success of the two would not be limited, by the fact that their leadership styles are more diverse. For instance, Steve Jobs had several leadership styles, which would be important in taking a contingent approach. However, they would be limited in innovation; their success stories revolve around innovative ideas, which might not have a place in a conservative environment.

While starting a company like Apple or Amazon with five employees, it would be important to apply transformational leadership in order to realize success. This is because transformational approach focuses on having a vision to advance to higher levels in future. It further nurtures talents and skills among employees for maximum performance (Bass & Riggio 2006).

Transformational leadership was highly employed by Jobs and Bezos. This helped in changing their small businesses into multinational companies. Nevertheless, this styles wastes a lot of time since leaders have to share their goals with follower. It can also be misused especially by dictatorial leaders.

From the above report, it is clear that leadership is a major concept in the society. Additionally, the success of leaders largely depends of their leadership qualities and styles. Leadership theorists argue that every leader can be grouped into a particular class of leadership. In this case study, it was revealed that several leadership styles contributed to the success of Steve Jobs and Jeff Bezos, to become world leading CEOs in the 21 st century.

To thrive in this competitive environment, they adopted several leadership styles. Moreover, transformational leadership qualities were key in developing their success story. It is worth noting that different companies may require varying leadership styles for their success.

Bass, B & Riggio, R 2006, Transformational Leadership , Routledge, London.

Bolden et al. 2003, A Review of Leadership Theory and Competency Frameworks . Web.

Gallos, J 2008, Business Leadership: A Jossey-Bass Reader , John Wiley and Sons, New Jersey.

Grint, K 2010, Leadership: A Very Short Introduction , Oxford University Press, London.

Kramer, D 2010, Leadership Behaviors and Attitudes of Steve Jobs . Web.

Leadership Skills Approach . 2012. Web.

Peña, M, 2005, Steve Jobs to 2005 graduates: ‘Stay hungry, stay foolish . Web.

‘Taking the long view’ 2012 The Economist (US), vol. 402, p. 1-3.

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IvyPanda. (2019, April 6). Leadership Case Study. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-case-study/

"Leadership Case Study." IvyPanda , 6 Apr. 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-case-study/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'Leadership Case Study'. 6 April.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Leadership Case Study." April 6, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-case-study/.

1. IvyPanda . "Leadership Case Study." April 6, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-case-study/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Leadership Case Study." April 6, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/leadership-case-study/.

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Top 40 Most Popular Case Studies of 2020

A case study on the Marina Bay Sands in Singapore claimed the top spot in the annual review of case usage conducted by the Yale School of Management’s CRDT.

A case study on the Marina Bay Sands in Singapore claimed the top spot in the annual review of case usage conducted by the Yale School of Management’s Case Research and Development Team (SOM CRDT), dethroning "Coffee 2016", the top case in the last two annual surveys. Marina Bay Sands case examines the intersection of marketing, operations, and sustainability at the luxury resort.

Coffee 2016 fell to second place and a note on Search Fund Company Boards took the third spot. Cases on Shake Shack, Volkswagen, Cadbury, Netflix, Endesa, and the Mayo Clinic rounded out the top ten.

All of the top 40 cases are available for purchase from Yale Management Media .

The list had a particular international flavor this year with 19 of the cases featuring organizations located outside the United States. The top 40 featured 27 "raw" online cases and 13 "cooked" .pdf cases. The functional perspectives of the cases spanned the full range of interests at the Yale School of Management, from customers, the workforce, state & society to investors, entrepreneurship, and sourcing and managing funds.

Other year-end data for 2020 showed:

• Consumption of “raw'' online cases by numbers of users and countries remained steady in 2020 as compared to 2019, but over 50 more titles were viewed, a roughly 30 percent increase.
• Just under half of raw case users were from the U.S., up from a third the year before.
• Customers bought 197 titles, 70 more than in 2019.
• A third of the top 40 cases featured women in leadership positions.
• Interest in SOM case studies remained steady with almost 150K page views of the SOM CRDT case directory .
• Close to 80 percent of those who browsed the directory were from outside the U.S., a 20 percent increase over  2019.
• The top 40 cases were supervised by 22 different Yale SOM faculty members, several supervising two cases or more.

SOM CRDT compiled its third annual top 40 list by combining data from publishers, Google Analytics, direct sales, and other measures of interest and adoption.

The complete list of Top 40 cases studies for 2020:

Digital Twins for Managing Performance Across Diverse Organizational Contexts: Analysis from Case Studies

35 Pages Posted: 6 Sep 2024

Rajan Kumar V K

LUT University

Tero Rantala

Independent

Minna Saunila

Juhani ukko.

This study investigates the role of digital twins in enhancing performance management practices across diverse organizational contexts, irrespective to their size and sector. Through in-depth case studies, we explore the strategic benefits, organizational implications, and the evolving relationship between humans and digital twins in performance management. Our findings demonstrate that digital twins facilitate a shift from periodic assessments to real-time, data-driven optimization within organizations. This enables enhanced decision-making, continuous improvement, and process efficiency enhancement. Furthermore, the research highlights the future trajectory of digital twins, including their democratization through user-friendly interfaces and integration with other novel technologies. This study offers valuable insights for organizations considering the implementation of digital twins and for researchers seeking to understand their long-term impact on performance management practices and the changing nature of work.

Keywords: Digital twins, performance management, case studies, organizational performance, digital transformation, diverse organizations

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

Rajan Kumar V K (Contact Author)

Lut university ( email ).

Lappeenranta Finland

Independent ( email )

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Case Study: When Two Leaders on the Senior Team Hate Each Other

by Boris Groysberg and Katherine Connolly Baden

Summary .   

In this fictional case, the CEO of a sports apparel manufacturer is faced with an ongoing conflict between two of his top executives. Specifically, the head of sales and the CFO are at each other’s throats and the tension is having a ripple effect on their teams and the rest of the organization. The CEO, who tends to avoid conflict himself, is struggling with how to respond. His options include changing the company compensation scheme to encourage better collaboration, firing the two leaders, getting them each a coach, and doing more team building activities.

The feedback in the 360-degree reviews was supposed to be anonymous. But it was crystal clear who’d made the negative comments in the assessment of one executive.

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Comparative analysis of machine learning techniques for water consumption prediction: a case study from kocaeli province.

1. Introduction

• Research Background
• Importance of Accurate Water Consumption Prediction
• Advantages of Machine Learning Methods
• Optimization Methods
• Purpose of the Research

2. Literature Review

3. materials and methods, 3.1. dataset description, 3.2. key features and variables.

• Consumption Data: Monthly water consumption figures for each subscriber.
• Weather Parameters: Daily measurements of rainfall, sunshine, humidity, temperatures, and wind speed.
• Subscriber Details: Type of subscriber (residential, commercial, official), activity type, and tariff type.
• Temporal Information: Number of weekends and holidays in each month, and the phase of the COVID-19 pandemic.

3.3. Data Preprocessing

3.3.1. handling missing values.

• Spatial Interpolation: For locations with missing data, we calculated the arithmetic mean from neighboring locations to fill gaps, ensuring that imputed values reflected local weather conditions.
• Forward Fill Method: We applied forward filling to maintain temporal continuity in time series data, carrying forward the last known value for any gaps.
• Mean or Median Imputation: For any remaining missing values that could not be filled through the above methods, we used mean or median imputation based on the respective parameter.

3.3.2. Normalization

3.3.3. feature selection, 3.4. machine learning techniques, 3.5. hyperparameter tuning, 3.6. cross-validation and evaluation metrics, 3.7. computational efficiency and feature importance, 3.8. data splitting for model training and testing.

• It ensures that each data point is used for both training and testing, providing a more comprehensive evaluation of the model’s performance.
• It helps mitigate the impact of data variability and reduces the risk of overfitting.
• It provides a more reliable estimate of the model’s performance on unseen data.

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. model performance, 4.2. discussion of results, 4.3. practical implications, 4.4. limitations and future research, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

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Görenekli, K.; Gülbağ, A. Comparative Analysis of Machine Learning Techniques for Water Consumption Prediction: A Case Study from Kocaeli Province. Sensors 2024 , 24 , 5846. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175846

Görenekli K, Gülbağ A. Comparative Analysis of Machine Learning Techniques for Water Consumption Prediction: A Case Study from Kocaeli Province. Sensors . 2024; 24(17):5846. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175846

Görenekli, Kasim, and Ali Gülbağ. 2024. "Comparative Analysis of Machine Learning Techniques for Water Consumption Prediction: A Case Study from Kocaeli Province" Sensors 24, no. 17: 5846. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24175846

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• Published: 04 September 2024

In-depth analysis of Bt cotton adoption: farmers' opinions, genetic landscape, and varied perspectives—a case study from Pakistan

• Shahzad Rahil   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-4111-5037 1 ,
• Jamil Shakra 1 ,
• Chaudhry Urooj Fatima 1 ,
• Rahman Sajid Ur 1 &
• Iqbal Muhammad Zaffar 1 , 2  

Journal of Cotton Research volume  7 , Article number:  31 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

Metrics details

Bt technology has played significant role in controlling bollworms and increasing cotton yield in earlier days of its introduction, a subsequent decline in yield became apparent over time. This decline may be attributed to various environmental factors, pest dynamics, or combination of both. Therefore, the present biophysical survey and questionnaire were designed to evaluate the impact of Bt cotton on bollworms management and its effect on reducing spray costs, targeting farmers with varied landholdings and educational backgrounds. Additionally, data on farmers' cultivated varieties and the prevalence of bollworms and sucking insects in their fields were recorded. Subsequently, about eleven thousand cotton samples from farmer fields were tested for Cry1Ac , Cry2Ab and Vip3A genes by strip test.

In this analysis, 83% of the farmers planting approved varieties believe that Bt technology control bollworms, while 17% hold contradictory views. Similarly, among farmers cultivating unapproved varieties, 77% agree on effectiveness of Bt technology against bollworms, while 23% disagree. On the other hand, 67% of farmers planting approved varieties believe that Bt technology does not reduce spray costs, while 33% agree with the effectiveness. Similarly, 78% of farmers cultivating unapproved varieties express doubt regarding its role to reduce spray costs, while 22% are in favour of this notion. Differences in opinions on the effectiveness of Bt cotton in controlling bollworms and reducing spray cost between farmers planting unapproved and approved varieties may stem from several factors. One major cause is the heavy infestation of sucking insects, which is probably due to the narrow genetic variation of the cultivated varieties. Additionally, the widespread cultivation of unapproved varieties (21.67%) is also an important factor to cause different opinions on the effectiveness of Bt cotton.

Based on our findings, we propose that the ineffective control of pests on cotton crop may be attributed to large scale cultivation of unapproved varieties and non-inclusion of double and triple transgene technologies in country’s sowing plan. On the basis of our findings, we suggest cotton breeders, regulatory bodies and legislative bodies to discourage the cultivation of unapproved varieties and impure seed. Moreover, the adoption of double and triple Bt genes in cottons with a broad genetic variation could facilitate the revival of the cotton industry, and presenting a promising way forward.

Cotton ( Gossypium hirsutum L.) is an important fibre crop also known as ‘White Gold’ (Ali et al.  2020 ; Jarwar et al.  2019 ). Pakistan earns major part of foreign exchange from cotton crop which contributes significantly towards economy. Pakistan is the 5 th largest cotton producer and 3 rd larger cotton consuming country in the world. It is an important crop for both agriculture and textile industries, and contributes about 0.6% of GDP and 3.1% of value addition in agriculture sector (Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan  2023 ). Over the time, cotton production in Pakistan has declined, due to seed adulteration, ineffective use of fertilizers and pesticides, labour mismanagement, unfavourable weather conditions, and irregular input supplies (Ali et al.  2019 ).

Since the introduction of synthetic insecticides, cotton producers relied heavily on those products to control insect pests. Certain factors i.e., insect resistance, secondary pest outbreaks, and pest resurgences cause an increasing application of synthetic insecticides (Trapero et al.  2016 ). The bollworms ( Heliothis and Helicoverpa spp.) and sucking insects ( Bemisia tabaci , Empoasca spp.) developed resistance to traditional pesticides during the 1990’s (Spielman et al.  2017 ). Afterwards, genetically modified (GM) cotton expressing Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) toxin was introduced to control lepidopteran pests (Jamil et al., 2021a , b ). Resultantly, bollworms which have developed resistance against insecticides were effectively controlled and pesticide use was significantly reduced (Ahmad et al.  2019 ).

First official approval for general cultivation of Bt cotton in Pakistan was granted in 2010 by National Biosafety Committee within the Pakistan Environmental Protection Agency. However, substantial evidence shows cultivation of Bt cotton at farmers field prior to its official approval (Ahmad et al.  2021 ; Almas et al.  2023 ; Razzaq et al.  2021 ), which are Cry1Ac (first-generation cry gene) based and are primarily resistant to lepidopteran pests. In the earlier days of its introduction, the adoption of Bt technology led to a notable surge in cotton production, increasing from 8.7 million bales in 1999 to 14.61 million bales during 2004–2005, within just five to six years period (Rehman et al.  2019 ). Initially, both approved Bt varieties and unapproved ones showed inconsistent and potentially ineffective transgene expression due to the ineffective regulatory system overseeing commercialization of transgenic variety, releasing of new variety and distribution of seed of approved varieties (Ahmad et al.  2019 ). These loopholes in the system, combined with the challenges farmers face in visually assessing varieties genuineness and seed quality during purchase have contributed to the proliferation of spurious or low-quality seeds (Ali et al.  2019 ; Spielman et al.  2017 ).

Now, the area under Bt cotton cultivation is shrinking and the yield is decreased due to increased insect pest infestations (Arshad et al. 2021 ) owing to field evolved resistance in insects (Jaleel et al.  2020 ; Lei et al.  2021 ). Technologically advanced countries like the USA have addressed this issue of insect resistance development by adopting non-Bt cotton refuge systems and pyramiding multiple toxin genes ( Cry1Ac , Cry2Ab , and Vip3A ). However, in developing countries like China, India, and Pakistan, similar strategies were not effectively implemented, causing the field-evolved resistance in bollworms to proliferate (Jamil et al., 2021a , b ; Karthik et al.  2021 ). Another issue faced by farmers planted Bt cotton is increased infestation of sucking pests due to reduced use of pesticides (Ali et al.  2019 ; Shekhawat and Hasmi  2023 ). Hence, it is believed that interplay of various factors i.e. increased insect pest infestation, field evolved resistance, cultivation of unapproved and substandard seeds and adverse weather conditions result in huge loss of cotton production from 14 million bales in 2004–2005 to 4.91 million bales in 2023 (Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan  2023 ).

Keeping in view of the above mentioned facts, a survey was designed to evaluate the impact of Bt technology on cotton production across fifteen core cotton growing districts of Punjab, Pakistan and to understand the multifaceted factors affecting cotton production and to find out the root cause of declining of cotton production. In total 400 farmers possessing various landholding and educational background were surveyed to document their views on Bt. cotton's efficacy against bollworms and spray cost. Additionally, 10,986 cotton samples were tested at farmer’s field through strip tests to assess the purity of cotton varieties with respect to Bt ( Cry1Ac , Cry2Ab and Vip3A) genes.

Present study was conducted at Agricultural Biotechnology Research Institute, Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad 38000, Punjab, Pakistan.

Survey site

The survey was carried out in core cotton growing area of Pakistan, Punjab province. The Punjab is further divided into 36 administrative units called “districts” that vary significantly in cotton production. Out of 36 districts, fifteen were selected, i.e. Faisalabad, Toba Tek Singh, Sahiwal, Pakpattan, Multan, Lodhran, Khanewal, Vehari, Muzaffargarh, Layyah, D.G. Khan, Rajanpur, Bahawalpur, R.Y. Khan and Bahawalnagar, on the basis of acreage under cotton cultivation as outlined in AMIS.PK ( http://www.amis.pk/Agristatistics/DistrictWise/DistrictWiseData.aspx ). Subsequently, 400 farmer fields were selected from all “Tehsils” (sub-administrative unit) with various landholdings and diverse educational backgrounds particularly in the regions with intensive Bt cotton cultivation. The GPS coordinates of each farmer’s location was recorded using Latitude-Longitude App (Financept) and listed in Table  1 .

Survey questionnaire

A structured questionnaire, comprising of six questions was designed to collect data regarding farmer’s demographic factors, farmers' landholdings and viewpoint about effectiveness of Bt technology in controlling cotton bollworms. The questions were: 1) farmers landholding, classified as small (0–10 acres), medium (11–50 acres) or large (above 50 acres). 2) farmers educational background, stratified into uneducated, below matric, matric, bachelor degree, and masters or above qualifications. 3) the efficacy of Bt cotton in controlling bollworms (Yes, No). 4) the role of Bt technology in reducing the frequency of pesticide sprays and respective pesticide cost to farmers (Yes, No). 5) the variety cultivated by farmers (Table S1). 6) insect infestations of i.e. jassid, whitefly, aphid, thrips, mites, American bollworm (AB) and pink bollworm (PB) (low, medium and high). Infestation levels (low, medium, or high) were based on the economic threshold level (ETL) of each insect species. Infestations below the ETL were classified as "low", those comparable to the ETL as "medium", and those exceeding the ETL as "high". The reference point ETLs for various insect species were as follows: jassid (1 nymph or adult per leaf), whitefly (5 adults per leaf), thrips (8–10 adults per leaf), mites (2 adults per leaf), aphid (20 aphids per leaf), AB (4–5 eggs and larvae per 100 plants), and PB (8% infested bolls) (Ali et al.  2019 ; Razaq et al.  2019 ; Rehman et al.  2019 ).

Molecular analysis of Cry1Ac , Cry2Ab and Vip3A genes

Molecular analysis was performed through strip test for detection and identification of transgenes at four hundred farmer fields, and a total of 10986 samples were tested. At each field, a minimum of 25 samples were collected and tested, at least 10 samples were tested for each variety. Consequently, depending on the number of varieties cultivated by the farmers, more than 25 samples were tested in some fields. The strip tests were performed using QuickStix combo kits (EnviroLogix), which are equipped with built-in antibody coatings for the detection of Cry1Ac , Cry2Ab , and Vip3A transgenes. The procedure for strip test involved pressing the cap of a disposable eppendorf tube onto two leaves to obtain double leaf disc (weighing approximately 20 mg). Subsequently, the leaf samples were finely grinded with the help of disposable pestle by rubbing against the walls of eppendorf tube after adding 0.5 mL of 1X EB2 extraction buffer. The leaf extract and extraction buffer were homogenized by thorough mixing, ensuring the components were evenly combined for accurate and reliable downstream analysis. Following that, the QuickStix combo strips were dipped in eppendorf tube containing leaf extract with arrow pointing downward. After 10 min incubation, bands were developed on strips through antigen-antibody reaction and strips were analysed for the presence of final bands, and results were recorded (Jamil et al., 2021a , b ).

Data analysis

Frequency analysis of Cry1Ac , Cry2Ab , and Vip3A genes was performed using the “ dplyr ” package to streamline data manipulation and summarization. District-wise opinion of farmers on bollworm management and spray cost reduction were analysed using " tidyverse " functions. The association between Bt. technology adoption, farmers' landholding, and education was studied through a heatmap using the " heatmap.2 " function of " gplots " package in R software. The data regarding varieties cultivated by farmers in each district was analysed using stacked bar-chart illustrated by " ggplot2 " package of R software. Lastly, insect pest infestation data was analysed using " dplyr " and " ggplot2 " packages (Ross et al. 2017 ) and Chi-square (χ 2 ) test was performed to check the associations between different qualitative variables using “ chisq.test ” function in R software.

Survey design and farmers demographics

The purposive sampling technique was used assessing the viewpoint of farmers having diverse landholdings and differential educational backgrounds. Landholdings varied among districts showing distinct distribution of farmers with small, medium and large landholdings (Table  1 ). Notably, the highest proportion of large landholders was found in Sahiwal (43%) followed by Faisalabad (33%), Dera Ghazi Khan (31%) and Rajanpur (29%) district. In terms of medium landholders, district Rahim Yar Khan had the highest (74%), while district Layyah had the lowest (35%) proportions. Among small landholders, district Layyah displayed the highest (50%) while district Sahiwal having the lowest (7%) ratio. Overall, 60% of the farmers have medium, 18% owned small and 22% possessed large landholdings (Table  1 ).

Similarly, variability was observed among farmers on the basis of academic background (Table  2 ). The majority of farmers have completed matric (53%), 22% of farmers were below matric (22%), 12% farmers had bachelor degree, 7% farmers had master degree or above qualifications, and merely 6% farmers were uneducated. The district Sahiwal has highest ratio of uneducated farmers (22%) while highest proportion of farmers with below matric qualification was observed in district Dera Ghazi Khan (39%). Besides Dera Ghazi Khan, all other analysed districts have higher proportion of farmers with matric qualification, specifically, district Toba Tek Singh exhibited highest proportion (100%) followed by Pakpattan (70%). Furthermore, district Bahawalpur and district Layyah exhibited highest proportion of farmers among bachelor degree holders (25%) and master degree or above qualification (30%), respectively (Table  2 ).

Genetic landscape and cultivation patterns of varieties

The varieties planted at farmer fields were noted and verified based on tags issues by Federal Seed Certification and Registration Department (FSC&RD). The varieties planted at farmer fields were compared with the database of approved varieties from the government to identify the approved or unapproved variety. Overall, unapproved varieties were cultivated extensively covering significant area (21.67%). Moreover among approved varieties the top cultivating were IUB-13 (15.22%), BS-15 (12.61%), FH-142 (8.26%) and FH-Lalazar (8.04%). The lowest cultivated variety was MNH-886 (3.45%). In total of 7.27% area were cultivated with other approved varieties. The top 3 area cultivated unapproved cotton varieties were Bahawalnagar (40.73%), Layyah (38.24%), and Bahawalpur (32.40%). Conversely, unapproved variety was not found in Pakpattan or Toba Tek Singh (Fig. 1 ).

Stacked bar-chart showcasing varietal diversity across fifteen cotton growing districts of cotton belt of Punjab, Pakistan; BWN; Bahawalnagar, BWP; Bahawalpur, DGK; Dera Ghazi Khan, FSD; Faisalabad, KWL; Khanewal, LDN; Lodhran, LYA; Layyah, MTN; Multan, MZG; Muzaffargarh, PKPTN; Pakpattan, RJNPR; Rajanpur, RYK; Rahim Yar Khan, SWL; Sahiwal, TTS; Toba Tek Singh, VHR; Vehari

Analysing region-specific cultivation of varieties, it was observed that IUB-13 was the most cultivated variety in Bahawalnagar (12.09%), Bahawalpur (15.10%), Khanewal (19.18%), Multan (30.41%), Muzaffargarh (21.74%), Faisalabad (24.33%), Rahim Yar Khan (21.10%), and Rajanpur (18.49%). FH-142 was the preferred variety in DG Khan (22.51%) and Layyah (10.66%). FH-Lalazar was most commonly cultivated in Lodhran district (25.64%), while BS-18 dominated in Vehari (21.59%). Additionally, BS-15 was prominently cultivated in Toba Tek Singh (51%), Sahiwal (26.00%), and Pakpattan district (25.60%). Toba Tek Singh and Pakpattan districts have least diversity of cultivated varieties (Fig. 1 ).

Biochemical testing of Bt cotton

To understand the genetic landscape of cultivated varieties with respect to transgenes, strip tests were performed for detection and identification of Cry1Ac , Cry2Ab and Vip3A genes. Across fifteen districts, a total of 10,986 cotton samples were tested. The Cry1Ac gene was presented in varying degrees, with highest occurrence (100%) in district Lodhran, Sahiwal, Pakpattan and Toba Tek Singh. Other districts, such as Khanewal, Bahawalpur, Bahawalnagar, Faisalabad, Layyah, Multan, Rajanpur, Rahim Yar Khan and Vehari also reported more than 80% of Cry1Ac gene in farmer fields. In contrast, Dera Ghazi Khan and Muzaffargarh districts displayed relatively lower percentage of Cry1Ac gene, 69% and 78%, respectively (Table  3 ).

The Cry2Ab gene exhibited a relatively low (9%) percentage throughout the survey area, its frequency ranged from 0% in Pakpattan to 15% in Layyah and Toba Tek Singh districts. The frequency of Cry2Ab gene was no more than 10% in Bahawalnagar, Bahawalpur, Faisalabad, Khanewal, Lodhran, Muzaffargarh, Multan, Pakpattan, Rajanpur, Rahim Yar Khan and Sahiwal districts. Further, the third Bt gene Vip3A, which has broad spectrum resistance against lepidopteron pests, was not found in a single tested sample throughout the survey area. In summary, Cry2Ab gene was found throughout the cotton cultivation regions, except Pakpattan, but the percentage was much lower than Cry1Ac gene (Table  3 ).

Pest dynamics at farmers’ field

The pest counting was performed in the survey area for major cotton pests, i.e., AB, PB, whitefly, aphid, jassid, thrips, and mites. The PB infestation was medium level in more than 50% farmers' fields in most districts except Bahawalnagar, Der Ghazi Khan, Khanewal, Pakpattan and Vehari. Lodhran and Toba Tek Singh recorded 50% of field with low level of PB, whereas Pakpattan and Vehari recorded high level PB invasions at more than 50% fields. In case of AB, Lodhran, Muzaffargarh, Pakpattan and Toba Tek Singh exhibited low AB level at all fields. However, in Bahawalpur and Layyah, 14% and 20% fields experienced medium outbreak of AB, respectively. Notably, in Faisalabad, Layyah and Sahiwal districts, high infestation of AB was observed at 12%, 10% and 7% fields, respectively. On an average, 93% of fields from all survey regions observed low AB outbreak (Table  4 ).

The whitefly remains the predominant insect throughout the survey area with high outbreaks at 68% fields on the average. Five districts including Dera Ghazi Khan, Faisalabad, Muzaffargarh, Rajanpur, and Toba Tek Singh were whitefly hotspot areas, with all survey fields recorded high outbreak. Other districts like Bahawalpur, Khanewal, Multan, Layyah, Rahim Yar Khan, and Sahiwal exhibited diverse infestation patterns. Although aphid is one of the most concerned pest, 77% farmer fields reported low outbreak, particularly in Faisalabad, Sahiwal, Pakpattan, and Toba Tek Singh districts with all observed field recorded as low infestation. On the other hand, 64% fields at Bahawalpur and 44% at Muzaffargarh recorded medium level and 28% fields at district Rahim Yar Khan recorded high level outbreak (Table  4 ).

Apart from whitefly and aphid, jassid was another alarming threat in cotton production, showing high level of invasion at 62% farmer fields. The jassid outbreak in all fields of district Faisalabad, Muzaffargarh, Pakpattan, Rajanpur, Sahiwal, and Toba Tek Singh was at high level. The jassid infestation was also high in more than 70% fields of Bahawalnagar, Dera Ghazi Khan, and Vehari districts. The pest counting of mites revealed low infestation at 62% observed fields. Faisalabad and Pakpattan districts had low infestations in all fields, whereas Dera Ghazi Khan and Muzaffargarh districts recorded medium outbreak at 73% and 86% fields, and 50% fields of Toba Tek Singh recorded as high mites outbreak. The thrips outbreak was high at 60% farmer fields on the average, Bahawalpur, Khanewal, Lodhran, Muzaffargarh, Rajanpur, Toba Tek Singh and Vehari were recorded as high outbreak in 78%, 78%, 75%, 74%, 89%, 100% and 69% fields, respectively while all fileds in Faisalabad showed medium outbreak of thrips (Table  4 ).

Chi-square test on the associations between different factors

The Chi-square (χ 2 ) test was performed to check the association of 17 pairs of factors as detailed in Table  5 . The association of transgene with varieties was non-significant, which means the type of Bt cotton either single or double transgenic cultivars is not showing distinct correlation with the approved or unapproved varieties. Moreover, farmer’s education and landholding have no impact on transgene adoption. Furthermore, association of transgene was also non-significant with thrips which indicates that thrips equally affect non-Bt, single Bt gene, or double Bt gene cotton. However, association of transgene with AB, PB, whitefly, aphid, jassid and mite infestation was significant. This indicates that AB and PB attack vary with transgene and these are interlinked. Similarly, whitefly, aphid, jassid and mites infestation also vary on non-Bt., single and double gene Bt. cotton varieties (Table  5 , S2).

Likewise, association of varieties with AB, aphid and mite was non-significant which reveals that there is no statistical difference of AB, aphid and mite infestation between approved and unapproved varieties. On the contrary, association of varieties with PB, whitefly, jassid and thrips was significant, indicating that infestation of PB, whitefly, jassid and thrips vary among approved and unapproved varieties (Table  5 ).

Farmer’s opinion on Bt cotton

The farmer’s viewpoint on efficiency of Bt technology in controlling bollworms and reducing spray cost in cotton crop was analysed and it was observed that 83% of farmers cultivating approved varieties, believed in Bt cotton's effectiveness against bollworms, while 17% hold the contrary belief. However, variation exists in different district, i.e. farmers from Bahawalpur, Faisalabad, Rahim Yar Khan, and Sahiwal unanimously agreed (100%) on Bt cotton's effectiveness against bollworms. But 50% farmers in Bahawalnagar, 33% in Toba Tek Singh and some in other districts cultivating unapproved varieties were not convinced. On the other hand, 77% of farmer cultivated unapproved varieties have faith in Bt cotton usefulness for controlling bollworms, whereas 23% expressed disbelief. All farmers cultivating unapproved varieties in Bahawalpur, Faisalabad, Rahim Yar Khan, Sahiwal and Toba Tek Singh districts unanimously believed that Bt cotton is effective against bollworms. In contrary to that, 67% farmers in Multan, 43% in Dera Ghazi Khan, 37% each in Layyah and Muzaffargarh, 33% each in Lodhran and Rajanpur, 31% in Vehari, 23% in Bahawalnagar, and 8% in Khanewal cultivating unapproved varieties are not convinced about this claim. It is evident that farmers cultivating approved varieties express higher confidence in the effectiveness of bollworm control by Bt technology as compared to those cultivating unapproved varieties (Table  6 ).

Similarly, examining the impact of Bt cotton on spray cost reduction revealed a complex scenario. Among farmers planting approved varieties, 33% believed that Bt technology has reduced spray costs, while majority (67%) disagree. Particularly, farmers in districts Bahawalnagar, Dera Ghazi Khan, Faisalabad, Muzaffargarh, Rajanpur, Toba Tek Singh and Vehari unanimously disagreed that Bt technology reduced the spray costs, while all farmers at Bahawalpur, Rahim Yar Khan and Sahiwal have opposite views. Likewise, among farmers cultivating unapproved varieties, 22% express confidence in reducing spray costs by introduction of Bt technology, while 78% hold opposite perspective. In Pakpattan and Bahawalpur 100% of farmers growing unapproved varieties believe in reduction of spray costs, while in Multan, Faisalabad, Khanewal, Layyah, Lodhran, Muzaffargarh, Rajanpur, Sahiwal, Toba Tek Singh and Vehari, all farmers disagreed with this notion. Overall, the analysis highlighted diverse opinions among farmers about the impact of Bt cotton on spray cost reduction (Table  6 ).

In the midst of the changing agricultural technology and the persistent challenges faced by cotton farmers, our study delves into the dynamics surrounding the adoption and effectiveness of Bt cotton technology. With a focus on bollworm management and spray cost reduction, our research navigates through the perceptions and practices of farmers with diverse educational backgrounds and landholdings and revealed main factors affecting cotton farming. We unravel the complexities underlying farmer beliefs, technological advancements, and regulatory frameworks, aiming to chart a course towards sustainable solutions for the revitalization of the cotton crop.

We have approached farmers from all cotton growing districts of the Punjab with diverse backgrounds, i.e. possessing varying landholdings (Table  1 ) and different educational backgrounds (Table  2 ) to increase the reliability of the results (O'Connell et al.  2022 ). The farmers have been inquired about effectiveness of Bt technology against cotton bollworms and its impact on spray cost. Overall, 60% of the farmers have medium landholdings, 22% farmers owned large landholdings and 18% farmers possessed small landholdings (Table  1 ). Likewise, from education perspective, 53% farmers have matric, 22% farmers are below matric, 12% and 7% farmers have bachelor degree and master degree or above qualifications, whereas 6% farmers were uneducated (Table  2 ) representing a mixed population from each strata of education background and landholdings to obtain meaningful information (Swami and Parthasarathy  2020 ).

These farmers' opinion have been bifurcated into two categories based on cultivation of approved and unapproved varieties. The viewpoint of 83% of farmers cultivating approved varieties is that Bt cotton has controlled the bollworms effectively and 17% have opposite opinion. But among those cultivating unapproved varieties, 77% farmers think that bollworms have been controlled after introduction of Bt cotton and 23% farmers have opposite views (Table  6 ). These findings agrees with the study that both approved and unapproved varieties have significant Bt toxin protein level to control bollworms effectively (Spielman et al.  2017 ). Given that AB and PB infestation are dependent on transgenes (Table  5 ) and have an antagonistic relationship (Table S2), and considering that nearly all cultivated varieties (either approved or unapproved) were transgenic (Table S1), the use of these transgenic varieties is likely the primary factor in controlling bollworms (Kashif et al.  2022 ). Moreover, according to a previous study, unapproved varieties are as effective in controlling bollworms as approved varieties, both expressing transgenes at levels lethal to pests (Cheema et al.  2016 ). However, Jamil et al. ( 2021a , b ) have contradictory viewpoint and believe that, unapproved varieties are the leading cause of resistance due to low Bt. toxin level which providing ideal environment for field evolved resistance (Ahmad et al.  2019 ).

In the earlier years of Bt cotton introduction, farmers were largely convinced about its efficiency to control bollworm invasions as reported in different geographies (Gore et al.  2002 ; Kranthi et al.  2005 ) and Pakistan (Arshad et al.  2009 ). However, with the passage of time, without adoption of some levels of refuge plants (plantation of 10% non-Bt crop as refuge) fields have evolved resistance in bollworms (Shahid et al.  2021 ). The situation was further aggravated due to least or no adoption of double ( Cry1Ac and Cry2Ab ) and triple transgene ( Cry1Ac , Cry2Ab and Vip3A ) technologies (Table  3 ). The double and triple transgene cotton have broad-spectrum resistance by different mode of action and corresponding receptor sites in insect gut (Chen et al. 2017 ; Llewellyn et al. 2007 ). Particularly, the Vip3A gene provides broad-spectrum resistance by encoding Bt toxin that disrupts the digestive system upon ingestion, ultimately leading to insect death. Unlike Cry1Ac , Vip3A gene acts through a different mode of action, making it effective against pests that may have developed resistance to Cry1Ac . This diversity in toxin mechanisms helps enhance the overall efficacy of Bt cotton in managing pest populations and reducing crop damage (Chen et al.  2017 ). Some countries swiftly adopted double and triple gene technologies in the cultivation plan, while Pakistan continues to rely solely on the initially introduced single gene ( Cry1Ac ) Bt cotton, which result in the development of resistance in the field (Tabashnik et al.  2013 ; Tabashnik and Carrière  2017 ).

Analysis of farmers' perspective about the efficacy of Bt technology in reducing spray costs has revealed that more than 50% farmers from both categories (planting approved or unapproved varieties) believe that spray cost has not been reduced upon introduction of Bt technology. Specifically, 33% of farmers cultivating approved varieties affirmed that Bt technology effectively reduces spray costs, while 67% hold a contrary viewpoint. Conversely, among farmers planting unapproved varieties, a higher percentage (78%) of farmers have expressed suspicion regarding the effectiveness of Bt cotton in reducing spray costs, with only 22% supporting this notion (Table  6 ). Farmers hold different views on the effectiveness of Bt cotton against bollworms and its impact on spray costs. Majority of farmers claimed that Bt cotton has successfully controlled bollworms, while they also believe that the introduction of Bt cotton has not reduced spray costs. This is attributed to the increased pressure from sucking insect pests such as whitefly, aphid, jassid, thrips, and mites (Table  4 ), which has led to higher spray costs instead of the anticipated reduction. The sucking pest pressure has been increased after introduction of Bt genotypes owing to the low adaptation to local agro ecological conditions (Lu et al. 2022 ) and narrow genetic base (Jamil et al., 2021a , b ). Therefore, these varieties are more vulnerable to sucking pests compared to earlier genetically diverse varieties, thereby necessitats frequent pesticide spray and nullifys the anticipated reduction in spray costs (Arshad et al. 2009 ).

One significant factor influence farmers' believe on Bt technology is large scale cultivation of unapproved varieties (21.67% area). Particularly, in Bahawalnagar, Layyah and Bahawalpur districts (Fig.  1 ). This may be a leading cause in building farmers' perceptions about Bt. cotton's inefficiency to control bollworms and reducing spray costs, reflecting mismanagement rather than inherent flaws in the technology. Because, during the formal varietal approval process, varieties are passed through certain checks, i.e., disease & insect resistance, adaptability to different geographies, response to different climatic factors and genetic diversity from cultivated varieties (Ahmad et al.  2023a , b ; Iftikhar et al.  2019 ). However, if a variety escape through this process and reach farmers field merely on the basis of high yield, it may be susceptible to bollworms and sucking insects (Kranthi and Stone  2020 ). Furthermore, approved varieties may also have mixing of non-Bt seed as reported in one of our previous study (Jamil et al., 2021a , b ), supressing their genetic potential. Perhaps, all the factors explained above, underscores a deficiency on the part of cotton breeders (both public and private sectors) and regulatory bodies (such as FSC&RD), as they have not effectively regulated the supply of unapproved varieties to farmers, lacking proper check and legislative measures (Shahzad et al.  2022 ).

Different opinions among farmers on the effectiveness of Bt cotton may partly be due to cultivation of unapproved varieties. Moreover, least adoption of double and triple transgene technologies and excessive outbreaks of sucking insects particularly whitefly, jassid and thrips exacerbated the situation. To mitigate these challenges, concerted efforts from cotton breeders and regulatory bodies are imperative. Moreover, there is a need to promote and disseminate the latest Bt cotton technologies particularly Cry2Ab and Vip3A genes among farmers on large scale for dissemination of broad-spectrum resistance against bollworms.

Availability of data and materials

All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article.

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Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to Dr. Shakeel Ahmad, Seed Center, Ministry of Environment, Water and Agriculture, Riyadh, Dr. Muqadas Aleem, Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Dr. Waseem Akbar, Maize and Millets Research Institute, Sahiwal for spending significant time on improvement of the technical aspect of our article and Mr. Ahmad Shehzad, Lab Assistant to assist in biophysical survey. Furthermore, Punjab Agriculture Research Board (PARB) for provision of funds for carrying out this study under Grant No. PARB 890.

This work was supported by Punjab Agriculture Research Board, Grant numbers PARB No. 890. Author S.J., S.U.R. and M.Z.I. has received research support from Punjab Agriculture Board.

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Shahzad R, Jamil S, Rahman SU, and Iqbal MZ Conceived and designed the analysis; Shahzad R, Jamil S, and Chaudhry UF Collected the data; Shahzad R Chaudhry UF and Jamil S Contributed data or analysis tools; Shahzad R and Chaudhry UF Performed the analysis; Shahzad R and Chaudhry UF wrote the paper; Jamil S, Rahman SU, and Iqbal MZ proofread the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

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Supplementary Information

Supplementary table s1. list of varieties cultivated at farmer fields along with their transgene and approval status., 42397_2024_191_moesm2_esm.docx.

Supplementary Table S2. Frequency Table showing the interaction between cotton type (BT and Non-BT) and various pest infestations, including American bollworm (AB), pink bollworm (PB), whitefly, aphid, jassid, and mite.

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Shahzad, R., Jamil, S., Chaudhry, U.F. et al. In-depth analysis of Bt cotton adoption: farmers' opinions, genetic landscape, and varied perspectives—a case study from Pakistan. J Cotton Res 7 , 31 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1186/s42397-024-00191-0

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Analysis of Human Activities, Built-Up and Rainfall Impacts on Groundwater Potential Zones Using GIS and AHP Techniques: A Case of Karaman River, Southern Western Ghats, India

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• B. Upendra 1 , 2 ,
• K. Nanda 1 ,
• K. Jesuraja 1 ,
• M. Ciba 1 ,
• G. Sreenivasulu 1 &
• K. Anoop Krishnan 1  

In recent years, realizing groundwater prospects using geospatial technologies gained attention due to their rapid and cost-effective nature for better management. The present study attempts to delineate the groundwater potential zones (GWPZs) of a tropical mountainous river, the Karamana, in southern India, using geographical information system (GIS) and analytical hierarchical process (AHP) techniques. A total of ten thematic layers viz. geomorphology, lithology, land use/land cover (LULC), lineament density, drainage density, rainfall, soil, slope, roughness, and topographic wetness index are prepared in a GIS environment. The AHP is used to assign the weights to all ten thematic maps based on their characteristics to influence the groundwater. The composite GWPZ map is divided into five distinct categories, i.e., very low (0.23%), low (12.87%), moderate (46.1%), high (40%), and very high (0.23); additionally, the description highlights the presence of low GWPZ in the eastern and some middle regions due to the influence of slopeness (24.83–53.22 degrees) and stream order pattern in the study area. The GWPZ map is validated with available groundwater level data of observation wells at different parts of the study area. Further, LULC features and rainfall are identified as dominating control factors of GWPZ which are operated by human activities and climate change effects respectively. For future management and strategies concerning GWPZ, these impacts are assessed and adjusted by modifying the controlling factors according to their recent temporal changes: (i) altering rainfall levels by one standard deviation from the long-term average, (ii) expanding the built-up area within the LULC features by 5% and 10%. The changes in GWPZ due to perturbing the controlling factors suggest that increasing the rainfall and rise in built-ups results in abruptly increasing the very low and low GWPZ by reducing the medium and high potential zones. The framework and results of the present study will be valuable for both government and non-government initiatives, serving as a useful pre-decisional tool for managing and preserving groundwater and rainwater systems in India.

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Acknowledgements

The authors sincerely thank the Director, NCESS, and the Biogeochemistry group head, NCESS, for their valuable support. The authors also convey gratitude towards data providers; IMD and CGWB. B. U especially thank his doctorial committee, CUSAT-NCESS, PhD program.

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B. Upendra, K. Nanda, K. Jesuraja, M. Ciba, G. Sreenivasulu & K. Anoop Krishnan

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B.U. K.N. K.J. and M.C. contributed to the design of the study, data preparation and manuscript writing. G.S. and K.A. contributed to the preparation of Maps, Figures, and Tables, conceiving the ideas and reviewing the manuscript.

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Upendra, B., Nanda, K., Jesuraja, K. et al. Analysis of Human Activities, Built-Up and Rainfall Impacts on Groundwater Potential Zones Using GIS and AHP Techniques: A Case of Karaman River, Southern Western Ghats, India. Water Conserv Sci Eng 9 , 61 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41101-024-00294-4

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Received : 05 April 2024

Revised : 08 July 2024

Accepted : 19 August 2024

Published : 06 September 2024

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s41101-024-00294-4

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