problem resolution in education

The Ongoing Challenges, and Possible Solutions, to Improving Educational Equity

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Schools across the country were already facing major equity challenges before the pandemic, but the disruptions it caused exacerbated them.

After students came back to school buildings after more than a year of hybrid schooling, districts were dealing with discipline challenges and re-segregating schools. In a national EdWeek Research Center survey from October, 65 percent of the 824 teachers, and school and district leaders surveyed said they were more concerned now than before the pandemic about closing academic opportunity gaps that impact learning for students of different races, socioeconomic levels, disability categories, and English-learner statuses.

But educators trying to prioritize equity have an uphill battle to overcome these challenges, especially in the face of legislation and school policies attempting to fight equity initiatives across the country.

The pandemic and the 2020 murder of George Floyd drove many districts to recognize longstanding racial disparities in academics, discipline, and access to resources and commit to addressing them. But in 2021, a backlash to such equity initiatives accelerated, and has now resulted in 18 states passing laws restricting lessons on race and racism, and many also passing laws restricting the rights and well-being of LGBTQ students.

This slew of Republican-driven legislation presents a new hurdle for districts looking to address racial and other inequities in public schools.

During an Education Week K-12 Essentials forum last week, journalists, educators, and researchers talked about these challenges, and possible solutions to improving equity in education.

Takeru Nagayoshi, who was the Massachusetts teacher of the year in 2020, and one of the speakers at the forum, said he never felt represented as a gay, Asian kid in public school until he read about the Stonewall Riots, the Civil Rights Movement, and the full history of marginalized groups working together to change systems of oppression.

“Those are the learning experiences that inspired me to be a teacher and to commit to a life of making our country better for everyone,” he said.

“Our students really benefit the most when they learn about themselves and the world that they’re in. They’re in a safe space with teachers who provide them with an honest education and accurate history.”

Here are some takeaways from the discussion:

Schools are still heavily segregated

Almost 70 years after the Supreme Court ruled in Brown v. Board of Education that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, most students attend schools where they see a majority of other students of their racial demographics .

Black students, who accounted for 15 percent of public school enrollment in 2019, attended schools where Black students made up an average of 47 percent of enrollment, according to a UCLA report.

They attended schools with a combined Black and Latinx enrollment averaging 67 percent, while Latinx students attended schools with a combined Black and Latinx enrollment averaging 66 percent.

Overall, the proportion of schools where the majority of students are not white increased from 14.8 percent of schools in 2003 to 18.2 percent in 2016.

“Predominantly minority schools [get] fewer resources, and that’s one problem, but there’s another problem too, and it’s a sort of a problem for democracy,” said John Borkowski, education lawyer at Husch Blackwell.

“I think it’s much better for a multi-racial, multi-ethnic democracy, when people have opportunities to interact with one another, to learn together, you know, and you see all of the problems we’ve had in recent years with the rising of white supremacy, and white supremacist groups.”

School discipline issues were exacerbated because of student trauma

In the absence of national data on school discipline, anecdotal evidence and expert interviews suggest that suspensions—both in and out of school—and expulsions, declined when students went remote.

In 2021, the number of incidents increased again when most students were back in school buildings, but were still lower than pre-pandemic levels , according to research by Richard Welsh, an associate professor of education and public policy at Vanderbilt’s Peabody College of Education.

But forum attendees, who were mostly district and school leaders as well as teachers, disagreed, with 66 percent saying that the pandemic made school incidents warranting discipline worse. That’s likely because of heightened student trauma from the pandemic. Eighty-three percent of forum attendees who responded to a spot survey said they had noticed an increase in behavioral issues since resuming in-person school.

Restorative justice in education is gaining popularity

One reason Welsh thought discipline incidents did not yet surpass pre-pandemic levels despite heightened student trauma is the adoption of restorative justice practices, which focus on conflict resolution, understanding the causes of students’ disruptive behavior, and addressing the reason behind it instead of handing out punishments.

Kansas City Public Schools is one example of a district that has had improvement with restorative justice, with about two thirds of the district’s 35 schools seeing a decrease in suspensions and expulsions in 2021 compared with 2019.

Forum attendees echoed the need for or success of restorative justice, with 36 percent of those who answered a poll within the forum saying restorative justice works in their district or school, and 27 percent saying they wished their district would implement some of its tenets.

However, 12 percent of poll respondents also said that restorative justice had not worked for them. Racial disparities in school discipline also still persist, despite restorative justice being implemented, which indicates that those practices might not be ideal for addressing the over-disciplining of Black, Latinx, and other historically marginalized students.

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Getting Unstuck: Conflict Resolution Strategies That Work

School leaders can use these strategies to turn down the heat and make progress on even the most intractable problems.

We’ve devoted the last four years to studying adult conflict in schools, presenting on the topic across the country. After we explain a set of recommended conflict remediation strategies, someone in the audience invariably raises a hand and shares, “I’m sure your strategies work in 99 percent of schools, but you haven’t seen mine!” Indeed, while conflict resolution is never quick or easy (otherwise it wouldn’t be conflict!), sometimes disputes appear intractable. Staunch opponents endlessly vie at loggerheads, a 17th-century term variously describing unintelligent oafs or an iron tool used as a bludgeon.

When a group is stuck hip-deep in the muck and mire, wrestling with an obstinately “wicked” problem, how can a leader help? Literature from the field of organizational psychology and our personal experience suggest a number of strategies leaders can use to help a group get “unstuck” and move forward: turning down the heat, asking good questions, and trying new protocols. 

Reframing the Conflict

Turn down the heat: The first step is to turn down the emotional temperature, perhaps by taking a break. Leaders must also be careful to monitor their own emotional temperature to make sure that their words and actions do not exacerbate the level of social distress. Promoting psychological safety by respecting all opinions also reduces the likelihood of us-versus-them thinking. This is where a little humor goes a long way, the group leader showing the lighter side even in a contentious situation. We’ve found that a heartfelt smile while likening the leader’s job to herding cats lightens the mood.  

Let’s consider a high school committee consisting of staff, students, and parents butting heads over restorative justice versus a swift-and-sure-consequences approach to discipline. The leader’s initial objective is to shift the tone toward civil discussion and a disposition to genuinely listen. Next steps might include a short break, a reminder that they share a common aspiration to improve the school’s social and emotional climate, setting a few ground rules (e.g., don’t make it personal, seek first to understand, everyone plays a part in the solution), and generating a list of questions that the group will address in future meetings.   

Lengthen the time frame: Committees often want quick solutions, but deep conflict requires time to build trust and both comprehensively and sensitively study the issues at hand. In the case of the high school discipline policy committee, a preliminary step is to commit to spending a year gathering information and brainstorming alternatives. “This is a complicated issue,” the administrator might declare. “If there were ready answers, we would have discovered them by now. Our work will take time.”

Clarify assumptions and define the conflict: It’s useful to identify, without passing judgment, assumptions inherent in the outlook of contesting positions, and then analyze how the oppositional positions give rise to conflict. That is to say, before broaching possible solutions, the group must better understand the nature of the conflict.  

Returning to the high school discipline committee, the leader might ask the group whether they can agree on the theory underlying each point of view, then draw a three-column chart to list benefits, concerns, and lingering questions associated with each approach. The effect is to move away from the mistaken belief that two ideas are mutually exclusive or the only possible options. Once a group deviates from an overly simplistic either/or orientation to more creative “What else is there?” thinking, healthier and productive conversation ensues. 

Refocus from person to task: Literature on conflict within organizations shows that intense us-versus-them disputes inevitably result when the issue becomes personal, attributing fault to the other individual’s deficient skills, personality, intelligence, and/or motives. It’s not enough for two people to disagree; they disparage each other as well. Adept administrators shift difficult conversations from “who” to “what” or “how”: from a focus on the person to the organization’s need, abstract ideas, and the most effective way to accomplish the task at hand. 

In the high school discipline committee, the controversy may have turned personal, with each side on the attack, spewing ad hominem accusations. The leader’s role is to transform the subject from “who’s wrong” to “what works.”

In the case of the high school discipline committee, the leader might ask the group whether they can agree on the theory underlying each point of view. Swift-and-sure consequences relies on principles of behavior modification from the field of psychology. Restorative justice draws on community-based principles of accountability and repair. By putting aside personal invective and studying how each approach is supposed to work, the team may be able to make progress.

Try different protocols: Two protocols that we’ve found effective in resolving the most troubling controversies are “trading places” and “uncommittees.” In trading places, members of each group assume the opposite stance. In our case study, restorative justice supporters present the views of swift-and-sure-consequences defenders, and vice versa. 

The “uncommittee” temporarily adjourns the committee, with a mandate that each member seek feedback from as wide a stakeholder group as possible, for the purpose of eliciting new ideas that can help the group address the current stalemate and move the discussion forward. While the information is being gathered, leaders also take time to reevaluate logistics, as such seemingly unimportant details as the shape of the table, seating arrangements, or the time set for the meeting can be obstacles on the road to solutions. 

High-Impact Questions

We distinguish between genuinely inquisitive questions and statements disguised as questions. The following questions posed by a “conflict-agile” leader can move a group forward.

Questions that clarify

• What basic point are you trying to make?
• What is the greatest driving force right now?

Questions that isolate consequences

• What are the many and varied outcomes you expect? 
• What might be unanticipated or unintended consequences?
• What would happen if...?

Questions that prompt a change of perspective

• Here’s how some others see it...
• Why might they look at it that way?
• How can we...?
• What would we do if money were no object? (By brainstorming without financial limitations, the group is able to identify ideal outcomes. In other words, to dream a little.)
• What haven’t we explored? What are we not thinking of?

Questions that address the group process

• If you could wave a magic wand, what is one thing you would change? 
• Why do you think we are feeling stuck?
• What’s not being said that needs to be said, or, what’s the elephant in the room?

Turbulent seas test the skills of any sailor or school leader. Navigating choppy waters requires adept leadership equipped with a variety of strategies that can make headway even when progress seems stymied. The process may be messy and frustrating, but once collaborative problem-solving is established as a norm, transformative solutions become possible.

Four of the biggest problems facing education—and four trends that could make a difference

Eduardo velez bustillo, harry a. patrinos.

In 2022, we published, Lessons for the education sector from the COVID-19 pandemic , which was a follow up to,  Four Education Trends that Countries Everywhere Should Know About , which summarized views of education experts around the world on how to handle the most pressing issues facing the education sector then. We focused on neuroscience, the role of the private sector, education technology, inequality, and pedagogy.

Unfortunately, we think the four biggest problems facing education today in developing countries are the same ones we have identified in the last decades .

1. The learning crisis was made worse by COVID-19 school closures

Low quality instruction is a major constraint and prior to COVID-19, the learning poverty rate in low- and middle-income countries was 57% (6 out of 10 children could not read and understand basic texts by age 10). More dramatic is the case of Sub-Saharan Africa with a rate even higher at 86%. Several analyses show that the impact of the pandemic on student learning was significant, leaving students in low- and middle-income countries way behind in mathematics, reading and other subjects.  Some argue that learning poverty may be close to 70% after the pandemic , with a substantial long-term negative effect in future earnings. This generation could lose around $21 trillion in future salaries, with the vulnerable students affected the most.

2. Countries are not paying enough attention to early childhood care and education (ECCE)

At the pre-school level about two-thirds of countries do not have a proper legal framework to provide free and compulsory pre-primary education. According to UNESCO, only a minority of countries, mostly high-income, were making timely progress towards SDG4 benchmarks on early childhood indicators prior to the onset of COVID-19. And remember that ECCE is not only preparation for primary school. It can be the foundation for emotional wellbeing and learning throughout life; one of the best investments a country can make.

3. There is an inadequate supply of high-quality teachers

Low quality teaching is a huge problem and getting worse in many low- and middle-income countries.  In Sub-Saharan Africa, for example, the percentage of trained teachers fell from 84% in 2000 to 69% in 2019 . In addition, in many countries teachers are formally trained and as such qualified, but do not have the minimum pedagogical training. Globally, teachers for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) subjects are the biggest shortfalls.

4. Decision-makers are not implementing evidence-based or pro-equity policies that guarantee solid foundations

It is difficult to understand the continued focus on non-evidence-based policies when there is so much that we know now about what works. Two factors contribute to this problem. One is the short tenure that top officials have when leading education systems. Examples of countries where ministers last less than one year on average are plentiful. The second and more worrisome deals with the fact that there is little attention given to empirical evidence when designing education policies.

To help improve on these four fronts, we see four supporting trends:

1. Neuroscience should be integrated into education policies

Policies considering neuroscience can help ensure that students get proper attention early to support brain development in the first 2-3 years of life. It can also help ensure that children learn to read at the proper age so that they will be able to acquire foundational skills to learn during the primary education cycle and from there on. Inputs like micronutrients, early child stimulation for gross and fine motor skills, speech and language and playing with other children before the age of three are cost-effective ways to get proper development. Early grade reading, using the pedagogical suggestion by the Early Grade Reading Assessment model, has improved learning outcomes in many low- and middle-income countries. We now have the tools to incorporate these advances into the teaching and learning system with AI , ChatGPT , MOOCs and online tutoring.

2. Reversing learning losses at home and at school

There is a real need to address the remaining and lingering losses due to school closures because of COVID-19.  Most students living in households with incomes under the poverty line in the developing world, roughly the bottom 80% in low-income countries and the bottom 50% in middle-income countries, do not have the minimum conditions to learn at home . These students do not have access to the internet, and, often, their parents or guardians do not have the necessary schooling level or the time to help them in their learning process. Connectivity for poor households is a priority. But learning continuity also requires the presence of an adult as a facilitator—a parent, guardian, instructor, or community worker assisting the student during the learning process while schools are closed or e-learning is used.

To recover from the negative impact of the pandemic, the school system will need to develop at the student level: (i) active and reflective learning; (ii) analytical and applied skills; (iii) strong self-esteem; (iv) attitudes supportive of cooperation and solidarity; and (v) a good knowledge of the curriculum areas. At the teacher (instructor, facilitator, parent) level, the system should aim to develop a new disposition toward the role of teacher as a guide and facilitator. And finally, the system also needs to increase parental involvement in the education of their children and be active part in the solution of the children’s problems. The Escuela Nueva Learning Circles or the Pratham Teaching at the Right Level (TaRL) are models that can be used.

3. Use of evidence to improve teaching and learning

We now know more about what works at scale to address the learning crisis. To help countries improve teaching and learning and make teaching an attractive profession, based on available empirical world-wide evidence , we need to improve its status, compensation policies and career progression structures; ensure pre-service education includes a strong practicum component so teachers are well equipped to transition and perform effectively in the classroom; and provide high-quality in-service professional development to ensure they keep teaching in an effective way. We also have the tools to address learning issues cost-effectively. The returns to schooling are high and increasing post-pandemic. But we also have the cost-benefit tools to make good decisions, and these suggest that structured pedagogy, teaching according to learning levels (with and without technology use) are proven effective and cost-effective .

4. The role of the private sector

When properly regulated the private sector can be an effective education provider, and it can help address the specific needs of countries. Most of the pedagogical models that have received international recognition come from the private sector. For example, the recipients of the Yidan Prize on education development are from the non-state sector experiences (Escuela Nueva, BRAC, edX, Pratham, CAMFED and New Education Initiative). In the context of the Artificial Intelligence movement, most of the tools that will revolutionize teaching and learning come from the private sector (i.e., big data, machine learning, electronic pedagogies like OER-Open Educational Resources, MOOCs, etc.). Around the world education technology start-ups are developing AI tools that may have a good potential to help improve quality of education .

After decades asking the same questions on how to improve the education systems of countries, we, finally, are finding answers that are very promising.  Governments need to be aware of this fact.

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From Chaos to Calm: Conflict Resolution in the Classroom (The Best Guide for Teachers)

Sara Wanasek

Conflict resolution in the classroom is essential for creating an environment of respect, trust, and collaboration. Unfortunately, it’s not always easy to resolve conflicts among students. Having effective conflict resolution strategies from the start is paramount to maintaining a positive and productive learning environment.

In this blog post, we’ll provide you with a comprehensive guide for navigating the chaos of classroom conflicts and achieving a peaceful resolution. From proactive strategies to identifying and preventing potential disputes to useful techniques to help students manage their emotions and work together to resolve issues, we will equip you with the tools you need to create a safe and productive learning environment.

Understanding Conflicts in the Classroom

Conflict is a natural part of human interaction, and the classroom is no exception. When we think about conflict, we often associate it with negative emotions and disruptions. However, conflict can also be seen as an opportunity for growth and learning.

Why Conflicts Arise in the Classroom? 

Conflicts in the classroom can arise from a variety of sources, often stemming from the complex dynamics and diverse backgrounds of students. 

Conflicts can arise due to various factors, such as:

• differing viewpoints and opinions
• misunderstandings
• competition for attention
• personal experiences
• other external stressors such as personal or family problems
• cultural and socio-economic disparities

Importance of Conflict Resolution in the Classroom 

Ignoring or mishandling conflicts can lead to disruptions, hindered learning, and strained relationships. Hence, it’s vital for teachers to understand the dynamics of conflict in order to effectively resolve and manage these situations promptly. By addressing them head-on, you can pave the way for students to:

• Develop important skills : When students navigate conflicts in a constructive way, they learn skills such as problem-solving, effective communication, and empathy.
• Better the overall learning experience : Students are more engaged, attentive, and willing to share their thoughts and opinions when they feel their voices are heard and conflicts are addressed promptly.
• Create a collaborative learning environment : Students can learn from each other’s perspectives and develop essential social and emotional skills from conflict resolution.

12 Recommended Strategies for Conflict Resolution in the Classroom

Before Conflicts Arise: Proactive Measures for Preventing Conflicts

Creating a proactive approach to prevent conflicts in the classroom can save you valuable time and energy in dealing with conflicts before they arise. Try these strategies to foster a positive and harmonious learning environment from the start:

• Establish clear and consistent expectations

By setting clear guidelines from the start, students know what is expected of them and what consequences they may face for disruptive behavior and violating these expectations.

• Address difficult behaviors promptly and directly

Stay away from ignoring or avoiding disruptive behaviors. Instead, address them head-on and have a private conversation with the student involved to understand the underlying cause and work to find a solution.

• Acknowledge and reward positive behaviors

Sometimes, students act out due to frustration, boredom, or a lack of understanding. Providing positive reinforcement or desired behaviors and extra support/guidance can be effective in reducing difficult behaviors.

• Foster a sense of community

Encourage teamwork and collaboration among students by providing opportunities for group work and team-building activities. This can help create a sense of belonging and reduce the likelihood of conflicts.

• Create a positive communication environment

Encouraging students to express their thoughts and concerns in a respectful manner can help prevent misunderstandings from escalating into larger issues. To encourage clear and open communication in your classroom, actively listen to students, respond empathetically to their emotions and perspectives, and have an open door policy.

• Cultivate emotional intelligence

Teach students how to identify and manage their emotions effectively. Encourage them to practice self-reflection and provide them with the tools for self-regulation, such as deep breathing exercises or journaling.

• Promote empathy and understanding

Create a classroom culture that values empathy and understanding. Encourage students to put themselves in others’ shoes and consider different perspectives.

• Teach conflict-resolution skills

Take the time to explicitly teach students how to resolve conflicts in a peaceful and respectful manner. Teach them strategies you use in the classroom like the ones below.

After Conflicts Arose: Conflict Resolution Strategies

When conflicts arise, people often resort to a range of resolution styles and strategies. Understanding these diverse styles enables you to tailor your approach to fit the specific circumstances at hand:

• Collaboration

This strategy encourages open communication and problem-solving. It encourages students to actively find solutions and work towards mutual understanding with you or with their peers teamwork, empathy, creative problem-solving, and cooperation among students.

Teach students the art of compromise, where both parties willingly make concessions to reach an agreement. This helps students understand the value of negotiation, navigate disagreements constructively, and build leadership skills. 

• Assertiveness

In certain situations, adopting an authoritative style may be necessary, especially in cases involving safety concerns or disruptive behaviors. When the need arises to ensure order and enforce rules, asserting your authority is essential. However, use this approach sparingly and only when necessary, and emphasize open communication and understanding in other instances.

On the student side, it’s crucial to guide students in expressing their needs and preferences assertively while respecting the rights and opinions of others. This style empowers students to communicate effectively, ultimately helping them not only in negotiations but also in building self-confidence and strong interpersonal relationships.

Avoidance is not always the best approach, even though it may be suitable for minor disagreements or when emotions are running high. Therefore, it’s important to educate students about the significance of when to engage in a conflict and when to let certain issues pass without confrontation.

Master Classroom Harmony With These 4 Tried and Tested Classroom Conflict Resolution Activities

To effectively resolve conflicts in the classroom, try pairing your chosen conflict resolution style above with these following tried and tested classroom conflict resolution activities recommended by teachers and education professionals: 

Have a neutral third party, such as a teacher, another student, or a counselor involved and facilitate the discussion among the involved parties. The mediator helps students express their feelings and perspectives and guides them toward finding a resolution. This approach teaches students the importance of active listening, compromise, and negotiation.

• Restorative Circles

Involving the larger group in conflict resolution can be helpful in cases involving minor conflicts and communication breakdowns. In restorative circles, gather students in a circle to have an open conversation about the conflict. This approach encourages empathy and understanding through structured communication and promotes a sense of community and shared responsibility, facilitating quicker conflict resolution.

• Problem-Solving Workshops

Organize workshops with hypothetical scenarios with an emphasis on problem-solving. This approach not only teaches students the essential skills to deal with conflicts or problems when they arise, but it also teaches them the importance of collaboration and empathy towards others.  Follow this with a feedback session  to review the strategies proposed critically. 

• Conflict Journals

You can also invite your students to maintain conflict journals, where they reflect on their emotions and experiences during conflicts. This practice promotes self-awareness and emotional regulation. Having an outlet to channel their feelings and emotions via written words is often preferable to speaking them aloud, as uttered words are not retractable.

Innovative Approaches for Innovative Classrooms: Games for Conflict Resolution in the Classroom

In today’s digital age, teachers have the opportunity to implement innovative approaches to conflict resolution using games and EdTech tools . Games are suitable for both teaching conflict resolution skills and actively resolving conflicts. They also offer exciting and interactive ways for students to develop conflict resolution skills that can be applied in real-life situations while also having fun.

Examples of Conflict Resolution Games

What is the Solution

Present different conflicts and situations and have students work on them individually or collaborate to come up with the most effective solution. Follow this with a discussion where students can collectively vote on the best solution!

Invite students to act out different situations together in a safe place. Follow this with a review of the experience and explore alternative ways students can handle such situations should they arise in the future

Conflict Resolution Bingo

Get creative and utilize a game of Bingo to promote learning about conflict resolution strategies, communication skills, and problem-solving techniques in an interactive and engaging manner.

Express Feelings Comfortably 

Online platforms like ClassDojo or Seesaw offer features that allow students to express their feelings and resolve conflicts digitally. 

With ClassDojo, you can initiate discussions on various topics or emotions, encouraging students to share their thoughts and feelings openly in a safe digital environment. 

With Seesaw, students can create digital journals where they can document their thoughts, experiences, and emotions through audio and video recordings, writing, or adding images and emojis. 

Teach conflict resolution and get feedback from students through different quiz games. Add motivation by gamifiying these questions and having students answer anonymously bringing honesty and comfortability to every question.

There are many tools out there to use, but if you are a PowerPoint user,  ClassPoint is your perfect teaching companion. Utilise interactive quizzes such as  Word Cloud , Short Answer and  Video Upload  to teach conflict resolution and check your students’ understanding in a fun and interactive manner.

Stay Connected

Try using an online communication platform to stay in touch with your class and chat with students. Opening communication platforms allows more ways for students to reach out and share any issues that might arise. This can be done within your Google or Teams platforms! 

More Resources for Conflict Resolution in the Classroom

As a teacher, it’s essential to have access to a variety of resources to help you effectively manage and resolve conflicts in the classroom. Here are additional valuable resources that you can utilize:

• Books and Articles : There are numerous books and articles available that provide practical strategies and insights into conflict resolution in the classroom. Look for resources that offer specific techniques, case studies, and real-life examples to help you navigate different situations. Some recommended titles include “ 7 Principles of Conflict Resolution ” by  Louisa Weinstein and “ Conflict Resolution, Can It Really Make a Difference in the Classroom: Conflict Resolution Strategies for Classroom Teachers ” by Savannah Pollan and Dylinda Wilson-Younger.
• Online Courses and Webinars : Many organizations and educational platforms offer online courses and webinars focused on conflict resolution and management. These resources provide in-depth knowledge, practical techniques, and opportunities for professional development. Try Mediation and Conflict Resolution on Coursera or Conflict Management with Emotional Intelligence on Udemy . 
• Professional Organizations and Networks : Joining professional organizations and networks can provide valuable support and resources. Organizations like the National Education Association (NEA) and the American School Counselor Association (ASCA) often host conferences, workshops, and online forums where educators can share their experiences, gain insights from experts, and access resources specifically designed to address conflict resolution in the classroom setting. 

To recap, when conflicts arise in the classroom: 

• Actively listen to students when conflicts arise.
• Select a conflict resolution style that best fits the situation and the classroom needs.
• Facilitate open dialogue and encourage empathy among students.
• Teach students how to express themselves effectively.
• Model positive conflict resolution behaviors.

Effectively managing and resolving conflicts within the classroom is a complex undertaking, demanding proactive strategies and a steadfast dedication to transparent communication. By grasping the significance of conflict resolution, incorporating a diverse array of styles and strategies, and nurturing enduring skills, educators can establish an environment wherein conflicts are viewed as catalysts for personal growth and educational advancement.

To manage your classroom effectively, irrespective of whether conflicts are present or not, read these 20 proven effective classroom management strategies for all types of classes . And if you are new to the teaching scene, these 26 classroom management strategies tailored to new teachers may help.

About Sara Wanasek

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Home > Books > Interpersonal Relationships

School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships

Submitted: 03 September 2020 Reviewed: 07 December 2020 Published: 23 December 2020

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.95395

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Interpersonal Relationships

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Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.

• school conflicts
• classroom conflicts
• school conflict management
• teacher-student relationship

Author Information

Sabina valente *.

• Center for Research in Education and Psychology, University of Évora, Portugal

Abílio Afonso Lourenço

• University of Minho, Portugal

Zsolt Németh

• Faculty of Sciences, Institute of Sport Science and Physical Education, Department of Theory and Practice of Sports, University of Pécs, Hungary

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

One of the most striking characteristics of human beings is the diversities. Different ways of being, thinking and existing, different needs, world views, ethical positions mark the relationships between people. In this sense, interpersonal conflicts are understood as tension that involves different interests or positions, are inherent to human relationships, and are present in various social organizations, among them, the school.

The school as microcosms of society brings together different views of the world, different ways of being, thinking, and living, thus becoming a space for representing social differences and being a place where different conflicts occur daily. Dealing with this situation type requires learning and that is why teachers need training in conflict management so that they can correctly manage the classroom conflicts and educate also your students for conflict management.

Recognizing that the school is an organization that brings together social diversity and adopting as an assumption that interpersonal conflicts are inherent to human relationships, we define the school conflicts as this chapter theme. In this sense, this chapter addresses school conflicts with a focus on classroom conflicts in the teacher-student relationship. In the first part, a brief reference is made to the conflict. This is followed by a review of the bibliography on school/classroom conflict causes.

Due to its intrinsic characteristics, school is a favorable medium for conflict situations development. So, the conflict in the education system can be seen from the dialectic between the macrostructure of the education system, the general policies oriented towards it, and the management processes that prevail in each school [ 1 ].

The conflict presents formative possibilities, since the perception of the differences existing between people/or groups and their needs, values, ideas, and different ways of living are essential to a democratic society [ 2 ]. In this sense, it is important to enhance positive conflict characteristics and reduce the negative ones. So, the difficulty in resolving conflicts is largely due to the difficulties existing between those involved in the conflict to be able to communicate effectively. Therefore, the constructive and educational potential of conflicts depends largely on the skills of those involved. Thus, knowing how to communicate, and respecting the rights of others and existing differences are essential for conflicts to revert to social and human development benefits.

The concern with improving coexistence in schools, centred on the conflict variable, is addressed in different studies, whose objectives mark both understanding the school conflict [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ], as well as preventing its occurrence [ 7 ]. Since it is impossible to eliminate school conflicts, it is essential and urgent to reduce their intensity, duration, and severity, so that the teaching and learning process is not harmed. In this sense, this chapter addresses also the strategies used to manage classroom conflict, and some examples of programs that work these skills on teachers and students.

2. Conflict

The conflict is defined and classified from different perspectives, and its definition can differ, in context, process, intervention, and study areas [ 1 , 8 ]. Conflict is a phenomenon of incompatibility between individuals or groups with irreconcilable ends and/or values ​​between them, considering it a social process [ 1 ]. For this author, four elements are present and must be addressed in all conflicts: the causes that give rise to it; the conflict protagonists; the process and the way the protagonists face the conflict; and the context in which it occurs. In turn, Chrispino [ 9 ] understands conflict as to any divergent opinion or a different way of seeing or interpreting an event, that is, the conflict originates in the difference of interests, desires, aspirations, or positions between individuals. He adds that conflicts can arise from difficulties in communication and assertiveness.

In this way, we can say that there is a conflict when two or more people interact with each other and perceive incompatible differences, or threats to their resources, needs, or values and when they respond according to what was perceived, then the ideal conditions for conflict are created. The conflict intensity, duration, or severity can then increase or decrease depending on the strategies used to resolve it. Regardless of the different conflict definitions, there is no conflict if the individuals involved are not aware of its existence. This conclusion is consensual to the majority of the definition proposals and to the attempts to conceptualize the conflict found in the specialized literature.

In addition to different conflict definitions, there are also different proposals for classifying it. Concerning the different conflict classification [ 8 , 10 , 11 ] the emphasis is placed on the theoretical proposals of [ 8 , 11 ]. Conflicts can be classified into five different types: structural, value, relationship, interest, and data [ 11 ]. In structural conflicts, causes are associated with unequal control situations, possession or resource distribution, unequal power, and authority, geographical, physical, or environmental factors that prevent cooperation and time pressures. In value conflicts, it highlights situations of opposing ideas or behaviors, different ways of life, ideology, or religion. Relationship conflicts are caused by strong emotions, misperceptions or stereotypes, inadequate or deficient communication, and negative and/or repetitive behaviors. The causes of interest conflicts are perceived or real competition over fundamental interests (content), procedural interests, and psychological interests. Finally, about data conflicts, [ 11 ] highlights the lack of information or wrong information, different points of view on what is important, different data interpretations, and different assessment procedures.

In turn, Torrego [ 8 ] presents a typology that seems to reflect the type of school conflicts: relationship-communication conflicts; interest/needs conflicts; and preferences, values, and beliefs conflicts. As for the relationship-communication conflicts, it cannot be said that there is a concrete cause that justifies their appearance, however, it appears as a result of the relationship deterioration itself. As such, aggressions, struggles, offenses, defamations, rumors, humiliations, misunderstandings are part of this type of conflict, but also perception conflicts, because, despite the conflict reality being only one, this fact does not invalidate that those involved have their view of it. Interest or needs conflicts usually occur when one party considers that it will only be able to satisfy its needs/interests if the other gives in to theirs. This conflict type can include those that stem from disagreement about how to perform jobs or tasks and those that result from the need felt by one of the parties to own or be coerced into giving in: objects, time, space, or any type of appeal. Finally, preferences, values, and beliefs conflicts result when these systems are discordant or viewed as such by those involved in the conflict. However, this conflict type can be resolved if the parties identify higher values ​​common to both.

It is important to say that the conflict constructive paradigm indicates that the conflict has positive and negative aspects, advantages, and disadvantages. This new model is opposed to the classic model and indicates that moderate levels of conflict are perceived as positive [ 12 ]. The conflict effects are positive, when they are well managed, to establish more cooperative relations and seek to reach an integrated solution, for the benefit of those involved in the conflict [ 10 ]. In any organization, the existence of low levels of conflict leaves the organization vulnerable to stagnation, to making impoverished decisions, even to the lack of effectiveness; on the other hand, having too much conflict leads the organization directly into chaos.

Given the above, we can say that conflicts are inherent to human relationships since human beings are characterized by diversity. The school, by bringing together people from different social groups with different values and worldviews, becomes a locus for conflicts.

3. School conflicts

The school is a society microsystem, in which are reflected constant changes. Thus, one of the most important school functions is to prepare students, teachers, and parents to live and overcome the difficulties of a world full of rapid changes and interpersonal conflicts, contributing to the development process of each individual. For being a society microsystem and bringing together different ways of life, thinking, feeling, relationship, constitutes a space conducive to interpersonal conflicts.

School conflict is defined as the disagreement between individuals or groups regarding ideas, interests, principles, and values within the school community, perceiving the parties their interests as excluded, although they may not be [ 13 ], being that the most frequent school conflicts occur in the relations between student–student and between student-teacher [ 14 ].

Conflicts in the school can be classified according to their causes and those involved. For Martinez [ 15 ], the conflicts between teachers are mainly caused by lack of communication, personal interests, previous conflicts, issues of power, or political and ideological differences. This author indicates that conflicts between students and teachers, as they happen due to the lack of understanding of the teacher’s explanation, due to arbitrary grades and divergence in the evaluation criteria, lack of didactic material, discrimination, disinterest in the study material, and because the students are ears. In turn, conflicts between students can arise due to misunderstandings, fights, the rivalry between groups, discrimination, bullying, use of spaces and assets, dating, sexual harassment, loss or damage of school assets, diverse elections, travel, and parties. Conflicts between parents, teachers, and administrators can arise due to aggressions that occurred between students and between teachers, due to the loss of work material, problems in the school canteen or similar, lack of teachers, lack of pedagogical assistance by teachers, evaluation, approval and disapproval criteria, failure to meet bureaucratic and administrative requirements of management [ 15 ].

From the literature review, it is possible to infer and highlight the different causes pointed to the school conflict. Participating teachers in the Göksoy and Argon [ 16 ] study indicate as causes for school conflict: the communication failures, personal, political/ideological, and organizational causes.

With a very similar rating, Jares [ 1 ] indicates four main causes: ideological-scientific, related to different pedagogical, ideological, and organizational options, and the type of school culture or cultures that coexist; power causes, related to organization control, professional promotion, access to resources and decision making; causes of structure, related to the ambiguity of objectives and functions, organizational fragility, organizational and variable contexts; and personal and interpersonal causes, related to self-esteem, security, professional dissatisfaction, and communication. Also, Burguet [ 17 ] points out as possible causes for the school conflict in the school’s organizational structure.

In this sequence, and given the increase in school conflicts, Ibarra [ 18 ] recognizes as school conflict causes: the increase in compulsory schooling, the increase in the number of students per class, teachers perceive a progressive decline in their authority about students, and students are less likely to comply with certain rules and limits, which results in conflict situations. Regarding the increase in compulsory education, this leads to a greater number of unmotivated and undisciplined students, which implies an increase in school conflict. Likewise, the increase in the number of students per class, without increasing the facilities or associated conditions, increases the conflict occurrence, because of their negative changes in the physical and psychological environment, in overcrowded classrooms, with a lack of space for practical and collaborative activities.

In addressing interpersonal relationships in schools cannot neglect family background. When dealing with interpersonal relationships in the school context, it is necessary to take into account the family reality of each student, since the family interpersonal relationships have a strong connection with the school conflict [ 19 ]. Distinguished authors indicate that school conflict situations often have their genesis at the family level [ 17 , 20 ] since they are the most deprived families, where alcoholism, domestic violence, and unemployment problems occur, being that all these violence and incivilities manifestations that arise in the students’ lives are transported to school. Burguet [ 17 ] points the dismissal of families as educational agents. This author highlights the overprotection with a sense of guilt for not dedicating more time to children, the experience of fatherhood as a “burden” of those who educate in aggressiveness, and the criticisms of parents, and society itself, to teachers, instigates conflicts. In other words, the role of the family often does not seem to offer a good foundation in the education of young people, which is reflected in their behavior in the processes of interaction at school. As Berkowitz [ 20 ] indicates, many of the interaction problems originate in the family, and the student reproduces the behaviors he learns with his parents.

It should be noted that the context experienced by the Covid-19 pandemic has a greater impact on students from poorer families. The situation of these most vulnerable students was a problem whose dimension grew with online classes, as they encountered immense barriers and lack of support for quality education during confinement. Thus, students who before the pandemic were unmotivated and presented conflicting behaviors at school should be the target of more support during this pandemic phase, to minimize the conflicting behaviors. It should also be noted that although family-school relationships are extremely important for students’ learning and development, family participation in school is not always satisfactory.

So, the family and the school must go together to contribute to the conflict becoming part of a process of growth, acceptance of the other, and accountability. Learning to deal with school conflicts positively is essential for the development of healthy relationships.

Another cause of school conflicts is pointed to society and the values it conveys, Burguet [ 17 ] points to the example of social communication, which encourages violence through violent programs, broadcasting news with prejudiced and conflicting messages. All of these situations enhance the conflicting attitudes of children and young people, which are reflected in school behaviors.

3.1 Conflict in the classroom

The school builds a social interface favorable to involvement, where conflicts proliferate in the educational process complexity, being common and daily in classes. Thus, in the classroom different types of conflict occur, being a challenge for most teachers to know how to face, manage, and resolve these conflicts [ 7 ].

Teachers often perceive conflicts as indiscipline, violence, disrespect, and like all situations threatening his authority, and inexperienced and experienced teachers emphasize the teacher-student conflict as a frequent situation in difficult classes [ 21 ]. In this context, Silva and Flores [ 19 ] refer to the negative effect that these situations have on attainment and student motivation, so it is urgent to find solutions to avoid or mitigate such effects.

The classroom coexistence problems are mainly related to social and pedagogical changes [ 22 ]. In this sequence, there are several conflict situations that teachers can face during classes. Some of those indicated by the teachers are, namely: the student’s presence that did not focus on activities; students with serious learning and communication difficulties; students groups who do classroom not work and maintain an aggressive and provocative attitude; students with destructive attitudes towards school material, theirs and/or colleagues, as well as aggressive and violent attitudes towards colleagues and teachers; apathetic students, who do not show classes enthusiasm; and in extreme situations, students who take and display instruments in the class that can be used as weapons, in an attitude of defiance to the teacher [ 23 ].

Given the increase in the classroom conflicts, multiple causes, which include a combination of external and internal factors in the school environment, are indicated, such as the increase in compulsory education, the increase in students per class, the progressive decline in the teacher’s authority about students, and students are less likely to comply with rules and limits, which results in conflict [ 18 ]. The increase in the year of schooling also leads to greater difficulties in living and learning in the classroom, and older age student’s groups consider themselves inserted in an educational system that sometimes does not respond to their needs and some of them consider not be essential to your life. So, the increase in compulsory education leads to a greater number of dissatisfied, unmotivated, and undisciplined students. Likewise, the increase in students per class, without increasing the facilities or associated conditions, negatively affects the psychological environment in overcrowded classrooms, with a lack of space for practical and collaborative activities. In turn, the progressive decline in teacher authority in relation to students and students are less likely to comply with certain rules and limits, results in conflicts in the classroom.

Conflicts in the teacher-student relationship are recurrent in the classroom, and [ 17 ] indicates as causes generating conflict, not only concerning the expectations of the teacher-student but also the student towards the teacher. In this sequence, the authors highlight the following problems that cause conflict: discipline problems, adaptation to individual differences problems, and evaluation problems.

As for discipline problems, these are the result of provocation and contempt of the student towards the teacher, or the teacher towards the student, to exercise their authority. In turn, problems of adaptation to individual differences are related to heterogeneous behaviors and diminished personal relationships. As for the problems related to the evaluation, result mainly from the personal rhythms of each student and teacher.

Students’ undisciplined classroom behavior can lead to conflicts that divert the teacher’s attention to issues that blur him from his teaching function [ 19 ]. In this context, Pérez-de-Guzmán et al. [ 7 ] indicate disinterest, mainly academic, as the main source of classroom conflict, also mentioning that one of the conflicts that persist and continues to be common is the lack of study habits and the carrying out work, leading to a negative attitude during class. Also, the mandatory stay in the classroom, away from the interests and expectations of some students, is recurrent as a conflict cause.

There are many and diverse classroom conflict situations that disturb the class dynamics. And in situations where the conflict remains latent, the result of the diversity of class interests, if the teacher does not create a good environment, acting positively about communication, the use of legitimate authority, and the conflict management, he will see conflicts increase exponentially within the classes [ 24 ]. Thus, regardless of the classroom conflicts type, if they are not managed, they accumulate, which makes them more cohesive and complicated, triggering negative feelings in those involved, and negatively affecting the educational quality [ 24 ].

The causes of the aforementioned conflicts are linked to personal issues and interpersonal relationships. And, most of these conflicts reveal an undisciplined character and increase daily in the class context. In this way, the teacher in the absence of solid guidelines can develop discontent, insecurity, and dissatisfaction that are reflected in his conflict face performance. Another aspect to be highlighted is that related to the power or lack of it that, increasingly, the teacher presents, and that reveals itself in discontent. In short, there is a gap in society, between the values ​​it promotes and demands the school and the lack of credibility that is given to the teacher, questioned before the disapproval of parents and society itself, which instigates an even greater student’s conflict, in classes.

3.2 Positive and negative impacts of school conflicts

Conflict can inspire innovations and creative strategies in addressing challenging issues, as well as improving work, results, and encouraging organizations to achieve higher levels of quality and achievement. In this context, Göksoy and Argon [ 16 ] argue that school conflicts have positive and negative impacts on psychological, social, and organizational results.

Negative psychological impacts include discomfort, insecurity, insignificance feelings, sadness, resentment, frustration, and stress. In turn, at the social level, results of hostility, intolerance, and violence are present [ 16 ]. As for the negative results within the institutions, the author highlights the existence of a tense environment, weakened cooperation, communication failures, poor performance, and an undisciplined environment. Inevitably, in this way, there is a decrease in education quality.

The conflicts traditional and negative view has implications for the training of students, as the current discourse in many schools is about how to avoid conflicts since their educational potential is sometimes not perceived by the school community. This discourse conceives the conflict by the violent consequences that result from its non-management.

Conflict is recognized as an engine of social development and its effects are positive when the conflict is managed well. Thus, about the positive impacts arising from the school conflict, these have various levels of benefits [ 16 ]. At a personal level, the conflict allows learning to be related to the perception of errors, and to develop new ideas. On the other hand, at the social level, it enables the reinforcement of communication, respect for others, and enhances commitment. Regarding the benefits at the organizational level, it makes it possible to understand problems, seek and develop new solutions, and develop a democratic and enriching environment in the school. Thus, conflicts can contribute to the construction of broader visions of certain situations and, at the same time, guarantee rights and opportunities for all, regardless of interpersonal differences.

4. Strategies for classroom conflict management

Teachers’ perceptions of conflict indicate that they focus mainly on the conflicts’ negative aspects [ 6 , 25 ]. It is noteworthy that the methods most used at school, face of students conflicting behaviors, include warning, disapproval, summoning guardians, and in some cases, student suspension. Methodologies that provoke negative feelings and, later, originate new undesirable behaviors, being applied without taking into account the needs, personal conflicts, problems, and students expectations [ 26 ]. As indicated by Torrecilla et al. [ 22 ] if the teacher is not an effective conflict manager, he will project this lack of skill, resulting in negative learning for students.

As noted earlier, classroom conflict is an unavoidable reality. Thus, being inevitable, adequate strategies are needed to resolve it so that the conflict potential advantages are taken advantage of and its harmful effects are minimized or canceled out. Conflict management strategies are understood as the behavior types that are adopted in the conflict context, that is, they are basic strategies to manage a situation in which the parties consider their interests to be incompatible.

It is important to note that the choice between different conflict management strategies depends on the conflict level and the various situations that must be managed effectively [ 27 ], that is, to manage conflict functionally, it is important to recognize that one strategy may be more appropriate than another, depending on the conflict situation, being considered appropriate if its use leads to the effective formulation or resolution of the conflict [ 27 ]. So, strategies refer to specific patterns of behavior that are adopted in conflict situations. Following this approach, Rahim and Bonoma [ 28 ] established five conflict management strategies using two dimensions “self-concern” and “others concern”. They are different strategies for conflict management and correspond to the attitudes to confront and conflict resolutions.

These five strategies for conflict management are [ 27 ]: (a) Avoiding: when conflicted parties show low levels of concern for others’ interests and a low level of concern for oneself. Strategy characterized by a low degree of assertiveness and a low degree of cooperation, where neither its interests nor those of its opponents are satisfied; (b) Dominating: reflecting the attempt to satisfy one’s interests without consideration of the interests of the other. Characterized by a high assertiveness and lack of cooperation, in which the acquisition of objectives is viewed with supremacy over the interests of the other party. Furthermore, it is often considered an aggressive strategy; (c) Obliging: tends to be adopted by those individuals who attempt to play down the differences and emphasizes commonalities to satisfy the concerns of the other party. Represents a conflict management strategy where the cooperation is high, and assertiveness is low; (d) Integrating: individuals who use this strategy manage conflicts directly and cooperatively, seeking to solve in collaboration with the other, is a strategy connected with problem-solving. The use of this involves openness, exchanging information, looking for alternatives, and examination of differences to reach an effective solution for everyone involved in the conflict. Is a strategy useful for effectively dealing with complex problems; and (e) Compromising: represents the attempt to satisfy, moderately and partially, the interests of all those involved in the conflict, and shares commonalities with all of the other four strategies. Is a strategy that requires compromise and assignment. Compromising is an intermediate strategy on assertiveness and cooperation, which implies a compromise in the search for an acceptable intermediate position for everyone involved in the conflict.

Among the variables that influence the choice of different conflict management strategies, the teachers’ emotional intelligence stands out. Valente and Lourenço [ 24 ] conclude that teachers who tend to have higher levels of emotional intelligence use more integration and commitment strategies, for conflict management in the classroom, and fewer strategies of consent, avoidance, and domination. Too, the findings of Aliasgari and Farzadnia [ 29 ] indicate that teachers prefer the integrating strategy over the other conflict management strategy. So, in the presence of classroom conflict, the teacher proposes alternatives, applies open lines of communication, makes concessions, accepts responsibility, maximizes similarities, and minimizes existing differences between self and student [ 24 ]. Therefore, the integrating strategy is connected with classroom problem-solving, the use of this strategy involves openness and exchanging information, being the ideal strategy in dealing with complex classroom problems [ 24 ]. When applying a commitment strategy, the teacher’s objective is an intermediate solution for conflict management, for this, he knows how to reduce differences with the student suggests an exchange of proposals with the student, and provides a quick solution to conflicts in the classroom [ 24 ]. This is an intermediate strategy on assertiveness and cooperation, which implies a compromise in the search for an acceptable intermediate position for everyone involved in the conflict [ 27 ]. In this way, teachers’ emotional intelligence allows for better conflict management, which supports the development of interpersonal relationships in the classroom and enables a favorable environment for teaching and learning.

So, conflicts involve, in addition to interpersonal skills such as availability for dialog, emotional intelligence skills, which require the perception and recognition of the affective dimension, and the feelings of those involved. In this sense, we can say that the evolution of interpersonal relationships has not kept pace with scientific and technological developments. We were not educated to know how to interpret the language of emotions, just as we did not learn to solve conflict situations. We do not learn to perceive and manage emotions. Thus, the emotions that emerge from conflicts must be the target of attention and discussion, so that teachers and students are aware of their emotions and know how to deal with them.

The concern with improving coexistence in schools, namely about conflict, is mentioned in several studies, whose objectives refer to the understanding of school conflicts, as well as preventing their occurrence through programs aimed at teachers and students [ 4 , 5 ]. Thus, the school community must develop effective skills for conflict management, increasing self-awareness, and understanding of conflict through formal education sessions.

The manage conflict ability is not innate, so it must be learned through educational interventions. There are different programs that work these skills in the educational context, of which they stand: Recognizing, Understanding, Labeling, Expressing, Regulating (RULER), Social and Emotional Learning (SEL), and the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL).

RULER program was created based on the emotional intelligence Mayer-Salovey’s model [ 30 ]. This training program focuses on emotional intelligence development and involving the students, parents, teachers, and the entire educational community [ 31 ]. RULER focuses on learning skills that deal with issues of interpersonal conflict and teach strategies for emotional regulation. Empirical evidence regarding the effectiveness of RULER programs indicates that they enhance students’ academic performance, improve the quality of learning environments, improve teacher-student relationships and reduce student behavior problems, being a success in reducing violence and abusive classroom behavior [ 32 ].

The SEL was developed with the aim of preventing school violence and includes five areas of interconnected skills (self-knowledge, social awareness, self-management and organization, responsible problem solving, and relationship management). Teaching these skills is vital to deal with behavioral, academic, disciplinary, and safety problems, promoting self-awareness, managing emotions, and acquiring skills such as empathy, the ability to perceive different perspectives and points of view, respect for diversity, and the ability to make the right decisions [ 33 ]. SEL programs refer to processes of developing socio-emotional competencies, which depend on the individual’s ability to recognize, understand, and manage emotions. These skills are the main building blocks for other outcomes that SEL programs include, such as the ability to persist in the face of challenges, stress management, the ability to develop healthy relationships, build trust in others, and to thrive both in the academic context, as in personal and social life. In a study carried out on more than 213 SEL programs, it was concluded that a school that successfully applies a quality curriculum of the SEL program can achieve behavioral improvements and a positive increase in the results of assessments [ 34 ].

CASEL program was created with the aim of establishing social and emotional education in a school context and making it a reality in today’s education. Its purpose is to apply high-quality, evidence-based SEL programs, from pre-school to secondary education [ 35 ]. The results of this program reveal significant changes in the socio-emotional capacities, social interactions, and academic results of the students who attended these programs. Among the results, it should be noted that students show greater communication skills, are more collaborative in teamwork, and more resistant to challenges and difficulties [ 36 ].

4.1 School conflicts management

The school is a space for socialization par excellence and, precisely, due to the variety of styles, cultures, and values, it becomes an environment rich in conflicts. Conflict, commonly seen as something negative, destructive, and generating violence, is, in fact, extremely necessary for individual evolution. It should be noted that the conflict itself does not generate violence; this comes when there is a lack of peaceful solutions to conflict resolution, when there is no conflict constructive management.

Among the conflict management methodologies used in the school, the following stand out: arbitration, conciliation, negotiation, and mediation. School arbitration is a dialog process that takes place between the involved in the conflict with the presence of a third party that determines the conflict resolution based on the benefits of the parties with their authority and knowledge [ 37 ]. The school conciliation is a dialog process carried out between the involved in the conflict, with the support of a conciliator, who helps them decide, based on their interests and needs. This may present proposals for solutions that the parties can accept or not. The decision-making power belongs to the parties, even if the solution comes from the conciliator [ 37 ]. In turn, the school negotiation is a dialog process focused on conflict resolution between the involved in the conflict, which either meet face to face to work together unassisted to conflict resolution. Negotiation is one of the most used conflict management mechanisms in the classroom. The school mediation, this is a dialog process carried out between the parties in conflict, assisted by a third party, the mediator, who should not influence the conflict resolution, acting as a communication facilitator. Inserted in a socio-constructivist paradigm, it is considered not only as of the most current and flexible instrument for peaceful conflict resolution at the educational level, and promote a new culture for conflict management. Arising not only to solve school problems, but equally as a feasible way for creative conflict modification [ 38 ].

A more detailed approach to school negotiation is presented as it is considered the most appropriate method for resolving classroom conflicts, in teacher-student relationships. Negotiation includes a set of behavioral skills that teachers must master. It is essentially a well-structured process and based on some tacit behavior, being understood as a process of communicative interaction in which two parties seek to resolve a conflict of interest, use dialog, and progress gradually through mutual concessions. The negotiation process implies several skills, which stand out, effective communication, considered the main tool of the negotiation process.

Effective communication is essential to the school conflicts negotiation, as it enhances: the fear decrease of being rejected, the anxiety reduction produced in the struggle for acceptance and recognition, a greater predisposition to listen to the other and recognize their positive aspects, a strengthening of self-esteem, an increase in the degree of security, and a decrease in defensive-offensive behavior [ 39 ].

Concerning the negotiation phases, although there is no consensus on the definition of the negotiation stages, there are at least three that are classically identified [ 40 ]: definition of the content and limits of the negotiation (exploratory stage), with the manifestation of antagonism, facing individuals the “dilemma of trust” and the “dilemma of honesty”; negotiation dynamics (dynamic and tactical stage), with manifestations of concession flexibility, systematically assisting proposals and counter-proposals, constituting the central moment of the negotiation process; and, the resolution and agreements stage, this more integrative, brief, and intense phase, almost always implies tension and uncertainty.

These phases testify to the transformation that the negotiations must undergo and must respond to the three negotiation objectives, namely: identification of differences between the parties, making joint decisions, and building a commitment to resolve the conflict.

Empathy: the pillar of good communication and the connection between teacher and student, which allows one to understand each other’s feelings and motivations;

Assertiveness: being able to expose your point of view, emotions, or opinions without provoking a defensive attitude, through a self-affirmative phrase that tells students what to think without blaming you, not putting you as an opponent. Being assertive requires understanding limitations to do another. The teacher when negotiating a conflict must establish his position and build self-confidence thus limiting abuse situations without attacking students;

Active listening: a tool is useful to obtain more information, corroborating data so that the student knows that he was heard. When we listen actively, we are asking, paraphrasing, asking for clarification, defining, and contextualizing. Some ways of they appear can be by echo, repetition of what the other said, reformulation, expressing in words what was understood, resolving points or questions, summarizing and ordering information or reflection of the feeling, an expression of what we perceive of the other; and

Feedback: the teacher must support and encourage positive behavior, correcting the inappropriate ones. To put feedback into practice, it is necessary to let the student know what the teacher feels and what he thinks.

That way, thinking of the joint construction of solutions to the conflict, through the correct use of empathy, assertiveness, active listening, and feedback can make those involved in the conflict evaluate their actions and rethink their attitudes, discovering ways to solve the problems, trying to maintain respect and balance. Knowing how to listen, evaluate, rethink with everyone involved in the conflict, creating the habit of dialog. Because when those involved in the conflict participate in the construction of possible actions for solutions, relationships can be restored, and the conflict constructively resolved. Therefore, classroom conflicts when managed constructively contribute to the preservation of interpersonal bonds and promote the socio-emotional skills of involved, since it makes possible to develop skills to know how to see reality from the perspective of the other, knowing how to cooperate, and also learn that conflict is an opportunity for growth and maturation.

As seen, although conflicts have negative impacts in general, the constructive and destructive consequences of conflict depend on the management skills of the individuals who experience it [ 25 ]. Effective conflict management strategies minimize the conflict negative impacts and enhance the positive ones, helping to improve interpersonal relationships and job satisfaction at school.

In general, teachers and the school ignore the importance of conflicts in the integral development of the student and training as autonomous citizens. In this way, most schools do not conceive of conflict resolution as an integral part of the curriculum, emphasizing only the contents of the curricular subjects. They leave aside interpersonal relationships, homogenizing the training of students without promoting the development of problem and conflict management skills. Thus, for the educational potential of the conflict to be truly used in the school context, it is necessary that the community, and especially teachers and management bodies, recognize the conflict possibilities. Constructive management of school conflicts is important and necessary for new generations to learn to live with social differences.

In this sequence, educational action is required, intentionally aimed at conflict management as an element inherent to the human condition and indispensable to democratic societies. Therefore, the formative potential of the conflict depends on the strategies used to resolve the conflict and the management that takes place. The way to conflict management, in turn, depends on how those involved experience the conflict. Therefore, the negative view of the conflict and the lack of perception of its educational potential can prevent those involved from developing essential skills such as respect for diversity, respect for the rights of others, and availability for dialog.

Pérez-de-Guzmán et al. [ 7 ] indicate that training in conflict management, generates very positive results in all members of the educational community, verifying a reduction in the interpersonal conflict between teacher-student. Also, Massabni [ 41 ] defends the urgency to prepare teachers to face professional conflicts; otherwise, we will have a generation of teachers able to succumb to the pressure that the profession is going through, to accept the reduction of their action, their status, and to share their commitments with other professionals, who take away the property of regulating their work. It is necessary to support teachers and provide them with tools to develop their ways of managing conflicts.

By making conflicts the subject of reflection and explaining the professional context in which teachers work is, in the opinion of [ 41 ], the commitment of the different higher education institutions that form them. It is important to work not only on the training of future teachers but also on training in the active teachers in conflict management, small or large, which inevitably emerge in the teacher-student relationship, throughout their professional life. Also, the Freire et al. [ 42 ] results support the importance of professional development opportunities with a focus on facilitating the relationship of teachers with students with perceived challenging behavior.

5. Conclusions

The school is an institution that reproduces a microcosm of society, bringing together diverse identities. This context with diverse personalities, rules, and values is full of conflicts, problems, and differences between the different actors that make up the school (students, teachers, staff, and parents). Thus, the school system, in addition to involving a range of people, with different characteristics, includes a significant number of continuous and complex interactions, depending on the stages of development of each one. So, school is a place where individuals with different characteristics, backgrounds, experiences, and personalities live together daily. Among so many differences, naturally, divergences of the most diverse species arise. It is essential, then, the proper management of conflicts that may arise so that harmony and respect are present in the school of the main causes presented for the school conflict, we highlight family problems. Being the family the main student emotional support, it becomes the life model of this. In this way, unstable and weakened family relationships directly affect the behavior of your children, behaviors that these after reproduced in the school social relationships. The families of the most deprived students are considered less functional. They do not contribute to the growth of positive feelings, they do not carry out good communication between family members, nor do they assist in healthily making decisions that are, based on the exchange of ideas together instead of imposition. In this sequence, students from more dysfunctional families need school increased support to learn and develop interpersonal skills. Thus, family and school must go together to contribute to the conflict becoming part of a process of growth, acceptance of the other, and accountability. Learning to deal with conflicts positively is essential for the development of healthy relationships.

The school, by bringing together people from different social groups with different values and worldviews, becomes a locus for conflicts. Thus, the conflict must be understood as a reality inherent to the educational context, and the school, as responsible for the education of values and skills for living together must be differently prepared to deal with the conflicts that occur in it.

Conflicts of various types have always been present in the classroom, and the causes that originate them are of great importance, as they allow a better conflict understanding and, consequently, a more correct intervention to its management. It should be noted that personal harmony and the development of attitudes that promote understanding, dialog, and tolerance are indispensable for negotiating conflicts in the teacher-student relationship. The way to intervene in classroom conflicts is essential in education, not only in terms of content, but also as a series of vital procedures in interpersonal relationships. As Lapponi [ 39 ] points out, for conflicts correct negotiation with the student, it is necessary to communicate effectively, cooperate, decide responsibly, and so teach to resolve conflicts.

Ending school conflict is impossible, since they are intrinsic to the human being, being an integral part of their development and the interpersonal relationships they experience daily. Learning to live with school conflict requires creating attitudes of openness, interest in differences, and respect for diversity, teaching how to recognize injustice, taking measures to overcome it, resolving differences constructively, and moving from conflict situations to reconciliations. So, it is essential that the initial and continuous training of teachers encompasses conflict management, providing them with tools so that they can resolve the conflicts they experience in the classroom.

In summary, it is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process.

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Educational leaders’ problem-solving for educational improvement: Belief validity testing in conversations

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• Claire Sinnema   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-6707-6726 1 ,
• Frauke Meyer 1 ,
• Deidre Le Fevre 1 ,
• Hamish Chalmers 1 &
• Viviane Robinson 1  

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Educational leaders’ effectiveness in solving problems is vital to school and system-level efforts to address macrosystem problems of educational inequity and social injustice. Leaders’ problem-solving conversation attempts are typically influenced by three types of beliefs—beliefs about the nature of the problem, about what causes it, and about how to solve it. Effective problem solving demands testing the validity of these beliefs—the focus of our investigation. We analyzed 43 conversations between leaders and staff about equity related problems including teaching effectiveness. We first determined the types of beliefs held and the validity testing behaviors employed drawing on fine-grained coding frameworks. The quantification of these allowed us to use cross tabs and chi-square tests of independence to explore the relationship between leaders’ use of validity testing behaviors (those identified as more routine or more robust, and those relating to both advocacy and inquiry) and belief type. Leaders tended to avoid discussion of problem causes, advocate more than inquire, bypass disagreements, and rarely explore logic between solutions and problem causes. There was a significant relationship between belief type and the likelihood that leaders will test the validity of those beliefs—beliefs about problem causes were the least likely to be tested. The patterns found here are likely to impact whether micro and mesosystem problems, and ultimately exo and macrosystem problems, are solved. Capability building in belief validity testing is vital for leadership professional learning to ensure curriculum, social justice and equity policy aspirations are realized in practice.

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This study examines the extent to which leaders, in their conversations with others, test rather than assume the validity of their own and others’ beliefs about the nature, causes of, and solutions to problems of teaching and learning that arise in their sphere of responsibility. We define a problem as a gap between the current and desired state, plus the demand that the gap be reduced (Robinson, 1993 ). We position this focus within the broader context of educational change, and educational improvement in particular, since effective discussion of such problems is central to improvement and vital for addressing issues of educational equity and social justice.

Educational improvement and leaders’ role in problem solving

Educational leaders work in a discretionary problem-solving space. Ball ( 2018 ) describes discretionary spaces as the micro level practices of the teacher. It is imperative to attend to what happens in these spaces because the specific talk and actions that occur in particular moments (for example, what the teacher says or does when one student responds in a particular way to his or her question) impact all participants in the classroom and shape macro level educational issues including legacies of racism, oppression, and marginalization of particular groups of students. A parallel exists, we argue, for leaders’ problem solving—how capable leaders are at dealing with micro-level problems in the conversational moment impacts whether a school or network achieves its improvement goals. For example, how a leader deals with problems with a particular teacher or with a particular student or group of students is subtly but strongly related to the solving of equity problems at the exo and macro levels. Problem solving effectiveness is also related to challenges in the realization of curriculum reform aspirations, including curriculum reform depth, spread, reach, and pace (Sinnema & Stoll, 2020b ).

The conversations leaders have with others in their schools in their efforts to solve educational problems are situated in a broader environment which they both influence and are influenced by. We draw here on Bronfonbrenner’s ( 1992 ) ecological systems theory to construct a nested model of educational problem solving (see Fig.  1 ). Bronfenbrenner focused on the environment around children, and set out five interrelated systems that he professed influence a child’s development. We propose that these systems can also be used to understand another type of learner—educators, including leaders and teachers—in the context of educational problem solving.

Nested model of educational problem solving

Bronfenbrenner’s ( 1977 ) microsystem sets out the immediate environment, parents, siblings, teachers, and peers as influencers of and influenced by children. We propose the micro system for educators to include those they have direct contact with including their students, other teachers in their classroom and school, the school board, and the parent community. Bronfenbrenner’s meso system referred to the interactions between a child’s microsystems. In the same way, when foregrounding the ecological system around educators, we suggest attention to the problems that occur in the interactions between students, teachers, school leaders, their boards, and communities. In the exo system, Bronfenbrenner directs attention to other social structures (formal and informal), which do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence them as they affect one of the microsystems. In the same way, we suggest educational ministries, departments and agencies function to influence educators. The macro system as theorized by Bronfenbrenner focuses on how child development is influenced by cultural elements established in society, including prevalent beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions. In our model, we recognise how such cultural elements of Bronfenbrenner’s macro system also relate to educators in that dominant and pervasive beliefs, attitudes and perceptions create and perpetuate educational problems, including those relating to educational inequity, bias, racism, social injustice, and underachievement. The chronosystem, as Bronfenbrenner describes, shows the role of environmental changes across a lifetime, which influences development. In a similar way, educators′ professional transitions and professional milestones influence and are influenced by other system levels, and in the context of our work, their problem solving approaches.

Leaders’ effectiveness in discussions about problems related to the micro and mesosystem contributes greatly to the success of exosystem reform efforts, and those efforts, in turn, influence the beliefs, attitudes, and ideologies of the macrosystem. As Fig.  1 shows, improvement goals (indicated by the arrows moving from the current to a desired state) in the exo or macrosystem are unlikely to be achieved without associated improvement in the micro and mesosystem involving students, teachers, and groups of teachers, schools and their boards and parent communities. Similarly, the level of improvement in the macro and exosystems is limited by the extent to which more improvement goals at the micro and mesosystem are achieved through solving problems relating to students’ experience and school and classroom practices including curriculum, teaching, and assessment. As well as drawing on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, our nested model of problem solving draws on problem solving theory to draw attention to how gaps between current and desired states at each of the system levels also influence each other (Newell & Simon, 1972 ). Efforts to solve problems in any one system (to move from current state toward a more desired state) are supported by similar moves at other interrelated systems. For example, the success of a teacher seeking to solve a curriculum problem (demand from parents to focus on core knowledge in traditional learning domains, for example)—a problem related to the microsystem and mesosystem—will be influenced by how similar problems are recognised, attended to, and solved by those in the ministries, departments and agencies in the exosystem.

In considering the role of educational leaders in this nested model of problem solving, we take a capability perspective (Mumford et al., 2000 ) rather than a leadership style perspective (Bedell-Avers et al., 2008 ). School leaders (including those with formal and informal leadership positions) require particular capabilities if they are to enact ambitious policies and solve complex problems related to enhancing equity for marginalized and disadvantaged groups of students (Mavrogordato & White, 2020 ). Too often, micro and mesosystem problems remain unsolved which is problematic not only for those directly involved, but also for the resolution of the related exo and macrosystem problems. The ill-structured nature of the problems school leaders face, and the social nature of the problem-solving process, contribute to the ineffectiveness of leaders’ problem-solving efforts and the persistence of important microsystem and mesosystem problems in schools.

Ill-structured problems

The problems that leaders need to solve are typically ill-structured rather than clearly defined, complex rather that than straight-forward, and adaptive rather than routine challenges (Bedell-Avers et al., 2008 ; Heifetz et al., 2009 ; Leithwood & Stager, 1989 ; Leithwood & Steinbach, 1992 , 1995 ; Mumford & Connelly, 1991 ; Mumford et al., 2000 ; Zaccaro et al., 2000 ). As Mumford and Connelly explain, “even if their problems are not totally unprecedented, leaders are, […] likely to be grappling with unique problems for which there is no clear-cut predefined solution” (Mumford & Connelly, 1991 , p. 294). Most such problems are difficult to solve because they can be construed in various ways and lack clear criteria for what counts as a good solution. Mumford et al. ( 2000 ) highlight the particular difficulties in solving ill-structured problems with regard to accessing, evaluating and using relevant information:

Not only is it difficult in many organizational settings for leaders to say exactly what the problem is, it may not be clear exactly what information should be brought to bear on the problem. There is a plethora of available information in complex organizational systems, only some of which is relevant to the problem. Further, it may be difficult to obtain accurate, timely information and identify key diagnostic information. As a result, leaders must actively seek and carefully evaluate information bearing on potential problems and goal attainment. (p. 14)

Problems in schools are complex. Each single problem can comprise multiple educational dimensions (learners, learning, curriculum, teaching, assessment) as well as relational, organizational, psychological, social, cultural, and political dimensions. In response to a teaching problem, for example, a single right or wrong answer is almost never at play; there are typically countless possible ‘responses’ to the problem of how to teach effectively in any given situation.

Problem solving as socially situated

Educational leaders’ problem solving is typically social because multiple people are usually involved in defining, explaining, and solving any given problem (Mumford et al., 2000 ). When there are multiple parties invested in addressing a problem, they typically hold diverse perspectives on how to describe (frame, perceive, and communicate about problems), explain (identify causes which lead to the problem), and solve the problem. Argyris and Schön ( 1974 ) argue that effective leaders must manage the complexity of integrating multiple and diverse perspectives, not only because all parties need to be internally committed to solutions, but also because quality solutions rely on a wide range of perspectives and evidence. Somewhat paradoxically, while the multiple perspectives involved in social problem solving add to their inherent complexity, these perspectives are a resource for educational change, and for the development of more effective solutions (Argyris & Schön, 1974 ). The social nature of problem solving requires high trust so participants can provide relevant, accurate, and timely information (rather than distort or withhold it), recognize their interdependence, and avoid controlling others. In high trust relationships, as Zand’s early work in this field established, “there is less socially generated uncertainty and problems are solved more effectively” (Zand, 1972 , p. 238).

Leaders’ capabilities in problem solving

Leadership research has established the centrality of capability in problem solving to leadership effectiveness generally (Marcy & Mumford, 2010 ; Mumford et al., 2000 , 2007 ) and to educational leadership in particular. Leithwood and Stager ( 1989 ), for example, consider “administrator’s problem-solving processes as crucial to an understanding of why principals act as they do and why some principals are more effective than others” (p. 127). Similarly, Robinson ( 1995 , 2001 , 2010 ) positions the ability to solve complex problems as central to all other dimensions of effective educational leadership. Unsurprisingly, problem solving is often prominent in standards for school leaders/leadership and is included in tools for the assessment of school leadership (Goldring et al., 2009 ). Furthermore, its importance is heightened given the increasing demand and complexity in standards for teaching (Sinnema, Meyer & Aitken, 2016) and the trend toward leadership across networks of schools (Sinnema, Daly, Liou, & Rodway, 2020a ) and the added complexity of such problem solving where a system perspective is necessary.

Empirical research on leaders’ practice has revealed that there is a need for capability building in problem solving (Le Fevre et al., 2015 ; Robinson et al., 2020 ; Sinnema et al., 2013 ; Sinnema et al., 2016 ; Smith, 1997 ; Spillane et al., 2009 ; Timperley & Robinson, 1998 ; Zaccaro et al., 2000 ). Some studies have compared the capability of leaders with varying experience. For example, Leithwood and Stager ( 1989 ) noted differences in problem solving approaches between novice and expert principals when responding to problem scenarios, particularly when the scenarios described ill-structured problems. Principals classified as ‘experts’ were more likely to collect information rather than make assumptions, and perceived unstructured problems to be manageable, whereas typical principals found these problems stressful. Expert principals also consulted extensively to get relevant information and find ways to deal with constraints. In contrast, novice principals consulted less frequently and tended to see constraints as obstacles (Leithwood & Stager, 1989 ). Allison and Allison ( 1993 ) reported that while experienced principals were better than novices at developing abstract problem-solving goals, they were less interested in the detail of how they would pursue these goals. Similar differences were found in Spillane et al.’s ( 2009 ) work that found expert principals to be better at interpreting problems and reflecting on their own actions compared with aspiring principals. More recent work (Sinnema et al., 2021 ) highlights that educators perceptions of discussion quality is positively associated with both new learning for the educator (learning that influences their practice) and improved practice (practices that reach students)—the more robust and helpful educators report their professional discussion to be, the more likely they are to report improvement in their practice. This supports the demand for quality conversation in educational teams.

Solving problems related to teaching and learning that occur in the micro or mesosystem usually requires conversations that demand high levels of interpersonal skill. Skill development is important because leaders tend to have difficulty inquiring deeply into the viewpoints of others (Le Fevre & Robinson, 2015 ; Le Fevre et al., 2015 ; Robinson & Le Fevre, 2011 ). In a close analysis of 43 conversation transcripts, Le Fevre et al. ( 2015 ) showed that when leaders anticipated or encountered diverse views, they tended to ask leading or loaded rather than genuine questions. This pattern was explained by their judgmental thinking, and their desire to avoid negative emotion and stay in control of the conversation. In a related study of leaders’ conversations, a considerable difference was found between the way educational leaders described their problem before and during the conversation with those involved (Sinnema et al., 2013 ). Prior to the conversation, privately, they tended to describe their problem as more serious and more urgent than they did in the conversation they held later with the person concerned.

One of the reasons for the mismatch between their private descriptions and public disclosures was the judgmental framing of their beliefs about the other party’s intentions, attitudes, and/or motivations (Peeters & Robinson, 2015 ). If leaders are not willing or able to reframe such privately-held beliefs in a more respectful manner, they will avoid addressing problems through fear of provoking negative emotion, and neither party will be able to critique the reasoning that leads to the belief in question (Robinson et al., 2020 ). When that happens, beliefs based on faulty reasoning may prevail, problem solutions may be based only on that which is discussable, and the problem may persist.

A model of effective problem-solving conversations

We present below a normative model of effective problem-solving conversations (Fig.  2 ) in which testing the validity of relevant beliefs plays a central role. Leaders test their beliefs about a problem when they draw on a set of validity testing behaviors and enact those behaviors, through their inquiry and advocacy, in ways that are consistent with the three interpersonal values included in the model. The model proposes that these processes increase the effectiveness of social problem solving, with effectiveness understood as progressing the task of solving the problem while maintaining or improving the leader’s relationship with those involved. In formulating this model, we drew on the previously discussed research on problem solving and theories of interpersonal and organisational effectiveness.

Model of effective problem-solving conversations

The role of beliefs in problem solving

Beliefs are important in the context of problem solving because they shape decisions about what constitutes a problem and how it can be explained and resolved. Beliefs link the object of the belief (e.g., a teacher’s planning) to some attribute (e.g., copied from the internet). In the context of school problems these attributes are usually tightly linked to a negative evaluation of the object of the belief (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975 ). Problem solving, therefore, requires explicit attention by leaders to the validity of the information on which their own and others’ beliefs are based. The model draws on the work of Mumford et al. ( 2000 ) by highlighting three types of beliefs that are central to how people solve problems—beliefs about whether and why a situation is problematic (we refer to these as problem description beliefs); beliefs about the precursors of the problem situation (we refer to these as problem explanation beliefs); and beliefs about strategies which could, would, or should improve the situation (we refer to these as problem solution beliefs). With regard to problem explanation beliefs, it is important that attention is not limited to surface level factors, but also encompasses consideration of deeper related issues in the broader social context and how they contribute to any given problem.

The role of values in problem-solving conversations

Figure  2 proposes that problem solving effectiveness is increased when leaders’ validity testing behaviors are consistent with three values—respecting the views of others, seeking to maximize validity of their own and others’ beliefs, and building internal commitment to decisions reached. The inclusion of these three values in the model means that our validity testing behaviors must be conceptualized and measured in ways that capture their interpersonal (respect and internal commitment) and epistemic (valid information) underpinnings. Without this conceptual underpinning, it is likely to be difficult to identify the validity testing behaviors that are associated with effectiveness. For example, the act of seeking agreement can be done in a coercive or a respectful manner, so it is important to define and measure this behavior in ways that distinguish between the two. How this and similar distinctions were accomplished is described in the subsequent section on the five validity testing behaviors.

The three values in Fig.  2 are based on the theories and practice of interpersonal and organizational effectiveness developed by Argyris and Schön ( 1974 , 1978 , 1996 ) and applied more recently in a range of educational leadership research contexts (Hannah et al., 2018 ; Patuawa et al., 2021 ; Sinnema et al., 2021a ). We have drawn on the work of Argyris and Schön because their theories explain the dilemma many leaders experience between the two components of problem solving effectiveness and indicate how that dilemma can be avoided or resolved.

Seeking to maximize the validity of information is important because leaders’ beliefs have powerful consequences for the lives and learning of teachers and students and can limit or support educational change efforts. Leaders who behave consistently with the validity of information value are truth seekers rather than truth claimers in that they are open-minded and thus more attentive to the information that disconfirms rather than confirms their beliefs. Rather than assuming the validity of their beliefs and trying to impose them on others, their stance is one of seeking to detect and correct errors in their own and others′ thinking (Robinson, 2017 ).

The value of respect is closely linked to the value of maximizing the validity of information. Leaders increase validity by listening carefully to the views of others, especially if those views differ from their own. Listening carefully requires the accordance of worth and respect, rather than private or public dismissal of views that diverge from or challenge one’s own. If leaders’ conversations are guided by the two values of valid information and respect, then the third value of fostering internal commitment is also likely to be present. Teachers become internally committed to courses of action when their concerns have been listened to and directly addressed as part of the problem-solving process.

The role of validity testing behaviors in problem solving

Figure  2 includes five behaviors designed to test the validity of the three types of belief involved in problem solving. They are: 1) disclosing beliefs; 2) providing grounds; 3) exploring difference; 4) examining logic; and 5) seeking agreement. These behaviors enable leaders to check the validity of their beliefs by engaging in open minded disclosure and discussion of their thinking. While these behaviors are most closely linked to the value of maximizing valid information, the values of respect and internal commitment are also involved in these behaviors. For example, it is respectful to honestly and clearly disclose one’s beliefs about a problem to the other person concerned (advocacy), and to do so in ways that make the grounds for the belief testable and open to revision. It is also respectful to combine advocacy of one’s own beliefs with inquiry into others’ reactions to those beliefs and with inquiry into their own beliefs. When leaders encounter doubts and disagreements, they build internal rather than external commitment by being open minded and genuinely interested in understanding the grounds for them (Spiegel, 2012 ). By listening to and responding directly to others’ concerns, they build internal commitment to the process and outcomes of the problem solving.

Advocacy and inquiry dimensions

Each of the five validity testing behaviors can take the form of a statement (advocacy) or a question (inquiry). A leader’s advocacy contributes to problem solving effectiveness when it communicates his or her beliefs and the grounds for them, in a manner that is consistent with the three values. Such disclosure enables others to understand and critically evaluate the leader’s thinking (Tompkins, 2013 ). Respectful inquiry is equally important, as it invites the other person into the conversation, builds the trust they need for frank disclosure of their views, and signals that diverse views are welcomed. Explicit inquiry for others’ views is particularly important when there is a power imbalance between the parties, and when silence suggests that some are reluctant to disclose their views. Across their careers, leaders tend to rely more heavily on advocating their own views than on genuinely inquiring into the views of others (Robinson & Le Fevre, 2011 ). It is the combination of advocacy and inquiry behaviors, that enables all parties to collaborate in formulating a more valid understanding of the nature of the problem and of how it may be solved.

The five validity testing behaviors

Disclosing beliefs is the first and most essential validity testing behavior because beliefs cannot be publicly tested, using the subsequent four behaviors, if they are not disclosed. This behavior includes leaders’ advocacy of their own beliefs and their inquiry into others’ beliefs, including reactions to their own beliefs (Peeters & Robinson, 2015 ; Robinson & Le Fevre, 2011 ).

Honest and respectful disclosure ensures that all the information that is believed to be relevant to the problem, including that which might trigger an emotional reaction, is shared and available for validity testing (Robinson & Le Fevre, 2011 ; Robinson et al., 2020 ; Tjosvold et al., 2005 ). Respectful disclosure has been linked with follower trust. The empirical work of Norman et al. ( 2010 ), for example, showed that leaders who disclose more, and are more transparent in their communication, instill higher levels of trust in those they work with.

Providing grounds , the second validity testing behavior, is concerned with leaders expressing their beliefs in a way that makes the reasoning that led to them testable (advocacy) and invites others to do the same (inquiry). When leaders clearly explain the grounds for their beliefs and invite the other party to critique their relevance or accuracy, the validity or otherwise of the belief becomes more apparent. Both advocacy and inquiry about the grounds for beliefs can lead to a strengthening, revision, or abandonment of the beliefs for either or both parties (Myran & Sutherland, 2016 ; Robinson & Le Fevre, 2011 ; Robinson et al., 2020 ).

Exploring difference is the third validity testing behavior. It is essential because two parties simply disclosing beliefs and the grounds for them is insufficient for arriving at a joint solution, particularly when such disclosure reveals that there are differences in beliefs about the accuracy and implications of the evidence or differences about the soundness of arguments. Exploring difference through advocacy is seen in such behaviors as identifying and signaling differing beliefs and evaluating contrary evidence that underpins those differing beliefs. An inquiry approach to exploring difference (Timperley & Parr, 2005 ) occurs when a leader inquires into the other party’s beliefs about difference, or their response to the leaders’ beliefs about difference.

Exploring differences in beliefs is key to increasing validity in problem solving efforts (Mumford et al., 2007 ; Robinson & Le Fevre, 2011 ; Tjosvold et al., 2005 ) because it can lead to more integrative solutions and enhance the commitment from both parties to work with each other in the future (Tjosvold et al., 2005 ). Leaders who are able to engage with diverse beliefs are more likely to detect and challenge any faulty reasoning and consequently improve solution development (Le Fevre & Robinson, 2015 ). In contrast, when leaders do not engage with different beliefs, either by not recognizing or by intentionally ignoring them, validity testing is more limited. Such disengagement may be the result of negative attributions about the other person, such as that they are resistant, stubborn, or lazy. Such attributions reduce opportunities for the rigorous public testing that is afforded by the exchange and critical examination of competing views.

Examining logic , the fourth validity testing behavior, highlights the importance of devising a solution that adequately addresses the nature of the problem at hand and its causes. To develop an effective solution both parties must be able to evaluate the logic that links problems to their assumed causes and solutions. This behavior is present when the leader suggests or critiques the relationship between possible causes of and solutions to the identified problem. In its inquiry form, the leader seeks such information from the other party. As Zaccaro et al. ( 2000 ) explain, good problem solvers have skills and expertise in selecting the information to attend to in their effort to “understand the parameters of problems and therefore the dimensions and characteristics of a likely solution” (p. 44–45). These characteristics may include solution timeframes, resource capacities, an emphasis on organizational versus personal goals, and navigation of the degree of risk allowed by the problem approach. Explicitly exploring beliefs is key to ensuring the logic linking problem causes and any proposed solution. Taking account of a potentially complex set of contributing factors when crafting logical solutions, and testing the validity of beliefs about them, is likely to support effective problem solving. This requires what Copland ( 2010 ) describes as a creative process with similarities to clinical reasoning in medicine, in which “the initial framing of the problem is fundamental to the development of a useful solution” (p. 587).

Seeking agreement , the fifth validity testing behavior, signals the importance of warranted agreement about problem beliefs. We use the term ‘warranted’ to make clear that the goal is not merely getting the other party to agree (either that something is a problem, that a particular cause is involved, or that particular actions should be carried out to solve it)—mere agreement is insufficient. Rather, the goal is for warranted agreement whereby both parties have explored and critiqued the beliefs (and their grounds) of the other party in ways that provide a strong basis for the agreement. Both parties must come to some form of agreement on beliefs because successful solution implementation occurs in a social context, in that it relies on the commitment of all parties to carry it out (Mumford et al., 2000 ; Robinson & Le Fevre, 2011 ; Tjosvold et al., 2005 ). Where full agreement does not occur, the parties must at least be clear about where agreement/disagreement lies and why.

Testing the validity of beliefs using these five behaviors, and underpinned by the values described earlier is, we argue, necessary if conversations are to lead to two types of improvement—progress on the task (i.e., solving the problem) and improving the relationship between those involved in the conversation (i.e., ensuring those relationship between the problem-solvers is intact and enhanced through the process). We draw attention here to those improvement purposes as distinct from those underpinning work in the educational leadership field that takes a neo-managerialist perspective. The rise of neo-managerialism is argued to redefine school management and leadership along managerial lines and hence contribute to schools that are inequitable, reductionist, and inauthentic (Thrupp & Willmott, 2003 ). School leaders, when impacted by neo-managerialism, need to be (and are seen as) “self-interested, opportunistic innovators and risk-takers who exploit information and situations to produce radical change.” In contrast, the model we propose rejects self-interest. Our model emphasizes on deep respect for the views of others and the relentless pursuit of genuine shared commitment to understanding and solving problems that impact on children and young people through collaborative engagement in joint problem solving. Rather than permitting leaders to exploit others, our model requires leaders to be adept at using both inquiry and advocacy together with listening to both progress the task (solving problems) and simultaneously enhance the relationship between those involved. We position this model of social problem solving effectiveness as a tool for addressing social justice concerns—it intentionally dismisses problem solving approaches that privilege organizational efficiency indicators and ignore the wellbeing of learners and issues of inequity, racism, bias, and social injustice within and beyond educational contexts.

Methodology

The following section outlines the purpose of the study, the participants, and the mixed methods approach to data collection and analysis.

Research purpose

Our prior qualitative research (Robinson et al., 2020 ) involving in-depth case studies of three educational leaders revealed problematic patterns in leaders’ approach to problem-solving conversations: little disclosure of causal beliefs, little public testing of beliefs that might trigger negative emotions, and agreement on solutions that were misaligned with causal beliefs. The present investigation sought to understand if a quantitative methodological approach would reveal similar patterns and examine the relationship between belief types and leaders’ use of validity testing behaviors. Thus, our overarching research question was: to what extent do leaders test the validity of their beliefs in conversations with those directly involved in the analysis and resolution of the problem? Our argument is that while new experiences might motivate change in beliefs (Bonner et al., 2020 ), new insights gained through testing the validity of beliefs is also imperative to change. The sub-questions were:

What is the relative frequency in the types of beliefs leaders hold about problems involving others?

To what extent do leaders employ validity testing behaviors in conversations about those problems?

Are there differential patterns in leaders’ validity testing of the different belief types?

Participants

The participants were 43 students in a graduate course on educational leadership in New Zealand who identified an important on the job problem that they intended to discuss with the person directly involved.

The mixed methods approach

The study took a mixed methods approach using a partially mixed sequential equal status design; (QUAL → QUAN) (Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2009 ). The five stages of sourcing and analyzing data and making interpretations are summarised in Fig.  3 below and outlined in more detail in the following sections (with reference in brackets to the numbered phases in the figure). We describe the study as partially mixed because, as Leech & Onwuegbuzie, 2009 explain, in partially mixed methods “both the quantitative and qualitative elements are conducted either concurrently or sequentially in their entirety before being mixed at the data interpretation stage” (p. 267).

Overview of mixed methods approach

Stage 1: Qualitative data collection

Three data sources were used to reveal participants’ beliefs about the problem they were seeking to address. The first source was their response to nine open ended items in a questionnaire focused on a real problem the participant had attempted to address but that still required attention (1a). The items were about: the nature and history of the problem; its importance; their own and others’ contribution to it; the causes of the problem; and the approach to and effectiveness of prior attempts to resolve it.

The second source (1b) was the transcript of a real conversation (typically between 5 and 10 minutes duration) the leaders held with the other person involved in the problem, and the third was the leaders’ own annotations of their unspoken thoughts and feelings during the course of the conversation (1c). The transcription was placed in the right-hand column (RHC) of a split page with the annotations recorded at the appropriate place in the left-hand column (LHC). The LHC method was originally developed by Argyris and Schön ( 1974 ) as a way of examining discrepancies between people’s espoused and enacted interpersonal values. Referring to data about each leader’s behavior (as recorded in the transcript of the conversation) and their thoughts (as indicated in the LHC) was important since the model specifies validity testing behaviors that are motivated by the values of respect, valid information, and internal commitment. Since motives cannot be revealed by speech alone, we also needed access to the thoughts that drove their behavior, hence our use of the LHC data collection technique. This approach allowed us to respond to Leithwood and Stager’s ( 1989 ) criticism that much research on effective problem solving gives results that “reveal little or nothing about how actions were selected or created and treat the administrator’s mind as a ‘black box’” (p. 127).

Stage 2: Qualitative analysis

The three stages of qualitative analysis focused on identifying discrete beliefs in the three qualitative data sources, distilling those discrete beliefs into key beliefs, and identifying leaders’ use of validity testing behaviors.

Stage 2a: Analyzing types of beliefs about problems

For this stage, we developed and applied coding rules (see Table 1 ) for the identification of the three types of beliefs in the three sources described earlier—leaders’ questionnaire responses, conversation transcript (RHC), and unexpressed thoughts (LHC). We identified 903 discrete beliefs (utterances or thoughts) from the 43 transcripts, annotations, and questionnaires and recorded these on a spreadsheet (2a). While our model proposes that leaders’ inquiry will surface and test the beliefs of others, we quantify in this study only the leaders’ beliefs.

Stage 2b: Distilling discrete beliefs into key beliefs

Next, we distilled the 903 discrete beliefs into key beliefs (KBs) (2b). This was a complex process and involved multiple iterations across the research team to determine, check, and test the coding rules. The final set of rules for distilling key beliefs were:

Beliefs should be made more succinct in the key belief statement, and key words should be retained as much as possible

Judgment quality (i.e., negative or positive) of the belief needs to be retained in the key belief

Key beliefs should use overarching terms where possible

The meaning and the object of the belief need to stay constant in the key belief

When reducing overlap, the key idea of both beliefs need to be captured in the key beliefs

Distinctive beliefs need to be summarized on their own and not combined with other beliefs

The subject of the belief must be retained in the key belief—own belief versus restated belief of other

All belief statements must be accounted for in key beliefs

These rules were applied to the process of distilling multiple related beliefs into statements of key beliefs as illustrated by the example in the table below (Table 2 ).

Further examples of how the rules were applied are outlined in ' Appendix A '. The number of discrete beliefs for each leader ranged from 7 to 35, with an average of 21, and the number of key beliefs for each leader ranged between 4 and 14, with an average of eight key beliefs. Frequency counts were used to identify any patterns in the types of key beliefs which were held privately (not revealed in the conversation but signalled in the left hand column or questionnaire) or conveyed publicly (in conversation with the other party).

Stage 2c: Analyzing leaders’ use of validity testing behaviors

We then developed and applied coding rules for the five validity testing behaviors (VTB) outlined in our model (disclosing beliefs, providing grounds, exploring difference, examining logic, and seeking agreement). Separate rules were established for the inquiry and advocacy aspects of each VTB, generating ten coding rules in all (Table 3 ).

These rules, summarised in the table below, and outlined more fully in ' Appendix A ', encompassed inclusion and exclusion criteria for the advocacy and inquiry dimensions of each validity testing behavior. For example, the inclusion rule for the VTB of ‘Disclosing Beliefs’ required leaders to disclose their beliefs about the nature, and/or causes, and/or possible solutions to the problem, in ways that were consistent with the three values included in the model. The associated exclusion rule signalled that this criterion was not met if, for example, the leader asked a question in order to steer the other person toward their own views without having ever disclosed their own views, or if they distorted the urgency or seriousness of the problem related to what they had expressed privately. The exclusion rules also noted how thoughts expressed in the left hand column would exclude the verbal utterance from being treated as disclosure—for example if there were contradictions between the right hand (spoken) and left hand column (thoughts), or if the thoughts indicated that the disclosure had been distorted in order to minimise negative emotion.

The coding rules reflected the values of respect and internal commitment in addition to the valid information value that was foregrounded in the analysis. The emphasis on inquiry, for example (into others’ beliefs and/or responses to the beliefs already expressed by the leader), recognised that internal commitment would be impossible if the other party held contrary views that had not been disclosed and discussed. Similarly, the focus on leaders advocating their beliefs, grounds for those beliefs and views about the logic linking solutions to problem causes recognise that it is respectful to make those transparent to another party rather than impose a solution in the absence of such disclosure.

The coding rules were applied to all 43 transcripts and the qualitative analysis was carried out using NVivo 10. A random sample of 10% of the utterances coded to a VTB category was checked independently by two members of the research team following the initial analysis by a third member. Any discrepancies in the coding were resolved, and data were recoded if needed. Descriptive analyses then enabled us to compare the frequency of leaders’ use of the five validity testing behaviors.

Stage 3: Data transformation: From qualitative to quantitative data

We carried out transformation of our data set (Burke et al., 2004 ), from qualitative to quantitative, to allow us to carry out statistical analysis to answer our research questions. The databases that resulted from our data transformation, with text from the qualitative coding along with numeric codes, are detailed next. In database 1, key beliefs were all entered as cases with indications in adjacent columns as to the belief type category they related to, and the source/s of the belief (questionnaire, transcript or unspoken thoughts/feelings). A unique identifier was created for each key belief.

In database 2, each utterance identified as meeting the VTB coding rules were entered in column 1. The broader context of the utterance from the original transcript was then examined to establish the type of belief (description, explanation, or solution) the VTB was being applied to, with this recorded numerically alongside the VTB utterance itself. For example, the following utterance had been coded to indicate that it met the ‘providing grounds’ coding rule, and in this phase it was also coded to indicate that it was in relation to a ‘problem description’ belief type:

“I noticed on the feedback form that a number of students, if I’ve got the numbers right here, um, seven out of ten students in your class said that you don’t normally start the lesson with a ‘Do Now’ or a starter activity.” (case 21)

A third database listed all of the unique identifiers for each leader’s key beliefs (KB) in the first column. Subsequent columns were set up for each of the 10 validity testing codes (the five validity testing behaviors for both inquiry and advocacy). The NVivo coding for the VTBs was then examined, one piece of coding at a time, to identify which key belief the utterance was associated with. Each cell that intersected the appropriate key belief and VTB was increased by one as a VTB utterance was associated with a key belief. Our database included variables for both the frequency of each VTB (the number of instances the behavior was used) and a parallel version with just a dichotomous variable indicating the presence or absence or each VTB. The dichotomous variable was used for our subsequent analysis because multiple utterances indicating a certain validity testing behavior were not deemed to necessarily constitute better quality belief validity testing than one utterance.

Stage 4: Quantitative analysis

The first phase of quantitative analysis involved the calculation of frequency counts for the three belief types (4a). Next, frequencies were calculated for the five validity testing behaviors, and for those behaviors in relation to each belief type (4b).

The final and most complex stage of the quantitative analysis, stages 4c through 4f, involved looking for patterns across the two sets of data created through the prior analyses (belief type and validity testing behaviors) to investigate whether leaders might be more inclined to use certain validity testing behaviors in conjunction with a particular belief type.

Stage 4a: Analyzing for relationships between belief type and VTB

We investigated the relationship between belief type and VTB, first, for all key beliefs. Given initial findings about variability in the frequency of the VTBs, we chose not to use all five VTBs separately in our analysis, but rather the three categories of: 1) None (key beliefs that had no VTB applied to them); 2) VTB—Routine (the sum of VTBs 1 and 2; given those were much more prevalent than others in the case of both advocacy and inquiry); and 3) VTB—Robust (the sum of the VTBs 3, 4 and 5 given these were all much less prevalent than VTBs 1 and 2, again including both advocacy and/or inquiry). Cross tabs were prepared and a chi-square test of independence was performed on the data from all 331 key beliefs.

Stage 4b: Analyzing for relationships between belief type and VTB

Next, because more than half (54.7%, 181) of the 331 key beliefs were not tested by leaders using any one of the VTBs, we analyzed a sub-set of the database, selecting only those key beliefs where leaders had disclosed the belief (using advocacy and/or inquiry). The reason for this was to ensure that any relationships established statistically were not unduly influenced by the data collection procedure which limited the time for the conversation to 10 minutes, during which it would not be feasible to fully disclose and address all key beliefs held by the leader. For this subset we prepared cross tabs and carried out chi-square tests of independence for the 145 key beliefs that leaders had disclosed. We again investigated the relationship between key belief type and VTBs, this time using a VTB variable with two categories: 1) More routine only and 2) More routine and robust.

Stage 4c: Analyzing for relationships between belief type and advocacy/inquiry dimensions of validity testing

Next, we investigated the relationship between key belief type and the advocacy and inquiry dimensions of validity testing. This analysis was to provide insight into whether leaders might be more or less inclined to use certain VTBs for certain types of belief. Specifically, we compared the frequency of utterances about beliefs of all three types for the categories of 1) No advocacy or inquiry, 2) Advocacy only, 3) Inquiry only, and 4) Advocacy and inquiry (4e). Cross tabs were prepared, and a chi-square test of independence was performed on the data from all 331 key beliefs. Finally, we again worked with the subset of 145 key beliefs that had been disclosed, comparing the frequency of utterances coded to 1) Advocacy or inquiry only, or 2) Both advocacy and inquiry (4f).

Below, we highlight findings in relation to the research questions guiding our analysis about: the relative frequency in the types of beliefs leaders hold about problems involving others; the extent to which leaders employ validity testing behaviors in conversations about those problems; and differential patterns in leaders’ validity testing of the different belief types. We make our interpretations based on the statistical analysis and draw on insights from the qualitative analysis to illustrate those results.

Belief types

Leaders’ key beliefs about the problem were evenly distributed between the three belief types, suggesting that when they think about a problem, leaders think, though not necessarily in a systematic way, about the nature of, explanation for, and solutions to their problem (see Table 4 ). These numbers include beliefs that were communicated and also those recorded privately in the questionnaire or in writing on the conversation transcripts.

Patterns in validity testing

The majority of the 331 key beliefs (54.7%, 181) were not tested by leaders using any one of the VTBs, not even the behavior of disclosing the belief. Our analysis of the VTBs that leaders did use (see Table 5 ) shows the wide variation in frequency of use with some, arguably the more robust ones, hardly used at all.

The first pattern was more frequent disclosure of key beliefs than provision of the grounds for them. The lower levels of providing grounds is concerning because it has implications for the likelihood of those in the conversation subsequently reaching agreement and being able to develop solutions logically aligned to the problem (VTB4). The logical solution if it is the time that guided reading takes that is preventing a teacher doing ‘shared book reading’ (as Leader 20 believed to be the case) is quite different to the solution that is logical if in fact the reason is something different, for example uncertainty about how to go about ‘shared book reading’, lack of shared book resources, or a misunderstanding that school policy requires greater time on shared reading.

The second pattern was a tendency for leaders to advocate much more than they inquire— there was more than double the proportion of advocacy than inquiry overall and for some behaviors the difference between advocacy and inquiry was up to seven times greater. This suggests that leaders were more comfortable disclosing their own beliefs, providing the grounds for their own beliefs and expressing their own assumptions about agreement, and less comfortable in inquiring in ways that created space and invited the other person in the conversation to reveal their beliefs.

A third pattern revealed in this analysis was the difference in the ratio of inquiry to advocacy between VTB1 (disclosing beliefs)—a ratio of close to 1:2 and VTB2 (providing grounds)—a ratio of close to 1:7. Leaders are more likely to seek others’ reactions when they disclose their beliefs than when they give their grounds for those beliefs. This might suggest that leaders assume the validity of their own beliefs (and therefore do not see the need to inquire into grounds) or that they do not have the skills to share the grounds associated with the beliefs they hold.

Fourthly, there was an absence of attention to three of the VTBs outlined in our model—in only very few of the 329 validity testing utterances the 43 leaders used were they exploring difference (11 instances), examining logic (4 instances) or seeking agreement (22 instances). In Case 22, for example, the leader claimed that learning intentions should be displayed and understood by children and expressed concern that the teacher was not displaying them, and that her students thus did not understand the purpose of the activities they were doing. While the teacher signaled her disagreement with both of those claims—“I do learning intentions, it’s all in my modelling books I can show them to you if you want” and “I think the children know why they are learning what they are learning”—the fact that there were differences in their beliefs was not explicitly signaled, and the differences were not explored. The conversation went on, with each continuing to assume the accuracy of their own beliefs. They were unable to reach agreement on a solution to the problem because they had not established and explored the lack of agreement about the nature of the problem itself. We presume from these findings, and from our prior qualitative work in this field, that those VTBs are much more difficult, and therefore much less likely to be used than the behaviors of disclosing beliefs and providing grounds.

The relationship between belief type and validity testing behaviors

The relationship between belief type and category of validity testing behavior was significant ( Χ 2 (4) = 61.96,  p  < 0.001). It was notable that problem explanation beliefs were far less likely than problem description or problem solution beliefs to be subject to any validity testing (the validity of more than 80% of PEBs was not tested) and, when they were tested, it was typically with the more routine rather than robust VTBs (see Table 6 ).

Problem explanation beliefs were also most likely to not be tested at all; more than 80% of the problem explanation beliefs were not the focus of any validity testing. Further, problem description beliefs were less likely than problem solution beliefs to be the target of both routine and robust validity testing behaviors—12% of PDBs and 18% of PSBs were tested using both routine and robust VTBs.

Two important assumptions underpin the study reported here. The first is that problems of equity must be solved, not only in the macrosystem and exosystem, but also as they occur in the day to day practices of leaders and teachers in micro and mesosystems. The second is that conversations are the key practice in which problem solving occurs in the micro and mesosystems, and that is why we focused on conversation quality. We focused on validity testing as an indicator of quality by closely analyzing transcripts of conversations between 43 individual leaders and a teacher they were discussing problems with.

Our findings suggest a considerable gap between our normative model of effective problem solving conversations and the practices of our sample of leaders. While beliefs about what problems are, and proposed solutions to them are shared relatively often, rarely is attention given to beliefs about the causes of problems. Further, while leaders do seem to be able to disclose and provide grounds for their beliefs about problems, they do so less often for beliefs about problem cause than other belief types. In addition, the critical validity testing behaviors of exploring difference, examining logic, and seeking agreement are very rare. Learning how to test the validity of beliefs is, therefore, a relevant focus for educational leaders’ goals (Bendikson et al., 2020 ; Meyer et al., 2019 ; Sinnema & Robinson, 2012 ) as well as a means for achieving other goals.

The patterns we found are problematic from the point of view of problem solving in schools generally but are particularly problematic from the point of view of macrosystem problems relating to equity. In New Zealand, for example, the underachievement and attendance issues of Pasifika students is a macrosystem problem that has been the target of many attempts to address through a range of policies and initiatives. Those efforts include a Pasifika Education Plan (Ministry of Education, 2013 ) and a cultural competencies framework for teachers of Pasifika learners—‘Tapasa’ (Ministry of Education, 2018 ) At the level of the mesosystem, many schools have strategic plans and school-wide programmes for interactions seeking to address those issues.

Resolving such equity issues demands that macro and exosystem initiatives are also reflected in the interactions of educators—hence our investigation of leaders’ problem-solving conversations and attention to whether leaders have the skills required to solve problems in conversations that contribute to aspirations in the exo and macrosystem, include of excellence and equity in new and demanding national curricula (Sinnema et al., 2020a ; Sinnema, Stoll, 2020a ). An example of an exosystem framework—the competencies framework for teachers of Pacific students in New Zealand—is useful here. It requires that teachers “establish and maintain collaborative and respectful relationships and professional behaviors that enhance learning and wellbeing for Pasifika learners” (Ministry of Education, 2018 , p. 12). The success of this national framework is influenced by and also influences the success that leaders in school settings have at solving problems in the conversations they have about related micro and mesosystem problems.

To illustrate this point, we draw here on the example of one case from our sample that showed how problem-solving conversation capability is related to the success or otherwise of system level aspirations of this type. In the case of Leader 36, under-developed skill in problem solving talk likely stymied the success of the equity-focused system initiatives. Leader 36 had been alerted by the parents of a Pasifika student that their daughter “feels that she is being unfairly treated, picked on and being made to feel very uncomfortable in the teacher’s class.” In the conversation with Leader 36, the teacher described having established a good relationship with the student, but also having had a range of issues with her including that she was too talkative, that led the teacher to treat her in ways the teacher acknowledged could have made her feel picked on and consequently reluctant to come to school.

The teacher also told the leader that there were issues with uniform irregularities (which the teacher picked on) and general non conformity—“No, she doesn’t [conform]. She often comes with improper footwear, incorrect jacket, comes late to school, she puts make up on, there are quite a few things that aren’t going on correctly….”. The teacher suggested that the student was “drawing the wrong type of attention from me as a teacher, which has had a negative effect on her.” The teacher described to the leader a recent incident:

[The student] had come to class with her hair looking quite shabby so I quietly asked [the student] “Did you wake up late this morning?” and then she but I can’t remember, I made a comment like “it looks like you didn’t take too much interest in yourself.” To me, I thought there was nothing wrong with the comment as it did not happen publicly; it happened in class and I had walked up to her. Following that, [her] Mum sends another email about girls and image and [says] that I am picking on her again. I’m quite baffled as to what is happening here. (case 36)

This troubling example represented a critical discretionary moment. The pattern of belief validity testing identified through our analysis of this case (see Table 7 ), however, mirrors some of the patterns evident in the wider sample.

The leader, like the student’s parents, believed that the teacher had been offensive in her communication with the student and also that the relationship between the teacher and student would be negatively impacted as a result. These two problem description beliefs were disclosed by the leader during her conversation with the teacher. However, while her disclosure of her belief about the problem description involved both advocating the belief, and inquiring into the other’s perception of it, the provision of grounds for the belief involved advocacy only. She reported the basis of the concern (the email from the student’s parents about their daughter feeling unfairly treated, picked on, and uncomfortable in class) but did not explicitly inquire into the grounds. This may be explained in this case through the teacher offering her own account of the situation that matched the parent’s report. Leader 36 also disclosed in her conversation with the teacher, her problem solution key belief that they should hold a restorative meeting between the teacher, the student, and herself.

What Leader 36 did not disclose was her belief about the explanation for the problem—that the teacher did not adequately understand the student personally, or their culture. The problem explanation belief (KB4) that she did inquire into was one the teacher raised—suggesting that the student has “compliance issues” that led the teacher to respond negatively to the student’s communication style—and that the teacher agreed with. The leader did not use any of the more robust but important validity testing behaviors for any of the key beliefs they held, either about problem description, explanation or solutions. And most importantly, this conversation highlights how policies and initiatives developed by those in the macrosystem, aimed at addressing equity issues, can be thwarted through well-intentioned but ultimately unsuccessful efforts of educators as they operate in the micro and mesosystem in what we referred to earlier as a discretionary problem solving space. The teacher’s treatment of the Pasifika student in our example was in stark contrast to the respectful and strong relationships demanded by the exosystem policy, the framework for teachers of Pasifika students. Furthermore, while the leader recognized the problem, issues of culture were avoided—they were not skilled enough in disclosing and testing their beliefs in the course of the conversation to contribute to broader equity concerns. The skill gap resonates with the findings of much prior work in this field (Le Fevre et al., 2015 ; Robinson et al., 2020 ; Sinnema et al., 2013 ; Smith, 1997 ; Spillane et al., 2009 ; Timperley & Robinson, 1998 ; Zaccaro et al., 2000 ), and highlights the importance of leaders, and those working with them in leadership development efforts, to recognize the interactions between the eco-systems outlined in the nested model of problem solving detailed in Fig.  1 .

The reluctance of Leader 36 to disclose and discuss her belief that the teacher misunderstands the student and her culture is important given the wider research evidence about the nature of the beliefs teachers may hold about indigenous and minority learners. The expectations teachers hold for these groups are typically lower and more negative than for white students (Gay, 2005 ; Meissel et al., 2017 ). In evidence from the New Zealand context, Turner et al. ( 2015 ), for example, found expectations to differ according to ethnicity with higher expectations for Asian and European students than for Māori and Pasifika students, even when controlling for achievement, due to troubling teacher beliefs about students’ home backgrounds, motivations, and aspirations. These are just the kind of beliefs that leaders must be able to confront in conversations with their teachers.

We use this example to illustrate both the interrelatedness of problems across the ecosystem, and the urgency of leadership development intervention in this area. Our normative model of effective problem solving conversations (Fig.  2 ), we suggest, provides a useful framework for the design of educational leadership intervention in this area. It shows how validity testing behaviors should embody both advocacy and inquiry and be used to explore not only perceptions of problem descriptions and solutions, but also problem causes. In this way, we hope to offer insights into how the dilemma between trust and accountability (Ehren et al., 2020 ) might be solved through increased interpersonal effectiveness. The combination of inquiry with advocacy also marks this approach out from neo-liberal approaches that emphasize leaders staying in control and predominantly advocating authoritarian perspectives of educational leadership. The interpersonal effectiveness theory that we draw on (Argyris & Schön, 1974 ) positions such unilateral control as ineffective, arguing for a mutual learning alternative. The work of problem solving is, we argue, joint work, requiring shared commitment and control.

Our findings also call for more research explicitly designed to investigate linkages between the systems. Case studies are needed, of macro and exosystem inequity problems backward mapped to initiatives and interactions that occur in schools related to those problems and initiatives. Such research could capture the complex ways in which power plays out “in relation to structural inequalities (of class, disability, ethnicity, gender, nationality, race, sexuality, and so forth)” and in relation to “more shifting and fluid inequalities that play out at the symbolic and cultural levels (for example, in ways that construct who “has” potential)” (Burke & Whitty, 2018 , p. 274).

Leadership development in problem solving should be approached in ways that surface and test the validity of leaders’ beliefs, so that they similarly learn to surface and test others’ beliefs in their leadership work. That is important not only from a workforce development point of view, but also from a social justice point of view since leaders’ capabilities in this area are inextricably linked to the success of educational systems in tackling urgent equity concerns.

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A Three-Step Approach to Help Children Navigate Conflict

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It is work time in the Riverbend Room, and Jamaya and Ian are playing in the block area. Ian picks up a block from the floor beside him, but Jamaya shrieks and reaches to grab it. Ian jerks it away. Both children begin to shout.

The teacher, Ms. Williams, runs over. This is the third time this week that disagreements between Jamaya and Ian have erupted into a shouting match, and Ms. Williams is running out of ideas to calm these situations. The rest of the class looks on as she approaches the two.

Effective teachers create positive learning environments by helping children learn to regulate their behavior and emotions. Yet even with well-established behavioral expectations (“We are kind”; “We touch books gently”), young children often continue to engage in unsafe behavior and experience conflicts. Many teachers, such as Ms. Williams, are unsure how to help them resolve these situations.

This article presents a three-step approach to help children develop the self-regulation and language skills necessary to address common behavior challenges and social conflicts. It was developed by researchers and educators at Michigan State University’s teacher preparation program.

The Three-Step Approach to Addressing Conflict

A child’s self-regulation is influenced by developmental processes that occur emotionally, cognitively, and linguistically. Because these skills develop throughout childhood, preschoolers (and even older children) may find it difficult to manage their behaviors and use appropriate strategies to effectively communicate during conflict.

Early childhood educators play an essential role in the development of these skills. When teachers target self-regulation and language during classroom interactions and conflicts, children become more capable of using strategies to interact with peers and solve problems appropriately. By following the steps below, teachers can effectively support children’s self-regulation and language development while addressing unsafe, destructive, or conflict-related behaviors in the classroom.

Step One: State the Behavior and Help Identify Emotions

Just as teachers can acknowledge children’s positive behaviors in the classroom, they can also describe behavior that is not appropriate. Clearly and briefly describing children’s behavior draws their attention to their actions and gives them the language they need for future interactions. For example, if a child is shoveling sand onto the floor at the sensory area, a teacher might say, “Micah, you are pouring sand out of the sensory table onto the floor.” This makes the child aware of their behavior and sets the stage for the teacher to explain and address it (steps two and three).

This first step is also an excellent opportunity for teachers to use emotion vocabulary to help children understand and label feelings that might be related to their behavior. When teachers acknowledge children’s feelings, they help children feel heard. They also set the stage for a compassionate discussion rather than a power struggle.

For example, a 3-year-old struggling to balance blocks on his tower might yell, causing a teacher to kneel beside him and say, “You are yelling. It sounds like you are angry.” Or a child might appear upset about accidentally ripping their easel paper while painting, to which the teacher can respond, “You are kicking the easel. I wonder if you are frustrated?”

A feelings chart is a valuable resource that can help children label and discuss emotions. The National Center for Pyramid Model Innovations offers an example at challengingbehavior.org/docs/FeelingFaces_chart_template.pdf.

Step Two: Explain the Behavior and Its Implications

After teachers have drawn a child’s attention to their behavior and helped them identify their emotions, they can explain why the behavior may be inappropriate. This helps the child begin to recognize cause and effect, which supports their future ability to use reasoning to regulate their behavior without teacher support.

Step two is a great opportunity for teachers to refer back to the behavioral expectations they’ve already established with children. Providing children with a reason that reflects classroom rules and/or speaks to children’s personal interests can help motivate them to adjust their behavior.

For example, if a child is dumping toy cars on the floor, the teacher could say, “You are dumping the cars all over the floor. Children may step on the cars and fall and hurt themselves, or their feet might break the cars, so we can’t use them anymore.” If a child tears a book, the teacher could say, “You tore this book. We won’t be able to read it. Remember that one of our classroom rules is to be gentle with our books.”

Teachers can also take this opportunity to support children’s language development by using rich vocabulary. For example, if a child is working on their picture as the class starts to transition, the teacher can say, “You are still  illustrating  the story you wrote. If you keep working on your  illustration  right now, you will miss free play time.”

Step Three: Address the Behavior

Now that children are aware of their actions and the related implications, teachers can guide them by providing an alternative, appropriate behavior. In the following example, a child is attempting to use scissors to cut their clothing. Step three is underlined.

Teacher:  ( gently stopping the child’s hands ) You’re using scissors to cut your shirt. You seem curious about how scissors work. Is that right?

Child:  I’m cutting.

Teacher:  Yes, you’re cutting your shirt with scissors. The scissors may ruin your clothes or hurt you.  Use the scissors to cut your construction paper, or choose another item from the art center like the felt strips. Which will you choose?

During this step, some children will benefit when teachers provide a solution (“Soil stays in the flowerbed.”). Others will be able to choose from among a few replacement choices, especially if emotions are heightened and children struggle to engage in an expected behavior.

Effective teachers can stimulate children’s language use during this step by helping them identify what to say. Depending on the child’s language skills, teachers may need to

• provide the language for resolving a conflict (“Tiana, did you want to help Sam with the puzzle? You can say, ‘Sam, can I help?’ ”)
• offer choices about what to say (“Do you want to ask Gayle to ‘Please pass the water pitcher,’ or do you want to ask Marco?”)
• prompt children to think about what they could say independently (“Violet, what could you say to Akshay if you want to take a turn?”)

Teachers can also help children brainstorm alternative behaviors or solutions by encouraging them to verbalize their current problem and think through the challenge. If children struggle to come up with their own solutions, teachers may provide additional support by saying, “I have an idea. Would you like to hear my idea?” After several iterations with teacher support, children will begin to address problems more independently.

The Three Steps in Action

Now let’s return to the opening vignette and see these three steps in action.

As Ian and Jamaya argue over the blocks, Ms. Williams calmly approaches them. She begins at step one, saying, “Ian and Jamaya, you are yelling and trying to grab each other’s blocks. You seem furious.” She gently stops their hands. “I will hold onto this block while we find a solution.”

Keeping the desired block where both children can see it, Ms. Williams proceeds to step two. “Your yelling hurts other children’s ears and my ears, and you might hurt each other when you hit.” With this statement, both children are reminded how their behavior might upset others and cause pain to themselves.

“How should we solve this problem?” Ms. Williams asks, moving to step three.

“We can use a timer,” says Ian. Ms. Williams replies, “You’re thinking you could use a timer to take turns using the block. What do you think, Jamaya?”

Jamaya frowns and says no. Ms. Williams nods and says, “Hmmm. It doesn’t sound like that idea works for Jamaya. Jamaya, do you have a different idea?”

Jamaya points to another block in Ian’s pile and says, “I want that one. I give you this one.” Ms. Williams turns to Ian and says, “Ian, it sounds like Jamaya is willing to trade her block—this one that I’m holding—for one of your blocks. Does that idea work for you?” Ian nods, and Ms. Williams says, “Okay, so Ian will take this block, and Jamaya will take that block. Did we solve the problem?” Both children agree and take their respective blocks. Ms. Williams adds, “We were respectful to each other when we solved that problem, just like our classroom rule says!”

By using the three-step approach to state the behavior, explain the implications of the behavior, and address the behavior, effective teachers support self-regulation and language development simultaneously. However, it’s important to understand that adopting this approach and making it second nature will take practice. Teachers should not expect to master the three-step approach overnight, but they can support the development of these skills by posting reminders and prompts around the classroom to refer to—especially in areas where conflicts tend to occur more often because of increased social interactions (like the block or dramatic play areas).

It’s also important to remember that certain situations may cause teachers to feel stressed or upset themselves. In these cases, they should take a moment to calm themselves before dealing with the conflict. This may require taking a couple of deep breaths and/or mentally reframing the conflict as an opportunity to engage children in developing self-regulatory and language skills. A supportive mantra, such as “The children are not giving me a hard time; they are having a hard time,” may help. Teachers can also work to view themselves as a mediator, or a wise but neutral guide whose purpose is to help each child on the path to self-regulation and effective communication.

This is an adaptation of an article that appeared in the Fall 2022 issue of  Young Children . You can read the full article, which contains additional examples and resources, at  NAEYC.org/resources/pubs/yc/fall2022/three-step-approach.

Photograph: © Getty Images Copyright © 2023 by the National Association for the Education of Young Children. See permissions and reprints online at  NAEYC.org/resources/permissions .

Kyla McRoy, MS, is a doctoral candidate in the department of Human Development and Family Studies at Michigan State University.

Hope K. Gerde, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Teaching, Learning, and Culture at Texas A&M University. 

Laurie Linscott, MA, is the director of the Child Development Laboratories at Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. 

Vol. 17, No. 1

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Teaching Conflict Resolution: Spectacular Key Strategies for Fostering Peaceful Problem-Solving

Table of Contents

Conflict resolution and peaceful problem-solving are essential skills that enable individuals to navigate disagreements constructively and empathetically. We understand the importance of instilling these skills early in education, as they can dramatically improve communication and foster a more harmonious learning environment. By equipping students with the tools needed to understand and manage conflict, we are not just preparing them for the classroom, but for life-long interactions in a diverse and dynamic world.

It’s key to remember that conflict is a natural part of human relationships and, when managed effectively, can lead to growth, innovation, and stronger bonds. This is why embedding conflict resolution strategies within the curriculum is so valuable. Our approaches focus on enhancing social-emotional learning, which includes developing empathy and communication skills . Through interactive and practical applications, such as peer mediation and problem-solving activities, students can experience the positive outcomes of managing conflicts constructively.

Michelle Connolly, founder of LearningMole and an educational consultant with 16 years of classroom experience, emphasises the significance of these strategies: “Teaching conflict resolution is about more than just responding to disagreements; it’s about building a foundation of understanding, respect, and the ability to listen – skills that are critical for success beyond the classroom.”

Key Takeaways

• Conflict resolution education prepares students for lifelong interpersonal skills .
• Strategies include enhancing empathy, communication, and social-emotional learning.
• Practical applications in education lead to constructive management of conflicts.

Understanding Conflict

In addressing classroom conflicts, it’s imperative that we explore their nature, origins, and emotional underpinnings to facilitate effective resolution strategies.

Types of Conflict

Conflicts in the classroom come in various forms, ranging from simple disagreements over facts to complex interpersonal issues. It’s crucial to distinguish between task-related conflicts , which concern the content of a lesson or assignment, and relationship conflicts , that stem from personal disagreements and are based on emotional connections. Understanding the type of conflict is the first step in resolving it effectively.

Sources of Classroom Disagreement

Disagreements in a classroom often arise from misunderstandings, differences in values or beliefs, and competition for resources like attention and time. For instance, debates over historical interpretations can reflect deeper value-based conflicts. Likewise, when students vie for a teacher’s attention, it might create friction and initiate conflict.

The Role of Emotions in Conflict

Emotions play a pivotal role in conflicts, with feelings like frustration or anger often escalating disagreements. Michelle Connolly, an expert with 16 years of classroom experience, says, “Recognising the emotional landscape of a classroom conflict can transform the path to resolution.” We must not overlook the emotional aspects when teaching conflict resolution as they often provide insights into the root of the disagreement.

Foundation Skills for Conflict Resolution

Conflict resolution is a vital skill set that plays a crucial role in fostering harmonious interactions in both personal relationships and professional environments. By mastering foundational skills such as empathy , effective communication , active listening , and specific problem-solving steps , individuals can navigate disputes with greater success.

The Importance of Empathy

Empathy lies at the heart of conflict resolution. It involves the ability to understand and share the feelings of another, which is essential for resolving conflicts in a way that respects and values all parties involved. Michelle Connolly, founder of LearningMole, emphasises, “Empathy allows us to see the world through another’s eyes, bridging the gap between differing perspectives.”

Developing Effective Communication

Effective communication is more than just exchanging information; it’s about conveying our thoughts and feelings clearly and respectfully. It involves specific language , non-verbal cues , and a willingness to openly express oneself without causing further conflict. To communicate effectively, we must consider our words carefully and be mindful of the impact they can have on others.

Active Listening Techniques

Active listening is a skill that requires us to listen to understand, not just to respond. It involves giving complete attention to the speaker, acknowledging their message, and providing feedback that demonstrates comprehension of their point of view. Techniques such as summarising what has been said and asking clarifying questions are instrumental to active listening and, by extension, to successful conflict resolution.

Problem-Solving Steps

A structured approach to problem-solving helps prevent conflicts from escalating. The key steps include identifying the issue , generating possible solutions , evaluating the options , and agreeing on a course of action . This process requires patience, openness to different ideas, and a commitment to work collaboratively towards a mutually beneficial resolution.

By instilling these foundational skills, we lay the groundwork for more peaceful and productive interactions.

Applying Conflict Resolution in the Classroom

In this section, we delve into strategies for teaching conflict resolution within the educational sphere, particularly focusing on creating a peaceful classroom environment , enhancing the role of teachers , and promoting assertiveness and choice among students.

Facilitating Peaceful Classroom Environment

The classroom environment can significantly influence students’ ability to learn and interact peacefully. To facilitate a peaceful classroom , it is crucial to establish rules that promote respect and understanding among students. This can be done through setting clear expectations and involving students in the creation of a collective classroom agreement . As Michelle Connolly, an educational expert with over 16 years of classroom experience, suggests, “A well-structured environment where students feel safe and respected is the cornerstone of effective conflict resolution education .” By embedding conflict resolution into the fabric of our day-to-day teaching, we not only address issues as they arise but proactively cultivate a culture of peace.

Role of the Teacher in Conflict Resolution

We, as teachers, play a pivotal role in resolving conflict in the classroom. By modelling appropriate behaviour and providing guidance, we help students navigate conflicts constructively. Key strategies include:

• Listening actively to students’ concerns without immediate judgement.
• Mediating conversations between conflicting parties to find a common ground.
• Teaching problem-solving techniques to empower students to resolve issues on their own.

This active involvement shows students that conflict is a normal part of life and provides them with the tools to handle disputes independently.

Applying Assertiveness and Choice

Empowering students to be assertive , rather than passive or aggressive, is essential in conflict resolution. We can teach students to express their feelings and needs clearly and respectfully by:

• Role-playing scenarios that require students to practice assertiveness .
• Encouraging choice , so students learn to make decisions that resolve conflicts without infringing on others’ rights.

Assertiveness and choice are critical components that allow students to approach conflict with confidence and a sense of control.

Through these strategies, we can transform our classrooms into incubators for peace, where every student is equipped with the tools and choices needed for harmonious interaction. Our commitment goes beyond education to moulding a generation adept at forging peace.

Strategies for Conflict Resolution Skills Development

In this section, we explore effective approaches to nurturing conflict resolution skills in learners. Through engaging methods including role-play , games , literature, and guidance, students can develop the tools necessary for peaceful problem-solving.

Teaching through Role-Playing

Role-playing is a dynamic way to foster empathy and improve conflict resolution skills . By acting out scenarios, learners can experience different perspectives and practise addressing conflicts in a controlled environment. Michelle Connolly, founder of LearningMole, advocates role-playing as a technique “to help students visualise and, thus, better understand the impact of their actions on others, something I’ve seen work wonders in the classroom.”

Conflict Resolution Games

Games can turn the serious topic of conflict resolution into an engaging learning experience. When utilised in the classroom, games that focus on teamwork and strategy encourage children to collaborate and solve problems collectively. It’s not just about winning; it’s about finding solutions that benefit everyone involved.

Using Books to Discuss Conflict

Books are valuable tools in teaching conflict resolution skills . They provide a safe way to introduce children to different scenarios involving conflict, helping them to discuss and understand various outcomes. We can guide discussions that allow students to reflect on the characters’ actions and decisions, considering what they would do differently.

Empowering with Guidance and Responsibility

Lastly, we believe in empowering students with both guidance and responsibility . This approach entails giving them a voice in their own learning and allowing them the responsibility to resolve conflicts. As Michelle Connolly puts it, “Empowerment through responsibility and guidance leads to students owning the solutions, which is key for lasting conflict resolution skills.”

Enhancing Social-Emotional Skills

Emotional intelligence is as crucial as cognitive development in preschool education. We’re focusing on nurturing children’s social-emotional skills to promote healthier interactions and emotional wellbeing.

Fostering Social and Emotional Development

To guide children towards emotional maturity , it is vital we create learning environments that support emotional expression and understanding. Programmes like Peace building and conflict resolution in preschool children encourage children to articulate their feelings and recognise emotions in others. This grounding in social and emotional development lays the foundation for their future academic and personal success.

Promoting Stronger Relationships

By teaching children how to resolve conflicts amicably, we are not just solving immediate problems; we are equipping them with the tools to build stronger and more meaningful relationships throughout their lives. As Michelle Connolly, a reputable educator, says, “Encouraging children to empathise with their peers is the first step towards a more understanding and compassionate generation.”

The Importance of Boundaries

Establishing boundaries is a crucial part of promoting social-emotional skills. By setting clear expectations and consistent limits, we help children feel secure and understand the importance of respecting others. This understanding is instrumental in teaching them how to engage in healthy conflict resolution and Promoting Stronger Relationships .

Through our combined efforts, we aim to shape a generation that embraces social and emotional development , understands the value of stronger relationships , and respects boundaries to create a more peaceful and empathetic society.

Implementing Peer Mediation

Peer mediation is a valuable approach to resolving conflicts, often utilised within educational settings like primary and middle schools. It empowers students to take an active role in maintaining a harmonious school environment.

Peer Mediation Process

The peer mediation process typically follows structured steps to ensure fair and peaceful resolution of conflicts. Here’s a brief outline:

• Referral : A conflict is identified and referred to the peer mediation team by a teacher or student.
• Mediator Selection : Trained student mediators are chosen to manage the session, usually working in pairs for balance and support.
• Active Listening : Each party has the opportunity to express their viewpoint without interruption.
• Understanding : Mediators ensure all parties understand the issues and feelings involved.
• Problem-Solving : The group collaborates to find a mutually agreeable solution.
• Agreement : An agreement is reached and documented by the mediators.
• Follow-Up : A follow-up is conducted to ensure the agreement has been honoured and the conflict has been resolved satisfactorily.

This process offers students practical problem-solving skills and fosters empathy, both crucial for their personal development and the creation of a positive learning environment.

Training Students in Peer Mediation

Our approach to training students in peer mediation is both thorough and hands-on. Initially, we select students who display empathy, a sense of fairness, and the ability to remain neutral. The training involves:

• Communication Skills : Teaching listening, paraphrasing, and non-verbal communication.
• Conflict Resolution Techniques : Training on conflict analysis and problem-solving strategies.
• Role-Playing : Realistic scenarios are used to practice and refine mediation skills.

“Introducing peer mediation training transforms the whole school culture,” says Michelle Connolly, our founder and educational consultant with extensive classroom experience. “Students learn profound lessons in communication and empathy that resonate beyond their school years.”

The adoption of peer mediation in schools, whether in primary or secondary education, has been marked by the shift towards giving children the tools they need to solve disputes calmly and equitably. Our role in the preparation process ensures they’re equipped with the necessary skills for successful mediation.

Problem-Solving Skills in Action

In this section, we’re going to explore practical strategies for problem-solving that promote peaceful outcomes in conflict situations. Effectively managing conflict involves using problem-solving skills that both parties can participate in, leading to more sustainable and cooperative solutions.

Brainstorming Solutions Together

When it comes to resolving conflicts, brainstorming solutions together is a key part of the conversation. We encourage participants to collaboratively list as many ideas as possible, without judgement. This emphasis on collective idea generation can lead to innovative solutions that might not be considered in a more confrontational setting. As Michelle Connolly, an expert with over a decade of experience in the classroom, often says, “Opening up the floor to multiple perspectives not only fosters inclusivity but also propels towards more creative resolutions.”

• List possible solutions without prejudice
• Encourage all parties to contribute

Finding Compromise

To arrive at a compromise , everyone involved needs to understand and acknowledge the others’ needs and interests. This can require some give-and-take; however, the aim is to find a middle ground that everyone can accept. Compromise shouldn’t be seen as losing, rather as a cooperative move towards the resolution of the conflict.

• Identify shared goals
• Negotiate terms agreeable to all parties

When to Encourage Ignoring the Conflict

Sometimes, the best action can be inaction. When conflicts are trivial or when the cost of resolution outweighs the benefits, encouraging parties to ignore the conflict might be the most appropriate strategy. Recognising when to let go of minor disagreements can preserve relationships and save energy for more significant issues.

• Assess if the conflict is worth engaging
• Weigh the potential benefits against the costs

Case Studies and Real-Life Applications

In the realm of education, practical application of theory is key. In this section, we’ll explore the benefits that real-life examples and hands-on tactics bring to teaching conflict resolution skills.

Analyzing Classroom Interactions

Case Study 1: In our analysis, we noted that when teachers model peaceful problem-solving, students are more likely to employ similar tactics. One teacher incorporated role-play scenarios based on actual classroom disputes, which led to a notable decrease in classroom disruptions.

Case Study 2: Another case involved a team-teaching approach where educators worked collaboratively to supervise and guide students through a conflict. This active observation and joint problem-solving technique proved to be highly effective in fostering a cooperative classroom environment.

“By analyzing and reflecting on classroom interactions, we empower students to develop proactive strategies and resolve conflicts peacefully,” shared Michelle Connolly, an expert with over 16 years of classroom experience.

Preventing Bullying through Proactive Measures

Initiative Overview: To address bullying, one school implemented a proactive program that educated students on empathy and respect. This included workshops and peer-mentoring systems, which significantly reduced bullying incidents in the school.

Extended Impact: Precursor signs of bullying were addressed through early intervention strategies, such as social skills training and open forum discussions, fostering a more inclusive school culture.

Michelle Connolly comments, “Being proactive and setting a firm foundation in empathy is essential in preventing bullying. It’s about equipping children with the right tools before issues arise.”

Building Life-Long Conflict Management

It is essential for pupils to develop conflict management skills that they can rely on throughout their lives. Our focus is to embed these life-long skills into the fabric of education, ensuring that learners can apply self-regulation and strong values to resolve conflicts effectively.

Integration with Social Studies and Language Arts

Embedding conflict resolution within Social Studies not only enriches students’ understanding of historical and cultural perspectives but also presents values and practices that have been employed to resolve disputes. Through analysing past conflicts and resolutions, students acquire a toolbox of strategies that are applicable to their own interactions.

In Language Arts , reading and discussing literature provides students with insight into complex characters and scenarios. This can spark discussions about emotional intelligence, ethics, and the impact of decisions on relationships. By integrating life-long skills and values into these discussions, we foster an environment where conflict resolution becomes a natural part of their learning journey.

Teaching Long-Term Self-Regulation

To foster self-regulation, we must nurture it in every aspect of schooling. Encouraging students to set goals, monitor their progress, and reflect on successes and setbacks instils a sense of responsibility and control. Michelle Connolly , our founder and expert educational consultant, believes that “Self-regulation is the bedrock of conflict management – it allows students to navigate challenges with resilience.”

Through both curricular activities and extracurricular guidance, we equip students with the necessary tools to manage their emotions and behaviour. This effectively prepares them not just for school life but for varied life situations, rooting conflict resolution deeply as a value and core skillset.

By embracing these strategies within our educational framework, we make a commitment to guide learners towards being articulate, thoughtful, and proactive individuals in all spheres of life.

Incorporating Social-Emotional Learning Curricula

Incorporating social-emotional learning (SEL) into educational curricula is essential for developing students’ abilities to manage emotions, establish positive relationships, and navigate social complexities. Through SEL, we provide learners with vital life skills that can enhance their personal and academic success.

The SOAR Approach in Schools

The SOAR approach—comprising Strategies, Opportunities, Abilities, and Reflection—is a robust framework for embedding SEL into schools. Strategies involve implementing explicit instruction and situations where students can practise SEL competencies. Through Opportunities , we create a setting where social-emotional growth is recognised and encouraged. It’s about nurturing their Abilities to deal with challenges constructively—and finally, fostering Reflection about their experiences and learning from them. Michelle Connolly, an educational consultant, points out, “The real value of the SOAR approach lies in its comprehensive nature—it’s about guiding students to succeed academically and socially.”

Perspective-Taking Skills

Developing perspective-taking skills is a cornerstone of SEL. By encouraging students to consider others’ feelings and viewpoints, we enhance their empathy and conflict resolution abilities. In practice, this requires structured activities where learners are prompted to analyse situations from different perspectives. Michelle emphasises , “When students learn to view a scenario from multiple angles, they not only gain empathy but also become better problem-solvers—a critical skill for peaceful conflict resolution.”

Frequently Asked Questions

As educators, we understand the importance of equipping students with the skillset to handle conflicts constructively. The following frequently asked questions aim to provide insight into strategies and methods for teaching and promoting peaceful problem-solving in various educational environments.

What methods can educators use to instruct students in conflict resolution?

We find that role-playing activities and group discussions are effective ways to teach students about conflict resolution. These methods allow learners to practise communication and negotiation skills in a controlled, supportive setting. “Role-plays offer a safe space for students to experiment with different strategies and see the consequences of their actions,” explains Michelle Connolly, an educational consultant.

How can conflict resolution techniques be adapted for a younger audience?

For younger children, we incorporate games and storytelling that convey simple messages about sharing, empathy, and friendship. Simplified conflict resolution steps matched with age-appropriate language can make the learning process enjoyable and memorable. Michelle Connolly suggests, “Using puppets to act out conflicts can help young learners understand and manage their emotions.”

What steps are integral to peacefully solving disagreements in educational settings?

Essential steps include active listening, expressing feelings and needs without accusations, brainstorming solutions together, and reaching a mutual agreement. We emphasize the importance of validating all parties’ perspectives to foster a respectful and open dialogue.

Can you suggest practical calming strategies that can be employed during conflict resolution?

Practical calming strategies include deep breathing exercises, counting to ten, or taking a short walk. These techniques can help students and educators alike to maintain composure and approach conflicts with a clear mind. “Calming strategies are the first step in moving from a heated emotion to thoughtful problem-solving,” says Michelle Connolly.

What are some effective conflict resolution strategies suited for secondary school learners?

Secondary school learners can benefit from structured problem-solving models and negotiation skills training. Peer mediation programs can also empower them to take on leadership roles in managing conflicts among their peers. “Teenagers should be encouraged to view conflicts as opportunities for growth,” advises Michelle Connolly.

How might one implement conflict resolution training in a professional or organisational context?

In a professional setting, conflict resolution training might include workshops, collaborative projects, and team-building activities. Regularly reinforcing positive communication and providing clear guidelines for managing disputes are keys to success. Michelle Connolly emphasises, “It’s crucial that everyone feels heard and that there’s a collective commitment to resolving conflicts amicably.”

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IDEA 2004 close up: Resolving disagreements between parents and schools

by: The GreatSchools Editorial Team | Updated: July 17, 2023

Print article

Since the earliest special education legislation, Congress has recognized that the often complex process of planning and implementing special education programs for students with disabilities might lead to disagreements between schools and families. To help address this inevitable conflict, the Act’s procedural safeguards contain several provisions to help schools and families resolve disagreements.

In each of the last two renewals of the Act, in 1997 and more recently in 2004, Congress has sought to provide expanded opportunities for early resolution of disputes. And, in an attempt to provide informal and less contentious ways to resolve disagreements, many states have developed additional strategies for early dispute resolution. Many of these strategies attempt to strengthen relationships between parents and school personnel. They offer a range of informal problem-solving and conflict resolution approaches, including stakeholder training and Individualized Education Program (IEP) facilitation.

Most frequent areas of disagreement

Within special education, conflicts arise between schools and families for a variety of reasons. Most often, the design and/or delivery of special education services form the basis for the disagreement. Design issues include:

• eligibility for services
• methodology of intervention
• perceptions about student needs
• the scope of the IDEA entitlement
• educational placement

Delivery issues include problems associated with implementing the student’s IEP that has been agreed upon by the family and the school district. Delivery issues include:

• competence of the special education services provider (for example, the special education teacher)
• scheduling (for example, times and days special education services are to be provided to the student)
• transportation
• coordination of services
• procedural requirements
• privacy and/or confidentiality

Dispute resolution options under IDEA 2004

As the chart above indicates, IDEA’s most formal dispute resolution option is an impartial due process hearing.  A formal due process hearing is initiated by a written due process complaint notice and follows a rigid set of provisions contained in IDEA.

Due process hearings are formal, quasi-judicial forums in which parties to a dispute (generally, school personnel and the family) present arguments and evidence to an impartial hearing officer. Parties who do not prevail in due process hearings may seek redress in the federal district and appellate courts, including the United States Supreme Court.

Increases in the number of due process hearings – for example, from 4,079 in 1991 to 9,827 in 1998-formed the rationale for the provision of additional, less formal avenues for dispute resolution included in IDEA 2004. Congress also placed important new limitations on the provisions regarding due process hearings.

The most informal option on the dispute resolution continuum is impartial mediation.  Mediation is a confidential process that allows parties to resolve disputes without a formal due process hearing . The mediator helps the parties express their views and positions and understand each other’s views and positions. The mediator’s role is to facilitate the process, not to take positions or sides.

In its 1997 update of IDEA, Congress added a requirement for all states to offer mediation as an option to resolve disputes prior to a due process hearing but following the request for a due process complaint notice. IDEA 2004 now requires that mediation be made available whether or not there is a request for a due process hearing .

IDEA 2004 also makes several other important changes to mediation. These include:

• Mediation must be conducted by a qualified and impartial mediator.
• Mediation discussions are to be kept confidential and may not be used as evidence in any subsequent due process hearing.
• When a resolution is reached to resolve a dispute, the parties execute a legally binding agreement that is enforceable in a district court.

Due process complaint notice

IDEA 2004 added important provisions to the due process complaint notice. These include:

Statute of limitations

Now requests for an impartial due process hearing must be made within two years of the date the parent or school district knew (or should have known) about the alleged action that forms the basis of the due process hearing request. If a state has an established time limitation for requesting a hearing, that time limitation applies.

Contents of complaint

Due process complaint notices must now include information about the nature of the problem, relevant facts, and proposed resolution. In addition, within a specific timeframe, the due process complaint notice must be deemed sufficient by the party who receives the notice.  If they deem the notice sufficient, the receiving party must respond and address each of the issues in the complaint. These new disclosure requirements are designed to give both parties full notice of the matters in dispute, in advance of the time that any dispute resolution options begin.

Resolution session

Another important provision in IDEA 2004 is the requirement for a “resolution session” prior to a due process hearing. This preliminary meeting involves the parents, the relevant members of the IEP team, and a representative of the school district who has decision-making authority. However, unlike mediation, the resolution session does not include an impartial third party who can assist the two sides in resolving their disagreement.

There are several key requirements regarding the resolution session. They include:

• Resolution session must be convened within 15 calendar days of the receipt of a due process complaint.
• The school district may not include its attorney in the session unless the parent is accompanied by an attorney. However, the parent’s attorney may attend the session, whether or not the school district’s attorney is included.
• The session may be waived by the parents and the school district if both parties sign a written agreement to do so, or if they agree to use the mediation process as a means to resolve the dispute.
• If an agreement is reached at the resolution session, the parties must execute a legally binding agreement signed by both parties.
• A party may void the agreement within three business days.
• If the school district has not resolved the problem within 30 days of receipt of the complaint, the due process hearing proceeds along all applicable time lines.

Due Process Hearing

The formal due process hearing, available to either parents or schools to resolve disputes, has also undergone some important changes in IDEA 2004. These include:

Subject Matter

Issues that can be raised at the due process hearing are now limited to those raised in the due process complaint notice.

Hearing Officer

A hearing officer conducting a hearing must not be an employee of the state education agency or the local school district involved in the dispute, and must possess knowledge of the IDEA law and regulations, as well as federal and state case law.

Decisions of the Hearing Officer

A new provision requires that a decision by a hearing officer must be made on substantive grounds, and dramatically limits circumstances in which such a decision can be reached on procedural issues.  For example, if the hearing officer makes a decision based on whether the proposed special education program was adequate to provide benefit to the student, that constitutes substantive grounds.  An example of a procedural issue would be whether the school district failed to provide notice of an IEP meeting early enough to ensure that parents had an opportunity to attend, even though the parents were able to attend.  A procedural violation can only be the basis of a hearing officer’s ruling if such a violation impeded the child’s right to “free and appropriate public education” (FAPE), caused a deprivation of services, or impeded parents’ opportunity to participate.

Attorneys’ Fees

While IDEA 2004 maintains the provision that allows a court to award reasonable attorneys’ fees to the parents when they are the winning party in due process, a new provision now also allows for attorneys’ fees against the attorney of a parent when the school district is the winning party. However, such awards must find that the parents’ complaint was frivolous, unreasonable, or without foundation.

If the losing party decides to appeal to state or federal court, they must do so within 90 days from the date of the hearing officer’s decision, unless a state has a shorter time line.

As with all other aspects of IDEA, your state will have its own law or regulations that may contain additional procedures for dispute resolution. Be sure that you fully understand both federal and state laws and regulations on this topic before initiating a due process complaint. Each state is required to have a model form to assist parents in filing a due process complaint in accordance with IDEA and state requirements. To obtain your state’s model form, go to the appropriate website listed under “Other Resources” for your state department of education or a Parent Training and Information Center.

• Feinberg, E., Beyer, J., et.al. “ Beyond Mediation: Strategies For Appropriate Early Dispute Resolution In Special Education .” The Consortium for Appropriate Dispute Resolution in Special Education (CADRE).

Updated 2010

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Conflict resolution in special education: solving disagreements with the school

If you’re in the IEP process, you and the school may disagree on your child’s needs. Learn about conflict resolution in special education.

If your child has an IEP , or if you are going through the evaluation process , you and the school may not always agree on what your child needs. Conflict resolution in Special Education can feel scary, but there are formal ways to work through a disagreement and make sure your rights are upheld.

You have the right to disagree with many aspects of the evaluation process, and the development and implementation of the IEP.

For example, you might disagree if…

• The school finds that your child does not qualify for an IEP or 504 plan .
• The school does not identify your child as having the category of disability you believe they need support for . (For example, you may have an autism diagnosis from a doctor but the school’s evaluation doesn’t identify this. So the IEP doesn’t provide the right services.)
• The IEP goals, services or accommodations they have agreed to are not the right ones to meet your child’s needs.
• The school does not meet the timeline requirements for the process and makes it take longer than it should.
• The frequency of services (like therapies) is not enough to help your child make progress.
• The school exaggerates the progress your child is making. (“They’re doing fine–no need for more support!”)
• The school responds inappropriately to behavior issues. ( Suspensions or other harsh discipline instead of identifying the child’s needs .)
• The school puts off evaluating your child, or doesn’t include the right types of professionals in the evaluation . (Schools are legally required to do this, but sometimes they drag their feet or try to convince you that it’s not necessary.)

What is conflict resolution in special education? 

Conflict resolution, also known as Dispute Resolution, is a formal process you can go through if you disagree with the school. 

These are the Dispute Resolution steps:

• Meet with the school again to discuss the disagreement
• Ask for a Facilitated IEP
• Ask for Mediation
• File a Complaint
• File for a Due Process Hearing

1. Meet with the school again

Start with the IEP team if you have one already. If not, contact the school principal, director of Special Education, or superintendent. Ask for a meeting to talk about your child’s needs and why you disagree with the decisions. 

Before the meeting, list the reasons why you feel your child should get more support than the school agreed to. Gather documents that support your reasons. 

These documents might include evaluation results, letters from specialists, or medical reports. At the meeting, use this evidence to make the case for why your child needs more than what the school proposed.

Try to be open-minded and understand the school team’s opinions. But of course, push back if you need to!

Hopefully this meeting will lead to an agreement on the changes. If that doesn’t happen, and your disagreement is about an IEP, you can try facilitated IEPs. You may also consider getting an education advocate . 

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

In Louisiana, the next step is an informal complaint . You will send a written complaint to your district, and you should also include the Louisiana Department of Education: [email protected] . 

Learn more about Louisiana’s Dispute Resolution process

2. Ask for a Facilitated IEP

If your disagreement is about the IEP, you might want to ask for a Facilitated IEP. Your state’s Department of Education should have facilitators available at no cost to help with difficult IEP meetings. 

Either the parents or the school can make the request for a facilitator. Both the parents and the school must agree before using a facilitator.

The facilitator…

• Is a neutral person who does not represent you or the school, and is not a member of the IEP team
• Helps with complex issues or a strained relationship between parents and the school
• Oversees drafting a successful IEP for the student

What does the facilitator do?

• Gets the school team to make a meeting agenda and stick to it
• Keeps the team focused on the goal of agreeing on an IEP
• Helps solve problems that come up
• Keeps communication clear and open
• Makes sure the meeting starts and ends on time

How do I ask for a facilitated IEP?

Check with your Special Education Department, or look in your Procedural Safeguards manual .

The Louisiana Department of Education manages the IEP facilitators. 

Fill out this Facilitation Request Form , and send it to:

Louisiana Department of Education

Attn: Legal Division

1201 North 3rd Street

Baton Rouge, LA 70802

You can also contact them by fax at 225-342-1197 or by email at [email protected] .

Massachusetts:

The Bureau of Special Education Appeals (BSEA) manages IEP facilitators.

You can read about the BSEA’s IEP facilitation process on their site, or call them at 781-397-4750.

3. Ask for Mediation

Mediation means you get a trained, neutral person to talk through the issue with you and the school. Mediation is free. However, both you and the school must agree to participate.

Many parents find mediators to be very helpful and easy to talk to.

You can ask for mediation at any time in the process. If your dispute is about an expensive issue like 1-on-1 aides or major program changes, then it is usually a good idea to get mediation.

How to start the mediation process:

• Call the department in your state that deals with Special Education mediators. Usually this is part of the Department of Education. In some states you may be able to download a request form online and send it in by mail or email.
• You might also want to talk to a Special Education advocate or lawyer. They won’t need to come to the meeting, but they might be able to give you some advice. 

The office will schedule mediation sessions in a place that’s convenient to you and the school. You can ask for a change in time and place if you need it. 

Print out this Mediation Request Form and fill it out.

Call the Louisiana Department of Education Legal Division at 225-342-3572 or fax to 225-342-1197 or mail a written request to:

LDOE, Attn: Legal Division

P. O. Box 94064

Baton Rouge, LA

Massachusetts: 

Call the Board of Special Education Appeals (BSEA) at 781-397-4750 and ask for mediation. They will put you in touch with the mediator assigned to your region. 

You can read about Learn more about the BSEA’s Mediation process

Tips to Prepare for Mediation:

• Make an outline of the dispute: What is the disagreement about? What is your view?
• Be prepared to explain to the mediator and the school district what you would like to discuss during the meeting.
• Decide what you want for your child: both short-term and long-term. What solutions can make these things happen?
• List the solutions you have thought of ahead of time to try and settle the dispute. List the most important solution first, then the next most important second, and so on. You may continue to brainstorm ideas at the meeting.
• Share your ideas with other people you trust, like friends and family members. Ask for their thoughts and suggestions.
• Consider getting help from a Special Education advocate.
• Keep the focus on your child’s needs. Remember – it’s okay if the plan you start with isn’t your first choice, as long as it’s a plan that might work. You can always build on it or adjust it later.

What to expect at the mediation meeting:

• The meeting may last anywhere from 2 hours to a full day. Sometimes you need more than one session
• The mediator will lead the meeting, give everyone the chance to share their concerns, and help problem-solve
• Everything said at the meeting is confidential. Nothing from this meeting can be used later if you end up having a more formal hearing
• If you reach an agreement, the mediator will verbally summarize it, then put it in writing
• You and the school district will sign the written agreement and each get a copy. Keep this in your IEP binder in case you need to refer to it later
• If you don’t reach an agreement, the mediator will discuss next steps

4. File a Complaint

If mediation doesn’t work, the next step is to file a complaint. 

Some states may have separate steps to file an informal or formal complaint. (See note above for Louisiana.)

Here is the process:

• Look on the Department of Education website. 
• Ask your principal or IEP team (if you have one) to help you find it.
• Find the details in your Procedural Safeguards manual or Parent Special Education Guide .
• Fill out the form.
• Make copies and keep one for yourself.
• Send a copy to your school district.
• You may need to send one to the state as well. Some states may have a separate office or system to handle complaints. 

Then stay on top of the process. Find out when the office is supposed to get back to you and call them if they take longer. Document every communication! You may have to use this information to prove it if they don’t follow the required process or timeline.

This is the last step before a Due Process Hearing , which is much more involved. 

Read about the process here .

Louisiana Formal Complaint Request Form .

This goes through the MA Department of Elementary and Secondary Education’s Problem Resolution System.

Here’s what you can do: 

• Go to the Problem Resolution System website . Or contact their office, which is listed there. Phone: 781-338-3700 / Email: [email protected]  
• You can file a complaint online , or download and print a form . 
• Read the Complaint Procedures Guide , which will describe the whole process.

Forms and Information Guide are available in English and 9 other languages.

5. File for a Due Process Hearing

This is a formal meeting, like a court trial. It should be a last resort! Read all about the Due Process Hearing .

These resources all have more detailed information about your rights, Dispute Resolution and conflict resolution in Special Education.

• IDEA Dispute Resolution Parent Guides : Five 8-page booklets about different parts of the process
• Know your rights: What is IDEA?
• More ways to learn about your state’s Special Education rights
• Louisiana’s Educational Rights of Children with Disabilities: Special Education Processes and Procedural Safeguards . Dispute resolution starts on page 15
• A Good IDEA for Louisiana: A Guide for Parents and Students About Special Education Services . This detailed booklet is easy to understand and explains the process for dispute resolution. It even has sample letters that you can adapt for your own needs
• Louisiana Believes Dispute Resolution page . You can also contact the State at [email protected]
• Louisiana’s Parent Training and Information Center

BSEA stands for the Bureau for Special Education Appeals . This is a state office that conducts mediation, advisory opinions and hearings to resolve disputes about Special Education.  

• A Parent’s Guide to Special Education  See p. 31
• Parent’s Notice of Procedural Safeguards Official rules and processes. See p.7
• Problem Resolution System’s Complaint Info Guide In English and 9 other languages
• The Problem Resolution System (PRS) , which handles complaints.

Check out our page: Special Education Hub

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Initiating conflict resolution in schools: teaching skills for effective, non-violent problem solving, additional details.

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A Conflict Resolution Protocol for Elementary Classrooms

There are many strategies we use to teach these social skills at the elementary level (K–6), one of which is teaching a protocol for conflict resolution. Many good conflict resolution procedures have been developed and articulated in recent years (some excellent resources are cited at the end of this article). Below we outline one that has worked well in our classrooms.

We usually introduce a conflict resolution protocol around the fourth or fifth week of school, once children are familiar with basic rules and routines and a sense of trust and community has been established in the classroom. As with most conflict resolution protocols, ours involves teaching children the following steps:

• Calming down (walk away, count to ten, etc.)
• Explanation of the upset
• Discussion and resolution
• Some kind of acknowledgment (handshake, for example)

The I-Statement

Before teaching these steps, however, we teach students to deliver emotion-laden information as I-statements, using the formula, “When you _________, I feel __________, because ________, so what I would like is ___________________.” When a child wants to meet with a classmate for conflict resolution, we require that she/he first compose an I-statement before arranging a time and a place for the meeting.

We display the I-statement formula and practice as a class, first, with positive, fun statements, such as “When you giggle, I feel happy, because it makes me giggle too, so what I would like is for you to keep on giggling.” Next, we practice with statements containing more difficult emotions, working with examples removed from direct personal experience. For example, we might use a situation from a book we are reading: “In Charlotte’s Web, when Wilbur heard he would get eaten, he felt scared, because he didn’t want to die, so what he would like is to be allowed to keep living.”

We also generate a list of words, from literature as well as from our own experience, to expand our vocabulary for describing feelings—words such as scared, sorry, sad, angry, frustrated, nervous, irritated. We display this list prominently in the room and children will often glance at it when composing I-statements.

The Meeting

In a conflict resolution meeting, the first child begins by making an I-statement, and the second child listens, then repeats back his/her understanding of what was said. Once the first child agrees that the second has heard correctly, the second child may make an I-statement. The routine continues in which one child makes an I-statement, then the other repeats back what she/he heard (a simple form of active listening), until both (or all) parties feel satisfied that an understanding has been reached and peace has been made.

In the early weeks, a teacher always attends conflict resolution meetings as a “fair witness” to ensure safety and protocol, but speaks as little as possible. As children become more adept with the process, the teacher asks if either one would like a teacher’s presence. If not, we leave them alone. We know that this approach to conflict resolution has become a part of our classroom culture when a student comes to a teacher and says, “Can we meet? I have an I-statement for you.”

The Strategy in Action

A solemn-looking Pearl approaches her fourth-grade teacher.

“I have an I-statement for Robby,” she says.

“Okay. Let’s hear it,” responds her teacher.

Pearl takes a deep breath. “Robby, when you said, ‘Pearly, Pearly, silly girly,’ I felt mad, because you were making fun of me, so what I would like is . . . so what I would like is . . .”

There is a pause while she looks up at the poster with our I-statement formula while she searches to define what she would like. “I would like for you to call me ‘Pearl,’ not ‘Pearly, silly girly.'”

“Sounds good,” says her teacher. “I will meet with you both after lunch.”

After lunch: “Robby, Pearl has asked to meet with you,” his teacher informs him matter-of-factly. “Let’s go to the problem-solving table.” Robby looks apprehensive and grins sheepishly at his buddy Mike as he accompanies his teacher to the table where Pearl is already seated.

Robby takes a seat, shifting nervously and looking sideways at Pearl as he chews a fingernail. Pearl sits up straight, glances at the wall chart, and clears her throat. Even with rehearsal, to speak directly of upset is no easy feat. Out comes her I-statement, exactly as she had practiced.

As soon as she finishes speaking, Robby’s words start to tumble out. “Well, she was . . .”

His teacher interrupts. “Robby, you will have a chance for your own I-statement. Right now, it’s time to tell Pearl what you heard her say.”

“You don’t want me to say ‘Pearly, silly girly.'”

“Pearl, is that right?” asks their teacher.

“Yes.”

“OK, Robby. Would you like to make an I-statement or end with a handshake?” His choices are clear and defined.

“I want to make an I-statement,” asserts Robby. “Umm . . .” He glances at the chart for a cue.

“When you said my new backpack was ugly . . . I felt . . . annoyed because . . . I like my backpack, so I would like . . . for you not to say it’s ugly.”

Pearl needs no cue. “You don’t want me to say it’s ugly?”

“Yeah!” comes Robby’s emphatic response.

“Okay. I’m sorry.” There is silence while Robby digests this apology. (While often a child will apologize spontaneously during a conflict resolution meeting, we never require apologies as part of this process.)

“Robby,” asks his teacher quietly, “are you ready to shake hands or do you have another Istatement?”

The session closes with Robby and Pearl shaking hands (the handshake brings closure to the meeting, symbolizing that both parties have been heard and a mutual understanding has been reached).

Notice that Pearl’s teacher listens to Pearl’s I-statement before setting up the meeting. It is important for the teacher to have a preview of the issue and to make sure that the student has a legitimate I-statement. It is also important for the student to have practice saying it aloud. Though it may seem a simple and formulaic process, it takes great courage for students to initiate it and carry it through, and, in the meeting itself, it helps to have the starting words ready. Notice, too, how many times Pearl and Robby both look to the chart for prompts. This happens not just in the beginning of the year but all year long. It’s important to keep the chart clearly visible from the problem solving spot.

Over and over again, we find that having a ritualized procedure for solving problems can help even the youngest elementary school children resolve conflict peacefully with a minimum of adult intervention. The communication and social skills developed in the process empower students to assert their feelings and experiences while maintaining respect for the feelings and experiences of others.

Additional Resources for Teaching Conflict Resolution in Elementary Schools:

• Porro, B. (1996). Talk it out: Conflict resolution in the elementary classroom. Alexandria, Va.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
• Prutzman, P., Burger, G. Bodenhamer, and L. Stern. (1988). The friendly classroom for a small planet. Philadelphia, Pa.: New Society Publishers.
• Kreidler, W.J. (1990). Elementary perspectives: Teaching concepts of peace and conflict. Cambridge, Mass.: Educators for Social Responsibility.
• Levin, D.E. (1994). Teaching young children in violent times: Building a peaceable classroom. Cambridge, Mass.: Educators for Social Responsibility.
• Resolving Conflict Creatively Program (RCCP): A comprehensive school-based program in conflict resolution and intergroup relations that provides a model for preventing violence and creating caring and peaceable communities of learning.

This article is an adapted excerpt from the book, The First Six Weeks of School .

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Education | Orange County Board of Education mounts legal…

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Education | Orange County Board of Education mounts legal challenge to California’s new gender identity law

Spearheaded by Trustee Jorge Valdes, the board unanimously approved a resolution on Wednesday, Aug. 7, iterating its opposition to the new law, AB 1955 . And it also kicks off a lawsuit to challenge it.

The law, signed by Gov. Gavin Newsom last month , requires the California Department of Education to develop or streamline resources that schools can use to support LGBTQ+ students and their families, including affinity clubs, safe spaces, antibullying and harassment policies and counseling services.

But it also targets parental notification policies, which dictate how school employees may disclose information related to a student’s sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression without the student’s consent. Multiple districts across Southern California , including in Orange County, have enacted some forms of parental notification policies .

The new law prohibits school districts and charter schools from enacting policies that require staff to “disclose any information related to a pupil’s sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression” to another person without their consent, according to AB 1955 .

“LGBTQ+ pupils have the right to express themselves freely at school without fear, punishment or retaliation, including that teachers or administrators might ‘out’ them without their permission,” the legislation said.

The OC Board of Education will join Chino Valley Unified, a San Bernardino school district, in its lawsuit against Newsom over the gender identity law filed last month , Valdes said.

Liberty Justice Center, a Texas-based nonprofit firm, filed the lawsuit on behalf of Chino Valley Unified. Valdes said the firm is doing the work pro bono, meaning taxpayers will not be funding the lawsuit.

In a press release, Liberty Justice Center said the lawsuit has already been amended to include OCBE and Anderson Union High School District in Shasta County. Aside from Newsom, the lawsuit also names Attorney General Rob Bonta and State Superintendent of Public Instruction Tony Thurmond.

“The passage of this resolution is part of my pledge, and this board’s pledge, to protect Orange County children and parents,” Valdes said.

Many people spoke about the resolution during Wednesday night’s board meeting, including several who decried the law, often citing religious beliefs and the view that parents should be involved in important decisions about their children’s lives.

“I do not believe an underage child has the capacity of making a life-changing decision such as gender identity on their own,” Valdes said in an interview ahead of Wednesday’s meeting. “Parental involvement is absolutely necessary.”

“There is a trust placed with the school by parents when we send our kids to school,” said Valdes. “That trust, in my view, is irreparably harmed (by the law). School employees are forced to keep important information from parents about their children.”

A spokesperson for Newsom said the law keeps children safe while protecting the critical role of parents. The governor’s office noted that California law mandates that minors cannot legally change their name or gender without parental consent and guarantees parents’ right to access their student’s educational records.

“It protects the child-parent relationship by preventing politicians, teachers and school staff from inappropriately intervening in family matters and attempting to control if, when and how families have deeply personal conversations,” said Brandon Richards, a spokesperson for Newsom.

Thurmond, an educator and social worker, defended the law during a recent television debate , saying it “protects young people from being forcibly outed,” which could help prevent suicide.

“It’s a misnomer for those who have said that this takes away parents’ rights. This actually reaffirms the rights that parents and their families have to work on these issues together,” Thurmond, who is running for governor in 2026 , said.

The legislation, introduced by Assemblymember Chris Ward, D-San Diego, will go into effect on Jan. 1 .

“AB 1955: The SAFETY Act is debated and settled law protecting students and teachers across the whole state,” Ward said in a statement Thursday. “With careful attention to court precedent on underlying constitutional issues and the purview of our legislative process to govern the state’s education code, I am confident that we will prevail against wasteful, spiteful and misguided legal challenges.”

Huntington Beach has already launched a challenge to the law . Earlier this week, the City Council drafted an ordinance to establish it as a “Parents Right to Know City” and to see if the city attorney’s office could assist residents who wish to challenge the law in court.

While the OC Board of Education doesn’t regulate school districts’ curriculum or policies, it does oversee special education and alternative programs in the county, including the Alternative, Community and Correctional Education Schools and Services program, which caters to students who face academic and social challenges in traditional classrooms. The ACCESS program, which Valdes said serves around 4,600 students, also helps adults get their high school diplomas.

The OCBE has a parental rights policy that applies only to the ACCESS program, according to Valdes, which states that parents have the right to be notified of their children’s preferred use of gender pronouns and whether they are seeking psychological counseling and the content of that counseling, including gender-affirming therapies.

“The Orange County Board of Education recognizes that parents/guardians are their children’s first and most influential teachers and that active parent involvement in the education of their children contributes greatly to student achievement and a positive school environment,”  the policy states .

OCBE is also responsible for approving the Department of Education’s budget and considers appeals regarding expulsions, charter school applications and inter-district transfers.

Staff writer Michael Slaten contributed to this report.

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What Minnesota Voters Think of Tim Walz

The governor succeeded in projecting an avuncular image. But not all voters are convinced that he rose above partisanship or united the state.

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Harris and Walz Hold First Campaign Rally Together

Vice president kamala harris and her newly announced running mate, gov. tim walz of minnesota, went on the attack against the trump-vance republican ticket during a raucous rally in philadelphia..

“To his former high school students, he was Mr. Walz. And to his former high school football players, he was Coach. And in 91 days, the nation will know Coach Walz by another name: Vice President of the United States.” “Thank you, Madam Vice President, for the trust you put in me, but maybe more so, thank you for bringing back the joy. Now, Donald Trump sees the world a little differently than us. First of all, he doesn’t know the first thing about service. He doesn’t have time for it because he’s too busy serving himself. Like all regular people I grew up with in the heartland, JD [Vance] studied at Yale, had his career funded by Silicon Valley billionaires, and then wrote a best seller trashing that community. Come on. That’s not what middle America is. And I got to tell you, I can’t wait to debate the guy.”

By Robb Murray Christina Capecchi Dan Simmons Jeff Ernst and Richard Fausset

Robb Murray, Christina Capecchi, Dan Simmons and Jeff Ernst reported from throughout Minnesota. Richard Fausset contributed from Atlanta.

If Gov. Tim Walz has achieved anything after 18 years in public office, it has been to convince many of his fellow Minnesotans that he is decidedly not weird.

On Tuesday, Annakeiko Reichel-Frink, a teacher from Mankato, Minn., called Mr. Walz “a very normal human being.” Maria Bevacqua, a college professor from the same small city, where Mr. Walz once taught at the high school, described him as “somebody you would bump into at the grocery store.” Adam Lueth, a college student who is leaning toward the Republican ticket, said that Mr. Walz, a Democrat, comes across as “a genuine guy.”

Mr. Walz was thrust into the national spotlight on Tuesday when Kamala Harris, the Democratic presidential nominee, announced that he would be her running mate. The second-term governor seemed to rocket to the top of the list after he used one word quite effectively against Donald Trump, the Republican candidate: He was simply being “weird.”

Mr. Walz has succeeded in projecting an avuncular, affable, relentlessly normcore image to Minnesotans. But on Tuesday, in interviews across the state, voters also seemed less than convinced that Governor Walz had succeeded in rising above partisanship, or in uniting the state as “One Minnesota,” as his 2018 campaign slogan put it.

That perceived lack of unity may partially be the result of Mr. Walz’s political formula, which has tended to serve up dollops of Minnesota nice over an ambitious progressive policy agenda, one that has its roots in Minnesota politicians like Hubert Humphrey or Walter Mondale.

But it may also be the case that a nice-guy candidate — even one whom voters could imagine having a beer with — has limited power to charm nowadays, when hot tempers and invective seem to be the rule.

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Local News | NAACP Pomona Valley Branch is instrumental in…

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Local News | NAACP Pomona Valley Branch is instrumental in adoption of Buffalo Soldiers education resolution

Delegates to the convention, held this year in Las Vegas, voted to ensure U.S. students are educated on the history of the Buffalo Soldiers, who were members of African American regiments in the U.S. Army.

The resolution is a result of the educational efforts of Donna Jackson-Houston, a member of the NAACP Pomona Valley Branch and of the city of Pomona’s Community Life Commission, according to a news release. Jackson-Houston was also one of the Pomona Valley Branch’s voting delegates at the NAACP convention.

After discovering four years ago that her grandfather Lucius Jackson served as a Buffalo Soldier during World War I in the 25th Infantry, Jackson-Houston founded the Nogales Buffalo Soldiers Legacy Association. Its mission is to partner with schools and communities across the nation to educate students about the accomplishments of the Buffalo Soldiers.

Jackson-Houston looks forward to working with educators and historians to develop a curriculum to share nationally, according to the news release.

The NAACP adopted the Buffalo Soldiers National Educational Resolution July 16, shortly before National Buffalo Soldiers Day, which has been observed on July 28 since its designation in 1992.

Other voting delegates from the NAACP Pomona Valley Branch at the national convention were James Shirley, Jerry Fenning and Jeanette Ellis-Royston, branch president.

The NAACP Pomona Valley Branch serves Chino, Chino Hills, San Dimas, La Verne, Claremont, Ontario, Pomona, Montclair, Upland and Diamond Bar.

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