local government essay

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• Introduction

Constitutional status

• Areas and authorities
• Finance and local freedom
• Organization
• Central control

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Characteristics of local government

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The chief characteristics of local government, which may be studied by comparison of the United Kingdom, Germany, the U.S., and Russia, are (1) constitutional status, (2) areas and authorities, (3) powers, (4) finance and local freedom, (5) organization, and (6) central controls.

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In the United Kingdom the local authorities are subordinate corporations formed by acts of Parliament or charters. Their powers and immunities derive from statute and judicial interpretation. They have many obligatory duties and a vast field of permissive powers. Each authority is independent within the sphere of power authorized by the central government; there is no hierarchy of authorities. Local councilors are freely elected and constitute the local executive as well as the legislature . There is no appointment or ratification of local executives by the central government, though certain important local officials require qualifications stipulated thereby. The local authorities combine many functions and are not, like school or sanitary districts in the United States , single function or authorities created for a specific purpose. Local finances—called rates—are locally raised in amount and appropriated in detail with little interference by the central government.

Though local authorities have considerable freedom to use their permissive powers, and even their obligatory ones, they operate within judicial controls lest they act beyond their powers or are negligent, and they are under continuous central administrative controls. A condition of local central partnership characterizes the system. The local units are powerful. They exercise an important influence over the central administration through their members of Parliament and through their increasingly large representation on advisory councils and committees officially attached to the several departments. The Local Government Association is a nationwide body that assists the different classes of local authorities.

German local government (omitting the Nazi era) attempted to unite the tradition of free and enterprising civic life with the full popular enfranchisement that came first only in 1919. Its hierarchical system, with strong central oversight reaching back to the 18th century, was a little eased during the Weimar period. The position of the local executive, whether Bürgermeister or Magistraz , which was ratifiable by the central government, was disrupted by the universal suffrage of 1919, which replaced the oligarchic three-class system. A very wide scope of authority was accorded to the Gemeinde (community), whether rural or urban, by the basic laws, such as the Prussian Stadteordnung of 1808, the Kreisordnung of 1872, and the Provinzialordnung of 1873. Though this authority came to be limited by financial stringency, German cities showed great enterprise and developed many utilities . The Nazi system in general kept the framework of areas and authorities but abolished all elections and substituted appointed councilors and executives dominated by Nazi officials. After World War II the several states were quick to revive local self-government, and the constitution guaranteed it. This system was extended to the East after the country’s reunification in 1990.

In the U.S. the main features of the constitutional status of local authorities are the variety of arrangements in the various states and the large degree of freedom of the local units, which derive from early English township forms reinforced by migration into new lands. Nevertheless, that freedom is subordinate and defined by state statutes and charters giving corporate status. The special charter, referring to individual cities; the general charter, which is a state-wide municipal code; and the charter, which confers status by classifying the local units for privileges, are various means of trying to give the local units a status which relieves them of the need for repeated application to the legislature, while subjecting them to a firm pattern of permissions and limits. Amendments , however, still require suppliancy to the legislature, and growth requires powers in addition to the general grant.

Home rule charters, granted by the state legislature, allow the city to draft its own charter by a local convention, sometimes requiring legislative ratification, sometimes not. Another system allows the local units to choose from among several forms of charter provided in a state general law. There is much independence and vigour, no hierarchy, little central administrative control, and much judicial control to hold the units within their charter and statutory position.

The local government system of tsarist Russia was one of absolute centralized hierarchy , executed through the governors of the 78 guberniya , with police, military, and taxation powers and the scantiest recognition of rights of local government. Provincial and village governments were dominated by the landlords who had an ex officio right to chairmanship of local administration, especially of the zemstvo , set up in 1864 to govern the provinces under strict control of the imperial governors. The zemstvo (with an indirect and unequal class franchise), nevertheless made progress in educational, health, welfare, and agricultural development in spite of tsarist control. The Soviet constitution of 1936 and the decree on the city soviets (1933) and specific economic and social planning decrees gave extraordinarily wide specified powers to the local units but very rigorously subjected them to hierarchical control of the next higher authorities upward to the central government of the various republics, and in some cases to the union itself. Authority and direction were heavily centralized and were animated in the last resort by the All-Union Ministry of State Administration and the public prosecutors. All units, from lowest to highest, were manipulated in unity by the ubiquitous activities of the Communist Party , the members of which were required by the rules to form cells for administrative “fulfillment.” After the collapse of the Soviet Union , local governments in Russia enjoyed a brief period of devolved power, but the ascent of Vladimir Putin to the presidency saw a dramatic re-centralization of authority.

Generally speaking, then, local government as local self-government is discernible more fully in the British and American environment than elsewhere, to some degree in the German, and hardly at all in Russia. Yet centralization and control of units originally holding authority themselves are not inconsistent with vigorous first-line activity by the local units in the matters entrusted to them.

Local Government: Concept, Roles and Importance for Contemporary Society.

• Affiliation: Tribhuvan University

• Ministry of Energy, Water Resource and Irrigation, Government of Nepal

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State and Local Governments Analysis Essay

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State and local governments cooperate in various services sharing common responsibilities. The functions, which state and local governments exercise, affect directly Americans’ everyday life. They range from arranging elections for citizens to paying for roads, providing water, organizing police and fire services, establishing zoning regulations and licensing professionals. In addition, state and local government establish limits on property taxes and develop different forms of job training for welfare recipients.

These functions are equally important but, to my mind, there is one function that is even more significant. This is responsibility of controlling educational sector. In the 1990s many state and local governments in the United States organized charter schools which gave citizens an opportunity to start alternative schools that are publicly funded. Other governments established voucher systems that permitted parents to make use of a state-issued voucher to send their children to public schools. I believe the state and local governments’ initiatives in the field of education are of extreme importance as the quality of education citizens get at present affect the overall development of the country in future.

Though the debate over limiting legislative terms dates back to the beginnings of political science, in the United States the problem of term limits for state and nationally elected officials has been treated seriously since the late 1980s – the early 90s. There are both advantages and disadvantages of imposing term limits on officials.

The advantages of term limits include:

• They reduce the concentration and abuse of power;
• They encourage political participation by nonpoliticians;
• They make government more responsive to public needs;
• They make politicians think more of the voters’ interests instead of the polices that will ensure their long-term political survival;
• They ensure that officials have equal seniority and, as a result, equal power and influence.

The disadvantages of terms limits are:

• They take away the right of voters to re-elect their representative or to vote someone out of the office;
• Newly elected officials lack the experience that the officials who spent years in office have;
• Officials approaching their term limits think of their own political future instead of the voters’ interests;
• Term limits lead to frequent trading of posts between the same people and not to new faces that enter politics.

Historically, state constitutions in the USA were changed by means of the four different methods:

• Extra-legal means such as the Dorr Rebellion in Rhode Island during 1841-1842.
• Initiative. This is the process whereby constitutional changes are proposed and placed on the ballot by a citizen’s petition and then enacted by popular vote. There are two types of initiatives: direct and indirect. Direct initiatives are submitted directly to the voters without any action by the legislature whereas indirect initiatives are proposed by a citizen’s petition but sent to legislature before submitting directly to the voters.
• Referendum. This is the process when constitutional changes are passed by the legislature and then referred to voters for final approval. There exist referenda of two types: the popular referenda and the propositions submitted by the legislature. They differ in the citizen’s petition that is present in the first case and is absent in the second one. Contrary to the popular referendum in the proposition submitted by the legislature a proposed constitutional amendment or statute is submitted to voters without being prompted by a citizen’s petition. Up to 1898 this was the only kind of initiative or referendum used in the USA. In 1898 the South Dakota became the first state to allow direct statewide initiatives.
• The use of commissions or other administrative bodies as sources of constitutional change. Appeared at the mid of the twentieth century as a product of renegade legislatures that strived to revise outmoded state constitutions with a minimum of popular debate. The two main purposes that commissions serve up to the present day are: to study the constitution and propose changes and to prepare for a constitutional convention.

Currently, constitutional change by legislative proposal and popular ratification remains the norm for most states (Leonarde, 1996). There exist three basic ways in which the national government influences state level politics:

• General state jurisdiction. The national government can influence state government through encroaching on the domain of territory that traditionally has belonged to the states. There are two prominent means of this encroachment: preemption and grants-in-aid programs. Preemption implies expand of the national government’s powers by limiting the scope of authority previously exercised by the state governments. Grants-in-aid programs are worked out with the two purposes: to assist in the achievement of state purposes and to assert the primacy of national aims and purposes. The use of block grants and categorical grants are the common examples of how these purposes are achieved by the national government.
• State policy priorities. They serve an important arena through which the national government can assert its purposes. There are two possible models through which the national government operates in states’ policy matters: the bargaining model and the alternative hierarchical one. According to bargaining model, the national government can influence state policy matters of modest or marginal significance, whereas the hierarchical model offers that the national government exercises significant influence on the determination of substantive state policies.
• Agency resource allocations. The national government affects the allocation of resources by and to specific state agencies. This is the influence of the national government in a micro-level context, the most narrowly focused arena of the national government’s intrusion in state affairs.

The first arena is the most broadly focused one and the second one occupies an intermediate position (Yoo & Wright, 1993, p. 53). Thus, the national government works at different levels to exert one’s purposes. Voter turnout is the percentage of eligible voters who participate in elections. Different countries have different statistics on average voter turnouts. This happens due to the combination of factors that affect voter turnout:

• Socio-economic factors: education, income, ethnicity and age affect voters’ participation in elections. If a person is educated the possibility that he or she will vote increases. Wealthier people are more likely to vote. Since representatives of different ethnic groups have different levels of education and income, the percentage of eligible voters who participate in elections varies in different ethnicities. Elderly people are more willing to vote than the young who claim that they simply do not have time for voting. Married people are more likely to participate in elections than single ones.
• Genetic factors: voting appears to be habitual. If a young voter’s parents are/were active during elections he or she is more likely to vote as well. The two genes responsible for social behavior and political activity in particular are monoamine oxidase and 5HTT.
• Regional factor: time zones affect voters’ participation. In continent spanning nations voters of some regions are aware of the results from other regions and, therefore, do not find it necessary to vote as they believe their participation will not change the situation.
• Cultural factor: the level to which the cultural habit of voting is developed influences voters’ participation in elections. Sense of civic duty that the makes people vote is developed throughout a certain period of time and under certain social conditions. The cultural habit to vote is formed out of the attitudes like trust in government, degree of devotion among the population, interest in politics and belief in the effectiveness of voting.
• Institutional factors: the modalities of how voter legislation is conducted; compulsory or non-compulsory character of voting; proportional representation system; ease of voting; voter fatigue and measuring turnout – all of them affect the reported level of average voter turnout.

Weather, time of the year and the day of the week also affect voter turnout. Midweek elections during the spring or autumn increases voters’ participation if compared to elections held weekend and summer. Still, these factors can cause an increase or decrease in turnout up to five percentage points only.

Since the 1960s, there is a trend of decreasing voter turnout in most established democracies in the world. The US show one of the lowest levels of voter turnout as compared to other democracies. The country is 20 th out of 21 in voter turnout among established democracies – only Switzerland has lower voter turnout than turnout in U.S. presidential elections. Turnout among potentially eligible voters in the U.S. in presidential elections is only 50-55%. Turnout in non-presidential years is far lower (Voter turnout). An analyst Curtis Gans claims that America being “the nation that prides itself on being the best example of government of, for, and by the people is rapidly becoming a nation whose participation is limited to the interested or zealous few.” (Gans, 2000, p. 34)

Critics trace the decline in voter turnout as the result of the baleful influence of “big money” on voters. The large sums raised and spent by competing parties and their campaigns alienate voters and discourage their participation. The widely-spread opinion among the voters is that there is no necessity to vote as campaign contributors run the show. Other possible cause of decline in the level of voter turnout in the USA is that sharply critical advertising (so-called negative ads) discourages voting by fostering cynicism about the political process. Big money and negative ads are the most obvious signs of sickness in the body of politics and low voter turnout in the country is the consequence of the disease. Limits on political liberty through restrictions on campaign finance and on political advertising are expected to save the patient and increase voter turnout in the USA (Samples, 2004, p. 2).

Electrical machinery and computers are among the leading manufactures of North Carolina. Apart from ordinary usage, computers have been gradually used in the state as tools for making Internet voting possible. In the 2000 elections, the state participated in a proof-of-concept demonstration of Internet voting. At the current stage Internet voting research persists as it is of primary importance to find out how secure Internet voting is to decide whether to permit it or not in the state. My position is that until this system of voting does not offer any guarantees of secure voting it should not be implemented in the state.

The thing is that according to the research of the Internet Policy Institute, remote Internet voting systems pose significant risk to the integrity of the voting process and “should not be fielded for use in public elections until substantial technical and social science issues are addressed.” (Schwartz) Technical issues imply the problem of security, as there are many opportunities for hackers to hack the whole system and to influence the election results. As North Carolina is a state where young population prevails and hackers are mostly young people the chances that the system can easily be hacked increase. Interested parties and opposing candidates if resort to services of these hackers, not to mention terrorists who often themselves are rather educated in computer science, the very principle of fair and democratic elections will be neglected.

Another problem that might appear if implementing the Internet voting system in the state is that due to the income differences not every voter in North Carolina has Internet access. The principle of fairness does not work in case of Internet voting, as the actual possibility of voting is restricted to Internet access of the voter.

It would seem that the use of voting machines in traditional polling places is the best solution to the problem but it appears that the leading voting machines manufacturers of the state do not give any guarantees of their products’ security. The proprietary codes that electronic voting companies develop can leak over the Internet. Moreover, there are no effective threats to the dangers of viruses, worms, hackers, and intruders that question the security of Internet voter system elaborated. Thus, until no public oversight of elections and their absolute security is offered no green line to Internet voting system in North Carolina should be given.

The US Constitution proclaims separation of power in the government. By establishing the principle of separation of power the Framers intended not to recreate a government with centralized power (during the US colonial period) and followed John Locke’s idea that government power must be limited so that the liberties of people cannot be easily trampled (Long) The first instance of divided government occurred in 1792 when Federalist President George Washington was reelected and Thomas Jefferson’s Democratic-Republican Party won a nine-seat majority in the House.

In 1984, the pattern persisted: Republican Ronald Reagan was re-elected and the opposition Democrats had a seventy-one-seat margin in the lower chamber. In 1988, Republican George Bush easily beat Democrat Michael Dukakis in the presidential election, but the Democrats increased their majority in the House to an impressive eighty-nine-seat plurality (White and Mileur, 1992, p. 36). As neither Democrats nor the Republicans can work out a national program that is compelling enough to win an outright majority the combination of their efforts become more effective in terms of state level politics.

Historically, American voters who experience the outcomes of the state level politics approve of divided party government that speaks of its effectiveness. For example, after the 1988 balloting sixty seven percent of Connecticut voters found divided party government good for the country and the 1990 survey found that 51 percent of voters considered divided government to be “a good thing, because it has kept either political party from having too much power.” Only 37 percent found it “bad because it has made it impossible to work on solutions to the important problems facing the country.” (White and Mileur, 1992, p. 37).

Divided and unified party government has both positive and negative impacts on state level politics: on the one hand, divided government makes the enactment of policy more difficult but presents a balanced view on this or that problem, on the other, unified government is more likely to pass significant public policy though the principle of “check and balance” does not work in this case.

United States state legislatures – “the first branch of government” – today have a vastly increased capacity to govern (Pound, 1999, p. 28). This capacity is disclosed through the functions that they perform:

• Propose amendments to the state constitution, consider proposed amendments to the Constitution of the United States;
• Prepare and legislate for a program derived from a variety of sources. The need of the program comes out from the study of the problems of the district and the state. The needs of the committees on which legislators serve, of their parties, friends and interest groups are also thoroughly considered before the need for new legislation is conceived;
• Perform reviews of other legislators’ proposals and programs and either support or oppose them;
• Oversee the work of the administrative branch of the government;
• Attend committee hearings, review reports and investigate complaints to monitor the annual state budget;
• Serve a link between the district, state and federal agencies, handling the constituents’ problems through personal assistance;
• Attend and participate in party caucuses, meetings on specific problems and general conventions thus playing an active role in the work of the political party.

The professionalism with which these functions are performed by state legislators results in either increase or loss of the public confidence in representative institutions. There exist two approaches to characterize representatives of legislature. The first one offers the fall of legislatures into four groups: “professionalized”, transitional, traditional and those with term limits (Pound, 1999, p. 28).

According to the second existing approach legislatures fall into three groups: professional, citizen or a hybrid of the two (Penchoff, 2007, p. 11). Though the two approaches slightly differ in the titles proposed for each legislature type and in characteristic traits that define each of the type, both of them state that “professional” or “professionalized” legislature has certain advantages over the other legislature type. Namely, these are higher compensation, unlimited time in session, large professional staffs and members who define their occupation as legislator (Pound, 1999, p. 28).

This professional legislature type includes highly urbanized states with large populations: California, New York, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Michigan, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin and New Jersey. The type of legislative body is one of the leading factors that affect legislative compensation. Professional legislatures are the highest paid. For example, legislators in California are the highest paid in the 50 state capitols with annual salaries of $110,880. In general, by 2005, the average salary in professional legislatures was $67,077.22. That’s a 5.13 percent increase for the above-mentioned states since 1975 (Penchoff, 2007, p. 11).

Moreover, as term limits become more widely implemented throughout the states the advantage of unlimited time in session remains very important. The percentage of professional legislators has increased from 3 percent in 1976 to 11 percent in 1986 and to 14 percent in 1995. Though the advantages that this legislature type has are sometimes crucial for the choices in favor of professional legislature that politicians make, one should also give credit for time-consuming role that professional legislatures take in performing constituent services for the public.

A state governor has many responsibilities. First, he serves as commander-in-chief of the National Guard during peaceful times or when there is no case of emergency. This responsibility has been established historically. Prior to the World War II the Guard was available on call of the state governor to handle various disturbances that occurred.

The governor has the right to submit a comprehensive executive budget and messages to the legislature; therefore, he is in a position to influence the legislature and public serving a leader of policy. In addition, the governor has much power in policy innovation. He can call on any of the state agencies for ideas and data and the state cannot refuse to give him the information he requests.

Further, governor is the head of his political party. Therefore, he has to spend a great deal of time attending party activities. Smoothing over contradictions that emerge between rival factions within the organization or rival members of the legislature is one among the governor’s responsibilities in terms of the political party that he is in charge of.

The governor is also responsible for appropriate actions in case of emergency. The governor’s duty is to make plans for the case of emergency in collaboration with other officials. Emergencies include natural disasters, prison breaks, race riots, and political crises of various sorts.

Other responsibilities of the governor include making basic changes in existing public policy, new state programs, and major alterations in the tax structure. The governor’s task is to find the most suitable decision for this or that problem that occurs. He is to seek a wide range of opinions on the subject. When various approaches to the problems are carefully thought over the governor makes the final decision. The results that the decision will bring will determine the political fate of the governor and of his party or faction. Regarding this, the governor cannot afford to be often wrong.

Gans, C. (2000). Table for One, Please: America’s Disintegrating Democracy. Washington Monthly , 20, 33-35.

Lavery, K. (1999). Smart Contracting for Local Government Services: Processes and Experience . Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.

Leonarde, A. R. (1996). In search of the deliberate initiative. A proposal for a new method of constitutional change. 2008. Web.

Long, J. P. (1997). Divided government: Change, uncertainty, and the constitutional order. 2008. Web.

Penchoff, J. (2007). Legislative pay daze. Web.

Pound, W. T. (1999). The Modern Legislature. State Legislatures , 25 , 28.

Samples, J. (2004). Three Myths about Voter Turnout in the United States, Policy analysis, 524, 1-12.

Schwartz, J. (2004). Report says Internet voting system is too insecure to use . 2008. Web.

Switzer, J. V. (2001). Local Government Implementation of the Americans with Disabilities Act: Factors Affecting Statutory Compliance. Policy Studies Journal, 29 (4), 654.

Vile, M. J. (1999). Politics in the USA . London: Routledge.

Yoo, J.-W. & Wright, D. S. (1993). Public policy and intergovernmental relations: Measuring perceived change(s) in national influence – the effects of the federalism decade. Policy Studies Journal, 21, 53-55.

White, J. K. & Mileur, J. M. (Eds.). (1992). Challenges to party government . Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

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Essay on Local Government: Meaning and Patterns | Public Administration

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Read this essay to learn about the meaning and existing patterns of local government in India.

1. Essay on the Meaning of Local Governments:

Local governments are infra-sovereign geographic units found within sovereign nation or quasi-sovereign state. Like other units of government, local government units possess a defined area, a population, an organisation and also the authority to undertake and the power to perform public activities.

Within its territory, a local government unit seeks to give opportunities to the people for the expression of their opinion in regard to local affairs. It enables them to choose their representatives to take care of local affairs on their behalf.

However, it would not be correct to say that the local government shares any part of the political sovereignty of the state or the legal sovereignty of the government, within the state. Though the word ‘government’ is used for this politico-administrative organisation, it is not government in the sense of a legal sovereign by any means.

It is a semi-autonomous politico- administrative territorial organisation, having come into existence in many countries as the result of decentralization of powers.

In certain countries like England the process was different. Those politico-administrative organisations sprang up from the local communities. But, before they could claim to have defi­nite and comprehensive powers to conduct local affairs, they had to go to the central govern­ment for a title.

It was the Municipal Corporation Act, 1835, which gave the boroughs of En­gland the general frame of local government which they retain till today.

The Local Government Act, 1833 recognized county administration in England by transferring administrative powers to elective county councils. Likewise, the District and Parish Councils Act, 1894 provided for urban and rural districts, known collectively as ‘county districts.

The Local Government Act, 1933 and the London Government Act, 1939, said to be the two modern Acts of Parliament, describe the constitution of several types of public bodies concerning local government. Jackson is of the view that local government as applied to England is hardly capable of precise definition.

However, the term according to him has certain implications:

“It is concerned with localities and not with the country as a whole; it must for this reason be subordinate to the national government. The term further implies (as does any other form of government) some jurisdiction or activity of a public nature; it implies also the exist­ence of authorities empowered to exercise that jurisdiction and activity.”

According to the U.S. Bureau of the Census, a unit of local government must exhibit three qualifications;

First, it must exist as an organised entity possessing organisation and some mini­mum powers.

Second, it must have governmental character as an agency of the public to whom it must be accountable.

Third, it must possess substantial autonomy.

In an article, Duane Lockard has defined the local government as a “public organisation authorized to decide and administer a large range of public policies within a relatively small territory which is sub-division of a regional or national government….Local Government is at the bottom of a pyramid of governmental institutions with the national government at the top and intermediate governments (state, regions, provinces) occupying in middle range.”

One is inclined to agree with the above view. Local Government has only a derivative and not an independent authority. Its powers and functions are determined by the state legislature and these can be altered by law.

2. Essay on the Existing Patterns of Local Governments:

There are numerous local governments in the world. Hence it is difficult to make incontrovertible generalization about the nature of local government. It is difficult even to isolate the critical variables that shape it. However, five main systems of local government may be postulated in the world, viz, unitary decentralized, napoleonic prefect, federal-decentralized, local government system of communist countries, and post-colonial systems.

1. Unitary Decentralized:

Integration of local and central authorities is one of the salient features of the modern English local government and that of the Scandinavian countries. Both constitute part and par­cel of one governmental system and their relationship is one of partnership and collaboration in a single organism, possessing one common ultimate purpose, and an integrated system of insti­tutions for that purpose.

The relation between the central government and the local authorities is not that of an omnipotent controlling authority and its agents but of partners in an enterprise the carrying on of efficient administration. Lockard categorizes ‘unitary decentralized system’ as that system (that is non-federal) which has stood for a considerable degree of decentralization of autonomous powers of localities.

2. Napoleonic Prefect:

Quite a different system or set-up prevails in France. The French system of local govern­ment is highly centralized.

In the words of Prof Munro:

“Centralization is the essence of this system, centralization raised to a superlative degree. All authority converges inward and upward. It can be chartered in the form of a perfect pyra­mid.” It is said, “In France the Minister of Interior presses the button and the prefects, the sub- prefects, the mayors and the deputy mayors do the rest.”

According to Lockard, such a system may be described as the Napoleonic Prefect system. The peculiarity of this style of local gov­ernment is that the Central Government places in sub-regions of the nation an agent of the Central Government to oversee and if necessary to countermand, suspend or replace local gov­ernment.

3. Federal-Decentralized System:

In U.S.A., Canada, Australia, West Germany and Switzerland, the underlying basis of local government is the principle of local self-determination, according to which every commu­nity is given a substantial measure of freedom in the administration of its own affairs. This saves the local governments from rigid control, from the above. However, the degree of au­tonomy of local governments varies from country to country, but in all cases, a considerable degree of local independence prevails. Such a system has been described as Federal-decentralized system according to the International Encyclopedia.

4. Local Government Systems in Communist Countries:

The local government systems in the communist countries are examples of de-concentration of authority rather than decentralization. In other words, the local governmental unit is an agency of the Central Government and its functions are an integral element of hierarchical administrative system of the state. The area of local independence is narrow and extends only to minor matters whereas control devices are extensive and vigorously applied.

5. Post-Colonial System:

Post-colonial system is the fifth category of local governments in the world.

The creation of new nations from former colonies involves varying degrees of change in local government. In some cases, the imposition of a strong single party political system has subverted old pat­terns almost entirely; in others, where adjustments rather than revolutionary change have been made, local government patterns have not altered drastically.

The legacy of colonialism is omnipresent, however much the new leaders strive for break with the colonial past.

In India, with the ushering in of independent era, it is being realized increasingly that centralization has produced congestion at the centre and anemia at the periphery.

It is being felt that a dynamic democracy can grow only out of meaningful relationships and spontaneous organisations that spring up among the people when they come together at the local level to solve their basic problems by co-operation among themselves. In the words of Mahatma Gandhi, democracy can exist only on trust.

In pursuance of a new policy of decentralization, both the central and the state govern­ments have conducted enquiries into the working of the existing urban and rural local bodies in order to re organize, expand, democratize and revitalize them. That is necessary to form a stable base for the development of national democracy, and also to play an important role in the development of social and economic systems.

On the whole, however, more attention seems to have been paid to the re-organisation of rural local bodies than of the urban local government. That is perhaps because of an explicit provision of Article 40 as a part of the Directive Principles of the State Policy which states that, the “State shall take steps to organize village panchayats and endow them to function as units of self-government.”

India being a land of villages, emphasis on village panchayats is understandable. It should, however, be recognized that the processes of urbanization will gain momentum in the near future and it would have been better if local self-government may also have been mentioned in the Directive Principles.

The goals of the urban local government in the context of changing conditions in the country have been well described by a recent high-powered committee as:

(a) To function as local units of self-government;

(b) To provide public services and con­veniences for healthy living;

(c) To ensure planned and regulated development of urban areas;

(d) To mobilize local resources and utilize them to the maximum good of the community; and

(e) To promote social, economic and cultural development in an integrated manner.

Though most of our urban local bodies have failed so far to achieve these goals, yet it cannot be denied that properly managed local governments can significantly promote demo­cratic values, strengthen democratic structures and serve as suitable agencies for socio-eco­nomic development in the local areas.

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Local Government - Free Essay Examples and Topic Ideas

Local government refers to the administration of a specific geographic area such as a city or town, and is responsible for providing essential services to its residents such as sanitation, public safety, transportation, and public housing. Local government officials are elected or appointed to manage the affairs of the community and ensure that resources are maximized to meet the needs of its citizens. They also work in collaboration with state and federal governments to ensure that their policies and actions align with the needs of the nation as a whole. Local government plays a vital role in ensuring that communities thrive, and its effectiveness is determined by the engagement and participation of its constituents.

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FAQ about Local Government

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Are you prepared to ignite change in your community? ICMA is on the lookout for innovators and visionaries with groundbreaking ideas for the future of local government. We're excited to announce that handpicked essays will be showcased in our forthcoming publication, "Future Proofing Local Government: Strategies for Sustainable Innovation."

Our aim is to spotlight these essays so that local government managers can explore inventive approaches to modernize and future-proof their organizations. Hence, we're seeking essays that are thought-provoking, audacious, and resonate with one of our five Local Government Reimagined themes.

Anyone can submit an essay topic! Do you have a bold idea that could transform local governance? We want to hear it!

How might local governments reimagine public spaces to foster community connection and well-being in an increasingly digital age? What unconventional methods can local governments employ to promote environmental sustainability and resilience within their communities?

Submit your audacious essays or essay topics by April 5, 2024, and not only will you shape the future, but selected authors will also receive a $1,000 honorarium for their remarkable contributions. Your essays will take center stage in "Future Proofing Local Government," amplifying your ideas to inspire others to think boldly. Learn more at the website . Questions? Contact Kaelan Boyd, senior program manager, at [email protected] .

Don't let this opportunity pass to challenge norms, stretch boundaries, and establish a more responsive and equitable system. Together, let's pave the way for a brighter tomorrow!

New, Reduced Membership Dues

A new, reduced dues rate is available for CAOs/ACAOs, along with additional discounts for those in smaller communities, has been implemented. Learn more and be sure to join or renew today!

State and Local Government

From the Founding ge

Lesson Components

Guiding Questions

• What is a federal republic and what are the advantages of this form of government?
• Why is a pure democracy potentially dangerous to the rights of the minority?
• What is nullification, what were its results, and what are its implications for modern times?
• Students will explain why the Founders selected a federal republic as the best form of government.
• Students will analyze causes and effects of the Nullification Crisis.

Expand Materials Materials

Educator Resources

• Handout A: What Is a Federal Republic? Answer Key
• Handout C: James Madison and Federalism – Excerpts from Federalist No. 39 Answer Key

Student Handouts

• State and Local Government Essay

Handout A: What Is a Federal Republic?

Handout b: patrick henry at the virginia ratifying convention.

• Handout C: James Madison and Federalism – Excerpts from Federalist No. 39
• Handout E: Federalist No. 26
• Handout F: South Carolina Ordinance
• Handout G: President Jackson’s Proclamation

Students will need blue, yellow, and green highlighters or map colors for Activity 2, Federalist No. 39.

Expand Key Terms Key Terms

• Articles of Confederation
• Electoral College
• James Madison
• Constitution
• Fourteenth Amendment
• Thomas Jefferson
• Continental Congress
• Alexander Hamilton
• Tenth Amendment

Expand Prework Prework

Have students read the State and Local Government Essay , highlighting or otherwise annotating the main ideas.

Expand Warmup Warmup

Have students use a Think-Pair-Share process to respond to this question: Should states be able to declare federal laws unconstitutional?

Expand Activities Activities

Activity 1: What is a Federal Republic? [25 minutes]

Have students read Handout A: What Is a Federal Republic? Instruct students to answer the questions at the end of the essay.

Hand each student a copy of the Patrick Henry quotation on Handout B: Patrick Henry at the Virginia Ratifying Convention . Ask one student to stand up and read the quotation aloud. Ask students to put Henry’s concerns in their own words.

Activity 2: Federalist No. 39 [15 minutes]

Divide students into small groups and distribute Handout C: James Madison and Federalism – Excerpts from Federalist No. 39 . Have students follow the directions on the handout regarding Madison’s explanations of the national and federal nature of the Constitution. After students have completed it, lead the class in a discussion of the questions.

Activity 3: Nullification [40 minutes]

Give a mini-lecture on the background of the Nullification Crisis relating to the Tariff of 1828, South Carolina’s nullification of the law, Jackson’s response, and how it affected the United States leading up to the Civil War.

Have students work in small groups using information from Handout E: Federalist No. 26 , Handout F: South Carolina Ordinance , and Handout G: President Jackson’s Proclamation to study the Nullification Crisis and answer the following questions:

• What is nullification?
• What was the Tariff of 1828?
• Why did South Carolina disagree with the Tariff of 1828?
• What was President Jackson’s response to South Carolina?
• What would the Founders have thought about the Nullification Crisis? Would Federalists and Anti-Federalists have differing opinions on the topic? Explain.
• What were the long-term effects of the Nullification Crisis?
• What, if any, modern day implications does nullification have?

Expand Wrap Up Wrap Up

Ask work groups to share their responses to the final question: What, if any, modern day implications does nullification have?

Expand Homework Homework

Have students search current events articles (see https://billofrightsinstitute.org/current-events ) to find examples of controversies between the levels of government in our federal system: local/state, state/national, local/national

Have students report in the next class, explaining who, what, when, where, where, why, how, results.

Essay: State and Local Government

Primary source: james madison and federalism – excerpts from federalist no. 39, primary source: federalist no. 26, primary source: south carolina ordinance, primary source: president jackson’s proclamation.

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• Misinformation & Disinformation

Local Government Is Key to the Fight Against Disinformation

S tate governments, it is sometimes said, are the laboratories of democracy. If so, the rest of the world should make use of the new discoveries that are occurring there in the fight against election disinformation. 

2024 is a pivotal year for democracies around the globe with more than half the world’s population going to the polls. However, the unprecedented threat of election-related disinformation looms large, particularly in the United States.

Authoritarian countries like Russia, China, and Iran are leading disinformation campaigns , enhanced by artificial intelligence, to push narratives that undermine democratic governance, exacerbate political divisions, and support strongman and populist leaders. It is also increasingly apparent that foreign actors are poised to ramp up influence operations as Americans head to the polls. While it’s not the only threat in the disinformation landscape, they are certainly ones to be taken seriously , especially as the U.S. prepares for a polarized and divisive presidential election.

With Vice President Kamala Harris and former President Donald Trump locked in a competitive race for the White House, the contest to determine who will secure the presidency is likely be decided by a thin margin of voters in a handful of states . And any widespread disinformation campaign targeting battleground states has the potential to tip the scales or delegitimize election results. Down-ballot races are also at risk.

Read more: AI Isn’t Our Election Safety Problem, Disinformation Is

This comes at a time when the U.S. has also been experiencing a steady decline in local news sources since 2005. Instead, social media has become a crucial aspect of news consumption, and one that amplifies misinformation , leading to increased division , polarization on partisan grounds, and a loss of confidence in our institutions.

The terrain is becoming more treacherous as technology rapidly advances. From AI-generated robocalls that impersonated President Biden to discourage votes in New Hampshire to a manipulated campaign ad shared by Elon Musk on X which used AI to mimic Vice-President Harris.

So, what should we do to protect ourselves from falling victim to disinformation?

The most robust solutions may lie in the hands of states and local governments.

Traditionally, federal agencies take the lead, given their national security mandates, on countering foreign disinformation threats. However, states should not cede the battle on disinformation to federal agencies, but instead take a central role creating a great opportunity to inoculate individuals from falling victim to mistruths and conspiracy theories set loose online.

States and municipalities can complement and bolster national efforts to combat the spread of disinformation through the following measures:

Invest in local media

A number of state governments are taking measures to support local news outlets. Local news is essential to combatting disinformation because in the absence of community centered journalism, many seek information from social media, which has become a well-known vector for the spread of false claims and conspiracy theories. States such as New York have used tax incentives while others, like California , New Mexico , and Washington have established publicly funded fellowship programs for young and aspiring journalists. Illinois is one of the first states in the nation to mandate state agency spend on local news advertisement . While these are a great start, local news outlets are woefully underprepared for an information ecosystem where disinformation can so easily stifle and muddle the truth.

States should prioritize resources for local news organizations so that they can build the capacity to pre-bunk and de-bunk information that floods the online environment, especially when it comes to elections. Debunking claims takes a significant amount of time and resources, one even nationally syndicated news outlets have difficulty in keeping up with.

States can compensate for the stagnating momentum in the global fact-checking ecosystem. By building the capacity for de-bunking at the local level, this can begin to build a network of professionalized journalists dedicated to inundating their communities from being overwhelmed with fake news.

News literacy

Several states have implemented media literacy programs at the middle and high school levels. California , Delaware , and New Jersey have recently passed laws requiring K-12 students to learn media literacy skills— such as recognizing fake news and thinking critically about information they encounter online.

These steps can help prepare younger generations for a media environment where disinformation is constant. However, the same resources need to be made available to adults too, particularly those susceptible to fake news . As technology advances, even those with higher media literacy may even have difficulty distinguishing fact from fiction .

Election security response units

States should develop rapid response election security units within the state executive branch, that work with counties, in coordination with federal authorities, to monitor and detect state-sponsored disinformation campaigns leading up to the election, particularly those which violate the International Emergency Economic Powers Act. This strategy should include the creation of units that counter misinformation campaigns with facts . States could rely on the example set by New York City during the COVID-19 pandemic, for instance. The New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene established a dedicated Misinformation Response Unit to focus on monitoring misinformation, rapidly responding by disseminating accurate information related to vaccine safety.

With the accelerated spread of disinformation supercharged by sophisticated artificial intelligence tools, the federal government is simply far too ill-equipped to tackle this challenge alone. Politics aside, it should be in every leader’s interest at the state and local level to ensure that our democratic process is decided by an informed electorate—free from the influence of foreign powers who wish us harm or to sow chaos and division. Nationwide efforts adopted by states can reduce the spread of misinformation and strengthen our democracy for the better

States have an opportunity to experiment with solutions. We should encourage them to use it.

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If you are a teacher searching for essay topics to assign to your U.S. government or civics class or looking for ideas, do not fret. It is easy to integrate debates and discussions into the classroom environment. These topic suggestions provide a wealth of ideas for written assignments such as  position papers , compare-and-contrast essays , and  argumentative essays . Scan the following 25 question topics and ideas to find just the right one. You'll soon be reading interesting papers from your students after they grapple with these challenging and important issues.

• Compare and contrast what is a direct democracy versus representative democracy. 
• React to the following statement: Democratic decision-making should be extended to all areas of life including schools, the workplace, and the government. 
• Compare and contrast the Virginia and New Jersey plans. Explain how these led to the Great Compromise .
• Pick one thing about the U.S. Constitution including its amendments that you think should be changed. What modifications would you make? Explain your reasons for making this change.
• What did Thomas Jefferson mean when he said, "The tree of liberty must be refreshed from time to time with the blood of patriots and tyrants?" Do you think that this statement still applies to today's world? 
• Compare and contrast mandates and conditions of aid regarding the federal government's relationship with states. For example, how has the Federal Emergency Management Agency delivered support to states and commonwealths that have experienced natural disasters?
• Should individual states have more or less power compared to the federal government when implementing laws dealing with topics such as the legalization of marijuana  and abortion ? 
• Outline a program that would get more people to vote in presidential elections or local elections.
• What are the dangers of gerrymandering when it comes to voting and presidential elections?
• Compare and contrast the major political parties in the United States. What policies are they preparing for upcoming elections?
• Why would voters choose to vote for a third party, even though they know that their candidate has virtually no chance of winning? 
• Describe the major sources of money that are donated to political campaigns. Check out the Federal Election Regulatory Commission's website for information.
• Should corporations be treated as individuals regarding being allowed to donate to political campaigns?  Look at the 2010 Citizens United v. FEC ruling on the issue. Defend your answer. 
• Explain the role of social media in connecting interest groups that have grown stronger as the major political parties have grown weaker. 
• Explain why the media has been called the fourth branch of government. Include your opinion on whether this is an accurate portrayal.
• Compare and contrast the campaigns of U.S. Senate and House of Representatives candidates.
• Should term limits be instituted for members of Congress? Explain your answer.
• Should members of Congress vote their conscience or follow the will of the people who elected them into office? Explain your answer.
• Explain how executive orders have been used by presidents throughout the history of the U.S. What is the number of executive orders issued by the current president?
• In your opinion, which of the three branches of the federal government has the most power? Defend your answer.
• Which of the rights guaranteed by the First Amendment do you consider the most important? Explain your answer. 
• Should a school be required to get a warrant before searching a student's property? Defend your answer. 
• Why did the Equal Rights Amendment fail? What kind of campaign could be run to see it passed?
• Explain how the 14th Amendment has affected civil liberties in the United States from the time of its passage at the end of the Civil War.
• Do you think that the federal government has enough, too much or just the right amount of power? Defend your answer.
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