journal paper research project

Peer Recognized

Make a name in academia

How to Write a Research Paper: the LEAP approach (+cheat sheet)

In this article I will show you how to write a research paper using the four LEAP writing steps. The LEAP academic writing approach is a step-by-step method for turning research results into a published paper .

The LEAP writing approach has been the cornerstone of the 70 + research papers that I have authored and the 3700+ citations these paper have accumulated within 9 years since the completion of my PhD. I hope the LEAP approach will help you just as much as it has helped me to make an real, tangible impact with my research.

What is the LEAP research paper writing approach?

I designed the LEAP writing approach not only for merely writing the papers. My goal with the writing system was to show young scientists how to first think about research results and then how to efficiently write each section of the research paper.

In other words, you will see how to write a research paper by first analyzing the results and then building a logical, persuasive arguments. In this way, instead of being afraid of writing research paper, you will be able to rely on the paper writing process to help you with what is the most demanding task in getting published – thinking.

The four research paper writing steps according to the LEAP approach:

I will show each of these steps in detail. And you will be able to download the LEAP cheat sheet for using with every paper you write.

But before I tell you how to efficiently write a research paper, I want to show you what is the problem with the way scientists typically write a research paper and why the LEAP approach is more efficient.

How scientists typically write a research paper (and why it isn’t efficient)

Writing a research paper can be tough, especially for a young scientist. Your reasoning needs to be persuasive and thorough enough to convince readers of your arguments. The description has to be derived from research evidence, from prior art, and from your own judgment. This is a tough feat to accomplish.

The figure below shows the sequence of the different parts of a typical research paper. Depending on the scientific journal, some sections might be merged or nonexistent, but the general outline of a research paper will remain very similar.

Here is the problem: Most people make the mistake of writing in this same sequence.

While the structure of scientific articles is designed to help the reader follow the research, it does little to help the scientist write the paper. This is because the layout of research articles starts with the broad (introduction) and narrows down to the specifics (results). See in the figure below how the research paper is structured in terms of the breath of information that each section entails.

How to write a research paper according to the LEAP approach

For a scientist, it is much easier to start writing a research paper with laying out the facts in the narrow sections (i.e. results), step back to describe them (i.e. write the discussion), and step back again to explain the broader picture in the introduction.

For example, it might feel intimidating to start writing a research paper by explaining your research’s global significance in the introduction, while it is easy to plot the figures in the results. When plotting the results, there is not much room for wiggle: the results are what they are.

Starting to write a research papers from the results is also more fun because you finally get to see and understand the complete picture of the research that you have worked on.

Most importantly, following the LEAP approach will help you first make sense of the results yourself and then clearly communicate them to the readers. That is because the sequence of writing allows you to slowly understand the meaning of the results and then develop arguments for presenting to your readers.

I have personally been able to write and submit a research article in three short days using this method.

Step 1: Lay Out the Facts

You have worked long hours on a research project that has produced results and are no doubt curious to determine what they exactly mean. There is no better way to do this than by preparing figures, graphics and tables. This is what the first LEAP step is focused on – diving into the results.

How to p repare charts and tables for a research paper

Your first task is to try out different ways of visually demonstrating the research results. In many fields, the central items of a journal paper will be charts that are based on the data generated during research. In other fields, these might be conceptual diagrams, microscopy images, schematics and a number of other types of scientific graphics which should visually communicate the research study and its results to the readers. If you have reasonably small number of data points, data tables might be useful as well.

Tips for preparing charts and tables

• Try multiple chart types but in the finished paper only use the one that best conveys the message you want to present to the readers
• Follow the eight chart design progressions for selecting and refining a data chart for your paper: https://peerrecognized.com/chart-progressions
• Prepare scientific graphics and visualizations for your paper using the scientific graphic design cheat sheet: https://peerrecognized.com/tools-for-creating-scientific-illustrations/

How to describe the results of your research

Now that you have your data charts, graphics and tables laid out in front of you – describe what you see in them. Seek to answer the question: What have I found?  Your statements should progress in a logical sequence and be backed by the visual information. Since, at this point, you are simply explaining what everyone should be able to see for themselves, you can use a declarative tone: The figure X demonstrates that…

Tips for describing the research results :

• Answer the question: “ What have I found? “
• Use declarative tone since you are simply describing observations

Step 2: Explain the results

The core aspect of your research paper is not actually the results; it is the explanation of their meaning. In the second LEAP step, you will do some heavy lifting by guiding the readers through the results using logic backed by previous scientific research.

How to define the Message of a research paper

To define the central message of your research paper, imagine how you would explain your research to a colleague in 20 seconds . If you succeed in effectively communicating your paper’s message, a reader should be able to recount your findings in a similarly concise way even a year after reading it. This clarity will increase the chances that someone uses the knowledge you generated, which in turn raises the likelihood of citations to your research paper. 

Tips for defining the paper’s central message :

• Write the paper’s core message in a single sentence or two bullet points
• Write the core message in the header of the research paper manuscript

How to write the Discussion section of a research paper

In the discussion section you have to demonstrate why your research paper is worthy of publishing. In other words, you must now answer the all-important So what? question . How well you do so will ultimately define the success of your research paper.

Here are three steps to get started with writing the discussion section:

• Write bullet points of the things that convey the central message of the research article (these may evolve into subheadings later on).
• Make a list with the arguments or observations that support each idea.
• Finally, expand on each point to make full sentences and paragraphs.

Tips for writing the discussion section:

• What is the meaning of the results?
• Was the hypothesis confirmed?
• Write bullet points that support the core message
• List logical arguments for each bullet point, group them into sections
• Instead of repeating research timeline, use a presentation sequence that best supports your logic
• Convert arguments to full paragraphs; be confident but do not overhype
• Refer to both supportive and contradicting research papers for maximum credibility

How to write the Conclusions of a research paper

Since some readers might just skim through your research paper and turn directly to the conclusions, it is a good idea to make conclusion a standalone piece. In the first few sentences of the conclusions, briefly summarize the methodology and try to avoid using abbreviations (if you do, explain what they mean).

After this introduction, summarize the findings from the discussion section. Either paragraph style or bullet-point style conclusions can be used. I prefer the bullet-point style because it clearly separates the different conclusions and provides an easy-to-digest overview for the casual browser. It also forces me to be more succinct.

Tips for writing the conclusion section :

• Summarize the key findings, starting with the most important one
• Make conclusions standalone (short summary, avoid abbreviations)
• Add an optional take-home message and suggest future research in the last paragraph

How to refine the Objective of a research paper

The objective is a short, clear statement defining the paper’s research goals. It can be included either in the final paragraph of the introduction, or as a separate subsection after the introduction. Avoid writing long paragraphs with in-depth reasoning, references, and explanation of methodology since these belong in other sections. The paper’s objective can often be written in a single crisp sentence.

Tips for writing the objective section :

• The objective should ask the question that is answered by the central message of the research paper
• The research objective should be clear long before writing a paper. At this point, you are simply refining it to make sure it is addressed in the body of the paper.

How to write the Methodology section of your research paper

When writing the methodology section, aim for a depth of explanation that will allow readers to reproduce the study . This means that if you are using a novel method, you will have to describe it thoroughly. If, on the other hand, you applied a standardized method, or used an approach from another paper, it will be enough to briefly describe it with reference to the detailed original source.

Remember to also detail the research population, mention how you ensured representative sampling, and elaborate on what statistical methods you used to analyze the results.

Tips for writing the methodology section :

• Include enough detail to allow reproducing the research
• Provide references if the methods are known
• Create a methodology flow chart to add clarity
• Describe the research population, sampling methodology, statistical methods for result analysis
• Describe what methodology, test methods, materials, and sample groups were used in the research.

Step 3: Advertize the research

Step 3 of the LEAP writing approach is designed to entice the casual browser into reading your research paper. This advertising can be done with an informative title, an intriguing abstract, as well as a thorough explanation of the underlying need for doing the research within the introduction.

How to write the Introduction of a research paper

The introduction section should leave no doubt in the mind of the reader that what you are doing is important and that this work could push scientific knowledge forward. To do this convincingly, you will need to have a good knowledge of what is state-of-the-art in your field. You also need be able to see the bigger picture in order to demonstrate the potential impacts of your research work.

Think of the introduction as a funnel, going from wide to narrow, as shown in the figure below:

• Start with a brief context to explain what do we already know,
• Follow with the motivation for the research study and explain why should we care about it,
• Explain the research gap you are going to bridge within this research paper,
• Describe the approach you will take to solve the problem.

Tips for writing the introduction section :

• Follow the Context – Motivation – Research gap – Approach funnel for writing the introduction
• Explain how others tried and how you plan to solve the research problem
• Do a thorough literature review before writing the introduction
• Start writing the introduction by using your own words, then add references from the literature

How to prepare the Abstract of a research paper

The abstract acts as your paper’s elevator pitch and is therefore best written only after the main text is finished. In this one short paragraph you must convince someone to take on the time-consuming task of reading your whole research article. So, make the paper easy to read, intriguing, and self-explanatory; avoid jargon and abbreviations.

How to structure the abstract of a research paper:

• The abstract is a single paragraph that follows this structure:
• Problem: why did we research this
• Methodology: typically starts with the words “Here we…” that signal the start of own contribution.
• Results: what we found from the research.
• Conclusions: show why are the findings important

How to compose a research paper Title

The title is the ultimate summary of a research paper. It must therefore entice someone looking for information to click on a link to it and continue reading the article. A title is also used for indexing purposes in scientific databases, so a representative and optimized title will play large role in determining if your research paper appears in search results at all.

Tips for coming up with a research paper title:

• Capture curiosity of potential readers using a clear and descriptive title
• Include broad terms that are often searched
• Add details that uniquely identify the researched subject of your research paper
• Avoid jargon and abbreviations
• Use keywords as title extension (instead of duplicating the words) to increase the chance of appearing in search results

How to prepare Highlights and Graphical Abstract

Highlights are three to five short bullet-point style statements that convey the core findings of the research paper. Notice that the focus is on the findings, not on the process of getting there.

A graphical abstract placed next to the textual abstract visually summarizes the entire research paper in a single, easy-to-follow figure. I show how to create a graphical abstract in my book Research Data Visualization and Scientific Graphics.

Tips for preparing highlights and graphical abstract:

• In highlights show core findings of the research paper (instead of what you did in the study).
• In graphical abstract show take-home message or methodology of the research paper. Learn more about creating a graphical abstract in this article.

Step 4: Prepare for submission

Sometimes it seems that nuclear fusion will stop on the star closest to us (read: the sun will stop to shine) before a submitted manuscript is published in a scientific journal. The publication process routinely takes a long time, and after submitting the manuscript you have very little control over what happens. To increase the chances of a quick publication, you must do your homework before submitting the manuscript. In the fourth LEAP step, you make sure that your research paper is published in the most appropriate journal as quickly and painlessly as possible.

How to select a scientific Journal for your research paper

The best way to find a journal for your research paper is it to review which journals you used while preparing your manuscript. This source listing should provide some assurance that your own research paper, once published, will be among similar articles and, thus, among your field’s trusted sources.

After this initial selection of hand-full of scientific journals, consider the following six parameters for selecting the most appropriate journal for your research paper (read this article to review each step in detail):

• Scope and publishing history
• Ranking and Recognition
• Publishing time
• Acceptance rate
• Content requirements
• Access and Fees

How to select a journal for your research paper:

• Use the six parameters to select the most appropriate scientific journal for your research paper
• Use the following tools for journal selection: https://peerrecognized.com/journals
• Follow the journal’s “Authors guide” formatting requirements

How to Edit you manuscript

No one can write a finished research paper on their first attempt. Before submitting, make sure to take a break from your work for a couple of days, or even weeks. Try not to think about the manuscript during this time. Once it has faded from your memory, it is time to return and edit. The pause will allow you to read the manuscript from a fresh perspective and make edits as necessary.

I have summarized the most useful research paper editing tools in this article.

Tips for editing a research paper:

• Take time away from the research paper to forget about it; then returning to edit,
• Start by editing the content: structure, headings, paragraphs, logic, figures
• Continue by editing the grammar and language; perform a thorough language check using academic writing tools
• Read the entire paper out loud and correct what sounds weird

How to write a compelling Cover Letter for your paper

Begin the cover letter by stating the paper’s title and the type of paper you are submitting (review paper, research paper, short communication). Next, concisely explain why your study was performed, what was done, and what the key findings are. State why the results are important and what impact they might have in the field. Make sure you mention how your approach and findings relate to the scope of the journal in order to show why the article would be of interest to the journal’s readers.

I wrote a separate article that explains what to include in a cover letter here. You can also download a cover letter template from the article.

Tips for writing a cover letter:

• Explain how the findings of your research relate to journal’s scope
• Tell what impact the research results will have
• Show why the research paper will interest the journal’s audience
• Add any legal statements as required in journal’s guide for authors

How to Answer the Reviewers

Reviewers will often ask for new experiments, extended discussion, additional details on the experimental setup, and so forth. In principle, your primary winning tactic will be to agree with the reviewers and follow their suggestions whenever possible. After all, you must earn their blessing in order to get your paper published.

Be sure to answer each review query and stick to the point. In the response to the reviewers document write exactly where in the paper you have made any changes. In the paper itself, highlight the changes using a different color. This way the reviewers are less likely to re-read the entire article and suggest new edits.

In cases when you don’t agree with the reviewers, it makes sense to answer more thoroughly. Reviewers are scientifically minded people and so, with enough logical and supported argument, they will eventually be willing to see things your way.

Tips for answering the reviewers:

• Agree with most review comments, but if you don’t, thoroughly explain why
• Highlight changes in the manuscript
• Do not take the comments personally and cool down before answering

The LEAP research paper writing cheat sheet

Imagine that you are back in grad school and preparing to take an exam on the topic: “How to write a research paper”. As an exemplary student, you would, most naturally, create a cheat sheet summarizing the subject… Well, I did it for you.

This one-page summary of the LEAP research paper writing technique will remind you of the key research paper writing steps. Print it out and stick it to a wall in your office so that you can review it whenever you are writing a new research paper.

Now that we have gone through the four LEAP research paper writing steps, I hope you have a good idea of how to write a research paper. It can be an enjoyable process and once you get the hang of it, the four LEAP writing steps should even help you think about and interpret the research results. This process should enable you to write a well-structured, concise, and compelling research paper.

Have fund with writing your next research paper. I hope it will turn out great!

Learn writing papers that get cited

The LEAP writing approach is a blueprint for writing research papers. But to be efficient and write papers that get cited, you need more than that.

My name is Martins Zaumanis and in my interactive course Research Paper Writing Masterclass I will show you how to  visualize  your research results,  frame a message  that convinces your readers, and write  each section  of the paper. Step-by-step.

And of course – you will learn to respond the infamous  Reviewer No.2.

Hey! My name is Martins Zaumanis and I am a materials scientist in Switzerland ( Google Scholar ). As the first person in my family with a PhD, I have first-hand experience of the challenges starting scientists face in academia. With this blog, I want to help young researchers succeed in academia. I call the blog “Peer Recognized”, because peer recognition is what lifts academic careers and pushes science forward.

Besides this blog, I have written the Peer Recognized book series and created the Peer Recognized Academy offering interactive online courses.

Related articles:

One comment

• Pingback: Research Paper Outline with Key Sentence Skeleton (+Paper Template)

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

I want to join the Peer Recognized newsletter!

This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. Learn how your comment data is processed .

Privacy Overview

Copyright © 2024 Martins Zaumanis

Contacts:  [email protected]  

Privacy Policy 

How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal

• Open access
• Published: 30 April 2020
• Volume 36 , pages 909–913, ( 2021 )

Cite this article

You have full access to this open access article

• Clara Busse   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0178-1000 1 &
• Ella August   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0001-5151-1036 1 , 2  

282k Accesses

17 Citations

709 Altmetric

Explore all metrics

Communicating research findings is an essential step in the research process. Often, peer-reviewed journals are the forum for such communication, yet many researchers are never taught how to write a publishable scientific paper. In this article, we explain the basic structure of a scientific paper and describe the information that should be included in each section. We also identify common pitfalls for each section and recommend strategies to avoid them. Further, we give advice about target journal selection and authorship. In the online resource 1 , we provide an example of a high-quality scientific paper, with annotations identifying the elements we describe in this article.

Similar content being viewed by others

How to Choose the Right Journal

The Point Is…to Publish?

Writing and publishing a scientific paper

Explore related subjects.

• Artificial Intelligence

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Writing a scientific paper is an important component of the research process, yet researchers often receive little formal training in scientific writing. This is especially true in low-resource settings. In this article, we explain why choosing a target journal is important, give advice about authorship, provide a basic structure for writing each section of a scientific paper, and describe common pitfalls and recommendations for each section. In the online resource 1 , we also include an annotated journal article that identifies the key elements and writing approaches that we detail here. Before you begin your research, make sure you have ethical clearance from all relevant ethical review boards.

Select a Target Journal Early in the Writing Process

We recommend that you select a “target journal” early in the writing process; a “target journal” is the journal to which you plan to submit your paper. Each journal has a set of core readers and you should tailor your writing to this readership. For example, if you plan to submit a manuscript about vaping during pregnancy to a pregnancy-focused journal, you will need to explain what vaping is because readers of this journal may not have a background in this topic. However, if you were to submit that same article to a tobacco journal, you would not need to provide as much background information about vaping.

Information about a journal’s core readership can be found on its website, usually in a section called “About this journal” or something similar. For example, the Journal of Cancer Education presents such information on the “Aims and Scope” page of its website, which can be found here: https://www.springer.com/journal/13187/aims-and-scope .

Peer reviewer guidelines from your target journal are an additional resource that can help you tailor your writing to the journal and provide additional advice about crafting an effective article [ 1 ]. These are not always available, but it is worth a quick web search to find out.

Identify Author Roles Early in the Process

Early in the writing process, identify authors, determine the order of authors, and discuss the responsibilities of each author. Standard author responsibilities have been identified by The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) [ 2 ]. To set clear expectations about each team member’s responsibilities and prevent errors in communication, we also suggest outlining more detailed roles, such as who will draft each section of the manuscript, write the abstract, submit the paper electronically, serve as corresponding author, and write the cover letter. It is best to formalize this agreement in writing after discussing it, circulating the document to the author team for approval. We suggest creating a title page on which all authors are listed in the agreed-upon order. It may be necessary to adjust authorship roles and order during the development of the paper. If a new author order is agreed upon, be sure to update the title page in the manuscript draft.

In the case where multiple papers will result from a single study, authors should discuss who will author each paper. Additionally, authors should agree on a deadline for each paper and the lead author should take responsibility for producing an initial draft by this deadline.

Structure of the Introduction Section

The introduction section should be approximately three to five paragraphs in length. Look at examples from your target journal to decide the appropriate length. This section should include the elements shown in Fig.  1 . Begin with a general context, narrowing to the specific focus of the paper. Include five main elements: why your research is important, what is already known about the topic, the “gap” or what is not yet known about the topic, why it is important to learn the new information that your research adds, and the specific research aim(s) that your paper addresses. Your research aim should address the gap you identified. Be sure to add enough background information to enable readers to understand your study. Table 1 provides common introduction section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

The main elements of the introduction section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Methods Section

The purpose of the methods section is twofold: to explain how the study was done in enough detail to enable its replication and to provide enough contextual detail to enable readers to understand and interpret the results. In general, the essential elements of a methods section are the following: a description of the setting and participants, the study design and timing, the recruitment and sampling, the data collection process, the dataset, the dependent and independent variables, the covariates, the analytic approach for each research objective, and the ethical approval. The hallmark of an exemplary methods section is the justification of why each method was used. Table 2 provides common methods section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Results Section

The focus of the results section should be associations, or lack thereof, rather than statistical tests. Two considerations should guide your writing here. First, the results should present answers to each part of the research aim. Second, return to the methods section to ensure that the analysis and variables for each result have been explained.

Begin the results section by describing the number of participants in the final sample and details such as the number who were approached to participate, the proportion who were eligible and who enrolled, and the number of participants who dropped out. The next part of the results should describe the participant characteristics. After that, you may organize your results by the aim or by putting the most exciting results first. Do not forget to report your non-significant associations. These are still findings.

Tables and figures capture the reader’s attention and efficiently communicate your main findings [ 3 ]. Each table and figure should have a clear message and should complement, rather than repeat, the text. Tables and figures should communicate all salient details necessary for a reader to understand the findings without consulting the text. Include information on comparisons and tests, as well as information about the sample and timing of the study in the title, legend, or in a footnote. Note that figures are often more visually interesting than tables, so if it is feasible to make a figure, make a figure. To avoid confusing the reader, either avoid abbreviations in tables and figures, or define them in a footnote. Note that there should not be citations in the results section and you should not interpret results here. Table 3 provides common results section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Discussion Section

Opposite the introduction section, the discussion should take the form of a right-side-up triangle beginning with interpretation of your results and moving to general implications (Fig.  2 ). This section typically begins with a restatement of the main findings, which can usually be accomplished with a few carefully-crafted sentences.

Major elements of the discussion section of an original research article. Often, the elements overlap

Next, interpret the meaning or explain the significance of your results, lifting the reader’s gaze from the study’s specific findings to more general applications. Then, compare these study findings with other research. Are these findings in agreement or disagreement with those from other studies? Does this study impart additional nuance to well-accepted theories? Situate your findings within the broader context of scientific literature, then explain the pathways or mechanisms that might give rise to, or explain, the results.

Journals vary in their approach to strengths and limitations sections: some are embedded paragraphs within the discussion section, while some mandate separate section headings. Keep in mind that every study has strengths and limitations. Candidly reporting yours helps readers to correctly interpret your research findings.

The next element of the discussion is a summary of the potential impacts and applications of the research. Should these results be used to optimally design an intervention? Does the work have implications for clinical protocols or public policy? These considerations will help the reader to further grasp the possible impacts of the presented work.

Finally, the discussion should conclude with specific suggestions for future work. Here, you have an opportunity to illuminate specific gaps in the literature that compel further study. Avoid the phrase “future research is necessary” because the recommendation is too general to be helpful to readers. Instead, provide substantive and specific recommendations for future studies. Table 4 provides common discussion section pitfalls and recommendations for addressing them.

Follow the Journal’s Author Guidelines

After you select a target journal, identify the journal’s author guidelines to guide the formatting of your manuscript and references. Author guidelines will often (but not always) include instructions for titles, cover letters, and other components of a manuscript submission. Read the guidelines carefully. If you do not follow the guidelines, your article will be sent back to you.

Finally, do not submit your paper to more than one journal at a time. Even if this is not explicitly stated in the author guidelines of your target journal, it is considered inappropriate and unprofessional.

Your title should invite readers to continue reading beyond the first page [ 4 , 5 ]. It should be informative and interesting. Consider describing the independent and dependent variables, the population and setting, the study design, the timing, and even the main result in your title. Because the focus of the paper can change as you write and revise, we recommend you wait until you have finished writing your paper before composing the title.

Be sure that the title is useful for potential readers searching for your topic. The keywords you select should complement those in your title to maximize the likelihood that a researcher will find your paper through a database search. Avoid using abbreviations in your title unless they are very well known, such as SNP, because it is more likely that someone will use a complete word rather than an abbreviation as a search term to help readers find your paper.

After you have written a complete draft, use the checklist (Fig. 3 ) below to guide your revisions and editing. Additional resources are available on writing the abstract and citing references [ 5 ]. When you feel that your work is ready, ask a trusted colleague or two to read the work and provide informal feedback. The box below provides a checklist that summarizes the key points offered in this article.

Checklist for manuscript quality

Data Availability

Michalek AM (2014) Down the rabbit hole…advice to reviewers. J Cancer Educ 29:4–5

Article   Google Scholar  

International Committee of Medical Journal Editors. Defining the role of authors and contributors: who is an author? http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authosrs-and-contributors.html . Accessed 15 January, 2020

Vetto JT (2014) Short and sweet: a short course on concise medical writing. J Cancer Educ 29(1):194–195

Brett M, Kording K (2017) Ten simple rules for structuring papers. PLoS ComputBiol. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005619

Lang TA (2017) Writing a better research article. J Public Health Emerg. https://doi.org/10.21037/jphe.2017.11.06

Download references

Acknowledgments

Ella August is grateful to the Sustainable Sciences Institute for mentoring her in training researchers on writing and publishing their research.

Code Availability

Not applicable.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Maternal and Child Health, University of North Carolina Gillings School of Global Public Health, 135 Dauer Dr, 27599, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

Clara Busse & Ella August

Department of Epidemiology, University of Michigan School of Public Health, 1415 Washington Heights, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2029, USA

Ella August

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Ella August .

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of interests.

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Electronic supplementary material

(PDF 362 kb)

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Busse, C., August, E. How to Write and Publish a Research Paper for a Peer-Reviewed Journal. J Canc Educ 36 , 909–913 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z

Download citation

Published : 30 April 2020

Issue Date : October 2021

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Manuscripts
• Scientific writing
• Find a journal
• Publish with us
• Track your research

• Privacy Policy

Home » How to Publish a Research Paper – Step by Step Guide

How to Publish a Research Paper – Step by Step Guide

Table of Contents

Publishing a research paper is an important step for researchers to disseminate their findings to a wider audience and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in their field. Whether you are a graduate student, a postdoctoral fellow, or an established researcher, publishing a paper requires careful planning, rigorous research, and clear writing. In this process, you will need to identify a research question , conduct a thorough literature review , design a methodology, analyze data, and draw conclusions. Additionally, you will need to consider the appropriate journals or conferences to submit your work to and adhere to their guidelines for formatting and submission. In this article, we will discuss some ways to publish your Research Paper.

How to Publish a Research Paper

To Publish a Research Paper follow the guide below:

• Conduct original research : Conduct thorough research on a specific topic or problem. Collect data, analyze it, and draw conclusions based on your findings.
• Write the paper : Write a detailed paper describing your research. It should include an abstract, introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.
• Choose a suitable journal or conference : Look for a journal or conference that specializes in your research area. You can check their submission guidelines to ensure your paper meets their requirements.
• Prepare your submission: Follow the guidelines and prepare your submission, including the paper, abstract, cover letter, and any other required documents.
• Submit the paper: Submit your paper online through the journal or conference website. Make sure you meet the submission deadline.
• Peer-review process : Your paper will be reviewed by experts in the field who will provide feedback on the quality of your research, methodology, and conclusions.
• Revisions : Based on the feedback you receive, revise your paper and resubmit it.
• Acceptance : Once your paper is accepted, you will receive a notification from the journal or conference. You may need to make final revisions before the paper is published.
• Publication : Your paper will be published online or in print. You can also promote your work through social media or other channels to increase its visibility.

How to Choose Journal for Research Paper Publication

Here are some steps to follow to help you select an appropriate journal:

• Identify your research topic and audience : Your research topic and intended audience should guide your choice of journal. Identify the key journals in your field of research and read the scope and aim of the journal to determine if your paper is a good fit.
• Analyze the journal’s impact and reputation : Check the impact factor and ranking of the journal, as well as its acceptance rate and citation frequency. A high-impact journal can give your paper more visibility and credibility.
• Consider the journal’s publication policies : Look for the journal’s publication policies such as the word count limit, formatting requirements, open access options, and submission fees. Make sure that you can comply with the requirements and that the journal is in line with your publication goals.
• Look at recent publications : Review recent issues of the journal to evaluate whether your paper would fit in with the journal’s current content and style.
• Seek advice from colleagues and mentors: Ask for recommendations and suggestions from your colleagues and mentors in your field, especially those who have experience publishing in the same or similar journals.
• Be prepared to make changes : Be prepared to revise your paper according to the requirements and guidelines of the chosen journal. It is also important to be open to feedback from the editor and reviewers.

List of Journals for Research Paper Publications

There are thousands of academic journals covering various fields of research. Here are some of the most popular ones, categorized by field:

General/Multidisciplinary

• Nature: https://www.nature.com/
• Science: https://www.sciencemag.org/
• PLOS ONE: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/
• Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS): https://www.pnas.org/
• The Lancet: https://www.thelancet.com/
• JAMA (Journal of the American Medical Association): https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama

Social Sciences/Humanities

• Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/psp
• Journal of Consumer Research: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/journals/jcr
• Journal of Educational Psychology: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/edu
• Journal of Applied Psychology: https://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/apl
• Journal of Communication: https://academic.oup.com/joc
• American Journal of Political Science: https://ajps.org/
• Journal of International Business Studies: https://www.jibs.net/
• Journal of Marketing Research: https://www.ama.org/journal-of-marketing-research/

Natural Sciences

• Journal of Biological Chemistry: https://www.jbc.org/
• Cell: https://www.cell.com/
• Science Advances: https://advances.sciencemag.org/
• Chemical Reviews: https://pubs.acs.org/journal/chreay
• Angewandte Chemie: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/15213765
• Physical Review Letters: https://journals.aps.org/prl/
• Journal of Geophysical Research: https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/2156531X
• Journal of High Energy Physics: https://link.springer.com/journal/13130

Engineering/Technology

• IEEE Transactions on Neural Networks and Learning Systems: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=5962385
• IEEE Transactions on Power Systems: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=59
• IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=42
• IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology: https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/RecentIssue.jsp?punumber=87
• Journal of Engineering Mechanics: https://ascelibrary.org/journal/jenmdt
• Journal of Materials Science: https://www.springer.com/journal/10853
• Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan: https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/jcej
• Journal of Mechanical Design: https://asmedigitalcollection.asme.org/mechanicaldesign

Medical/Health Sciences

• New England Journal of Medicine: https://www.nejm.org/
• The BMJ (formerly British Medical Journal): https://www.bmj.com/
• Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA): https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama
• Annals of Internal Medicine: https://www.acpjournals.org/journal/aim
• American Journal of Epidemiology: https://academic.oup.com/aje
• Journal of Clinical Oncology: https://ascopubs.org/journal/jco
• Journal of Infectious Diseases: https://academic.oup.com/jid

List of Conferences for Research Paper Publications

There are many conferences that accept research papers for publication. The specific conferences you should consider will depend on your field of research. Here are some suggestions for conferences in a few different fields:

Computer Science and Information Technology:

• IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications (INFOCOM): https://www.ieee-infocom.org/
• ACM SIGCOMM Conference on Data Communication: https://conferences.sigcomm.org/sigcomm/
• IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP): https://www.ieee-security.org/TC/SP/
• ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS): https://www.sigsac.org/ccs/
• ACM Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (CHI): https://chi2022.acm.org/

Engineering:

• IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation (ICRA): https://www.ieee-icra.org/
• International Conference on Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering (ICMAE): http://www.icmae.org/
• International Conference on Civil and Environmental Engineering (ICCEE): http://www.iccee.org/
• International Conference on Materials Science and Engineering (ICMSE): http://www.icmse.org/
• International Conference on Energy and Power Engineering (ICEPE): http://www.icepe.org/

Natural Sciences:

• American Chemical Society National Meeting & Exposition: https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/meetings/national-meeting.html
• American Physical Society March Meeting: https://www.aps.org/meetings/march/
• International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology (ICEST): http://www.icest.org/
• International Conference on Natural Science and Environment (ICNSE): http://www.icnse.org/
• International Conference on Life Science and Biological Engineering (LSBE): http://www.lsbe.org/

Social Sciences:

• Annual Meeting of the American Sociological Association (ASA): https://www.asanet.org/annual-meeting-2022
• International Conference on Social Science and Humanities (ICSSH): http://www.icssh.org/
• International Conference on Psychology and Behavioral Sciences (ICPBS): http://www.icpbs.org/
• International Conference on Education and Social Science (ICESS): http://www.icess.org/
• International Conference on Management and Information Science (ICMIS): http://www.icmis.org/

How to Publish a Research Paper in Journal

Publishing a research paper in a journal is a crucial step in disseminating scientific knowledge and contributing to the field. Here are the general steps to follow:

• Choose a research topic : Select a topic of your interest and identify a research question or problem that you want to investigate. Conduct a literature review to identify the gaps in the existing knowledge that your research will address.
• Conduct research : Develop a research plan and methodology to collect data and conduct experiments. Collect and analyze data to draw conclusions that address the research question.
• Write a paper: Organize your findings into a well-structured paper with clear and concise language. Your paper should include an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion. Use academic language and provide references for your sources.
• Choose a journal: Choose a journal that is relevant to your research topic and audience. Consider factors such as impact factor, acceptance rate, and the reputation of the journal.
• Follow journal guidelines : Review the submission guidelines and formatting requirements of the journal. Follow the guidelines carefully to ensure that your paper meets the journal’s requirements.
• Submit your paper : Submit your paper to the journal through the online submission system or by email. Include a cover letter that briefly explains the significance of your research and why it is suitable for the journal.
• Wait for reviews: Your paper will be reviewed by experts in the field. Be prepared to address their comments and make revisions to your paper.
• Revise and resubmit: Make revisions to your paper based on the reviewers’ comments and resubmit it to the journal. If your paper is accepted, congratulations! If not, consider revising and submitting it to another journal.
• Address reviewer comments : Reviewers may provide comments and suggestions for revisions to your paper. Address these comments carefully and thoughtfully to improve the quality of your paper.
• Submit the final version: Once your revisions are complete, submit the final version of your paper to the journal. Be sure to follow any additional formatting guidelines and requirements provided by the journal.
• Publication : If your paper is accepted, it will be published in the journal. Some journals provide online publication while others may publish a print version. Be sure to cite your published paper in future research and communicate your findings to the scientific community.

How to Publish a Research Paper for Students

Here are some steps you can follow to publish a research paper as an Under Graduate or a High School Student:

• Select a topic: Choose a topic that is relevant and interesting to you, and that you have a good understanding of.
• Conduct research : Gather information and data on your chosen topic through research, experiments, surveys, or other means.
• Write the paper : Start with an outline, then write the introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion sections of the paper. Be sure to follow any guidelines provided by your instructor or the journal you plan to submit to.
• Edit and revise: Review your paper for errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Ask a peer or mentor to review your paper and provide feedback for improvement.
• Choose a journal : Look for journals that publish papers in your field of study and that are appropriate for your level of research. Some popular journals for students include PLOS ONE, Nature, and Science.
• Submit the paper: Follow the submission guidelines for the journal you choose, which typically include a cover letter, abstract, and formatting requirements. Be prepared to wait several weeks to months for a response.
• Address feedback : If your paper is accepted with revisions, address the feedback from the reviewers and resubmit your paper. If your paper is rejected, review the feedback and consider revising and resubmitting to a different journal.

How to Publish a Research Paper for Free

Publishing a research paper for free can be challenging, but it is possible. Here are some steps you can take to publish your research paper for free:

• Choose a suitable open-access journal: Look for open-access journals that are relevant to your research area. Open-access journals allow readers to access your paper without charge, so your work will be more widely available.
• Check the journal’s reputation : Before submitting your paper, ensure that the journal is reputable by checking its impact factor, publication history, and editorial board.
• Follow the submission guidelines : Every journal has specific guidelines for submitting papers. Make sure to follow these guidelines carefully to increase the chances of acceptance.
• Submit your paper : Once you have completed your research paper, submit it to the journal following their submission guidelines.
• Wait for the review process: Your paper will undergo a peer-review process, where experts in your field will evaluate your work. Be patient during this process, as it can take several weeks or even months.
• Revise your paper : If your paper is rejected, don’t be discouraged. Revise your paper based on the feedback you receive from the reviewers and submit it to another open-access journal.
• Promote your research: Once your paper is published, promote it on social media and other online platforms. This will increase the visibility of your work and help it reach a wider audience.

Journals and Conferences for Free Research Paper publications

Here are the websites of the open-access journals and conferences mentioned:

Open-Access Journals:

• PLOS ONE – https://journals.plos.org/plosone/
• BMC Research Notes – https://bmcresnotes.biomedcentral.com/
• Frontiers in… – https://www.frontiersin.org/
• Journal of Open Research Software – https://openresearchsoftware.metajnl.com/
• PeerJ – https://peerj.com/

Conferences:

• IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM) – https://globecom2022.ieee-globecom.org/
• IEEE International Conference on Computer Communications (INFOCOM) – https://infocom2022.ieee-infocom.org/
• IEEE International Conference on Data Mining (ICDM) – https://www.ieee-icdm.org/
• ACM SIGCOMM Conference on Data Communication (SIGCOMM) – https://conferences.sigcomm.org/sigcomm/
• ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security (CCS) – https://www.sigsac.org/ccs/CCS2022/

Importance of Research Paper Publication

Research paper publication is important for several reasons, both for individual researchers and for the scientific community as a whole. Here are some reasons why:

• Advancing scientific knowledge : Research papers provide a platform for researchers to present their findings and contribute to the body of knowledge in their field. These papers often contain novel ideas, experimental data, and analyses that can help to advance scientific understanding.
• Building a research career : Publishing research papers is an essential component of building a successful research career. Researchers are often evaluated based on the number and quality of their publications, and having a strong publication record can increase one’s chances of securing funding, tenure, or a promotion.
• Peer review and quality control: Publication in a peer-reviewed journal means that the research has been scrutinized by other experts in the field. This peer review process helps to ensure the quality and validity of the research findings.
• Recognition and visibility : Publishing a research paper can bring recognition and visibility to the researchers and their work. It can lead to invitations to speak at conferences, collaborations with other researchers, and media coverage.
• Impact on society : Research papers can have a significant impact on society by informing policy decisions, guiding clinical practice, and advancing technological innovation.

Advantages of Research Paper Publication

There are several advantages to publishing a research paper, including:

• Recognition: Publishing a research paper allows researchers to gain recognition for their work, both within their field and in the academic community as a whole. This can lead to new collaborations, invitations to conferences, and other opportunities to share their research with a wider audience.
• Career advancement : A strong publication record can be an important factor in career advancement, particularly in academia. Publishing research papers can help researchers secure funding, grants, and promotions.
• Dissemination of knowledge : Research papers are an important way to share new findings and ideas with the broader scientific community. By publishing their research, scientists can contribute to the collective body of knowledge in their field and help advance scientific understanding.
• Feedback and peer review : Publishing a research paper allows other experts in the field to provide feedback on the research, which can help improve the quality of the work and identify potential flaws or limitations. Peer review also helps ensure that research is accurate and reliable.
• Citation and impact : Published research papers can be cited by other researchers, which can help increase the impact and visibility of the research. High citation rates can also help establish a researcher’s reputation and credibility within their field.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Tables in Research Paper – Types, Creating Guide...

Ethical Considerations – Types, Examples and...

APA Table of Contents – Format and Example

Chapter Summary & Overview – Writing Guide...

Research Design – Types, Methods and Examples

Informed Consent in Research – Types, Templates...

• PRO Courses Guides New Tech Help Pro Expert Videos About wikiHow Pro Upgrade Sign In
• EDIT Edit this Article
• EXPLORE Tech Help Pro About Us Random Article Quizzes Request a New Article Community Dashboard This Or That Game Happiness Hub Popular Categories Arts and Entertainment Artwork Books Movies Computers and Electronics Computers Phone Skills Technology Hacks Health Men's Health Mental Health Women's Health Relationships Dating Love Relationship Issues Hobbies and Crafts Crafts Drawing Games Education & Communication Communication Skills Personal Development Studying Personal Care and Style Fashion Hair Care Personal Hygiene Youth Personal Care School Stuff Dating All Categories Arts and Entertainment Finance and Business Home and Garden Relationship Quizzes Cars & Other Vehicles Food and Entertaining Personal Care and Style Sports and Fitness Computers and Electronics Health Pets and Animals Travel Education & Communication Hobbies and Crafts Philosophy and Religion Work World Family Life Holidays and Traditions Relationships Youth
• Browse Articles
• Learn Something New
• Quizzes Hot
• Happiness Hub
• This Or That Game
• Train Your Brain
• Explore More
• Support wikiHow
• About wikiHow
• Log in / Sign up
• Education and Communications
• College University and Postgraduate
• Academic Writing
• Research Papers

How to Write and Publish Your Research in a Journal

Last Updated: May 26, 2024 Fact Checked

Choosing a Journal

Writing the research paper, editing & revising your paper, submitting your paper, navigating the peer review process, research paper help.

This article was co-authored by Matthew Snipp, PhD and by wikiHow staff writer, Cheyenne Main . C. Matthew Snipp is the Burnet C. and Mildred Finley Wohlford Professor of Humanities and Sciences in the Department of Sociology at Stanford University. He is also the Director for the Institute for Research in the Social Science’s Secure Data Center. He has been a Research Fellow at the U.S. Bureau of the Census and a Fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences. He has published 3 books and over 70 articles and book chapters on demography, economic development, poverty and unemployment. He is also currently serving on the National Institute of Child Health and Development’s Population Science Subcommittee. He holds a Ph.D. in Sociology from the University of Wisconsin—Madison. There are 13 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 706,768 times.

Publishing a research paper in a peer-reviewed journal allows you to network with other scholars, get your name and work into circulation, and further refine your ideas and research. Before submitting your paper, make sure it reflects all the work you’ve done and have several people read over it and make comments. Keep reading to learn how you can choose a journal, prepare your work for publication, submit it, and revise it after you get a response back.

Things You Should Know

• Create a list of journals you’d like to publish your work in and choose one that best aligns with your topic and your desired audience.
• Prepare your manuscript using the journal’s requirements and ask at least 2 professors or supervisors to review your paper.
• Write a cover letter that “sells” your manuscript, says how your research adds to your field and explains why you chose the specific journal you’re submitting to.

• Ask your professors or supervisors for well-respected journals that they’ve had good experiences publishing with and that they read regularly.
• Many journals also only accept specific formats, so by choosing a journal before you start, you can write your article to their specifications and increase your chances of being accepted.
• If you’ve already written a paper you’d like to publish, consider whether your research directly relates to a hot topic or area of research in the journals you’re looking into.

• Review the journal’s peer review policies and submission process to see if you’re comfortable creating or adjusting your work according to their standards.
• Open-access journals can increase your readership because anyone can access them.

• Scientific research papers: Instead of a “thesis,” you might write a “research objective” instead. This is where you state the purpose of your research.
• “This paper explores how George Washington’s experiences as a young officer may have shaped his views during difficult circumstances as a commanding officer.”
• “This paper contends that George Washington’s experiences as a young officer on the 1750s Pennsylvania frontier directly impacted his relationship with his Continental Army troops during the harsh winter at Valley Forge.”

• Scientific research papers: Include a “materials and methods” section with the step-by-step process you followed and the materials you used. [5] X Research source
• Read other research papers in your field to see how they’re written. Their format, writing style, subject matter, and vocabulary can help guide your own paper. [6] X Research source

• If you’re writing about George Washington’s experiences as a young officer, you might emphasize how this research changes our perspective of the first president of the U.S.
• Link this section to your thesis or research objective.
• If you’re writing a paper about ADHD, you might discuss other applications for your research.

• Scientific research papers: You might include your research and/or analytical methods, your main findings or results, and the significance or implications of your research.
• Try to get as many people as you can to read over your abstract and provide feedback before you submit your paper to a journal.

• They might also provide templates to help you structure your manuscript according to their specific guidelines. [11] X Research source

• Not all journal reviewers will be experts on your specific topic, so a non-expert “outsider’s perspective” can be valuable.

• If you have a paper on the purification of wastewater with fungi, you might use both the words “fungi” and “mushrooms.”
• Use software like iThenticate, Turnitin, or PlagScan to check for similarities between the submitted article and published material available online. [15] X Research source

• Header: Address the editor who will be reviewing your manuscript by their name, include the date of submission, and the journal you are submitting to.
• First paragraph: Include the title of your manuscript, the type of paper it is (like review, research, or case study), and the research question you wanted to answer and why.
• Second paragraph: Explain what was done in your research, your main findings, and why they are significant to your field.
• Third paragraph: Explain why the journal’s readers would be interested in your work and why your results are important to your field.
• Conclusion: State the author(s) and any journal requirements that your work complies with (like ethical standards”).
• “We confirm that this manuscript has not been published elsewhere and is not under consideration by another journal.”
• “All authors have approved the manuscript and agree with its submission to [insert the name of the target journal].”

• Submit your article to only one journal at a time.
• When submitting online, use your university email account. This connects you with a scholarly institution, which can add credibility to your work.

• Accept: Only minor adjustments are needed, based on the provided feedback by the reviewers. A first submission will rarely be accepted without any changes needed.
• Revise and Resubmit: Changes are needed before publication can be considered, but the journal is still very interested in your work.
• Reject and Resubmit: Extensive revisions are needed. Your work may not be acceptable for this journal, but they might also accept it if significant changes are made.
• Reject: The paper isn’t and won’t be suitable for this publication, but that doesn’t mean it might not work for another journal.

• Try organizing the reviewer comments by how easy it is to address them. That way, you can break your revisions down into more manageable parts.
• If you disagree with a comment made by a reviewer, try to provide an evidence-based explanation when you resubmit your paper.

• If you’re resubmitting your paper to the same journal, include a point-by-point response paper that talks about how you addressed all of the reviewers’ comments in your revision. [22] X Research source
• If you’re not sure which journal to submit to next, you might be able to ask the journal editor which publications they recommend.

Expert Q&A

You might also like.

• If reviewers suspect that your submitted manuscript plagiarizes another work, they may refer to a Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) flowchart to see how to move forward. [23] X Research source Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• ↑ https://www.wiley.com/en-us/network/publishing/research-publishing/choosing-a-journal/6-steps-to-choosing-the-right-journal-for-your-research-infographic
• ↑ https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13187-020-01751-z
• ↑ https://libguides.unomaha.edu/c.php?g=100510&p=651627
• ↑ https://www.canberra.edu.au/library/start-your-research/research_help/publishing-research
• ↑ https://writingcenter.fas.harvard.edu/conclusions
• ↑ https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/writing-an-abstract-for-your-research-paper/
• ↑ https://www.springer.com/gp/authors-editors/book-authors-editors/your-publication-journey/manuscript-preparation
• ↑ https://apus.libanswers.com/writing/faq/2391
• ↑ https://academicguides.waldenu.edu/library/keyword/search-strategy
• ↑ https://ifis.libguides.com/journal-publishing-guide/submitting-your-paper
• ↑ https://www.springer.com/kr/authors-editors/authorandreviewertutorials/submitting-to-a-journal-and-peer-review/cover-letters/10285574
• ↑ https://www.apa.org/monitor/sep02/publish.aspx
• ↑ Matthew Snipp, PhD. Research Fellow, U.S. Bureau of the Census. Expert Interview. 26 March 2020.

About This Article

To publish a research paper, ask a colleague or professor to review your paper and give you feedback. Once you've revised your work, familiarize yourself with different academic journals so that you can choose the publication that best suits your paper. Make sure to look at the "Author's Guide" so you can format your paper according to the guidelines for that publication. Then, submit your paper and don't get discouraged if it is not accepted right away. You may need to revise your paper and try again. To learn about the different responses you might get from journals, see our reviewer's explanation below. Did this summary help you? Yes No

• Send fan mail to authors

Reader Success Stories

RAMDEV GOHIL

Oct 16, 2017

Did this article help you?

David Okandeji

Oct 23, 2019

Revati Joshi

Feb 13, 2017

Shahzad Khan

Jul 1, 2017

Apr 7, 2017

Featured Articles

Trending Articles

Watch Articles

• Terms of Use
• Privacy Policy
• Do Not Sell or Share My Info
• Not Selling Info

Get all the best how-tos!

Sign up for wikiHow's weekly email newsletter

• Insights blog

How to format and use a journal template for your research paper

When writing your research paper it is crucial to understand what format your target journal requires, and what journal template you should use (if one at all). Although many of our journals have the basic elements of style in common, each journal can have its own guidelines for formatting. This defines how an article will look when it is published online or in print.

Read on to find out how to format your research paper for submission to your target journal.

How to format your research paper

Go to  Taylor & Francis Online  and search for the title of your chosen journal using the search bar.

Select the relevant journal and click on the instructions for authors tab.

Read your target journal’s instructions for authors, and find out about its formatting guidelines.

Below are a list of Word templates which can be used for many of our journals. Please download the relevant template and apply it to your research paper format.

Each version of the template has its own instructions file. Read the instructions to learn how to save and use the template.

Get familiar with the journal’s instructions for authors

Be prepared, speed up your submission, and make sure nothing is forgotten by understanding the journal’s individual requirements.

Using Taylor & Francis word templates for journal articles

Check to see which version of Word is installed on your computer

Read the instructions for the relevant version of the template in the list below

Download and save the template file to your computer

Apply these styles to your paper as appropriate

Taylor & Francis templates

Format-free submission

Many Taylor & Francis journals allow format-free submission .

If you use a consistent citation format and include all the necessary information, you may be able to submit your work without worrying about formatting your manuscript.

To find out if your journal allows format-free submission, go to your journal’s homepage on Taylor & Francis Online .

Read the instructions for authors’ for your chosen journal to find out if it operates format-free submission.

Submitting your article format-free?

Read our guide for more information on how to submit your article format-free.

Other journal format options

Latex templates.

Some of our journals accept manuscripts that use a LaTeX template.

Please check the instructions for authors on your chosen journal’s homepage on Taylor & Francis Online to know if LaTeX is an accepted format.

Your journal may provide a link to its specific template in the instructions for authors’ section of the journal’s homepage on Taylor & Francis Online.

If no template is provided, please  contact us  for advice.

What is LaTex?

LaTeX is a software system used to design documents for typesetting. It is most often used for mathematicians and researchers in the physical sciences, but it can be used for almost any form of publishing.

It permits advanced formatting of symbols and variables and structuring of formula. LaTeX has to be converted during the document structuring process during typesetting.”

F1000Research

F1000Research publishes different article types offering flexibility in format and structure, although specific requirements may apply to some article types.

You can find out more about article type-specific instructions for submission with F1000Research in the F1000Research Article Guidelines .

To submit to F1000Research, your manuscript can be submitted as:

Word (DOC or DOCX)

Rich text format (RTF) files

What is F1000Research?

This is an Open Research publishing platform offering rapid article publication and other research outputs without editorial bias.

Save time – let us help format your manuscript

Consider using expert editors to help you meet deadlines and make sure your manuscript complies to your target journal’s requirements.

Review Paper Format: How To Write A Review Article Fast

This guide aims to demystify the review paper format, presenting practical tips to help you accelerate the writing process. 

From understanding the structure to synthesising literature effectively, we’ll explore how to create a compelling review article swiftly, ensuring your work is both impactful and timely.

Whether you’re a seasoned researcher or a budding scholar, these info on review paper format and style will streamline your writing journey.

Research Paper, Review Paper Format

What Is A Review Paper?

Diving into the realm of scholarly communication, you might have stumbled upon a research review article.

This unique genre serves to synthesise existing data, offering a panoramic view of the current state of knowledge on a particular topic. 

Unlike a standard research article that presents original experiments, a review paper delves into published literature, aiming to: 

• clarify, and
• evaluate previous findings.

Imagine you’re tasked to write a review article. The starting point is often a burning research question. Your mission? To scour various journals, piecing together a well-structured narrative that not only summarises key findings but also identifies gaps in existing literature.

This is where the magic of review writing shines – it’s about creating a roadmap for future research, highlighting areas ripe for exploration.

Review articles come in different flavours, with systematic reviews and meta-analyses being the gold standards. The methodology here is meticulous, with a clear protocol for selecting and evaluating studies.

This rigorous approach ensures that your review is more than just an overview; it’s a critical analysis that adds depth to the understanding of the subject.

Crafting a good review requires mastering the art of citation. Every claim or observation you make needs to be backed by relevant literature. This not only lends credibility to your work but also provides a treasure trove of information for readers eager to delve deeper.

Types Of Review Paper

Not all review articles are created equal. Each type has its methodology, purpose, and format, catering to different research needs and questions. Here’s a couple of types of review paper for you to look at:

Systematic Review Paper

First up is the systematic review, the crème de la crème of review types. It’s known for its rigorous methodology, involving a detailed plan for:

• identifying,
• selecting, and
• critically appraising relevant research. 

The aim? To answer a specific research question. Systematic reviews often include meta-analyses , where data from multiple studies are statistically combined to provide more robust conclusions.

This review type is a cornerstone in evidence-based fields like healthcare.

Literature Review Paper

Then there’s the literature review, a broader type you might encounter.

Here, the goal is to give an overview of the main points and debates on a topic, without the stringent methodological framework of a systematic review.

Literature reviews are great for getting a grasp of the field and identifying where future research might head. Often reading literature review papers can help you to learn about a topic rather quickly.

Narrative Reviews

Narrative reviews allow for a more flexible approach. Authors of narrative reviews draw on existing literature to provide insights or critique a certain area of research.

This is generally done with a less formal structure than systematic reviews. This type is particularly useful for areas where it’s difficult to quantify findings across studies.

Scoping Reviews

Scoping reviews are gaining traction for their ability to map out the existing literature on a broad topic, identifying:

• key concepts,
• theories, and

Unlike systematic reviews, scoping reviews have a more exploratory approach, which can be particularly useful in emerging fields or for topics that haven’t been comprehensively reviewed before.

Each type of review serves a unique purpose and requires a specific skill set. Whether you’re looking to summarise existing findings, synthesise data for evidence-based practice, or explore new research territories, there’s a review type that fits the bill. 

Knowing how to write, read, and interpret these reviews can significantly enhance your understanding of any research area.

What Are The Parts In A Review Paper

A review paper format has a pretty set structure, with minor changes here and there to suit the topic covered. The review paper format not only organises your thoughts but also guides your readers through the complexities of your topic.

Title & Abstract

Starting with the title and abstract, you set the stage. The title should be a concise indicator of the content, making it easier for others to quickly tell what your article content is about.

As for the abstract, it should act as a descriptive summary, offering a snapshot of your review’s scope and findings. 

Introduction

The introduction lays the groundwork, presenting the research question that drives your review. It’s here you:

• justify the importance of your review,
• delineating the current state of knowledge and
• highlighting gaps.

This section aims to articulate the significance of the topic and your objective in exploring it.

Methodology

The methodology section is the backbone of systematic reviews and meta-analyses, detailing the research methods employed to select, assess, and synthesise studies. 

This transparency allows readers to gauge the rigour and reproducibility of your review. It’s a testament to the integrity of your work, showing how you’ve minimised bias.

The heart of your review lies in the body, where you:

• analyse, and
• critique existing literature .

This is where you synthesise evidence, draw connections, and present both sides of any argument. Well-structured paragraphs and clear subheadings guide readers through your analysis, offering insights and fostering a deeper understanding of the subject.

Discussion & Conclusion

The discussion or conclusion section is where you weave together the main points, reflecting on what your findings mean for the field.

It’s about connecting the dots, offering a synthesis of evidence that answers your initial research question. This part often hints at future research directions, suggesting areas that need further exploration due to gaps in existing knowledge.

Review paper format usually includes the citation list – it is your nod to the scholarly community, acknowledging the contributions of others.

Each citation is a thread in the larger tapestry of academic discourse, enabling readers to delve deeper into the research that has shaped your review.

Tips To Write An Review Article Fast

Writing a review article quickly without sacrificing quality might seem like a tall order, but with the right approach, it’s entirely achievable. 

Clearly Define Your Research Question

Clearly define your research question. A focused question not only narrows down the scope of your literature search but also keeps your review concise and on track.

By honing in on a specific aspect of a broader topic, you can avoid the common pitfall of becoming overwhelmed by the vast expanse of available literature. This specificity allows you to zero in on the most relevant studies, making your review more impactful.

Efficient Literature Searching

Utilise databases specific to your field and employ advanced search techniques like Boolean operators. This can drastically reduce the time you spend sifting through irrelevant articles.

Additionally, leveraging citation chains—looking at who has cited a pivotal paper in your area and who it cites—can uncover valuable sources you might otherwise miss.

Organise Your Findings Systematically

Developing a robust organisation strategy is key. As you gather sources, categorize them based on themes or methodologies.

This not only aids in structuring your review but also in identifying areas where research is lacking or abundant. Organize your findings based on the review paper format.

Tools like citation management software can be invaluable here, helping you keep track of your sources and their key points. We list out some of the best AI tools for academic research here. 

Build An Outline Before Writing

Don’t underestimate the power of a well-structured outline. A clear blueprint of your article can guide your writing process, ensuring that each section flows logically into the next.

This roadmap not only speeds up the writing process by providing a clear direction but also helps maintain coherence, ensuring your review article delivers a compelling narrative that advances understanding in your field.

Start Writing With The Easiest Sections

When it’s time to write, start with sections you find easiest. This might be the methodology or a particular thematic section where you feel most confident.

Getting words on the page can build momentum, making it easier to tackle more challenging sections later.

Remember, your first draft doesn’t have to be perfect; the goal is to start articulating your synthesis of the literature.

Learn How To Write An Article Review

Mastering the review paper format is a crucial step towards efficient academic writing. By adhering to the structured components outlined, you can streamline the creation of a compelling review article.

Embracing these guidelines not only speeds up the writing process but also enhances the clarity and impact of your work, ensuring your contributions to scholarly discourse are both valuable and timely.

A review paper serves to synthesise existing data, offering a panoramic view of the current state of knowledge on a particular topic

A Review Paper Format Usually Contains What Sections?

You usually will see sections like introduction, literature review, methodology, analysis and findings, discussions, citation and conclusion.

How To Write A Review Paper Fast?

The key is to organize, pre-plan things out before writing it.

Dr Andrew Stapleton has a Masters and PhD in Chemistry from the UK and Australia. He has many years of research experience and has worked as a Postdoctoral Fellow and Associate at a number of Universities. Although having secured funding for his own research, he left academia to help others with his YouTube channel all about the inner workings of academia and how to make it work for you.

Thank you for visiting Academia Insider.

We are here to help you navigate Academia as painlessly as possible. We are supported by our readers and by visiting you are helping us earn a small amount through ads and affiliate revenue - Thank you!

2024 © Academia Insider

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Research paper

Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide

Published on September 24, 2022 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on March 27, 2023.

The introduction to a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your topic and get the reader interested
• Provide background or summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Detail your specific research problem and problem statement
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The introduction looks slightly different depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or constructs an argument by engaging with a variety of sources.

Instantly correct all language mistakes in your text

Upload your document to correct all your mistakes in minutes

Table of contents

Step 1: introduce your topic, step 2: describe the background, step 3: establish your research problem, step 4: specify your objective(s), step 5: map out your paper, research paper introduction examples, frequently asked questions about the research paper introduction.

The first job of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening hook.

The hook is a striking opening sentence that clearly conveys the relevance of your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a strong statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will get the reader wondering about your topic.

For example, the following could be an effective hook for an argumentative paper about the environmental impact of cattle farming:

A more empirical paper investigating the relationship of Instagram use with body image issues in adolescent girls might use the following hook:

Don’t feel that your hook necessarily has to be deeply impressive or creative. Clarity and relevance are still more important than catchiness. The key thing is to guide the reader into your topic and situate your ideas.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

This part of the introduction differs depending on what approach your paper is taking.

In a more argumentative paper, you’ll explore some general background here. In a more empirical paper, this is the place to review previous research and establish how yours fits in.

Argumentative paper: Background information

After you’ve caught your reader’s attention, specify a bit more, providing context and narrowing down your topic.

Provide only the most relevant background information. The introduction isn’t the place to get too in-depth; if more background is essential to your paper, it can appear in the body .

Empirical paper: Describing previous research

For a paper describing original research, you’ll instead provide an overview of the most relevant research that has already been conducted. This is a sort of miniature literature review —a sketch of the current state of research into your topic, boiled down to a few sentences.

This should be informed by genuine engagement with the literature. Your search can be less extensive than in a full literature review, but a clear sense of the relevant research is crucial to inform your own work.

Begin by establishing the kinds of research that have been done, and end with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to respond to.

The next step is to clarify how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses.

Argumentative paper: Emphasize importance

In an argumentative research paper, you can simply state the problem you intend to discuss, and what is original or important about your argument.

Empirical paper: Relate to the literature

In an empirical research paper, try to lead into the problem on the basis of your discussion of the literature. Think in terms of these questions:

• What research gap is your work intended to fill?
• What limitations in previous work does it address?
• What contribution to knowledge does it make?

You can make the connection between your problem and the existing research using phrases like the following.

Now you’ll get into the specifics of what you intend to find out or express in your research paper.

The way you frame your research objectives varies. An argumentative paper presents a thesis statement, while an empirical paper generally poses a research question (sometimes with a hypothesis as to the answer).

Argumentative paper: Thesis statement

The thesis statement expresses the position that the rest of the paper will present evidence and arguments for. It can be presented in one or two sentences, and should state your position clearly and directly, without providing specific arguments for it at this point.

Empirical paper: Research question and hypothesis

The research question is the question you want to answer in an empirical research paper.

Present your research question clearly and directly, with a minimum of discussion at this point. The rest of the paper will be taken up with discussing and investigating this question; here you just need to express it.

A research question can be framed either directly or indirectly.

• This study set out to answer the following question: What effects does daily use of Instagram have on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls?
• We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls.

If your research involved testing hypotheses , these should be stated along with your research question. They are usually presented in the past tense, since the hypothesis will already have been tested by the time you are writing up your paper.

For example, the following hypothesis might respond to the research question above:

The final part of the introduction is often dedicated to a brief overview of the rest of the paper.

In a paper structured using the standard scientific “introduction, methods, results, discussion” format, this isn’t always necessary. But if your paper is structured in a less predictable way, it’s important to describe the shape of it for the reader.

If included, the overview should be concise, direct, and written in the present tense.

• This paper will first discuss several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then will go on to …
• This paper first discusses several examples of survey-based research into adolescent social media use, then goes on to …

Full examples of research paper introductions are shown in the tabs below: one for an argumentative paper, the other for an empirical paper.

• Argumentative paper
• Empirical paper

Are cows responsible for climate change? A recent study (RIVM, 2019) shows that cattle farmers account for two thirds of agricultural nitrogen emissions in the Netherlands. These emissions result from nitrogen in manure, which can degrade into ammonia and enter the atmosphere. The study’s calculations show that agriculture is the main source of nitrogen pollution, accounting for 46% of the country’s total emissions. By comparison, road traffic and households are responsible for 6.1% each, the industrial sector for 1%. While efforts are being made to mitigate these emissions, policymakers are reluctant to reckon with the scale of the problem. The approach presented here is a radical one, but commensurate with the issue. This paper argues that the Dutch government must stimulate and subsidize livestock farmers, especially cattle farmers, to transition to sustainable vegetable farming. It first establishes the inadequacy of current mitigation measures, then discusses the various advantages of the results proposed, and finally addresses potential objections to the plan on economic grounds.

The rise of social media has been accompanied by a sharp increase in the prevalence of body image issues among women and girls. This correlation has received significant academic attention: Various empirical studies have been conducted into Facebook usage among adolescent girls (Tiggermann & Slater, 2013; Meier & Gray, 2014). These studies have consistently found that the visual and interactive aspects of the platform have the greatest influence on body image issues. Despite this, highly visual social media (HVSM) such as Instagram have yet to be robustly researched. This paper sets out to address this research gap. We investigated the effects of daily Instagram use on the prevalence of body image issues among adolescent girls. It was hypothesized that daily Instagram use would be associated with an increase in body image concerns and a decrease in self-esteem ratings.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

Caulfield, J. (2023, March 27). Writing a Research Paper Introduction | Step-by-Step Guide. Scribbr. Retrieved September 8, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-paper/research-paper-introduction/

Is this article helpful?

Jack Caulfield

Other students also liked, writing strong research questions | criteria & examples, writing a research paper conclusion | step-by-step guide, research paper format | apa, mla, & chicago templates, what is your plagiarism score.

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Literature review on collaborative project delivery for sustainable construction: bibliometric analysis.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 2.1. collaborative project delivery, 2.2. design build (db), 2.3. construction manager at risk (cmar), 2.4. integrated project delivery method (ipd), 2.5. sustainability, 2.6. sustainable construction, 2.7. benefits of eci comparing case studies, 2.8. collaborative delivery models, 3. methodology, 3.1. research methods, 3.2. database research, 4.1. ipd, design-build, and cmar overview, 4.1.1. yearly publication distribution of db cmar and ipd, 4.1.2. major country analysis, 4.1.3. most relevant and influential journals, 4.1.4. corresponding author countries, 4.2. keyword analysis, 4.2.1. high-frequency keyword analysis, 4.2.2. co-occurrence network analysis, 4.2.3. analysis of keywords’ frequency over time, 5. discussion, 5.1. findings of advantages and disadvantages of ipd, db, and cmar for sustainable construction, 5.1.1. advantages of ipd, 5.1.2. advantages of design-build, 5.1.3. advantages of construction manager at risk, 5.1.4. disadvantages of ipd, 5.1.5. disadvantages of design-build, 5.1.6. disadvantages of construction manager at risk, 5.2. most suitable cpd technique for sustainable construction based on literature review, 5.2.1. limitations, 5.2.2. recommendations for future research, 6. future trend, 6.1. enhancing innovation through collaborative project delivery, 6.2. open communication and block chain technology, 6.3. multi-party agreement, 6.4. utilizing artificial intelligence in decision support systems, 7. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Giachino, J.; Cecil, M.; Husselbee, B.; Matthews, C. Alternative Project Delivery: Construction Management at Risk, Design-Build and Public-Private Partnerships. In Proceedings of the Utility Management Conference 2016, San Diego, CA, USA, 24–26 February 2016. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shrestha, P.P.; Maharjan, R.; Batista, J.R. Performance of Design-Build and Construction Manager-at-Risk Methods in Water and Wastewater Projects. Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr. 2019 , 24 , 04018029. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shrestha, P.P.; Batista, J. Lessons Learned in Design-Build and Construction-Manager-at-Risk Water and Wastewater Project. J. Leg. Aff. Dispute Resolut. Eng. Constr. 2020 , 12 , 04520002. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xia, B.; Chan, A.P.C. Identification of Selection Criteria for Operational Variations of The Design-Build System: A Delphi Study in China. J. Civ. Eng. Manag. 2012 , 18 , 173–183. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shane, J.S.; Bogus, S.M.; Molenaar, K.R. Municipal Water/Wastewater Project Delivery Performance Comparison. J. Manag. Eng. 2013 , 29 , 251–258. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sullivan, J.; El Asmar, M.; Chalhoub, J.; Obeid, H. Two Decades of Performance Comparisons for Design-Build, Construction Manager at Risk, and Design-Bid-Build: Quantitative Analysis of the State of Knowledge on Project Cost, Schedule, and Quality. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2017 , 143 , 04017009. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Raouf, A.M.; Al-Ghamdi, S. Effectiveness of Project Delivery Systems in Executing Green Buildings. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2019 , 145 , 03119005. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Francom, T.; El Asmar, M.; Ariaratnam, S.T. Performance Analysis of Construction Manager at Risk on Pipeline Engineering and Construction Projects. J. Manag. Eng. 2016 , 32 , 04016016. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gransberg, D.D.; Shane, J.S.; Transportation Research Board. Construction Manager-at-Risk Project Delivery for Highway Programs ; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2010. [ Google Scholar ]
• Rahman, M.M.; Kumaraswamy, M.M. Potential for Implementing Relational Contracting and Joint Risk Management. J. Manag. Eng. 2004 , 20 , 178–189. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Feghaly, J.; El Asmar, M.; Ariaratnam, S.; Bearup, W. Selecting project delivery methods for water treatment plants. Eng. Constr. Archit. Manag. 2019 , 27 , 936–951. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Park, H.-S.; Lee, D.; Kim, S.; Kim, J.-L. Comparing Project Performance of Design-Build and Design-Bid-Build Methods for Large-sized Public Apartment Housing Projects in Korea. J. Asian Archit. Build. Eng. 2015 , 14 , 323–330. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shrestha, P.P.; Batista, J.; Maharajan, R. Risks involved in using alternative project delivery (APD) methods in water and wastewater projects. Procedia Eng. 2016 , 145 , 219–223. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hettiaarachchige, N.; Rathnasinghe, A.; Ranadewa, K.; Thurairajah, N. Thurairajah, Lean Integrated Project Delivery for Construction Procurement: The Case of Sri Lanka. Buildings 2022 , 12 , 524. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kent, D.C.; Becerik-Gerber, B. Understanding Construction Industry Experience and Attitudes toward Integrated Project Delivery. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2010 , 136 , 815–825. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Franz, B.; Leicht, R.; Molenaar, K.; Messner, J. Impact of Team Integration and Group Cohesion on Project Delivery Performance. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2017 , 143 , 04016088. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Engebø, A.; Klakegg, O.J.; Lohne, J.; Lædre, O. A collaborative project delivery method for design of a high-performance building. Int. J. Manag. Proj. Bus. 2020 , 13 , 1141–1165. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ahmed, S.; El-Sayegh, S. Critical Review of the Evolution of Project Delivery Methods in the Construction Industry. Buildings 2020 , 11 , 11. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bond-Barnard, T.J.; Fletcher, L.; Steyn, H. Linking trust and collaboration in project teams to project management success. Int. J. Manag. Proj. Bus. 2018 , 11 , 432–457. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rodrigues, M.R.; Lindhard, S.M. Lindhard, Benefits and challenges to applying IPD: Experiences from a Norwegian mega-project. Constr. Innov. 2021 , 23 , 287–305. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kaminsky, J. The fourth pillar of infrastructure sustainability: Tailoring civil infrastructure to social context. Constr. Manag. Econ. 2015 , 33 , 299–309. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Al Khalil, M.I. Selecting the appropriate project delivery method using AHP. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2002 , 20 , 469–474. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ibbs, C.W.; Kwak, Y.H.; Ng, T.; Odabasi, A.M. Project Delivery Systems and Project Change: Quantitative Analysis. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2003 , 129 , 382–387. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jansen, J.; Beck, A. Overcoming the Challenges of Large Diameter Water Project in North Texas via CMAR Delivery Method. In Proceedings of the Pipelines 2020, San Antonio, TX, USA, 9–12 August 2020; Conference Held Virtually. pp. 264–271. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bingham, E.; Gibson, G.E.; Asmar, M.E. Measuring User Perceptions of Popular Transportation Project Delivery Methods Using Least Significant Difference Intervals and Multiple Range Tests. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2018 , 144 , 04018033. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cho, Y.J. A review of construction delivery systems: Focus on the construction management at risk system in the Korean public construction market. KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 2016 , 20 , 530–537. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rosayuru, H.D.R.R.; Waidyasekara, K.G.A.S.; Wijewickrama, M.K.C.S. Sustainable BIM based integrated project delivery system for construction industry in Sri Lanka. Int. J. Constr. Manag. 2022 , 22 , 769–783. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pishdad-Bozorgi, P.; Beliveau, Y.J. Symbiotic Relationships between Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) and Trust. Int. J. Constr. Educ. Res. 2016 , 12 , 179–192. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sherif, M.; Abotaleb, I.; Alqahtani, F.K. Alqahtani, Application of Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) in the Middle East: Implementation and Challenges. Buildings 2022 , 12 , 467. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Manata, B.; Garcia, A.J.; Mollaoglu, S.; Miller, V.D. The effect of commitment differentiation on integrated project delivery team dynamics: The critical roles of goal alignment, communication behaviors, and decision quality. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2021 , 39 , 259–269. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kraatz, J.A.; Sanchez, A.X.; Hampson, K.D. Hampson, Digital Modeling, Integrated Project Delivery and Industry Transformation: An Australian Case Study. Buildings 2014 , 4 , 453–466. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhang, L.; He, J.; Zhou, S. Sharing Tacit Knowledge for Integrated Project Team Flexibility: Case Study of Integrated Project Delivery. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2013 , 139 , 795–804. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• El Asmar, M.; Hanna, A.S.; Loh, W.-Y. Quantifying Performance for the Integrated Project Delivery System as Compared to Established Delivery Systems. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2013 , 139 , 04013012. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ghassemi, R.; Becerik-Gerber, B. Transitioning to integrated project delivery: Potential barriers and lessons learned. Lean Constr. J. 2011 , 32–52. Available online: https://leanconstruction.org/resources/lean-construction-journal/lcj-back-issues/2011-issue/ (accessed on 11 August 2024).
• Mei, T.; Guo, Z.; Li, P.; Fang, K.; Zhong, S. Influence of Integrated Project Delivery Principles on Project Performance in China: An SEM-Based Approach. Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 4381. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ilozor, B.D.; Kelly, D.J. Building information modeling and integrated project delivery in the commercial construction industry: A conceptual study. J. Eng. Proj. Prod. Manag. 2012 , 2 , 23–36. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zabihi, H.; Habib, F.; Mirsaeedie, L. Sustainability in Building and Construction: Revising Definitions and Concepts. Int. J. Emerg. Sci. 2012 , 2 , 570–578. [ Google Scholar ]
• Young, J.W.S. A Framework for the Ultimate Environmental Index—Putting Atmospheric Change Into Context With Sustainability. Environ. Monit. Assess. 1997 , 46 , 135–149. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ding, G.K.C. Sustainable construction—The role of environmental assessment tools. J. Environ. Manag. 2008 , 86 , 451–464. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Conte, E. The Era of Sustainability: Promises, Pitfalls and Prospects for Sustainable Buildings and the Built Environment. Sustainability 2018 , 10 , 2092. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Standardized Method of Life Cycle Costing for Construction Procurement. A Supplement to BS ISO 15686-5. Buildings and Constructed Assets. Service Life Planning. Life Cycle Costing ; BSI British Standards: London, UK, 2008. [ CrossRef ]
• Sustainability|Free Full-Text|A Hybrid Multi-Criteria Decision Support System for Selecting the Most Sustainable Structural Material for a Multistory Building Construction. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/15/4/3128 (accessed on 2 April 2024).
• Korkmaz, S.; Riley, D.; Horman, M. Piloting Evaluation Metrics for Sustainable High-Performance Building Project Delivery. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2010 , 136 , 877–885. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ng, M.S.; Graser, K.; Hall, D.M. Digital fabrication, BIM and early contractor involvement in design in construction projects: A comparative case study. Archit. Eng. Des. Manag. 2021 , 19 , 39–55. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Moradi, S.; Kähkönen, K.; Sormunen, P. Analytical and Conceptual Perspectives toward Behavioral Elements of Collaborative Delivery Models in Construction Projects. Buildings 2022 , 12 , 316. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zupic, I.; Čater, T. Bibliometric Methods in Management and Organization. 2015. Available online: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1094428114562629 (accessed on 3 April 2024).
• Rozas, L.W.; Klein, W.C. The Value and Purpose of the Traditional Qualitative Literature Review. J. Evid.-Based Soc. Work 2010 , 7 , 387–399. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Cobo, M.J.; López-Herrera, A.G.; Herrera-Viedma, E.; Herrera, F. Science mapping software tools: Review, analysis, and cooperative study among tools. J. Am. Soc. Inf. Sci. Technol. 2011 , 62 , 1382–1402. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cancino, C.A.; Merigó, J.M.; Coronado, F.C. A bibliometric analysis of leading universities in innovation research. J. Innov. Knowl. 2017 , 2 , 106–124. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pedro, L.F.M.G.; Barbosa, C.M.M.d.O.; Santos, C.M.d.N. A critical review of mobile learning integration in formal educational contexts. Int. J. Educ. Technol. High. Educ. 2018 , 15 , 10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wen, S.; Tang, H.; Ying, F.; Wu, G. Exploring the Global Research Trends of Supply Chain Management of Construction Projects Based on a Bibliometric Analysis: Current Status and Future Prospects. Buildings 2023 , 13 , 373. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hosseini, M.R.; Martek, I.; Zavadskas, E.K.; Aibinu, A.A.; Arashpour, M.; Chileshe, N. Critical evaluation of off-site construction research: A Scientometric analysis. Autom. Constr. 2018 , 87 , 235–247. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Toyin, J.O.; Mewomo, M.C. Mewomo, Overview of BIM contributions in the construction phase: Review and bibliometric analysis. J. Inf. Technol. Constr. 2023 , 28 , 500–514. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kahvandi, Z.; Saghatforoush, E.; Alinezhad, M.; Noghli, F. Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) Research Trends. J. Eng. 2017 , 7 , 99–114. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hale, D.R.; Shrestha, P.P.; Gibson, G.E.; Migliaccio, G.C. Empirical Comparison of Design/Build and Design/Bid/Build Project Delivery Methods. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2009 , 135 , 579–587. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mollaoglu-Korkmaz, S.; Swarup, L.; Riley, D. Delivering Sustainable, High-Performance Buildings: Influence of Project Delivery Methods on Integration and Project Outcomes. J. Manag. Eng. 2013 , 29 , 71–78. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ugwu, O.O.; Haupt, T.C. Key performance indicators and assessment methods for infrastructure sustainability—a South African construction industry perspective. Build. Environ. 2007 , 42 , 665–680. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kines, P.; Andersen, L.P.S.; Spangenberg, S.; Mikkelsen, K.L.; Dyreborg, J.; Zohar, D. Improving construction site safety through leader-based verbal safety communication. J. Safety Res. 2010 , 41 , 399–406. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ballard, G. The Lean Project Delivery System: An Update. 2008. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bynum, P.; Issa, R.R.A.; Olbina, S. Building information modeling in support of sustainable design and construction. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2013 , 139 , 24–34. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Choudhry, R.M.; Fang, D.; Lingard, H. Measuring Safety Climate of a Construction Company. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2009 , 135 , 890–899. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wardani, M.A.E.; Messner, J.I.; Horman, M.J. Comparing procurement methods for Design-Build projects. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2006 , 132 , 230–238. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, J.; Zhao, X.; Yan, P. Risk Paths in International Construction Projects: Case Study from Chinese Contractors. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2016 , 142 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• El-Sayegh, S. Evaluating the effectiveness of project delivery methods. J. Constr. Manag. Econ. 2008 , 23 , 457–465. [ Google Scholar ]
• Fang, C.; Marle, F.; Zio, E.; Bocquet, J.-C. Network theory-based analysis of risk interactions in large engineering projects. Reliability Eng. Syst. Safety 2012 , 106 , 1–10. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Franz, B.; Leicht, R.M. Initiating IPD Concepts on Campus Facilities with a ‘Collaboration Addendum’. In Proceedings of the Construction Research Congress 2012, West Lafayette, IN, USA, 21–23 May 2012; pp. 61–70. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kim, H.; Kim, K.; Kim, H. Vision-Based Object-Centric Safety Assessment Using Fuzzy Inference: Monitoring Struck-By Accidents with Moving Objects. J. Comput. Civil Eng. 2016 , 30 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhou, Y.; Ding, L.Y.; Chen, L.J. Application of 4D visualization technology for safety management in metro construction. Automation Constr. 2013 , 34 , 25–36. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wanberg, J.; Harper, C.; Hallowell, M.R.; Rajendran, S. Relationship between Construction Safety and Quality Performance. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2013 , 139 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shrestha, P.P.; O’Connor, J.T.; Gibson, G.E. Performance comparison of large Design-Build and Design-Bid-Build highway projects. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2012 , 138 , 1–13. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Torabi, S.A.; Hassini, E. Multi-site production planning integrating procurement and distribution plans in multi-echelon supply chains: An interactive fuzzy goal programming approach. Int. J. Prod. Res. 2009 , 47 , 5475–5499. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Baradan, S.; Usmen, M. Comparative Injury and Fatality Risk Analysis of Building Trades. J. Constr. Eng. Manag.-ASCE 2006 , 132 . [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Levitt, R.E. CEM Research for the Next 50 Years: Maximizing Economic, Environmental, and Societal Value of the Built Environment1. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2007 , 133 , 619–628. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Araya, F. Modeling the spread of COVID-19 on construction workers: An agent-based approach. Saf. Sci. 2021 , 133 , 105022. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zheng, X.; Le, Y.; Chan, A.P.; Hu, Y.; Li, Y. Review of the application of social network analysis (SNA) in construction project management research. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2016 , 34 , 1214–1225. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Elghaish, F.; Abrishami, S. A centralised cost management system: Exploiting EVM and ABC within IPD. Eng. Constr. Archit. Manag. 2021 , 28 , 549–569. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Smith, R.E.; Mossman, A.; Emmitt, S. Lean and integrated project delivery. Lean Constr. J. 2011 , 1–16. [ Google Scholar ]
• Bröchner, J.; Badenfelt, U. Changes and change management in construction and IT projects. Autom. Constr. 2011 , 20 , 767–775. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Monteiro, A.; Mêda, P.; Martins, J.P. Framework for the coordinated application of two different integrated project delivery platforms. Autom. Constr. 2014 , 38 , 87–99. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Azhar, N.; Kang, Y.; Ahmad, I.U. Factors influencing integrated project delivery in publicly owned construction projects: An information modelling perspective. Procedia Eng. 2014 , 77 , 213–221. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mihic, M.; Sertic, J.; Zavrski, I. Integrated Project Delivery as Integration between Solution Development and Solution Implementation. Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci. 2014 , 119 , 557–565. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Nawi, M.N.M.; Haron, A.T.; Hamid, Z.A.; Kamar, K.A.M.; Baharuddin, Y. Improving integrated practice through building information modeling-integrated project delivery (BIM-IPD) for Malaysian industrialised building system (IBS) Construction Projects. Malays. Constr. Res. J. 2014 , 15 , 29–38. Available online: https://dsgate.uum.edu.my/jspui/handle/123456789/1651 (accessed on 24 April 2024).
• Ma, Z.; Zhang, D.; Li, J. A dedicated collaboration platform for Integrated Project Delivery. Autom. Constr. 2018 , 86 , 199–209. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yadav, S.; Kanade, G. Application of Revit as Building Information Modeling (BIM) for Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) to Building Construction Project—A Review. Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. 2018 , 5 , 11–14. [ Google Scholar ]
• Salim, M.S.; Mahjoob, A.M.R. Integrated project delivery (IPD) method with BIM to improve the project performance: A case study in the Republic of Iraq. Asian J. Civ. Eng. 2020 , 21 , 947–957. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ling, Y.Y.; Lau, B.S.Y. A case study on the management of the development of a large-scale power plant project in East Asia based on design-build arrangement. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2002 , 20 , 413–423. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Dalui, P.; Elghaish, F.; Brooks, T.; McIlwaine, S. Integrated Project Delivery with BIM: A Methodical Approach Within the UK Consulting Sector. J. Inf. Technol. Constr. 2021 , 26 , 922–935. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pishdad-Bozorgi, P. Case Studies on the Role of Integrated Project Delivery (IPD) Approach on the Establishment and Promotion of Trust. Int. J. Constr. Educ. Res. 2017 , 13 , 102–124. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Singleton, M.S.; Hamzeh, F.R. Implementing integrated project delivery on department of the navy construction projects: Lean Construction Journal. Lean Constr. J. 2011 , 17–31. [ Google Scholar ]
• Tran, D.Q.; Nguyen, L.D.; Faught, A. Examination of communication processes in design-build project delivery in building construction. Eng. Constr. Archit. Manag. 2017 , 24 , 1319–1336. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Park, J.; Kwak, Y.H. Design-Bid-Build (DBB) vs. Design-Build (DB) in the U.S. public transportation projects: The choice and consequences. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2017 , 35 , 280–295. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wiss, R.A.; Roberts, R.T.; Phraner, S.D. Beyond Design-Build-Operate-Maintain: New Partnership Approach Toward Fixed Guideway Transit Projects. Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board 2000 , 1704 , 13–18. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xia, B.; Chan, A.P. Key competences of design-build clients in China. J. Facil. Manag. 2010 , 8 , 114–129. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• DeBernard, D.M. Beyond Collaboration—The Benefits of Integrated Project Delivery ; AIA Soloso Website: Washington, DC, USA, 2008. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chen, Q.; Jin, Z.; Xia, B.; Wu, P.; Skitmore, M. Time and Cost Performance of Design–Build Projects. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2016 , 142 , 04015074. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xia, B.; Chan, P. Review of the design-build market in the People’s Republic of China. J. Constr. Procure. 2008 , 14 , 108–117. [ Google Scholar ]
• Mcwhirt, D.; Ahn, J.; Shane, J.S.; Strong, K.C. Military construction projects: Comparison of project delivery methods. J. Facil. Manag. 2011 , 9 , 157–169. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Minchin, R.E.; Li, X.; Issa, R.R.; Vargas, G.G. Comparison of Cost and Time Performance of Design-Build and Design-Bid-Build Delivery Systems in Florida. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2013 , 139 , 04013007. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Adamtey, S.; Onsarigo, L. Effective tools for projects delivered by progressive design-build method. In Proceedings of the CSCE Annual Conference 2019, Laval, QC, Canada, 12–15 June 2019; pp. 1–10. [ Google Scholar ]
• Adamtey, S.A. A Case Study Performance Analysis of Design-Build and Integrated Project Delivery Methods. Int. J. Constr. Educ. Res. 2021 , 17 , 68–84. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gad, G.M.; Adamtey, S.A.; Gransberg, D.D. Gransberg, Trends in Quality Management Approaches to Design–Build Transportation Projects. Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board. 2015 , 2504 , 87–92. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sari, E.M.; Irawan, A.P.; Wibowo, M.A.; Siregar, J.P.; Praja, A.K.A. Project delivery systems: The partnering concept in integrated and non-integrated construction projects. Sustainability 2022 , 15 , 86. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chakra, H.A.; Ashi, A. Comparative analysis of design/build and design/bid/build project delivery systems in Lebanon. J. Ind. Eng. Int. 2019 , 15 , 147–152. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Perkins, R.A. Sources of Changes in Design–Build Contracts for a Governmental Owner. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2009 , 135 , 588–593. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Palaneeswaran, E.; Kumaraswamy, M.M. Contractor Selection for Design/Build Projects. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2000 , 126 , 331–339. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chan, A.P.C. Evaluation of enhanced design and build system a case study of a hospital project. Constr. Manag. Econ. 2000 , 18 , 863–871. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shrestha, P.P.; Davis, B.; Gad, G.M. Investigation of Legal Issues in Construction-Manager-at-Risk Projects: Case Study of Airport Projects. J. Leg. Aff. Dispute Resolut. Eng. Constr. 2020 , 12 , 04520022. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Marston, S. CMAR Project Delivery Method Generates Team Orientated Project Management with Win/Win Mentality. In Proceedings of the Pipelines 2020, San Antonio, TX, USA, 9–12 August 2020; pp. 167–170. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Francom, T.; El Asmar, M.; Ariaratnam, S.T. Ariaratnam, Longitudinal Study of Construction Manager at Risk for Pipeline Rehabilitation. J. Pipeline Syst. Eng. Pract. 2017 , 8 , 04017001. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Peña-Mora, F.; Tamaki, T. Effect of Delivery Systems on Collaborative Negotiations for Large-Scale Infrastructure Projects. J. Manag. Eng. 2001 , 17 , 105–121. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mahdi, I.M.; Alreshaid, K. Decision support system for selecting the proper project delivery method using analytical hierarchy process (AHP). Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2005 , 23 , 564–572. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Randall, T.; Pool, S.; Limke, J.; Bradney, A. CMaR Delivery of Critical Water and Wastewater Pipelines. In Proceedings of the Pipelines 2020, San Antonio, TX, USA, 9–12 August 2020; Conference Held Virtually. pp. 280–289. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Perrenoud, A.; Reyes, M.; Ghosh, S.; Coetzee, M. Collaborative Risk Management of the Approval Process of Building Envelope Materials. In Proceedings of the AEI 2017, Oklahoma City, OK, USA, 11–13 April 2017; pp. 806–816. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Parrott, B.C.; Bomba, M.B. Integrated Project Delivery and Building Information Modeling: A New Breed of Contract. 2010. Available online: https://content.aia.org/sites/default/files/2017-03/Integrated%20project%20delivery%20and%20BIM-%20A%20new%20breed%20of%20contract.pdf (accessed on 18 November 2023).
• Cheng, R. IPD Case Studies. Report. March 2012. Available online: http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/201408 (accessed on 1 May 2024).
• Lee, H.W.; Anderson, S.M.; Kim, Y.-W.; Ballard, G. Ballard, Advancing Impact of Education, Training, and Professional Experience on Integrated Project Delivery. Pract. Period. Struct. Des. Constr. 2014 , 19 , 8–14. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hoseingholi, M.; Jalal, M.P. Jalal, Identification and Analysis of Owner-Induced Problems in Design–Build Project Lifecycle. J. Leg. Aff. Dispute Resolut. Eng. Constr. 2017 , 9 , 04516013. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Öztaş, A.; Ökmen, Ö. Risk analysis in fixed-price design–build construction projects. Build. Environ. 2004 , 39 , 229–237. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lee, D.-E.; Arditi, D. Total Quality Performance of Design/Build Firms Using Quality Function Deployment. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2006 , 132 , 49–57. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Garner, B.; Richardson, K.; Castro-Lacouture, D. Design-Build Project Delivery in Military Construction: Approach to Best Value Procurement. J. Adv. Perform. Inf. Value 2008 , 1 , 35–50. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Graham, P. Evaluation of Design-Build Practice in Colorado Project IR IM(CX) 025-3(113) ; Colorado Department of Transportation: Denver, CO, USA, 2001. [ Google Scholar ]
• Parami Dewi, A.; Too, E.; Trigunarsyah, B. Implementing design build project delivery system in Indonesian road infrastructure projects. In Innovation and Sustainable Construction in Developing Countries (CIB W107 Conference 2011) ; Uwakweh, B.O., Ed.; Construction Publishing House/International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and C: Hanoi, Vietnam, 2011; pp. 108–117. [ Google Scholar ]
• Arditi, D.; Lee, D.-E. Assessing the corporate service quality performance of design-build contractors using quality function deployment. Constr. Manag. Econ. 2003 , 21 , 175–185. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rao, T. . Is Design-Build Right for Your Next WWW Project? presented at the WEFTEC 2009, Water Environment Federation. January 2009, pp. 6444–6458. Available online: https://www.accesswater.org/publications/proceedings/-297075/is-design-build-right-for-your-next-www-project- (accessed on 3 April 2024).
• Touran, A.; Molenaar, K.R.; Gransberg, D.D.; Ghavamifar, K. Decision Support System for Selection of Project Delivery Method in Transit. Transp. Res. Rec. 2009 , 2111 , 148–157. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Culp, G. Alternative Project Delivery Methods for Water and Wastewater Projects: Do They Save Time and Money? Leadersh. Manag. Eng. 2011 , 11 , 231–240. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ling, F.Y.Y.; Poh, B.H.M. Problems encountered by owners of design–build projects in Singapore. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2008 , 26 , 164–173. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pishdad-Bozorgi, P.; de la Garza, J.M. Comparative Analysis of Design-Bid-Build and Design-Build from the Standpoint of Claims. In Proceedings of the Construction Research Congress 2012, West Lafayette, IN, USA, 21–23 May 2012. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Walewski, J.; Gibson, G.E., Jr.; Jasper, J. Project Delivery Methods and Contracting Approaches Available for Implementation by the Texas Department of Transportation. University of Texas at Austin. Center for Transportation Research. 2001. Available online: https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/14863 (accessed on 3 April 2024).
• Alleman, D.; Antoine, A.; Gransberg, D.D.; Molenaar, K.R. Comparison of Qualifications-Based Selection and Best-Value Procurement for Construction Manager–General Contractor Highway Construction. 2017. Available online: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.3141/2630-08 (accessed on 2 April 2024).
• Gransberg, N.J.; Gransberg, D.D. Public Project Construction Manager-at-Risk Contracts: Lessons Learned from a Comparison of Commercial and Infrastructure Projects. J. Leg. Aff. Dispute Resolut. Eng. Constr. 2020 , 12 , 04519039. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Anderson, S.D.; Damnjanovic, I. Selection and Evaluation of Alternative Contracting Methods to Accelerate Project Completion ; The National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2008; Available online: http://elibrary.pcu.edu.ph:9000/digi/NA02/2008/23075.pdf (accessed on 26 April 2024).
• Shrestha, P.P.; Batista, J.; Maharjan, R. Impediments in Using Design-Build or Construction Management-at-Risk Delivery Methods for Water and Wastewater Projects. In Proceedings of the Construction Research Congress 2016, San Juan, PR, USA, 31 May–2 June 2016; pp. 380–387. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chateau, L. Environmental acceptability of beneficial use of waste as construction material—State of knowledge, current practices and future developments in Europe and in France. J. Hazard. Mater. 2007 , 139 , 556–562. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lam, T.I.; Chan, H.W.E.; Chau, C.K.; Poon, C.S. An Overview of the Development of Green Specifications in the Construction Industry. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Urban Sustainability [ICONUS], 1 January 2008; pp. 295–301. Available online: https://research.polyu.edu.hk/en/publications/an-overview-of-the-development-of-green-specifications-in-the-con (accessed on 2 May 2024).
• Tabish, S.Z.S.; Jha, K.N. Success Traits for a Construction Project. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2012 , 138 , 1131–1138. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Niroumand, H.; Zain, M.; Jamil, M. A guideline for assessing of critical parameters on Earth architecture and Earth buildings as a sustainable architecture in various countries. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2013 , 28 , 130–165. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Rogulj, K.; Jajac, N. Achieving a Construction Barrier–Free Environment: Decision Support to Policy Selection. J. Manag. Eng. 2018 , 34 , 04018020. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sackey, S.; Kim, B.-S. Environmental and Economic Performance of Asphalt Shingle and Clay Tile Roofing Sheets Using Life Cycle Assessment Approach and TOPSIS. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2018 , 144 , 04018104. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Carretero-Ayuso, M.J.; García-Sanz-Calcedo, J.; Rodríguez-Jiménez, C.E. Rodríguez-Jiménez, Characterization and Appraisal of Technical Specifications in Brick Façade Projects in Spain. J. Perform. Constr. Facil. 2018 , 32 , 04018012. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Golabchi, A.; Guo, X.; Liu, M.; Han, S.; Lee, S.; AbouRizk, S. An integrated ergonomics framework for evaluation and design of construction operations. Autom. Constr. 2018 , 95 , 72–85. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jha, K.; Iyer, K. Commitment, coordination, competence and the iron triangle. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2007 , 25 , 527–540. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tabassi, A.A.; Ramli, M.; Roufechaei, K.M.; Tabasi, A.A. Team development and performance in construction design teams: An assessment of a hierarchical model with mediating effect of compensation. Constr. Manag. Econ. 2014 , 32 , 932–949. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, Y.; Okudan, G.E.; Riley, D.R. Sustainable performance criteria for construction method selection in concrete buildings. Autom. Constr. 2010 , 19 , 235–244. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Doloi, H.; Sawhney, A.; Iyer, K.; Rentala, S. Analysing factors affecting delays in Indian construction projects. Int. J. Proj. Manag. 2012 , 30 , 479–489. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kog, Y.C.; Loh, P.K. Critical Success Factors for Different Components of Construction Projects. J. Constr. Eng. Manag. 2012 , 138 , 520–528. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gunduz, M.; Almuajebh, M. Critical success factors for sustainable construction project management. Sustainability 2020 , 12 , 1990. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cao, D.; Li, H.; Wang, G.; Luo, X.; Tan, D. Relationship Network Structure and Organizational Competitiveness: Evidence from BIM Implementation Practices in the Construction Industry. J. Manag. Eng. 2018 , 34 , 04018005. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Clevenger, C.M. Development of a Project Management Certification Plan for a DOT. J. Manag. Eng. 2018 , 34 , 06018002. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bygballe, L.E.; Swärd, A. Collaborative Project Delivery Models and the Role of Routines in Institutionalizing Partnering. Proj. Manag. J. 2019 , 50 , 161–176. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Collins, W.; Parrish, K. The Need for Integrated Project Delivery in the Public Sector. In Proceedings of the Construction Research Congress 2014, Atlanta, GA, USA, 19–21 May 2014; pp. 719–728. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Turk, Ž.; Klinc, R. Potentials of Blockchain Technology for Construction Management. Procedia Eng. 2017 , 196 , 638–645. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Elghaish, F.; Abrishami, S.; Hosseini, M.R. Integrated project delivery with blockchain: An automated financial system. Autom. Constr. 2020 , 114 , 103182. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Fish, A. Integrated Project Delivery: The Obstacles of Implementation. May 2011. Available online: http://hdl.handle.net/2097/8554 (accessed on 3 April 2024).
• Pan, Y.; Zhang, L. Roles of artificial intelligence in construction engineering and management: A critical review and future trends. Autom. Constr. 2020 , 122 , 103517. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mellit, A.; Kalogirou, S.A. Artificial intelligence techniques for photovoltaic applications: A review. Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. 2008 , 34 , 574–632. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Smith, C.J.; Wong, A.T.C. Advancements in Artificial Intelligence-Based Decision Support Systems for Improving Construction Project Sustainability: A Systematic Literature Review. Informatics 2022 , 9 , 43. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Villa, F. Semantically driven meta-modelling: Automating model construction in an environmental decision support system for the assessment of ecosystem services flows. In Information Technologies in Environmental Engineering ; Athanasiadis, I.N., Rizzoli, A.E., Mitkas, P.A., Gómez, J.M., Eds.; Springer: Berlin, Heidelberg, 2009; pp. 23–36. [ Google Scholar ]
• Minhas, M.R.; Potdar, V. Decision Support Systems in Construction: A Bibliometric Analysis. Buildings 2020 , 10 , 108. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Babalola, O.G.; Alam Bhuiyan, M.M.; Hammad, A. Literature Review on Collaborative Project Delivery for Sustainable Construction: Bibliometric Analysis. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7707. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177707

Babalola OG, Alam Bhuiyan MM, Hammad A. Literature Review on Collaborative Project Delivery for Sustainable Construction: Bibliometric Analysis. Sustainability . 2024; 16(17):7707. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177707

Babalola, Olabode Gafar, Mohammad Masfiqul Alam Bhuiyan, and Ahmed Hammad. 2024. "Literature Review on Collaborative Project Delivery for Sustainable Construction: Bibliometric Analysis" Sustainability 16, no. 17: 7707. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16177707

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• J Pharmacol Pharmacother
• v.4(2); Apr-Jun 2013

The critical steps for successful research: The research proposal and scientific writing: (A report on the pre-conference workshop held in conjunction with the 64 th annual conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012)

Pitchai balakumar.

Pharmacology Unit, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Semeling, 08100 Bedong. Kedah Darul Aman, Malaysia

Mohammed Naseeruddin Inamdar

1 Department of Pharmacology, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh

2 Division of Cardiovascular and Renal Products, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, USA

An interactive workshop on ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing’ was conducted in conjunction with the 64 th Annual Conference of the Indian Pharmaceutical Congress-2012 at Chennai, India. In essence, research is performed to enlighten our understanding of a contemporary issue relevant to the needs of society. To accomplish this, a researcher begins search for a novel topic based on purpose, creativity, critical thinking, and logic. This leads to the fundamental pieces of the research endeavor: Question, objective, hypothesis, experimental tools to test the hypothesis, methodology, and data analysis. When correctly performed, research should produce new knowledge. The four cornerstones of good research are the well-formulated protocol or proposal that is well executed, analyzed, discussed and concluded. This recent workshop educated researchers in the critical steps involved in the development of a scientific idea to its successful execution and eventual publication.

INTRODUCTION

Creativity and critical thinking are of particular importance in scientific research. Basically, research is original investigation undertaken to gain knowledge and understand concepts in major subject areas of specialization, and includes the generation of ideas and information leading to new or substantially improved scientific insights with relevance to the needs of society. Hence, the primary objective of research is to produce new knowledge. Research is both theoretical and empirical. It is theoretical because the starting point of scientific research is the conceptualization of a research topic and development of a research question and hypothesis. Research is empirical (practical) because all of the planned studies involve a series of observations, measurements, and analyses of data that are all based on proper experimental design.[ 1 – 9 ]

The subject of this report is to inform readers of the proceedings from a recent workshop organized by the 64 th Annual conference of the ‘ Indian Pharmaceutical Congress ’ at SRM University, Chennai, India, from 05 to 06 December 2012. The objectives of the workshop titled ‘The Critical Steps for Successful Research: The Research Proposal and Scientific Writing,’ were to assist participants in developing a strong fundamental understanding of how best to develop a research or study protocol, and communicate those research findings in a conference setting or scientific journal. Completing any research project requires meticulous planning, experimental design and execution, and compilation and publication of findings in the form of a research paper. All of these are often unfamiliar to naïve researchers; thus, the purpose of this workshop was to teach participants to master the critical steps involved in the development of an idea to its execution and eventual publication of the results (See the last section for a list of learning objectives).

THE STRUCTURE OF THE WORKSHOP

The two-day workshop was formatted to include key lectures and interactive breakout sessions that focused on protocol development in six subject areas of the pharmaceutical sciences. This was followed by sessions on scientific writing. DAY 1 taught the basic concepts of scientific research, including: (1) how to formulate a topic for research and to describe the what, why , and how of the protocol, (2) biomedical literature search and review, (3) study designs, statistical concepts, and result analyses, and (4) publication ethics. DAY 2 educated the attendees on the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper and thesis, and preparation of poster as well as oral presentations.

The final phase of the workshop was the ‘Panel Discussion,’ including ‘Feedback/Comments’ by participants. There were thirteen distinguished speakers from India and abroad. Approximately 120 post-graduate and pre-doctoral students, young faculty members, and scientists representing industries attended the workshop from different parts of the country. All participants received a printed copy of the workshop manual and supporting materials on statistical analyses of data.

THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF RESEARCH: THE KEY TO GETTING STARTED IN RESEARCH

A research project generally comprises four key components: (1) writing a protocol, (2) performing experiments, (3) tabulating and analyzing data, and (4) writing a thesis or manuscript for publication.

Fundamentals in the research process

A protocol, whether experimental or clinical, serves as a navigator that evolves from a basic outline of the study plan to become a qualified research or grant proposal. It provides the structural support for the research. Dr. G. Jagadeesh (US FDA), the first speaker of the session, spoke on ‘ Fundamentals in research process and cornerstones of a research project .’ He discussed at length the developmental and structural processes in preparing a research protocol. A systematic and step-by-step approach is necessary in planning a study. Without a well-designed protocol, there would be a little chance for successful completion of a research project or an experiment.

Research topic

The first and the foremost difficult task in research is to identify a topic for investigation. The research topic is the keystone of the entire scientific enterprise. It begins the project, drives the entire study, and is crucial for moving the project forward. It dictates the remaining elements of the study [ Table 1 ] and thus, it should not be too narrow or too broad or unfocused. Because of these potential pitfalls, it is essential that a good or novel scientific idea be based on a sound concept. Creativity, critical thinking, and logic are required to generate new concepts and ideas in solving a research problem. Creativity involves critical thinking and is associated with generating many ideas. Critical thinking is analytical, judgmental, and involves evaluating choices before making a decision.[ 4 ] Thus, critical thinking is convergent type thinking that narrows and refines those divergent ideas and finally settles to one idea for an in-depth study. The idea on which a research project is built should be novel, appropriate to achieve within the existing conditions, and useful to the society at large. Therefore, creativity and critical thinking assist biomedical scientists in research that results in funding support, novel discovery, and publication.[ 1 , 4 ]

Elements of a study protocol

Research question

The next most crucial aspect of a study protocol is identifying a research question. It should be a thought-provoking question. The question sets the framework. It emerges from the title, findings/results, and problems observed in previous studies. Thus, mastering the literature, attendance at conferences, and discussion in journal clubs/seminars are sources for developing research questions. Consider the following example in developing related research questions from the research topic.

Hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna and Apium graveolens on paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.

How is paracetamol metabolized in the body? Does it involve P450 enzymes? How does paracetamol cause liver injury? What are the mechanisms by which drugs can alleviate liver damage? What biochemical parameters are indicative of liver injury? What major endogenous inflammatory molecules are involved in paracetamol-induced liver damage?

A research question is broken down into more precise objectives. The objectives lead to more precise methods and definition of key terms. The objectives should be SMART-Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-framed,[ 10 ] and should cover the entire breadth of the project. The objectives are sometimes organized into hierarchies: Primary, secondary, and exploratory; or simply general and specific. Study the following example:

To evaluate the safety and tolerability of single oral doses of compound X in normal volunteers.

To assess the pharmacokinetic profile of compound X following single oral doses.

To evaluate the incidence of peripheral edema reported as an adverse event.

The objectives and research questions are then formulated into a workable or testable hypothesis. The latter forces us to think carefully about what comparisons will be needed to answer the research question, and establishes the format for applying statistical tests to interpret the results. The hypothesis should link a process to an existing or postulated biologic pathway. A hypothesis is written in a form that can yield measurable results. Studies that utilize statistics to compare groups of data should have a hypothesis. Consider the following example:

• The hepatoprotective activity of Terminalia arjuna is superior to that of Apium graveolens against paracetamol-induced liver damage in albino rats.

All biological research, including discovery science, is hypothesis-driven. However, not all studies need be conducted with a hypothesis. For example, descriptive studies (e.g., describing characteristics of a plant, or a chemical compound) do not need a hypothesis.[ 1 ]

Relevance of the study

Another important section to be included in the protocol is ‘significance of the study.’ Its purpose is to justify the need for the research that is being proposed (e.g., development of a vaccine for a disease). In summary, the proposed study should demonstrate that it represents an advancement in understanding and that the eventual results will be meaningful, contribute to the field, and possibly even impact society.

Biomedical literature

A literature search may be defined as the process of examining published sources of information on a research or review topic, thesis, grant application, chemical, drug, disease, or clinical trial, etc. The quantity of information available in print or electronically (e.g., the internet) is immense and growing with time. A researcher should be familiar with the right kinds of databases and search engines to extract the needed information.[ 3 , 6 ]

Dr. P. Balakumar (Institute of Pharmacy, Rajendra Institute of Technology and Sciences, Sirsa, Haryana; currently, Faculty of Pharmacy, AIMST University, Malaysia) spoke on ‘ Biomedical literature: Searching, reviewing and referencing .’ He schematically explained the basis of scientific literature, designing a literature review, and searching literature. After an introduction to the genesis and diverse sources of scientific literature searches, the use of PubMed, one of the premier databases used for biomedical literature searches world-wide, was illustrated with examples and screenshots. Several companion databases and search engines are also used for finding information related to health sciences, and they include Embase, Web of Science, SciFinder, The Cochrane Library, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts, Scopus, and Google Scholar.[ 3 ] Literature searches using alternative interfaces for PubMed such as GoPubMed, Quertle, PubFocus, Pubget, and BibliMed were discussed. The participants were additionally informed of databases on chemistry, drugs and drug targets, clinical trials, toxicology, and laboratory animals (reviewed in ref[ 3 ]).

Referencing and bibliography are essential in scientific writing and publication.[ 7 ] Referencing systems are broadly classified into two major types, such as Parenthetical and Notation systems. Parenthetical referencing is also known as Harvard style of referencing, while Vancouver referencing style and ‘Footnote’ or ‘Endnote’ are placed under Notation referencing systems. The participants were educated on each referencing system with examples.

Bibliography management

Dr. Raj Rajasekaran (University of California at San Diego, CA, USA) enlightened the audience on ‘ bibliography management ’ using reference management software programs such as Reference Manager ® , Endnote ® , and Zotero ® for creating and formatting bibliographies while writing a manuscript for publication. The discussion focused on the use of bibliography management software in avoiding common mistakes such as incomplete references. Important steps in bibliography management, such as creating reference libraries/databases, searching for references using PubMed/Google scholar, selecting and transferring selected references into a library, inserting citations into a research article and formatting bibliographies, were presented. A demonstration of Zotero®, a freely available reference management program, included the salient features of the software, adding references from PubMed using PubMed ID, inserting citations and formatting using different styles.

Writing experimental protocols

The workshop systematically instructed the participants in writing ‘ experimental protocols ’ in six disciplines of Pharmaceutical Sciences.: (1) Pharmaceutical Chemistry (presented by Dr. P. V. Bharatam, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab); (2) Pharmacology (presented by Dr. G. Jagadeesh and Dr. P. Balakumar); (3) Pharmaceutics (presented by Dr. Jayant Khandare, Piramal Life Sciences, Mumbai); (4) Pharmacy Practice (presented by Dr. Shobha Hiremath, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); (5) Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry (presented by Dr. Salma Khanam, Al-Ameen College of Pharmacy, Bengaluru); and (6) Pharmaceutical Analysis (presented by Dr. Saranjit Singh, NIPER, Mohali, Punjab). The purpose of the research plan is to describe the what (Specific Aims/Objectives), why (Background and Significance), and how (Design and Methods) of the proposal.

The research plan should answer the following questions: (a) what do you intend to do; (b) what has already been done in general, and what have other researchers done in the field; (c) why is this worth doing; (d) how is it innovative; (e) what will this new work add to existing knowledge; and (f) how will the research be accomplished?

In general, the format used by the faculty in all subjects is shown in Table 2 .

Elements of a research protocol

Biostatistics

Biostatistics is a key component of biomedical research. Highly reputed journals like The Lancet, BMJ, Journal of the American Medical Association, and many other biomedical journals include biostatisticians on their editorial board or reviewers list. This indicates that a great importance is given for learning and correctly employing appropriate statistical methods in biomedical research. The post-lunch session on day 1 of the workshop was largely committed to discussion on ‘ Basic biostatistics .’ Dr. R. Raveendran (JIPMER, Puducherry) and Dr. Avijit Hazra (PGIMER, Kolkata) reviewed, in parallel sessions, descriptive statistics, probability concepts, sample size calculation, choosing a statistical test, confidence intervals, hypothesis testing and ‘ P ’ values, parametric and non-parametric statistical tests, including analysis of variance (ANOVA), t tests, Chi-square test, type I and type II errors, correlation and regression, and summary statistics. This was followed by a practice and demonstration session. Statistics CD, compiled by Dr. Raveendran, was distributed to the participants before the session began and was demonstrated live. Both speakers worked on a variety of problems that involved both clinical and experimental data. They discussed through examples the experimental designs encountered in a variety of studies and statistical analyses performed for different types of data. For the benefit of readers, we have summarized statistical tests applied frequently for different experimental designs and post-hoc tests [ Figure 1 ].

Conceptual framework for statistical analyses of data. Of the two kinds of variables, qualitative (categorical) and quantitative (numerical), qualitative variables (nominal or ordinal) are not normally distributed. Numerical data that come from normal distributions are analyzed using parametric tests, if not; the data are analyzed using non-parametric tests. The most popularly used Student's t -test compares the means of two populations, data for this test could be paired or unpaired. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is used to compare the means of three or more independent populations that are normally distributed. Applying t test repeatedly in pair (multiple comparison), to compare the means of more than two populations, will increase the probability of type I error (false positive). In this case, for proper interpretation, we need to adjust the P values. Repeated measures ANOVA is used to compare the population means if more than two observations coming from same subject over time. The null hypothesis is rejected with a ‘ P ’ value of less than 0.05, and the difference in population means is considered to be statistically significant. Subsequently, appropriate post-hoc tests are used for pairwise comparisons of population means. Two-way or three-way ANOVA are considered if two (diet, dose) or three (diet, dose, strain) independent factors, respectively, are analyzed in an experiment (not described in the Figure). Categorical nominal unmatched variables (counts or frequencies) are analyzed by Chi-square test (not shown in the Figure)

Research and publication ethics

The legitimate pursuit of scientific creativity is unfortunately being marred by a simultaneous increase in scientific misconduct. A disproportionate share of allegations involves scientists of many countries, and even from respected laboratories. Misconduct destroys faith in science and scientists and creates a hierarchy of fraudsters. Investigating misconduct also steals valuable time and resources. In spite of these facts, most researchers are not aware of publication ethics.

Day 1 of the workshop ended with a presentation on ‘ research and publication ethics ’ by Dr. M. K. Unnikrishnan (College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal University, Manipal). He spoke on the essentials of publication ethics that included plagiarism (attempting to take credit of the work of others), self-plagiarism (multiple publications by an author on the same content of work with slightly different wordings), falsification (manipulation of research data and processes and omitting critical data or results), gift authorship (guest authorship), ghostwriting (someone other than the named author (s) makes a major contribution), salami publishing (publishing many papers, with minor differences, from the same study), and sabotage (distracting the research works of others to halt their research completion). Additionally, Dr. Unnikrishnan pointed out the ‘ Ingelfinger rule ’ of stipulating that a scientist must not submit the same original research in two different journals. He also advised the audience that authorship is not just credit for the work but also responsibility for scientific contents of a paper. Although some Indian Universities are instituting preventive measures (e.g., use of plagiarism detecting software, Shodhganga digital archiving of doctoral theses), Dr. Unnikrishnan argued for a great need to sensitize young researchers on the nature and implications of scientific misconduct. Finally, he discussed methods on how editors and peer reviewers should ethically conduct themselves while managing a manuscript for publication.

SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATION: THE KEY TO SUCCESSFUL SELLING OF FINDINGS

Research outcomes are measured through quality publications. Scientists must not only ‘do’ science but must ‘write’ science. The story of the project must be told in a clear, simple language weaving in previous work done in the field, answering the research question, and addressing the hypothesis set forth at the beginning of the study. Scientific publication is an organic process of planning, researching, drafting, revising, and updating the current knowledge for future perspectives. Writing a research paper is no easier than the research itself. The lectures of Day 2 of the workshop dealt with the basic elements and logistics of writing a scientific paper.

An overview of paper structure and thesis writing

Dr. Amitabh Prakash (Adis, Auckland, New Zealand) spoke on ‘ Learning how to write a good scientific paper .’ His presentation described the essential components of an original research paper and thesis (e.g., introduction, methods, results, and discussion [IMRaD]) and provided guidance on the correct order, in which data should appear within these sections. The characteristics of a good abstract and title and the creation of appropriate key words were discussed. Dr. Prakash suggested that the ‘title of a paper’ might perhaps have a chance to make a good impression, and the title might be either indicative (title that gives the purpose of the study) or declarative (title that gives the study conclusion). He also suggested that an abstract is a succinct summary of a research paper, and it should be specific, clear, and concise, and should have IMRaD structure in brief, followed by key words. Selection of appropriate papers to be cited in the reference list was also discussed. Various unethical authorships were enumerated, and ‘The International Committee of Medical Journal Editors (ICMJE) criteria for authorship’ was explained ( http://www.icmje.org/ethical_1author.html ; also see Table 1 in reference #9). The session highlighted the need for transparency in medical publication and provided a clear description of items that needed to be included in the ‘Disclosures’ section (e.g., sources of funding for the study and potential conflicts of interest of all authors, etc.) and ‘Acknowledgements’ section (e.g., writing assistance and input from all individuals who did not meet the authorship criteria). The final part of the presentation was devoted to thesis writing, and Dr. Prakash provided the audience with a list of common mistakes that are frequently encountered when writing a manuscript.

The backbone of a study is description of results through Text, Tables, and Figures. Dr. S. B. Deshpande (Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India) spoke on ‘ Effective Presentation of Results .’ The Results section deals with the observations made by the authors and thus, is not hypothetical. This section is subdivided into three segments, that is, descriptive form of the Text, providing numerical data in Tables, and visualizing the observations in Graphs or Figures. All these are arranged in a sequential order to address the question hypothesized in the Introduction. The description in Text provides clear content of the findings highlighting the observations. It should not be the repetition of facts in tables or graphs. Tables are used to summarize or emphasize descriptive content in the text or to present the numerical data that are unrelated. Illustrations should be used when the evidence bearing on the conclusions of a paper cannot be adequately presented in a written description or in a Table. Tables or Figures should relate to each other logically in sequence and should be clear by themselves. Furthermore, the discussion is based entirely on these observations. Additionally, how the results are applied to further research in the field to advance our understanding of research questions was discussed.

Dr. Peush Sahni (All-India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi) spoke on effectively ‘ structuring the Discussion ’ for a research paper. The Discussion section deals with a systematic interpretation of study results within the available knowledge. He said the section should begin with the most important point relating to the subject studied, focusing on key issues, providing link sentences between paragraphs, and ensuring the flow of text. Points were made to avoid history, not repeat all the results, and provide limitations of the study. The strengths and novel findings of the study should be provided in the discussion, and it should open avenues for future research and new questions. The Discussion section should end with a conclusion stating the summary of key findings. Dr. Sahni gave an example from a published paper for writing a Discussion. In another presentation titled ‘ Writing an effective title and the abstract ,’ Dr. Sahni described the important components of a good title, such as, it should be simple, concise, informative, interesting and eye-catching, accurate and specific about the paper's content, and should state the subject in full indicating study design and animal species. Dr. Sahni explained structured (IMRaD) and unstructured abstracts and discussed a few selected examples with the audience.

Language and style in publication

The next lecture of Dr. Amitabh Prakash on ‘ Language and style in scientific writing: Importance of terseness, shortness and clarity in writing ’ focused on the actual sentence construction, language, grammar and punctuation in scientific manuscripts. His presentation emphasized the importance of brevity and clarity in the writing of manuscripts describing biomedical research. Starting with a guide to the appropriate construction of sentences and paragraphs, attendees were given a brief overview of the correct use of punctuation with interactive examples. Dr. Prakash discussed common errors in grammar and proactively sought audience participation in correcting some examples. Additional discussion was centered on discouraging the use of redundant and expendable words, jargon, and the use of adjectives with incomparable words. The session ended with a discussion of words and phrases that are commonly misused (e.g., data vs . datum, affect vs . effect, among vs . between, dose vs . dosage, and efficacy/efficacious vs . effective/effectiveness) in biomedical research manuscripts.

Working with journals

The appropriateness in selecting the journal for submission and acceptance of the manuscript should be determined by the experience of an author. The corresponding author must have a rationale in choosing the appropriate journal, and this depends upon the scope of the study and the quality of work performed. Dr. Amitabh Prakash spoke on ‘ Working with journals: Selecting a journal, cover letter, peer review process and impact factor ’ by instructing the audience in assessing the true value of a journal, understanding principles involved in the peer review processes, providing tips on making an initial approach to the editorial office, and drafting an appropriate cover letter to accompany the submission. His presentation defined the metrics that are most commonly used to measure journal quality (e.g., impact factor™, Eigenfactor™ score, Article Influence™ score, SCOPUS 2-year citation data, SCImago Journal Rank, h-Index, etc.) and guided attendees on the relative advantages and disadvantages of using each metric. Factors to consider when assessing journal quality were discussed, and the audience was educated on the ‘green’ and ‘gold’ open access publication models. Various peer review models (e.g., double-blind, single-blind, non-blind) were described together with the role of the journal editor in assessing manuscripts and selecting suitable reviewers. A typical checklist sent to referees was shared with the attendees, and clear guidance was provided on the best way to address referee feedback. The session concluded with a discussion of the potential drawbacks of the current peer review system.

Poster and oral presentations at conferences

Posters have become an increasingly popular mode of presentation at conferences, as it can accommodate more papers per meeting, has no time constraint, provides a better presenter-audience interaction, and allows one to select and attend papers of interest. In Figure 2 , we provide instructions, design, and layout in preparing a scientific poster. In the final presentation, Dr. Sahni provided the audience with step-by-step instructions on how to write and format posters for layout, content, font size, color, and graphics. Attendees were given specific guidance on the format of text on slides, the use of color, font type and size, and the use of illustrations and multimedia effects. Moreover, the importance of practical tips while delivering oral or poster presentation was provided to the audience, such as speak slowly and clearly, be informative, maintain eye contact, and listen to the questions from judges/audience carefully before coming up with an answer.

Guidelines and design to scientific poster presentation. The objective of scientific posters is to present laboratory work in scientific meetings. A poster is an excellent means of communicating scientific work, because it is a graphic representation of data. Posters should have focus points, and the intended message should be clearly conveyed through simple sections: Text, Tables, and Graphs. Posters should be clear, succinct, striking, and eye-catching. Colors should be used only where necessary. Use one font (Arial or Times New Roman) throughout. Fancy fonts should be avoided. All headings should have font size of 44, and be in bold capital letters. Size of Title may be a bit larger; subheading: Font size of 36, bold and caps. References and Acknowledgments, if any, should have font size of 24. Text should have font size between 24 and 30, in order to be legible from a distance of 3 to 6 feet. Do not use lengthy notes

PANEL DISCUSSION: FEEDBACK AND COMMENTS BY PARTICIPANTS

After all the presentations were made, Dr. Jagadeesh began a panel discussion that included all speakers. The discussion was aimed at what we do currently and could do in the future with respect to ‘developing a research question and then writing an effective thesis proposal/protocol followed by publication.’ Dr. Jagadeesh asked the following questions to the panelists, while receiving questions/suggestions from the participants and panelists.

• Does a Post-Graduate or Ph.D. student receive adequate training, either through an institutional course, a workshop of the present nature, or from the guide?
• Are these Post-Graduates self-taught (like most of us who learnt the hard way)?
• How are these guides trained? How do we train them to become more efficient mentors?
• Does a Post-Graduate or Ph.D. student struggle to find a method (s) to carry out studies? To what extent do seniors/guides help a post graduate overcome technical difficulties? How difficult is it for a student to find chemicals, reagents, instruments, and technical help in conducting studies?
• Analyses of data and interpretation: Most students struggle without adequate guidance.
• Thesis and publications frequently feature inadequate/incorrect statistical analyses and representation of data in tables/graphs. The student, their guide, and the reviewers all share equal responsibility.
• Who initiates and drafts the research paper? The Post-Graduate or their guide?
• What kind of assistance does a Post-Graduate get from the guide in finalizing a paper for publication?
• Does the guide insist that each Post-Graduate thesis yield at least one paper, and each Ph.D. thesis more than two papers, plus a review article?

The panelists and audience expressed a variety of views, but were unable to arrive at a decisive conclusion.

WHAT HAVE THE PARTICIPANTS LEARNED?

At the end of this fast-moving two-day workshop, the participants had opportunities in learning the following topics:

• Sequential steps in developing a study protocol, from choosing a research topic to developing research questions and a hypothesis.
• Study protocols on different topics in their subject of specialization
• Searching and reviewing the literature
• Appropriate statistical analyses in biomedical research
• Scientific ethics in publication
• Writing and understanding the components of a research paper (IMRaD)
• Recognizing the value of good title, running title, abstract, key words, etc
• Importance of Tables and Figures in the Results section, and their importance in describing findings
• Evidence-based Discussion in a research paper
• Language and style in writing a paper and expert tips on getting it published
• Presentation of research findings at a conference (oral and poster).

Overall, the workshop was deemed very helpful to participants. The participants rated the quality of workshop from “ satisfied ” to “ very satisfied .” A significant number of participants were of the opinion that the time allotted for each presentation was short and thus, be extended from the present two days to four days with adequate time to ask questions. In addition, a ‘hands-on’ session should be introduced for writing a proposal and manuscript. A large number of attendees expressed their desire to attend a similar workshop, if conducted, in the near future.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We gratefully express our gratitude to the Organizing Committee, especially Professors K. Chinnasamy, B. G. Shivananda, N. Udupa, Jerad Suresh, Padma Parekh, A. P. Basavarajappa, Mr. S. V. Veerramani, Mr. J. Jayaseelan, and all volunteers of the SRM University. We thank Dr. Thomas Papoian (US FDA) for helpful comments on the manuscript.

The opinions expressed herein are those of Gowraganahalli Jagadeesh and do not necessarily reflect those of the US Food and Drug Administration

Source of Support: Nil

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

• University of Wisconsin–Madison
• University of Wisconsin-Madison
• Research Guides
• FOOD SCIENCE 602, Senior Project; Capstone (Fall 2024)
• Find Research Articles

FOOD SCIENCE 602, Senior Project; Capstone (Fall 2024) : Find Research Articles

• Evaluate Information, Sources
• Manage Your Data
• Write, Cite, and Present
• Plan for Your Information Future

Searching Tips for Online Databases

• Use  AND  to combine search terms; retrieve records with those terms, in any order:  friends AND communication
• Use  OR  to combine similar search terms or synonyms: friends OR peers
• Use quotation marks  ( " ") to search a required phrase: "interpersonal communication"
• Use an  asterisk  ( * ) to retrieve singular and plural forms or suffixes for search terms: friend* = friend, friend s , friend ly or friend ship
• Review "subject headings" or "descriptors" to identify additional and useful search terms.
• Apply limits or filters to your results (by date, publication type, or other). 

Select and Search Databases by Subject or Type

Select databases from the library home page ( library.wisc.edu ). Use dropdown menu from Catalog button to go to Databases . OR, select the database link from the Find page .

There are several ways to browse and to select databases: 

1) Search by name of the database (for example, "FSTA").

2) Use  Browse by Subject/Type  to choose databases that find articles (and more) in a subject area.

3) Visit  Top 10 Databases  to choose from a selection of popular databases. 

An " Articles Search " can be run from the library home page. The "Articles Search" runs its search within several databases simultaneously. Apply filters by date, source, and more. This search is also useful to quickly determine whether a known article is available in full text.

• FSTA: Food Science & Technology Abstracts Large database covering pure and applied research in food science, food technology, and food-related nutrition from journals, books, proceedings, reports, theses, patents, standards, and legislation.
• Google Scholar Multi-disciplinary Web search engine to scholarly articles. Note: Choosing Google Scholar from the library database menu will help you to retrieve more full article content through our subscriptions.
• Industrial and Applied Microbiology Abstracts Article database covering practical microbiological applications in the field of agricultural, food and beverage, chemical, and pharmaceutical industries.
• Scopus Large, multidisciplinary database covering science, technology, medicine, social sciences, and arts and humanities. Includes tools to track, analyze, and visualize research.
• Web of Science Collection of databases indexing scholarly literature in the sciences, social sciences, arts, and humanities, from journals, conference proceedings, symposia, and more. Includes citation network data.

Understand the Peer Review Process

This video explains the peer review process: 

• Peer Review in Three Minutes How do articles get peer reviewed? What role does peer review play in scholarly research and publication?Video created by NCSU Libraries.

Retrieve the Full Article

• get online full text (when available)
• see if the journal is available in print (Library Catalog)
• request a copy of the article if full text is not available online ("Request a Copy" link)

If you already have a citation, use this Citation Search  to search for your article.

Browse Food Science Journals

BrowZine is available for UW-Madison students, faculty and staff. BrowZine lets you browse, read, save, and monitor scholarly journals in your subject areas on your mobile device or desktop/laptop.

• << Previous: Home
• Next: Evaluate Information, Sources >>
• Last Updated: Sep 6, 2024 2:45 PM
• URL: https://researchguides.library.wisc.edu/foodscience_602

• Introduction
• Conclusions
• Article Information

Nationally representative estimates of the nonpregnant US population aged 20 years or older. Estimates were nationally representative through the use of survey weights from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Race and ethnicity were based on self-report in closed categories, and other race and ethnicity included American Indian or Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, and non-Hispanic Asian. BRI indicates body roundness index.

The solid curved line represents the estimates for the association of BRI with all-cause mortality, and shading, the 95% CI.

eTable 1. Overall Unweighted Response Rate for Household Interview and Medical Examination, NHANES 1999-2000 to 2017-2018

eTable 2. Estimated Mean Values of BRI by Sociodemographic Factors in US Adults From the NHANES, 1999 to 2018

eTable 3. Adjusted HR of All-Cause Mortality According to the Quintiles of BMI

eTable 4. Adjusted HR of All-Cause Mortality According to the Quintiles of BRI After Excluding Accidental Deaths

eTable 5. Adjusted HR of All-Cause Mortality According to the Quintiles of BRI After Excluding Deaths Within 2 Years After Survey

eTable 6. Adjusted HR of All-Cause Mortality According to the Quintiles of BRI After Reserving Those Reporting a History of Myocardial Infarction, Stroke, Congestive Heart Failure, or Cancer

eFigure 1. Trends of Mean BRI Values in US Adults From the NHANES, 1999 to 2018

eFigure 2. Trends of BRI by Socioeconomic Factors in US Adults From 1999 to 2018

eFigure 3. The Distribution Plot of ln(-ln(S(t))) Relative to ln(t) for Assessing Cox Assumption of Body Roundness Index in Quintiles

eFigure 4. Adjusted HR of All-Cause Mortality by Sociodemographic Factors Comparing Quintile 1 and Quintile 5 With Quintile 3 of BRI in US Adults From the NHANES Linked Mortality Files, 1999 to 2018, in Fully Adjusted Model

eFigure 5. Adjusted HR of All-Cause Mortality by Sociodemographic Factors Comparing Quintile 1 With Quintile 3 of BRI in US Adults From the NHANES Linked Mortality Files, 1999 to 2018, After Adjusting For Only Age and Sex and in Partially Adjusted Model

eFigure 6. Adjusted HR of All-Cause Mortality by Sociodemographic Factors Comparing Quintile 1 With Quintile 3 of BRI in US Adults From the NHANES Linked Mortality Files, 1999 to 2018, After Adjusting for Only Age and Sex and in Partially Adjusted Model

eFigure 7. The Association Between Body Round Index and All-Cause Mortality Risk After Full Adjustment

Data Sharing Statement

• Error in Formula JAMA Network Open Correction July 11, 2024

See More About

Sign up for emails based on your interests, select your interests.

Customize your JAMA Network experience by selecting one or more topics from the list below.

• Academic Medicine
• Acid Base, Electrolytes, Fluids
• Allergy and Clinical Immunology
• American Indian or Alaska Natives
• Anesthesiology
• Anticoagulation
• Art and Images in Psychiatry
• Artificial Intelligence
• Assisted Reproduction
• Bleeding and Transfusion
• Caring for the Critically Ill Patient
• Challenges in Clinical Electrocardiography
• Climate and Health
• Climate Change
• Clinical Challenge
• Clinical Decision Support
• Clinical Implications of Basic Neuroscience
• Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology
• Complementary and Alternative Medicine
• Consensus Statements
• Coronavirus (COVID-19)
• Critical Care Medicine
• Cultural Competency
• Dental Medicine
• Dermatology
• Diabetes and Endocrinology
• Diagnostic Test Interpretation
• Drug Development
• Electronic Health Records
• Emergency Medicine
• End of Life, Hospice, Palliative Care
• Environmental Health
• Equity, Diversity, and Inclusion
• Facial Plastic Surgery
• Gastroenterology and Hepatology
• Genetics and Genomics
• Genomics and Precision Health
• Global Health
• Guide to Statistics and Methods
• Hair Disorders
• Health Care Delivery Models
• Health Care Economics, Insurance, Payment
• Health Care Quality
• Health Care Reform
• Health Care Safety
• Health Care Workforce
• Health Disparities
• Health Inequities
• Health Policy
• Health Systems Science
• History of Medicine
• Hypertension
• Images in Neurology
• Implementation Science
• Infectious Diseases
• Innovations in Health Care Delivery
• JAMA Infographic
• Law and Medicine
• Leading Change
• Less is More
• LGBTQIA Medicine
• Lifestyle Behaviors
• Medical Coding
• Medical Devices and Equipment
• Medical Education
• Medical Education and Training
• Medical Journals and Publishing
• Mobile Health and Telemedicine
• Narrative Medicine
• Neuroscience and Psychiatry
• Notable Notes
• Nutrition, Obesity, Exercise
• Obstetrics and Gynecology
• Occupational Health
• Ophthalmology
• Orthopedics
• Otolaryngology
• Pain Medicine
• Palliative Care
• Pathology and Laboratory Medicine
• Patient Care
• Patient Information
• Performance Improvement
• Performance Measures
• Perioperative Care and Consultation
• Pharmacoeconomics
• Pharmacoepidemiology
• Pharmacogenetics
• Pharmacy and Clinical Pharmacology
• Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation
• Physical Therapy
• Physician Leadership
• Population Health
• Primary Care
• Professional Well-being
• Professionalism
• Psychiatry and Behavioral Health
• Public Health
• Pulmonary Medicine
• Regulatory Agencies
• Reproductive Health
• Research, Methods, Statistics
• Resuscitation
• Rheumatology
• Risk Management
• Scientific Discovery and the Future of Medicine
• Shared Decision Making and Communication
• Sleep Medicine
• Sports Medicine
• Stem Cell Transplantation
• Substance Use and Addiction Medicine
• Surgical Innovation
• Surgical Pearls
• Teachable Moment
• Technology and Finance
• The Art of JAMA
• The Arts and Medicine
• The Rational Clinical Examination
• Tobacco and e-Cigarettes
• Translational Medicine
• Trauma and Injury
• Treatment Adherence
• Ultrasonography
• Users' Guide to the Medical Literature
• Vaccination
• Venous Thromboembolism
• Veterans Health
• Women's Health
• Workflow and Process
• Wound Care, Infection, Healing

Get the latest research based on your areas of interest.

Others also liked.

Thank you for bringing this to out attention. This was indeed an error: for the formula for body roundness index,  the units for both waist and height should be centimeters. Correction is forthcoming.

Wenquan Niu, on behalf of all contributing authors

• Download PDF
• X Facebook More LinkedIn

Zhang X , Ma N , Lin Q, et al. Body Roundness Index and All-Cause Mortality Among US Adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2024;7(6):e2415051. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.15051

Manage citations:

© 2024

• Permissions

Body Roundness Index and All-Cause Mortality Among US Adults

• 1 Graduate School, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
• 2 Department of Pediatrics, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
• 3 Department of Pediatrics, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine Third Affiliated Hospital, Beijing, China
• 4 Sanofi Aventis, Cambridge, Massachusetts
• 5 Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
• 6 Institute of Clinical Medical Sciences, China-Japan Friendship Hospital, Beijing, China
• 7 Center for Evidence-Based Medicine, Capital Institute of Pediatrics, Beijing, China
• 8 The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island
• Correction Error in Formula JAMA Network Open

Question   What are the temporal trends of body roundness index (BRI) and its association with all-cause mortality among US adults?

Findings   In this cohort study involving 32 995 US adults, mean BRI increased from 4.80 to 5.62 during the period between 1999 and 2018, with a biennial change of 0.95%. The association between BRI and all-cause mortality followed a U-shape, with both lowest and highest BRI groups experiencing significantly increased risk of all-cause mortality.

Meaning   These findings suggest that BRI may be promising as a newer anthropometric measure associated with all-cause mortality.

Importance   Obesity, especially visceral obesity, is an established risk factor associated with all-cause mortality. However, the inadequacy of conventional anthropometric measures in assessing fat distribution necessitates a more comprehensive indicator, body roundness index (BRI), to decipher its population-based characteristics and potential association with mortality risk.

Objective   To evaluate the temporal trends of BRI among US noninstitutionalized civilian residents and explore its association with all-cause mortality.

Design, Setting, and Participants   For this cohort study, information on a nationally representative cohort of 32 995 US adults (age ≥20 years) was extracted from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) from 1999 to 2018 and NHANES Linked Mortality File, with mortality ascertained through December 31, 2019. Data were analyzed between April 1 and September 30, 2023.

Exposures   Biennial weighted percentage changes in BRI were calculated. Restricted cubic spline curve was used to determine optimal cutoff points for BRI.

Main Outcome and Measures   The survival outcome was all-cause mortality. Mortality data were obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website and linked to the NHANES database using the unique subject identifier. Weibull regression model was adopted to quantify the association between BRI and all-cause mortality.

Results   Among 32 995 US adults, the mean (SD) age was 46.74 (16.92) years, and 16 529 (50.10%) were women. Mean BRI increased gradually from 4.80 (95% CI, 4.62-4.97) to 5.62 (95% CI, 5.37-5.86) from 1999 through 2018, with a biennial change of 0.95% (95% CI, 0.80%-1.09%; P  < .001), and this increasing trend was more obvious among women, elderly individuals, and individuals who identified as Mexican American. After a median (IQR) follow-up of 9.98 (5.33-14.33) years, 3452 deaths (10.46% of participants) from all causes occurred. There was a U-shaped association between BRI and all-cause mortality, with the risk increased by 25% (hazard ratio, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.05-1.47) for adults with BRI less than 3.4 and by 49% (hazard ratio, 1.49; 95% CI, 1.31-1.70) for those with BRI of 6.9 or greater compared with the middle quintile of BRI of 4.5 to 5.5 after full adjustment.

Conclusions and Relevance   This national cohort study found an increasing trend of BRI during nearly 20-year period among US adults, and importantly, a U-shaped association between BRI and all-cause mortality. These findings provide evidence for proposing BRI as a noninvasive screening tool for mortality risk estimation, an innovative concept that could be incorporated into public health practice pending consistent validation in other independent cohorts.

Obesity is a global epidemic with high prevalence and contributes to increasing mortality rates. Globally, more than 1 billion people are obese. 1 As 1 of the top 5 risk factors for mortality, obesity was associated with approximately 5 million deaths worldwide in 2019. 2 Hence, a better understanding of the obesity-mortality association may optimize risk assessment, formulate antiobesity strategies, and prioritize rational planning of health care resources.

Generally, obesity is scaled by body mass index (BMI; calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared). Numerous studies have demonstrated that obesity as defined by BMI was significantly associated with high risk of all-cause mortality compared with BMI within the reference range. 3 With the extensive investigation of body composition, more attention has been paid to the association between visceral obesity and mortality. 4 , 5 It is widely recognized that body fat content cannot be characterized by BMI. For instance, among individuals with the same BMI, fat distribution and body composition varied dramatically. 6 A health check-up cohort study of 36 656 participants by Lee et al 7 found that body fat distribution as reflected by visceral-to-subcutaneous fat area ratio was more consistently associated with of all-cause mortality than overall adiposity as reflected by BMI, after an mean follow-up of 5.7 years. Moreover, the prognostic capability of BMI outside reference range was found to be hinged on anthropometric and clinical conditions. 8 , 9 To better embody fat distribution, a newer anthropometric measure, body roundness index (BRI), was coined by Thomas et al, 10 who developed elliptical models based on human body shape to calculate body roundness and used eccentricity to estimate visceral fat and total body fat percentages. Besides weight and height, BRI additionally considers waist circumference, and hence it can more comprehensively reflect visceral fat distribution. BRI was found to be superior over other anthropometric indicators in estimating the risk for various clinical end points, including cardiometabolic disease, 11 - 13 kidney disease, 14 and cancer. 15 Furthermore, longitudinal studies have shown that high BRI was associated with the significantly increased risk of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular disease-specific mortality. 16 , 17 However, there is a paucity of national data on the association between BRI and mortality, and no study has been conducted among US general populations, to our knowledge. To fill this gap, we aimed to characterize the temporal trends of BRI among adults aged 20 years and older in a nationally representative US population sample from 1999 to 2018 and to examine the association between BRI and all-cause mortality.

This cohort study was deemed exempt from ethical review and informed consent by the Capital Institute of Pediatrics academic review board owing to the use of deidentified, publicly available data. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) was approved by the National Center for Health Statistics Institutional Review Board, and all respondents provided written informed consent. This study follows the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology ( STROBE ) reporting guideline.

All data have been made publicly available by the National Center for Health Statistics. 18 Data from the NHANES, a series of nationally representative, cohort surveys designed to monitor public health of the US population, were used. Since 1999, NHANES has been conducted in 2-year cycles, collecting data from in-home interviews and study visits conducted at a mobile examination center. 19 We included participants from 10 cycles of NHANES, from 1999 to 2018, who were nonpregnant adults aged 20 years or older and weighted to be representative of the noninstitutionalized civilian resident US population. The response rate of NHANES decreased from 76.62% for household interviews and 69.83% for medical examinations in 1999 to 2000 to 48.24% for household interviews and 45.70% for medical examinations in 2017 to 2018 (eTable 1 in Supplement 1 ).

Of 59 064 respondents with complete eligibility status for mortality analysis, 6134 were excluded due to incomplete data on BRI, 1385 because they were pregnant, 11 518 owing to reporting a history of myocardial infarction, stroke, congestive heart failure, or cancer, and 7032 owing to missing information on covariates. The final sample size was 32 995 adults.

The survival outcome was all-cause mortality. Mortality data were obtained from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention website and linked to the NHANES database using the unique subject identifier, with death information ascertained through December 31, 2019. 20 Causes of death were defined according to the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision ( ICD-10 ) codes. Study participants were followed up from the date of survey participation through the date of death or the end of the follow-up, whichever occurred first.

BRI was calculated as 364.2 − 365.5 × √(1 − [waist circumference in centimeters / 2π] 2  / [0.5 × height in centimeters] 2 ), according to the formula developed by Thomas et al. 10 Waist circumference and body height were measured at mobile examination centers. Due to the lack of a reference range, BRI was categorized into 5 groups according to the 20th, 40th, 60th, and 80th quantiles to explore the association with all-cause mortality.

Data on age, sex, race and ethnicity, educational level, poverty income ratio (PIR; ratio of family income to poverty threshold, with a higher ratio representing a higher level of income.), smoking status, drinking status, family history of cardiovascular disease (CVD), and family history of diabetes were collected during in-home interviews. Race and ethnicity was self-reported by study participants based on questions with fixed category responses, including Mexican American, non-Hispanic Black, non-Hispanic White, and other race and ethnicity (American Indian or Alaska Native, Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, and non-Hispanic Asian). Race and ethnicity were included in analyses to test if BRI differs across these potentially confounding factors. Education was grouped as less than 9th grade, 9th to 11th grade, high school graduate, some college, and college graduate or above.

The complex survey design of NHANES was considered, and all results were weighted to provide nationally representative estimates for noninstitutionalized civilian US residents. Weighted proportions of study participants were calculated after combining data from 2 adjacent NHANES cycles (1999-2002, 2003-2006, 2007-2010, 2011-2014, and 2015-2018). Weighted mean BRIs and 95% CIs were calculated and compared across 10 cycles overall and in subgroups, with the trends examined by partial Mann-Kendall tests.

Restricted cubic spline (RCS) curve with 4 knots was displayed to test nonlinearity and determine optimal cutoff points for BRI when estimating all-cause mortality. Then, Cox model assumption of proportionality was checked for BRI and covariates. If this assumption was violated, Weibull proportional hazards assumption was tested, that is, the linear distribution between ln(−ln[S{t}]) and ln(t), where ln indicates natural log, S(t) denotes survival function, and t denotes survival time. The weighted association between BRI and all-cause mortality was quantified using hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% CIs before and after adjusting for confounding factors. First, only age and sex were adjusted. Second, age, sex, race and ethnicity, educational level, and PIR were adjusted. Third, age, sex, race and ethnicity, educational level, PIR, smoking status, drinking status, family history of CVD, and family history of diabetes were adjusted. Survival risk associated with BRI was also examined on stratification by these confounding factors on categorical scales.

Finally, to assess the robustness of association results, sensitivity analyses were performed by excluding adults with accidental deaths, by excluding adults who died within 2 years after participation, and by reserving participants reporting a history of myocardial infarction, stroke, congestive heart failure, or cancer, respectively.

All analyses were conducted using Stata software version 16.0 (StataCorp) and R programming environment version 3.5.2 (R Project for Statistical Computing). P values were 2-tailed, and P  < .05 was considered statistically significant. Data were analyzed between April 1 and September 30, 2023.

Among 32 995 eligible adults with complete data on BRI and mortality, the mean (SD) age was 46.74 (16.92) years, and 16 529 (50.10%) were women. After survey weighting, 8.53% (95% CI, 7.46%-9.74%) of participants were Mexican American, 10.92% (95% CI, 9.84%-12.10%) of participants were non-Hispanic Black, 68.26% (95% CI, 66.14%-70.31%) of participants were non-Hispanic White, and 12.29% (95% CI, 11.25%-13.41%) of participants identified as other race or ethnicity. The baseline characteristics of study participants are shown in Table 1 after combining every 2 consecutive cycles of NHANES data set.

The temporal trends of BRI are presented in Table 2 . Mean BRI increased from 4.80 (95% CI, 4.62-4.97) to 5.62 (95% CI, 5.37-5.86), with a biennial change of 0.95% (95% CI, 0.80%-1.09%; P  < .001 from 1999 through 2018. Using the mean BRI from the 1999 to 2000 cycle as a reference, the changes ranged from −0.05 to 0.82 and differed significantly starting in 2007. Overall temporal trends of BRI among US adults were statistically significant (eFigure 1 in Supplement 1 ).

Additionally, BRI trends across NHANES cycles were summarized stratified by sociodemographic factors ( Figure 1 ; eFigure 2 in Supplement 1 ). By age groups, BRI increased with aging and across cycles. Generally, BRI was higher in women than in men, and exhibited an increasing tendency, with the difference between sexes being gradually widened from 1999 through 2018. By race and ethnicity, BRI was highest among Mexican American participants, followed by non-Hispanic Black participants and non-Hispanic White participants. By education, adults with college graduate degree or above had the lowest BRI, and in a sharp contrast, the highest BRI was consistently seen for adults with education less than 9th grade. By family income, BRI was generally high among adults with PIR less than 1 compared with PIR 1 or greater, and divergence before and after the 2011 to 2012 cycle was more obvious. By cigarette smoking, mean BRIs were comparable before 2009, but increased significantly in smokers compared with nonsmokers afterwards. By alcohol drinking, except for the 2017 to 2018 cycle, nondrinkers had a higher BRI level than drinkers, and the time trends increased in parallel. Among adults with a family history of CVD or diabetes, BRI was consistently elevated compared with those without, and their increasing trends widened from 1999 through 2018. All subsidiary trends over nearly 2 decades remained statistically significant at α = .05 (eTable 2 in Supplement 1 ).

During a median (IQR) follow-up of 9.98 (5.33-14.33) years, 3452 deaths (10.46% of participants) occurred. Given no recommended cutoff points of BRI thus far, an RCS curve was first adopted to display its association with all-cause mortality ( Figure 2 ). This association followed a U-shaped risk trajectory. Then, BRI was categorized in quintiles (Q1, lowest, to Q5, highest) and Q3 (4.45 to <5.46) was assigned as the reference group, consistent with the insignificant interval of the RCS curve.

Schoenfeld test found that the proportional hazards assumption was invalid. Viewing the linear association between ln(−ln[S{t}]) and ln(t) (eFigure 3 in Supplement 1 ), Weibull regression model was used for BRI to estimate all-cause mortality.

The associations of BRI in categories with mortality before and after adjusting for sociodemographic factors are provided in Table 3 . The risk for all-cause mortality was statistically significant for Q1 (BRI, 1.05 to <3.41), Q4 (BRI, 5.46 to <6.91), and Q5 (BRI, ≥6.91) compared with Q3 after controlling varying panels of confounders. Specifically, after full adjustment, adults within Q1 were 25% more likely to die from any cause compared with adults within Q3 (hazard ratio [HR], 1.25; 95% CI, 1.05 to 1.47); findings were similar for adults in Q4 (HR, 1.25; 95% CI, 1.09 to 1.43), and adults in Q5 were 50% more likely to die from any cause (HR, 1.49; 95% CI, 1.31 to 1.70).

Subgroup analyses by sociodemographic factors for the comparison of Q1 and Q5 with Q3 in estimating all-cause mortality were conducted after full adjustment (eFigure 4 in Supplement 1 ). Compared with Q3, significant mortality risk of Q1 was observed in adults aged 45 years or older (age 45-65 years: HR, 1.41; 95% CI, 1.04 to 1.90; age ≥65 years: 1.51; 95% CI, 1.22 to 1.86), males (HR, 1.41; 95% CI, 1.13 to 1.77), those with PIR of 1 or greater (HR, 1.28; 95% CI, 1.06 to 1.54), smokers (HR, 1.26; 95% CI, 1.03 to 1.54), and those who drank alcohol (HR, 1.23; 95% CI, 1.01 to 1.50). By contrast, significance of Q5 was consistently observed except female participants, those with high school education or above, those with PIR less than 1, and those with a family history of CVD. Additionally, forest plots for the models adjusting for age and sex, as well as the partially adjusted model are shown in eFigure 5 in Supplement 1 for the comparison of Q1 with Q3, and in eFigure 6 in Supplement 1 for the comparison of Q5 with Q3.

Sensitivity analyses were performed to test the stability and extrapolation of association results. The association between BMI and all-cause mortality risk is shown in eFigure 7 and eTable 3 in Supplement 1 . Compared with BMI, BRI had narrower CIs and higher sensitivity in estimating risk for all-cause mortality. Significant estimation remained after excluding accidental deaths (eTable 4 in Supplement 1 ) and deaths within 2 years after participation (eTable 5 in Supplement 1 ), even reserving participants reporting a history of myocardial infarction, stroke, congestive heart failure, or cancer (eTable 6 in Supplement 1 ).

The aim of this cohort study was to characterize the temporal trends of BRI among US adults aged at least 20 years from 1999 to 2018 and to explore the association of BRI with all-cause mortality. Of note, BRI experienced a stably increasing trend during nearly 2 decades, with a biennial change of 0.95%. This trend was more obvious among women, individuals aged 65 years or older, and Mexican American participants. Moreover, there was a U-shaped association between BRI and all-cause mortality, with the risk increased by 25% for those with BRI less than 3.4 and by 49% with BRI of 6.9 or greater compared with to the middle quantile of 4.5 to 5.5. To our knowledge, this is the first study that has evaluated the trends of BRI and its associations with all-cause mortality in US general populations.

Obesity, particularly visceral obesity, is recognized as an established risk factor associated with cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality. Currently, there is a growing consensus that visceral fat is much more dangerous to health than subcutaneous fat, since it entails more risk for diseases. 21 , 22 In support of this notion, a study by Kuk et al 23 reported that compared with subcutaneous and liver fat, visceral fat determined by computed tomography was a significant, independent risk factor associated with all-cause mortality. For practical reasons, there remains a need for a simple and effective proxy indicator to better reflect visceral obesity. Accruing evidence indicates that BRI, as a newer anthropometric measure, can reflect visceral fat more comprehensively than conventional measures, including BMI. Theoretically, assuming the shape of body as an ellipse with the long axis height and the short axis waist circumference, BRI can be calculated as the eccentricity of this ellipse via human modeling. It is hence reasonable to speculate BRI as a superior anthropometric measure for abdominal adiposity.

Although the idea that BRI can estimate the percentages of total and regional fat may be plausible and appealing, evidence on the association between BRI and a disease or mortality is sparse. A study by Wu et al 17 found that the risk for incident cardiovascular events increased with BRI in a dose-dependent manner among 59 278 participants free of malignant tumors and cardiovascular diseases, especially in younger adults. A study by Liu et al 24 followed up 6990 hypertensive adults without diabetes for 3 years and observed that BRI was superior over the other anthropometric measures in estimating the onset of diabetes. 24 A study by Zhou et al 25 reported that high BRI quartiles were associated with significantly reducing risk of all-cause mortality by 17% to 27% and of cardiovascular mortality by 21% to 22% among 47 356 adults from NHANES from 1999 to 2014. As an extension, we expanded NHANES cycles from 1999 through 2018 and followed up to December 31, 2019, and we observed a U-shaped risk trajectory for the association between BRI and all-cause mortality. Differing from the study by Zhou et al, 25 we chose the middle quantile (BRI, 4.5-5.5) of this U-shaped trajectory as the reference and found that all-cause mortality risk was increased by 25% for adults with BRI less than 3.4 and by nearly 50% for adults with BRI 6.9 or greater. The magnitude of risk estimation persisted even after excluding accidental deaths or deaths within 2 years or reserving participants with myocardial infarction, stroke, congestive heart failure, or cancer. Hence, estimates of mortality risk associated with BRI may help inform decision-making in clinical settings.

In this national cohort, we noticed that very low BRI was associated with a significantly increased risk of all-cause mortality, especially in individuals aged 65 years and older. This association seems plausible, as BRI was identified as a potential proxy measure associated with nutritional status, 26 and very low BRI can be accompanied with malnutrition, fatigue, reduced activity tolerance, and muscle atrophy. 25 The reasons behind the association between BRI and mortality may be epidemiologically and clinically plausible. From epidemiological aspects, elevated BRI was significantly associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders, and even cancer, 11 , 15 , 27 - 29 which might serve as the culprits responsible for all-cause mortality. From clinical aspects, the accumulation of visceral fat was associated with more profound insulin resistance and an increased risk of cardiometabolic diseases, even among participants with weight within reference range. 30 , 31

It is also worth noting that in this study, BRI exhibited an overall upward trend from 1999 to 2018, in parallel to the prevalence of US obesity and central adiposity, 32 with this increasing trend reaching statistical significance in cycle-to-cycle comparisons starting in 2007. Alarmingly, the overall mean BRI exceeded the upper limit of the bottom range of the U-shaped risk trajectory in this study after 2015. Moreover, our subsidiary observations indicated that the increasing trends in BRI might be more obvious among women, individuals older than 65 years, and Mexican American individuals, which could enhance our understanding on BRI distributions to inform programs or guidance for body shape management from the following 3 aspects. First, the impact of sex hormones on body composition and appetite may explain the relatively high BRI in women. 33 Second, high BRI in individuals older than 65 years may be indicative of adipose tissue senescence and dysfunction. 34 , 35 Third, poor dietary quality, food insecurity, and psychosocial stress are not uncommon among Mexican American individuals, 36 which might explain the high BRI.

Besides the strengths of this study, including comprehensive analyses of nationally representative samples, long-term follow-ups, and careful considerations of multiple confounding factors, some limitations should be acknowledged. First, from 1999 through 2018, the response rates of NHANES declined from 76.62% to 48.24%, leaving the possibility of nonresponse bias an open question. Second, only all-cause mortality was evaluated, and disease-specific mortality remained unexplored due to small sample sizes. Third, the bottom range of BRI in the U-shaped risk trajectory with all-cause mortality (ie, Q3) was derived from general US populations, and it might differ across races and ethnicities because visceral adiposity deposits have been reported to be the highest in Hispanic individuals (eg, Mexican American individuals), followed by non-Hispanic Black individuals and non-Hispanic White individuals. 37

In this national cohort study, our findings indicated an increasing trend of BRI during nearly 20-year period among US adults, and importantly, a U-shaped association between BRI and all-cause mortality. Our findings provide compelling evidence for the application of BRI as a noninvasive and easy to obtain screening tool for estimation of mortality risk and identification of high-risk individuals, a novel concept that could be incorporated into public health practice pending consistent validation in other independent studies.

Accepted for Publication: April 3, 2024.

Published: June 5, 2024. doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.15051

Correction: This article was corrected on July 11, 2024, to fix an error in the formula for body roundness index.

Open Access: This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY License . © 2024 Zhang X et al. JAMA Network Open .

Corresponding Author: Xiaoqun Dong, MD, PhD, The Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University, 593 Eddy St, Providence, RI 02903 ( [email protected] ), and Wenquan Niu, PhD, Center for Evidence-Based Medicine, Capital Institute of Pediatrics, No. 2 Yaobao Rd, Chao Yang District, Beijing 100020, China ( [email protected] ).

Author Contributions: Drs Dong and Niu had full access to all of the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.

Concept and design: Wu, Niu, Dong.

Acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data: Zhang, Ma, Lin, Chen, Zheng.

Drafting of the manuscript: Zhang.

Critical review of the manuscript for important intellectual content: All authors.

Statistical analysis: Zhang, Ma, Wu, Niu.

Supervision: Niu, Dong.

Conflict of Interest Disclosures: None reported.

Funding/Support: This work was supported by the Public Service Development and Reform Pilot Project of Beijing Medical Research Institute (Dr Niu), the Capital’s Funds for Health Improvement and Research (grant No. 2024-2-1133), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant No. 81970042).

Role of the Funder/Sponsor: The funders had no role in the design and conduct of the study; collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data; preparation, review, or approval of the manuscript; and decision to submit the manuscript for publication.

Data Sharing Statement: See Supplement 2 .

Additional Contributions: We are grateful to the participants and to the people involved in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey study.

• Register for email alerts with links to free full-text articles
• Access PDFs of free articles
• Manage your interests
• Save searches and receive search alerts