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How to Perform Behavioral Experiments to Open Your Mind

Test how real your assumptions are and you might change your life.

Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

  Thomas Barwick  / Stone / Getty Images Plus

What you think and believe isn't always true. But holding onto some of those beliefs might cause you to suffer.

When this happens, psychotherapists sometimes encourage clients to perform behavioral experiments that test the reality of their beliefs. It’s a powerful cognitive behavioral therapy technique that can help people recognize that their assumptions aren’t necessarily accurate.

For example, someone who believes they are destined to be an “insomniac” might try several different behavioral experiments in an attempt to uncover whether specific strategies might help them sleep better, like exercising in the morning and turning off their screens an hour before bedtime.

So, how can you learn these behavioral techniques to break yourself out of your self-limiting beliefs? Read on to find out.

How It Works

The behavioral experiments we are talking about are rooted in cognitive behavioral therapy, a technique that focuses on your thoughts and beliefs that are negatively affecting you and learning to reframe those thoughts and beliefs so that they aren't so negative. Cognitive behavioral therapists help you become aware of your problems and the thoughts, emotions, and beliefs about your problems.

In CBT, your therapist helps identify inaccurate thoughts and thought patterns that contribute to the problem. Then, they help you challenge your irrational or unproductive thoughts by asking questions and encouraging you to consider alternative ways to view an issue.

Therapists often ask questions that help clients look for exceptions to their rules and assumptions. For example, if you say, "No one ever likes me," your therapist might ask, “When was a time when someone did like you?” This can help you see that your assumptions aren’t 100% accurate.

But changing thought patterns isn't always effective in changing deeply held core beliefs. This is in part because we’re constantly looking for evidence that supports our beliefs. For example, someone who believes no one ever likes her might automatically think not getting a response from a text message is further proof that people dislike her. Meanwhile, she may view an invitation to a party as a “sympathy invite” from someone who feels sorry for her, not as proof that people actually like her.

When changing thought patterns aren’t effective in changing a person’s beliefs, changing their behavior first may be the best option.

If you accomplish something you assumed you couldn’t do, you may begin to see yourself differently. Or seeing that people don’t respond the way you assumed they would may help you let go of your unhealthy beliefs about other people.

Using behavioral experiments to gather evidence can chip away at self-limiting beliefs and help you begin to see yourself, other people, or the world in a different manner.

Studies show that cognitive behavioral therapy is effective in treating a variety of issues, including anxiety, depression , sleep disorders, substance abuse issues , and PTSD .

Press Play For Advice On Reframing

Hosted by Amy Morin, LCSW, this episode of The Verywell Mind Podcast shares tips for reframing your self-limiting beliefs, featuring Paralympic gold medalist Mallory Weggemann.

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The Process

Behavioral experiments can take many forms. You might conduct a behavioral experiment by taking a survey to gather evidence about whether other people hold certain beliefs; this presents you with insight into others that contradicts your own assumptions. Or it might involve facing one of your fears head-on, to realize that the outcome is not as bad as you originally believed.

No matter what type of behavioral experiment you are conducting, you and your therapist usually work together on the following process:

• Identifying the exact belief/thought/process the experiment will target
• Brainstorming ideas for the experiment
• Predicting the outcome and devising a method to record the outcome
• Anticipating challenges and brainstorming solutions
• Conducting the experiment
• Reviewing the experiment and drawing conclusions
• Identifying follow-up experiments if needed

You and your therapist will work together to design the experiment. Then, you'll conduct the experiment and monitor the results. You and your therapist will then debrief together and discuss how the results affect your belief system.

Your therapist may prescribe further experiments or ongoing experiments to continue to assess unhealthy beliefs.

Psychotherapists may assist you in designing a behavioral experiment that can counteract almost any distorted way of thinking. Here are a few examples of behavioral experiments:

• A woman believes people will only like her if she is perfect. Her perfectionist tendencies create a lot of stress and anxiety. She agrees to conduct a behavioral experiment that involves making a few mistakes on purpose and then monitoring how people respond. She sends an email with a few typos and sends a birthday card with a grammatical error to see how people respond. When she sees that people still like her after making a few mistakes, she can recognize that she doesn't have to be perfect all the time.
• A man believes he’s socially awkward. Consequently, he rarely attends social events—and when he does, he sits in the corner by himself. His behavioral experiment involves going to one social event per week and talking to five people. He then gauges how people to respond to him when he acts outgoing and friendly. This can help convince him that he can, in fact, function in social settings.
• A woman worries her boyfriend is cheating on her. She checks his social media accounts throughout the day to see what he is doing. Her behavioral experiment is to stop using social media for two weeks and see if her anxiety gets better or worse. This can help her realize that her previous behavior was actually fueling her anxiety, not mitigating it.
• A man struggles to stay asleep at night. When he wakes up, he turns on the TV and watches it until he falls asleep again. His behavioral experiment is to read a book when he wakes up to see if it helps him fall back to sleep faster. This can help him practice better sleep hygiene and teach him that the way he was dealing with his insomnia was worse for his health, not better.
• A woman with depression doesn’t go to work on days when she feels bad. On these days she stays in bed all day watching TV. Her behavioral experiment involves pushing herself to go to work on days she’s tempted to stay in bed to see if getting out of the house improves her mood. This teaches her that she is actually able to function better than she originally assumed, which can help her deal with her depressive episodes in the future.
• A man with social anxiety avoids socializing at all costs. He thinks he won’t have anything worthwhile to contribute to conversations. His behavioral experiment is to start attending small social events to see if his interactions with others go as poorly as he anticipates. This can help him understand that there isn't as much to worry about in social settings as he was afraid there was, and helps him practice facing his anxiety head-on so that it doesn't keep him from being social in the future.

A Word From Verywell

If you’re interested in testing some of the potentially self-limiting beliefs you’ve been holding onto, try designing your own behavioral experiment. If you’re not certain how to get started, want some help designing the experiment, or would like to learn more about how to recognize irrational beliefs, then contact a cognitive behavioral therapist.

If you aren’t sure where to find one, speak to your physician. Your doctor may be able to refer a cognitive behavioral therapist who can assist you.

David D, Cristea I, Hofmann SG. Why Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Is the Current Gold Standard of Psychotherapy .  Frontiers in Psychiatry . 2018;9. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00004.

Hofmann SG, Asnaani A, Vonk IJJ, Sawyer AT, Fang A. The Efficacy of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Review of Meta-analyses .  Cognitive Therapy and Research . 2013;36(5):427-440. doi:10.1007/s10608-012-9476-1.

By Amy Morin, LCSW Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist and international bestselling author. Her books, including "13 Things Mentally Strong People Don't Do," have been translated into more than 40 languages. Her TEDx talk,  "The Secret of Becoming Mentally Strong," is one of the most viewed talks of all time.

Hannah Owens is the Mental Health/General Health Editor for Verywell Mind. She is a licensed social worker with clinical experience in community mental health.

• The 25 Most Influential Psychological Experiments in History

While each year thousands and thousands of studies are completed in the many specialty areas of psychology, there are a handful that, over the years, have had a lasting impact in the psychological community as a whole. Some of these were dutifully conducted, keeping within the confines of ethical and practical guidelines. Others pushed the boundaries of human behavior during their psychological experiments and created controversies that still linger to this day. And still others were not designed to be true psychological experiments, but ended up as beacons to the psychological community in proving or disproving theories.

This is a list of the 25 most influential psychological experiments still being taught to psychology students of today.

1. A Class Divided

Study conducted by: jane elliott.

Study Conducted in 1968 in an Iowa classroom

Experiment Details: Jane Elliott’s famous experiment was inspired by the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the inspirational life that he led. The third grade teacher developed an exercise, or better yet, a psychological experiment, to help her Caucasian students understand the effects of racism and prejudice.

Elliott divided her class into two separate groups: blue-eyed students and brown-eyed students. On the first day, she labeled the blue-eyed group as the superior group and from that point forward they had extra privileges, leaving the brown-eyed children to represent the minority group. She discouraged the groups from interacting and singled out individual students to stress the negative characteristics of the children in the minority group. What this exercise showed was that the children’s behavior changed almost instantaneously. The group of blue-eyed students performed better academically and even began bullying their brown-eyed classmates. The brown-eyed group experienced lower self-confidence and worse academic performance. The next day, she reversed the roles of the two groups and the blue-eyed students became the minority group.

At the end of the experiment, the children were so relieved that they were reported to have embraced one another and agreed that people should not be judged based on outward appearances. This exercise has since been repeated many times with similar outcomes.

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2. Asch Conformity Study

Study conducted by: dr. solomon asch.

Study Conducted in 1951 at Swarthmore College

Experiment Details: Dr. Solomon Asch conducted a groundbreaking study that was designed to evaluate a person’s likelihood to conform to a standard when there is pressure to do so.

A group of participants were shown pictures with lines of various lengths and were then asked a simple question: Which line is longest? The tricky part of this study was that in each group only one person was a true participant. The others were actors with a script. Most of the actors were instructed to give the wrong answer. Strangely, the one true participant almost always agreed with the majority, even though they knew they were giving the wrong answer.

The results of this study are important when we study social interactions among individuals in groups. This study is a famous example of the temptation many of us experience to conform to a standard during group situations and it showed that people often care more about being the same as others than they do about being right. It is still recognized as one of the most influential psychological experiments for understanding human behavior.

3. Bobo Doll Experiment

Study conducted by: dr. alburt bandura.

Study Conducted between 1961-1963 at Stanford University

In his groundbreaking study he separated participants into three groups:

• one was exposed to a video of an adult showing aggressive behavior towards a Bobo doll
• another was exposed to video of a passive adult playing with the Bobo doll
• the third formed a control group

Children watched their assigned video and then were sent to a room with the same doll they had seen in the video (with the exception of those in the control group). What the researcher found was that children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to exhibit aggressive behavior towards the doll themselves. The other groups showed little imitative aggressive behavior. For those children exposed to the aggressive model, the number of derivative physical aggressions shown by the boys was 38.2 and 12.7 for the girls.

The study also showed that boys exhibited more aggression when exposed to aggressive male models than boys exposed to aggressive female models. When exposed to aggressive male models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by boys averaged 104. This is compared to 48.4 aggressive instances exhibited by boys who were exposed to aggressive female models.

While the results for the girls show similar findings, the results were less drastic. When exposed to aggressive female models, the number of aggressive instances exhibited by girls averaged 57.7. This is compared to 36.3 aggressive instances exhibited by girls who were exposed to aggressive male models. The results concerning gender differences strongly supported Bandura’s secondary prediction that children will be more strongly influenced by same-sex models. The Bobo Doll Experiment showed a groundbreaking way to study human behavior and it’s influences.

4. Car Crash Experiment

Study conducted by: elizabeth loftus and john palmer.

Study Conducted in 1974 at The University of California in Irvine

The participants watched slides of a car accident and were asked to describe what had happened as if they were eyewitnesses to the scene. The participants were put into two groups and each group was questioned using different wording such as “how fast was the car driving at the time of impact?” versus “how fast was the car going when it smashed into the other car?” The experimenters found that the use of different verbs affected the participants’ memories of the accident, showing that memory can be easily distorted.

This research suggests that memory can be easily manipulated by questioning technique. This means that information gathered after the event can merge with original memory causing incorrect recall or reconstructive memory. The addition of false details to a memory of an event is now referred to as confabulation. This concept has very important implications for the questions used in police interviews of eyewitnesses.

5. Cognitive Dissonance Experiment

Study conducted by: leon festinger and james carlsmith.

Study Conducted in 1957 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: The concept of cognitive dissonance refers to a situation involving conflicting:

This conflict produces an inherent feeling of discomfort leading to a change in one of the attitudes, beliefs or behaviors to minimize or eliminate the discomfort and restore balance.

Cognitive dissonance was first investigated by Leon Festinger, after an observational study of a cult that believed that the earth was going to be destroyed by a flood. Out of this study was born an intriguing experiment conducted by Festinger and Carlsmith where participants were asked to perform a series of dull tasks (such as turning pegs in a peg board for an hour). Participant’s initial attitudes toward this task were highly negative.

They were then paid either $1 or $20 to tell a participant waiting in the lobby that the tasks were really interesting. Almost all of the participants agreed to walk into the waiting room and persuade the next participant that the boring experiment would be fun. When the participants were later asked to evaluate the experiment, the participants who were paid only $1 rated the tedious task as more fun and enjoyable than the participants who were paid $20 to lie.

Being paid only $1 is not sufficient incentive for lying and so those who were paid $1 experienced dissonance. They could only overcome that cognitive dissonance by coming to believe that the tasks really were interesting and enjoyable. Being paid $20 provides a reason for turning pegs and there is therefore no dissonance.

6. Fantz’s Looking Chamber

Study conducted by: robert l. fantz.

Study Conducted in 1961 at the University of Illinois

Experiment Details: The study conducted by Robert L. Fantz is among the simplest, yet most important in the field of infant development and vision. In 1961, when this experiment was conducted, there very few ways to study what was going on in the mind of an infant. Fantz realized that the best way was to simply watch the actions and reactions of infants. He understood the fundamental factor that if there is something of interest near humans, they generally look at it.

To test this concept, Fantz set up a display board with two pictures attached. On one was a bulls-eye. On the other was the sketch of a human face. This board was hung in a chamber where a baby could lie safely underneath and see both images. Then, from behind the board, invisible to the baby, he peeked through a hole to watch what the baby looked at. This study showed that a two-month old baby looked twice as much at the human face as it did at the bulls-eye. This suggests that human babies have some powers of pattern and form selection. Before this experiment it was thought that babies looked out onto a chaotic world of which they could make little sense.

7. Hawthorne Effect

Study conducted by: henry a. landsberger.

Study Conducted in 1955 at Hawthorne Works in Chicago, Illinois

Landsberger performed the study by analyzing data from experiments conducted between 1924 and 1932, by Elton Mayo, at the Hawthorne Works near Chicago. The company had commissioned studies to evaluate whether the level of light in a building changed the productivity of the workers. What Mayo found was that the level of light made no difference in productivity. The workers increased their output whenever the amount of light was switched from a low level to a high level, or vice versa.

The researchers noticed a tendency that the workers’ level of efficiency increased when any variable was manipulated. The study showed that the output changed simply because the workers were aware that they were under observation. The conclusion was that the workers felt important because they were pleased to be singled out. They increased productivity as a result. Being singled out was the factor dictating increased productivity, not the changing lighting levels, or any of the other factors that they experimented upon.

The Hawthorne Effect has become one of the hardest inbuilt biases to eliminate or factor into the design of any experiment in psychology and beyond.

8. Kitty Genovese Case

Study conducted by: new york police force.

Study Conducted in 1964 in New York City

Experiment Details: The murder case of Kitty Genovese was never intended to be a psychological experiment, however it ended up having serious implications for the field.

According to a New York Times article, almost 40 neighbors witnessed Kitty Genovese being savagely attacked and murdered in Queens, New York in 1964. Not one neighbor called the police for help. Some reports state that the attacker briefly left the scene and later returned to “finish off” his victim. It was later uncovered that many of these facts were exaggerated. (There were more likely only a dozen witnesses and records show that some calls to police were made).

What this case later become famous for is the “Bystander Effect,” which states that the more bystanders that are present in a social situation, the less likely it is that anyone will step in and help. This effect has led to changes in medicine, psychology and many other areas. One famous example is the way CPR is taught to new learners. All students in CPR courses learn that they must assign one bystander the job of alerting authorities which minimizes the chances of no one calling for assistance.

9. Learned Helplessness Experiment

Study conducted by: martin seligman.

Study Conducted in 1967 at the University of Pennsylvania

Seligman’s experiment involved the ringing of a bell and then the administration of a light shock to a dog. After a number of pairings, the dog reacted to the shock even before it happened. As soon as the dog heard the bell, he reacted as though he’d already been shocked.

During the course of this study something unexpected happened. Each dog was placed in a large crate that was divided down the middle with a low fence. The dog could see and jump over the fence easily. The floor on one side of the fence was electrified, but not on the other side of the fence. Seligman placed each dog on the electrified side and administered a light shock. He expected the dog to jump to the non-shocking side of the fence. In an unexpected turn, the dogs simply laid down.

The hypothesis was that as the dogs learned from the first part of the experiment that there was nothing they could do to avoid the shocks, they gave up in the second part of the experiment. To prove this hypothesis the experimenters brought in a new set of animals and found that dogs with no history in the experiment would jump over the fence.

This condition was described as learned helplessness. A human or animal does not attempt to get out of a negative situation because the past has taught them that they are helpless.

10. Little Albert Experiment

Study conducted by: john b. watson and rosalie rayner.

Study Conducted in 1920 at Johns Hopkins University

The experiment began by placing a white rat in front of the infant, who initially had no fear of the animal. Watson then produced a loud sound by striking a steel bar with a hammer every time little Albert was presented with the rat. After several pairings (the noise and the presentation of the white rat), the boy began to cry and exhibit signs of fear every time the rat appeared in the room. Watson also created similar conditioned reflexes with other common animals and objects (rabbits, Santa beard, etc.) until Albert feared them all.

This study proved that classical conditioning works on humans. One of its most important implications is that adult fears are often connected to early childhood experiences.

11. Magical Number Seven

Study conducted by: george a. miller.

Study Conducted in 1956 at Princeton University

Experiment Details:   Frequently referred to as “ Miller’s Law,” the Magical Number Seven experiment purports that the number of objects an average human can hold in working memory is 7 ± 2. This means that the human memory capacity typically includes strings of words or concepts ranging from 5-9. This information on the limits to the capacity for processing information became one of the most highly cited papers in psychology.

The Magical Number Seven Experiment was published in 1956 by cognitive psychologist George A. Miller of Princeton University’s Department of Psychology in Psychological Review .  In the article, Miller discussed a concurrence between the limits of one-dimensional absolute judgment and the limits of short-term memory.

In a one-dimensional absolute-judgment task, a person is presented with a number of stimuli that vary on one dimension (such as 10 different tones varying only in pitch). The person responds to each stimulus with a corresponding response (learned before).

Performance is almost perfect up to five or six different stimuli but declines as the number of different stimuli is increased. This means that a human’s maximum performance on one-dimensional absolute judgment can be described as an information store with the maximum capacity of approximately 2 to 3 bits of information There is the ability to distinguish between four and eight alternatives.

12. Pavlov’s Dog Experiment

Study conducted by: ivan pavlov.

Study Conducted in the 1890s at the Military Medical Academy in St. Petersburg, Russia

Pavlov began with the simple idea that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn. He observed that dogs do not learn to salivate when they see food. This reflex is “hard wired” into the dog. This is an unconditioned response (a stimulus-response connection that required no learning).

Pavlov outlined that there are unconditioned responses in the animal by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and then measuring its salivary secretions. In the experiment, Pavlov used a bell as his neutral stimulus. Whenever he gave food to his dogs, he also rang a bell. After a number of repeats of this procedure, he tried the bell on its own. What he found was that the bell on its own now caused an increase in salivation. The dog had learned to associate the bell and the food. This learning created a new behavior. The dog salivated when he heard the bell. Because this response was learned (or conditioned), it is called a conditioned response. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus.

This theory came to be known as classical conditioning.

13. Robbers Cave Experiment

Study conducted by: muzafer and carolyn sherif.

Study Conducted in 1954 at the University of Oklahoma

Experiment Details: This experiment, which studied group conflict, is considered by most to be outside the lines of what is considered ethically sound.

In 1954 researchers at the University of Oklahoma assigned 22 eleven- and twelve-year-old boys from similar backgrounds into two groups. The two groups were taken to separate areas of a summer camp facility where they were able to bond as social units. The groups were housed in separate cabins and neither group knew of the other’s existence for an entire week. The boys bonded with their cabin mates during that time. Once the two groups were allowed to have contact, they showed definite signs of prejudice and hostility toward each other even though they had only been given a very short time to develop their social group. To increase the conflict between the groups, the experimenters had them compete against each other in a series of activities. This created even more hostility and eventually the groups refused to eat in the same room. The final phase of the experiment involved turning the rival groups into friends. The fun activities the experimenters had planned like shooting firecrackers and watching movies did not initially work, so they created teamwork exercises where the two groups were forced to collaborate. At the end of the experiment, the boys decided to ride the same bus home, demonstrating that conflict can be resolved and prejudice overcome through cooperation.

Many critics have compared this study to Golding’s Lord of the Flies novel as a classic example of prejudice and conflict resolution.

14. Ross’ False Consensus Effect Study

Study conducted by: lee ross.

Study Conducted in 1977 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: In 1977, a social psychology professor at Stanford University named Lee Ross conducted an experiment that, in lay terms, focuses on how people can incorrectly conclude that others think the same way they do, or form a “false consensus” about the beliefs and preferences of others. Ross conducted the study in order to outline how the “false consensus effect” functions in humans.

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In the first part of the study, participants were asked to read about situations in which a conflict occurred and then were told two alternative ways of responding to the situation. They were asked to do three things:

• Guess which option other people would choose
• Say which option they themselves would choose
• Describe the attributes of the person who would likely choose each of the two options

What the study showed was that most of the subjects believed that other people would do the same as them, regardless of which of the two responses they actually chose themselves. This phenomenon is referred to as the false consensus effect, where an individual thinks that other people think the same way they do when they may not. The second observation coming from this important study is that when participants were asked to describe the attributes of the people who will likely make the choice opposite of their own, they made bold and sometimes negative predictions about the personalities of those who did not share their choice.

15. The Schachter and Singer Experiment on Emotion

Study conducted by: stanley schachter and jerome e. singer.

Study Conducted in 1962 at Columbia University

Experiment Details: In 1962 Schachter and Singer conducted a ground breaking experiment to prove their theory of emotion.

In the study, a group of 184 male participants were injected with epinephrine, a hormone that induces arousal including increased heartbeat, trembling, and rapid breathing. The research participants were told that they were being injected with a new medication to test their eyesight. The first group of participants was informed the possible side effects that the injection might cause while the second group of participants were not. The participants were then placed in a room with someone they thought was another participant, but was actually a confederate in the experiment. The confederate acted in one of two ways: euphoric or angry. Participants who had not been informed about the effects of the injection were more likely to feel either happier or angrier than those who had been informed.

What Schachter and Singer were trying to understand was the ways in which cognition or thoughts influence human emotion. Their study illustrates the importance of how people interpret their physiological states, which form an important component of your emotions. Though their cognitive theory of emotional arousal dominated the field for two decades, it has been criticized for two main reasons: the size of the effect seen in the experiment was not that significant and other researchers had difficulties repeating the experiment.

16. Selective Attention / Invisible Gorilla Experiment

Study conducted by: daniel simons and christopher chabris.

Study Conducted in 1999 at Harvard University

Experiment Details: In 1999 Simons and Chabris conducted their famous awareness test at Harvard University.

Participants in the study were asked to watch a video and count how many passes occurred between basketball players on the white team. The video moves at a moderate pace and keeping track of the passes is a relatively easy task. What most people fail to notice amidst their counting is that in the middle of the test, a man in a gorilla suit walked onto the court and stood in the center before walking off-screen.

The study found that the majority of the subjects did not notice the gorilla at all, proving that humans often overestimate their ability to effectively multi-task. What the study set out to prove is that when people are asked to attend to one task, they focus so strongly on that element that they may miss other important details.

17. Stanford Prison Study

Study conducted by philip zimbardo.

Study Conducted in 1971 at Stanford University

The Stanford Prison Experiment was designed to study behavior of “normal” individuals when assigned a role of prisoner or guard. College students were recruited to participate. They were assigned roles of “guard” or “inmate.”  Zimbardo played the role of the warden. The basement of the psychology building was the set of the prison. Great care was taken to make it look and feel as realistic as possible.

The prison guards were told to run a prison for two weeks. They were told not to physically harm any of the inmates during the study. After a few days, the prison guards became very abusive verbally towards the inmates. Many of the prisoners became submissive to those in authority roles. The Stanford Prison Experiment inevitably had to be cancelled because some of the participants displayed troubling signs of breaking down mentally.

Although the experiment was conducted very unethically, many psychologists believe that the findings showed how much human behavior is situational. People will conform to certain roles if the conditions are right. The Stanford Prison Experiment remains one of the most famous psychology experiments of all time.

18. Stanley Milgram Experiment

Study conducted by stanley milgram.

Study Conducted in 1961 at Stanford University

Experiment Details: This 1961 study was conducted by Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram. It was designed to measure people’s willingness to obey authority figures when instructed to perform acts that conflicted with their morals. The study was based on the premise that humans will inherently take direction from authority figures from very early in life.

Participants were told they were participating in a study on memory. They were asked to watch another person (an actor) do a memory test. They were instructed to press a button that gave an electric shock each time the person got a wrong answer. (The actor did not actually receive the shocks, but pretended they did).

Participants were told to play the role of “teacher” and administer electric shocks to “the learner,” every time they answered a question incorrectly. The experimenters asked the participants to keep increasing the shocks. Most of them obeyed even though the individual completing the memory test appeared to be in great pain. Despite these protests, many participants continued the experiment when the authority figure urged them to. They increased the voltage after each wrong answer until some eventually administered what would be lethal electric shocks.

This experiment showed that humans are conditioned to obey authority and will usually do so even if it goes against their natural morals or common sense.

19. Surrogate Mother Experiment

Study conducted by: harry harlow.

Study Conducted from 1957-1963 at the University of Wisconsin

Experiment Details: In a series of controversial experiments during the late 1950s and early 1960s, Harry Harlow studied the importance of a mother’s love for healthy childhood development.

In order to do this he separated infant rhesus monkeys from their mothers a few hours after birth and left them to be raised by two “surrogate mothers.” One of the surrogates was made of wire with an attached bottle for food. The other was made of soft terrycloth but lacked food. The researcher found that the baby monkeys spent much more time with the cloth mother than the wire mother, thereby proving that affection plays a greater role than sustenance when it comes to childhood development. They also found that the monkeys that spent more time cuddling the soft mother grew up to healthier.

This experiment showed that love, as demonstrated by physical body contact, is a more important aspect of the parent-child bond than the provision of basic needs. These findings also had implications in the attachment between fathers and their infants when the mother is the source of nourishment.

20. The Good Samaritan Experiment

Study conducted by: john darley and daniel batson.

Study Conducted in 1973 at The Princeton Theological Seminary (Researchers were from Princeton University)

Experiment Details: In 1973, an experiment was created by John Darley and Daniel Batson, to investigate the potential causes that underlie altruistic behavior. The researchers set out three hypotheses they wanted to test:

• People thinking about religion and higher principles would be no more inclined to show helping behavior than laymen.
• People in a rush would be much less likely to show helping behavior.
• People who are religious for personal gain would be less likely to help than people who are religious because they want to gain some spiritual and personal insights into the meaning of life.

Student participants were given some religious teaching and instruction. They were then were told to travel from one building to the next. Between the two buildings was a man lying injured and appearing to be in dire need of assistance. The first variable being tested was the degree of urgency impressed upon the subjects, with some being told not to rush and others being informed that speed was of the essence.

The results of the experiment were intriguing, with the haste of the subject proving to be the overriding factor. When the subject was in no hurry, nearly two-thirds of people stopped to lend assistance. When the subject was in a rush, this dropped to one in ten.

People who were on the way to deliver a speech about helping others were nearly twice as likely to help as those delivering other sermons,. This showed that the thoughts of the individual were a factor in determining helping behavior. Religious beliefs did not appear to make much difference on the results. Being religious for personal gain, or as part of a spiritual quest, did not appear to make much of an impact on the amount of helping behavior shown.

21. The Halo Effect Experiment

Study conducted by: richard e. nisbett and timothy decamp wilson.

Study Conducted in 1977 at the University of Michigan

Experiment Details: The Halo Effect states that people generally assume that people who are physically attractive are more likely to:

• be intelligent
• be friendly
• display good judgment

To prove their theory, Nisbett and DeCamp Wilson created a study to prove that people have little awareness of the nature of the Halo Effect. They’re not aware that it influences:

• their personal judgments
• the production of a more complex social behavior

In the experiment, college students were the research participants. They were asked to evaluate a psychology instructor as they view him in a videotaped interview. The students were randomly assigned to one of two groups. Each group was shown one of two different interviews with the same instructor. The instructor is a native French-speaking Belgian who spoke English with a noticeable accent. In the first video, the instructor presented himself as someone:

• respectful of his students’ intelligence and motives
• flexible in his approach to teaching
• enthusiastic about his subject matter

In the second interview, he presented himself as much more unlikable. He was cold and distrustful toward the students and was quite rigid in his teaching style.

After watching the videos, the subjects were asked to rate the lecturer on:

• physical appearance

His mannerisms and accent were kept the same in both versions of videos. The subjects were asked to rate the professor on an 8-point scale ranging from “like extremely” to “dislike extremely.” Subjects were also told that the researchers were interested in knowing “how much their liking for the teacher influenced the ratings they just made.” Other subjects were asked to identify how much the characteristics they just rated influenced their liking of the teacher.

After responding to the questionnaire, the respondents were puzzled about their reactions to the videotapes and to the questionnaire items. The students had no idea why they gave one lecturer higher ratings. Most said that how much they liked the lecturer had not affected their evaluation of his individual characteristics at all.

The interesting thing about this study is that people can understand the phenomenon, but they are unaware when it is occurring. Without realizing it, humans make judgments. Even when it is pointed out, they may still deny that it is a product of the halo effect phenomenon.

22. The Marshmallow Test

Study conducted by: walter mischel.

Study Conducted in 1972 at Stanford University

In his 1972 Marshmallow Experiment, children ages four to six were taken into a room where a marshmallow was placed in front of them on a table. Before leaving each of the children alone in the room, the experimenter informed them that they would receive a second marshmallow if the first one was still on the table after they returned in 15 minutes. The examiner recorded how long each child resisted eating the marshmallow and noted whether it correlated with the child’s success in adulthood. A small number of the 600 children ate the marshmallow immediately and one-third delayed gratification long enough to receive the second marshmallow.

In follow-up studies, Mischel found that those who deferred gratification were significantly more competent and received higher SAT scores than their peers. This characteristic likely remains with a person for life. While this study seems simplistic, the findings outline some of the foundational differences in individual traits that can predict success.

23. The Monster Study

Study conducted by: wendell johnson.

Study Conducted in 1939 at the University of Iowa

Experiment Details: The Monster Study received this negative title due to the unethical methods that were used to determine the effects of positive and negative speech therapy on children.

Wendell Johnson of the University of Iowa selected 22 orphaned children, some with stutters and some without. The children were in two groups. The group of children with stutters was placed in positive speech therapy, where they were praised for their fluency. The non-stutterers were placed in negative speech therapy, where they were disparaged for every mistake in grammar that they made.

As a result of the experiment, some of the children who received negative speech therapy suffered psychological effects and retained speech problems for the rest of their lives. They were examples of the significance of positive reinforcement in education.

The initial goal of the study was to investigate positive and negative speech therapy. However, the implication spanned much further into methods of teaching for young children.

24. Violinist at the Metro Experiment

Study conducted by: staff at the washington post.

Study Conducted in 2007 at a Washington D.C. Metro Train Station

During the study, pedestrians rushed by without realizing that the musician playing at the entrance to the metro stop was Grammy-winning musician, Joshua Bell. Two days before playing in the subway, he sold out at a theater in Boston where the seats average $100. He played one of the most intricate pieces ever written with a violin worth 3.5 million dollars. In the 45 minutes the musician played his violin, only 6 people stopped and stayed for a while. Around 20 gave him money, but continued to walk their normal pace. He collected $32.

The study and the subsequent article organized by the Washington Post was part of a social experiment looking at:

• the priorities of people

Gene Weingarten wrote about the social experiment: “In a banal setting at an inconvenient time, would beauty transcend?” Later he won a Pulitzer Prize for his story. Some of the questions the article addresses are:

• Do we perceive beauty?
• Do we stop to appreciate it?
• Do we recognize the talent in an unexpected context?

As it turns out, many of us are not nearly as perceptive to our environment as we might like to think.

25. Visual Cliff Experiment

Study conducted by: eleanor gibson and richard walk.

Study Conducted in 1959 at Cornell University

Experiment Details: In 1959, psychologists Eleanor Gibson and Richard Walk set out to study depth perception in infants. They wanted to know if depth perception is a learned behavior or if it is something that we are born with. To study this, Gibson and Walk conducted the visual cliff experiment.

They studied 36 infants between the ages of six and 14 months, all of whom could crawl. The infants were placed one at a time on a visual cliff. A visual cliff was created using a large glass table that was raised about a foot off the floor. Half of the glass table had a checker pattern underneath in order to create the appearance of a ‘shallow side.’

In order to create a ‘deep side,’ a checker pattern was created on the floor; this side is the visual cliff. The placement of the checker pattern on the floor creates the illusion of a sudden drop-off. Researchers placed a foot-wide centerboard between the shallow side and the deep side. Gibson and Walk found the following:

• Nine of the infants did not move off the centerboard.
• All of the 27 infants who did move crossed into the shallow side when their mothers called them from the shallow side.
• Three of the infants crawled off the visual cliff toward their mother when called from the deep side.
• When called from the deep side, the remaining 24 children either crawled to the shallow side or cried because they could not cross the visual cliff and make it to their mother.

What this study helped demonstrate is that depth perception is likely an inborn train in humans.

Among these experiments and psychological tests, we see boundaries pushed and theories taking on a life of their own. It is through the endless stream of psychological experimentation that we can see simple hypotheses become guiding theories for those in this field. The greater field of psychology became a formal field of experimental study in 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory dedicated solely to psychological research in Leipzig, Germany. Wundt was the first person to refer to himself as a psychologist. Since 1879, psychology has grown into a massive collection of:

• methods of practice

It’s also a specialty area in the field of healthcare. None of this would have been possible without these and many other important psychological experiments that have stood the test of time.

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Behavioral Experiments: Powerful Tools for Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Personal Growth

Picture yourself boldly testing your deepest assumptions about life, armed with the transformative tools of behavioral experiments – a cornerstone of cognitive behavioral therapy and a catalyst for profound personal growth. These powerful techniques, rooted in the scientific method, offer a unique opportunity to challenge our beliefs, reshape our thoughts, and ultimately, change our lives for the better.

Behavioral experiments are structured activities designed to test the validity of our thoughts, beliefs, and assumptions about ourselves, others, and the world around us. They’re like personal science projects, where you’re both the researcher and the subject. By engaging in these experiments, we can gather real-world evidence to support or refute our beliefs, leading to more accurate and helpful ways of thinking.

The importance of behavioral experiments in psychology and personal development cannot be overstated. They provide a bridge between our internal world of thoughts and feelings and the external reality we inhabit. By actively testing our assumptions, we can break free from limiting beliefs, overcome fears, and develop more adaptive behaviors. This process is at the heart of behavioral therapy principles , which form the foundation of effective treatment in many psychological interventions.

The history of behavioral experiments can be traced back to the early days of behaviorism in the early 20th century. Pioneers like John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner laid the groundwork for understanding how behavior is shaped by environmental factors. However, it wasn’t until the cognitive revolution of the 1960s and 1970s that behavioral experiments began to incorporate cognitive elements, leading to the development of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) as we know it today.

Types of Behavioral Experiments

Behavioral experiments come in various forms, each designed to address specific aspects of our thoughts and behaviors. Let’s explore some of the most common types:

1. Cognitive restructuring experiments: These experiments aim to challenge and modify unhelpful thought patterns. For instance, someone with social anxiety might test their belief that “Everyone will laugh at me if I make a mistake” by intentionally making a small error in a social situation and observing the actual reactions of others.

2. Exposure-based experiments: These involve gradually facing feared situations or stimuli to reduce anxiety and avoidance behaviors. A person with a fear of heights might start by looking out of a second-story window, then progress to higher floors over time.

3. Behavioral activation experiments: These experiments are designed to increase engagement in pleasurable or meaningful activities, particularly for individuals struggling with depression. A participant might test the belief “I won’t enjoy anything” by scheduling and engaging in activities they used to enjoy.

4. Social experiments: These focus on testing beliefs about social interactions and relationships. Someone might challenge the belief “People don’t like me” by initiating conversations with strangers and noting their responses.

5. Self-efficacy experiments: These experiments aim to build confidence in one’s abilities. A person might test the belief “I can’t learn new skills” by attempting to learn a simple new skill and tracking their progress over time.

Behavioral Experiments in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

In the context of behavioral labs , cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) stands out as a prime example of how behavioral experiments can be effectively utilized in a therapeutic setting. CBT is a form of psychotherapy that focuses on identifying and changing negative thought patterns and behaviors. Behavioral experiments play a crucial role in this process by providing concrete evidence that can challenge and modify these patterns.

The process of designing and implementing CBT behavioral experiments typically involves several steps:

1. Identifying the problematic belief or assumption 2. Collaboratively designing an experiment to test this belief 3. Predicting the outcome based on the current belief 4. Carrying out the experiment 5. Analyzing the results and comparing them to the prediction 6. Drawing conclusions and discussing implications for the belief system

One of the primary goals of behavioral experiments in CBT is to address common cognitive distortions. These are habitual errors in thinking that can lead to negative emotions and maladaptive behaviors. Some examples include:

– All-or-nothing thinking: Viewing situations in black-and-white terms – Overgeneralization: Drawing broad conclusions from a single event – Catastrophizing: Assuming the worst possible outcome will occur – Mind reading: Believing you know what others are thinking without evidence

Let’s consider a case study to illustrate the power of behavioral experiments in CBT. Sarah, a 32-year-old woman, struggled with social anxiety and believed that “If I speak up in meetings, everyone will think I’m stupid.” Her therapist helped her design an experiment where she would contribute one idea in her next team meeting and observe the reactions of her colleagues. To her surprise, her contribution was met with positive feedback and encouragement. This experience provided concrete evidence against her negative belief and helped her gradually increase her participation in meetings.

Steps to Conduct a Behavioral Experiment

Conducting a behavioral experiment is a structured process that can be applied both in therapeutic settings and in everyday life. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you design and carry out your own experiments:

1. Identifying beliefs or assumptions to test: Start by pinpointing a specific belief or assumption that you want to challenge. This could be something like “I’m not creative” or “People will reject me if I express my opinion.”

2. Formulating a hypothesis: Based on your belief, create a testable hypothesis. For example, “If I try to come up with five creative ideas in 10 minutes, I won’t be able to do it.”

3. Designing the experiment: Create a specific, measurable plan to test your hypothesis. In this case, you might set a timer for 10 minutes and attempt to generate five unique ideas for a project.

4. Carrying out the experiment: Execute your plan exactly as designed. It’s important to follow through even if you feel anxious or uncertain.

5. Analyzing results and drawing conclusions: After the experiment, carefully examine what happened. Did the outcome match your prediction? What evidence did you gather? Be objective in your analysis.

6. Integrating findings into daily life: Based on your results, consider how you might adjust your beliefs or behaviors going forward. If you were able to generate five ideas, how does this challenge your belief about your creativity?

Benefits and Challenges of Behavioral Experiments

The advantages of using behavioral experiments are numerous and can lead to significant personal growth and psychological well-being. Some key benefits include:

1. Providing concrete evidence to challenge negative beliefs 2. Increasing self-awareness and insight 3. Developing problem-solving skills 4. Boosting confidence and self-efficacy 5. Facilitating lasting behavioral change

However, it’s important to acknowledge that conducting behavioral experiments can also present challenges. Some potential obstacles include:

1. Fear or anxiety about facing challenging situations 2. Difficulty in designing appropriate experiments 3. Resistance to changing long-held beliefs 4. Misinterpretation of results due to cognitive biases

To overcome these challenges, it can be helpful to start with small, manageable experiments and gradually work up to more challenging ones. Working with a therapist or a supportive friend can also provide guidance and accountability.

Ethical considerations are paramount when conducting behavioral experiments, especially in therapeutic or research settings. It’s crucial to ensure that experiments do not cause undue distress or put participants at risk. In behavioral brain research , for instance, strict ethical guidelines are followed to protect both human and animal subjects.

Behavioral experiments can be even more powerful when combined with other therapeutic techniques. For example, mindfulness practices can enhance self-awareness during experiments, while cognitive restructuring techniques can help reframe beliefs based on experimental outcomes.

Behavioral Experiments Beyond Therapy

While behavioral experiments are a cornerstone of CBT, their applications extend far beyond the therapy room. They can be powerful tools for personal growth and self-improvement in various aspects of life.

In the workplace, behavioral experiments can be used to test assumptions about job performance, leadership skills, or team dynamics. For example, a manager who believes they’re not good at public speaking might experiment with different presentation techniques and gather feedback from colleagues.

Educational settings also provide fertile ground for behavioral experiments. Students can use these techniques to challenge beliefs about their learning abilities or test different study strategies. Teachers can design classroom experiments to help students understand complex concepts or challenge societal assumptions.

Behavioral science projects often incorporate experiments to explore human behavior on a larger scale. For instance, researchers might conduct field experiments to study how environmental cues influence decision-making or how social norms affect behavior.

The behavior lab concept has even expanded into the digital realm, with online platforms allowing researchers to conduct large-scale behavioral experiments with diverse populations. These virtual labs have opened up new possibilities for studying human behavior in various contexts.

Conclusion: Embracing the Power of Behavioral Experiments

As we’ve explored throughout this article, behavioral experiments are powerful tools for personal growth, psychological well-being, and scientific inquiry. They offer a structured, evidence-based approach to challenging our assumptions and reshaping our beliefs about ourselves and the world around us.

The future of behavioral experiment research and application looks bright, with advancements in technology opening up new possibilities. Virtual reality, for instance, could allow for immersive experiments that were previously impossible or impractical to conduct in real-world settings. Additionally, the integration of behavioral measures with neuroimaging techniques could provide deeper insights into the brain mechanisms underlying behavioral change.

As we conclude, I encourage you to embrace the spirit of curiosity and self-discovery that behavioral experiments embody. Start small – challenge a minor assumption about yourself or your environment. Design a simple experiment to test it. You might be surprised by what you discover.

Remember, the goal isn’t always to prove your beliefs wrong. Sometimes, experiments will confirm what you already believed. The true value lies in the process of questioning, testing, and learning. By adopting this scientific approach to your own thoughts and behaviors, you’re equipping yourself with a powerful tool for lifelong growth and adaptation.

So, why not start today? Pick a belief you’ve always wondered about, design your experiment, and take that first step towards a more examined, intentional life. After all, as the great scientist Richard Feynman once said, “The first principle is that you must not fool yourself – and you are the easiest person to fool.” Behavioral experiments offer us a way to see past our own biases and assumptions, opening the door to new understandings and possibilities.

Who knows? Your next behavioral experiment might just be the key to unlocking a whole new perspective on life. So go ahead, be bold, be curious, and most importantly, be willing to put your beliefs to the test. The journey of self-discovery awaits!

References:

1. Beck, J. S. (2011). Cognitive behavior therapy: Basics and beyond. Guilford Press.

2. Bennett-Levy, J., Butler, G., Fennell, M., Hackmann, A., Mueller, M., & Westbrook, D. (Eds.). (2004). Oxford guide to behavioural experiments in cognitive therapy. Oxford University Press.

3. Craske, M. G., Treanor, M., Conway, C. C., Zbozinek, T., & Vervliet, B. (2014). Maximizing exposure therapy: An inhibitory learning approach. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 58, 10-23.

4. Dobson, D., & Dobson, K. S. (2018). Evidence-based practice of cognitive-behavioral therapy. Guilford Publications.

5. Hofmann, S. G., & Asmundson, G. J. (2008). Acceptance and mindfulness-based therapy: New wave or old hat?. Clinical Psychology Review, 28(1), 1-16.

6. Kazdin, A. E. (2011). Single-case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings. Oxford University Press.

7. Leahy, R. L. (2003). Cognitive therapy techniques: A practitioner’s guide. Guilford Press.

8. McMillan, D., & Lee, R. (2010). A systematic review of behavioral experiments vs. exposure alone in the treatment of anxiety disorders: A case of exposure while wearing the emperor’s new clothes?. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(5), 467-478.

9. Rouf, K., Fennell, M., Westbrook, D., Cooper, M., & Bennett-Levy, J. (2004). Devising effective behavioural experiments. Oxford guide to behavioural experiments in cognitive therapy, 21-58.

10. Westbrook, D., Kennerley, H., & Kirk, J. (2011). An introduction to cognitive behaviour therapy: Skills and applications. Sage.

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What is a behavioural experiment and how to perform one?

What is a behavioural experiment.

A behavioural experiment is a tool used in cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT) to test how realistic or not a thought, idea or belief is. Thoughts and beliefs are powerful mental events with the capacity to cause emotional distress, especially when the content of the thought is unrealistic and unhelpful. Behavioural experiments aim to challenge these upsetting thoughts by directly testing their reality with an experiment.

We have a multitude of thoughts every day, but many of them are just not true. However, we tend to take them as if they were real. For example, you may have a thought that says that you need to wear a lot of make-up in order to be liked on dates. You may want to test this idea by going on several dates without any makeup to see if that thought turns out to be true. What if it is not true, and you are spending hours and hours making up for no reason? What if people like you with or without make-up? No better way to prove the thought wrong than by exposing yourself to the fear and analysing what happens in reality.

Behavioural experiments can be used to test any type of idea, including worry thoughts (e.g., if I don’t overprepare I won’t make a good presentation at work), o thoughts that make us sad (e.g., I won’t pass this exam) for example. They are used often in therapy for OCD , CBT for bulimia , social anxiety , panic disorder, and other mental health problems .

Negative predictions

Many of us have fearful thoughts that make us feel anxious or depressed . We tend to:

• Overestimate the probability that bad things will happen to us. We are constantly thinking that there is a danger around the corner.
• Amplify how bad things will be. We think of worse-case scenarios that often never happen.
• Underestimate our capacity to cope and deal with problems
• Disregard other factors in the situation which suggest that things will not be as bad as we are expecting.

As a result of these negative, unrealistic, and extreme predictions we may engage in unhelpful behaviours that can provide us with short-term relief but that are harmful in the long term:

• Avoidance : we may stay away from the feared situation thinking that it will be worse than it would be in reality.
• Safety behaviours : these behaviours are a form of avoidance. They are anything we do that reduce the anxiety in the short-term, but that reinforce the fear. For instance, in social anxiety, a safety behaviour could be thinking of possible excuses we could use to leave a party early in case we feel anxious and want to leave.
• Escaping the situation : we may face the situation but escape as soon as we feel uncomfortable.

These behaviours send the brain the idea that the risk is real, that there is a danger that needs to be taken care of. Also, they prevent us from testing if the risk is so high in real life.

For instance, if you have been invited to a job interview and your prediction is ‘I will blow this interview, I will make a fool of myself and they will think I am stupid’, you may avoid going to the interview. This will help you to reduce the anxiety briefly, however, it reinforces the idea that you can’t do job interviews, and any future job interview or similar situation will trigger anxiety again.

Steps to perform a behavioural experiment

Behavioural experiments can take many forms, like taking a survey to collect proof about whether other people hold a particular belief or facing fear and evaluating what is the outcome.

If needed, to avoid overwhelming the person, the client and therapist can break down a big experiment into smaller, more manageable ones. For example, a final goal may be testing the idea ‘if I go to the gym people will give me looks’, however going to the gym for a full hour can be very distressing at the beginning. This goal can be broken down into going to the gym for five minutes, ten, 20, etc.

These experiments usually involve testing a hypothesis and the process that the therapist and client follow is similar for all types of behavioural experiments. These are the steps:

• Identify the exact idea , thought, or belief the behavioural experiment will test. How strongly do you believe this? (e.g., if I go to the gym many people will give me looks and judge me. I believe this eight out of ten).
• Brainstorming ideas for the experiment and deciding what it will consist of. (e.g., going to the gym for five minutes. Using a machine and then leaving. Analyse other’s people reactions and see if they look at me).
• Writing down the predicted outcome/s (e.g., in these five minutes five people will give me looks and I will feel extremely embarrassed, like nine out of ten embarrassed).
• Predicting challenges and coming up with solutions. (e.g., it may be true that people give me looks. If that happens, I will remind myself that they are not necessarily judging me).
• Conducting the experiment. Remember to become aware of the results, including your thoughts, feelings, and behaviours.
• Analyse the results of the experiment and draw conclusions. What have you learned? (e.g., only two people gave me looks, and I felt a bit embarrassed. However, I was only five out of ten embarrassed, and it was manageable. I can’t know if the two people were judging me, but it didn’t feel that way and they only looked at me for two seconds.)
• Plan the next behavioural experiment if needed. (e.g., next time you can repeat the same experiment, or continue with the next slightly more difficult experiment, going to the gym for 10 minutes).
• Based on the results of the behavioural experiment/s rate how strongly you now believe in your original thought (0-10).
• Come up with an alternative thought , more realistic and accurate than the initial one. Based on the behavioural experiment, rate how much you believe the new thought. (e.g., some people but not everybody will look at me in the gym. I can’t know if they are having judging thoughts or not. However, the more I go to the gym, the more I get used to people looking at me, and I don’t feel so embarrassed anymore. I can go to the gym and work out without feeling too upset. I believe this nine out of ten).

Examples of behavioural experiments

Here we have some examples of behavioural experiments, as used in CBT :

• A businessman often gets very anxious when his emails pile up, thinking that ‘I need to answer every email asap, otherwise people will get angry at me’. He could try a behavioural experiment where he doesn’t reply in a few hours or a day on purpose and monitor how people react.
• A girl with social anxiety has difficulty talking to men, she thinks she will make a fool of herself, and they won’t want to talk to her. Her behavioural experiment consists of talking to five men every week and exploring if they are keen to talk to her.
• A boy with OCD checks multiple times that he has closed the door before going to work, as he fears that someone might break into his house. He could experiment by checking only once and then leaving to work and see if the worst-case scenario becomes real or not.
• A woman with depression doesn’t leave bed thinking that she has no energy to do any activity. Her behavioural experiment includes spending 10 minutes every day going out for a walk to test if she doesn’t have any energy.
• A man wants to challenge himself and put himself in an uncomfortable situation. He thinks he will feel extremely embarrassed and wants to test that. He plans to go on the bus and shout the next station out loud to see if he feels as bad as predicted.
• A boy with body dissatisfaction avoids going to the beach with his friends because of his fear of being judged. He tests his friends’ reactions by going to the beach with them and analysing their responses.

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Changing Core Beliefs: Using Behavioral Experiments to Rewire Your Brain

Bay Area CBT Center

• September 16, 2023

Table of Contents

Behavioral experiments are a powerful tool in cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). They are designed to test and challenge the beliefs (maladaptive schemas) and assumptions of individuals, leading to significant changes in their behavior and emotional responses.

This article examines the efficacy of behavioral experiments in CBT, provides insights into crafting impactful behavioral tests, and offers methods to foster a positive mindset.

What are Behavioral Experiments in CBT?

Behavioral experiments in CBT are practical activities where individuals test out their thoughts and schemas, core-beliefs, in real-life situations. Schemas are deeply ingrained patterns of thought and belief that shape our behaviors and reactions. These experiments are designed to help individuals gather evidence about the validity of these maladaptive schemas and replacing these with more adaptive beliefs and behaviors. In turn, modify their thinking patterns and behaviors.

For example, someone with a social alienation/isolation schema, who believes they are socially awkward, might be encouraged to start a conversation with a stranger. The outcome of this experiment could challenge their limiting schema and lead to a change in their behavior.

The Influence of Experimental Psychology

Experimental psychology has greatly influenced the development and implementation of behavioral experiments in CBT. It provides the theoretical and methodological framework for conducting these experiments.

Experimental psychology emphasizes the importance of empirical data in understanding human behavior. This aligns with the principles of CBT, which is based on the idea that our thoughts and behaviors can be understood and modified through empirical evidence.

Behavioural experiments in CBT are a powerful tool for challenging and changing maladaptive schemas and behaviors. They are backed by the principles of science and are implemented through effective behavioral interventions. Through experimenting with new behaviors individuals learn effective coping strategies.

The Role of Behavioral Interventions

Behavioral interventions play a crucial role in evidence-based therapies, including cognitive behavioral therapy. These interventions are strategies used by therapists to help individuals change their behaviors. They include techniques such as exposure therapy, distress tolerance training, and cognitive restructuring.

Behavioral interventions aim to replace maladaptive behaviors with more adaptive ones. They help individuals to understand the relationship between their thoughts, feelings, sensations, and behaviors, and how these can be modified to improve their mental health.

The Power of Behavioral Experiments in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Behavioral experiments in CBT have a significant impact on the treatment of various psychological disorders. They are particularly effective in restructuring maladaptive schemas associated with anxiety disorders , depression , attachment styles , personality disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) .

These experiments help individuals to:

• Challenge their beliefs: Behavioral experiments provide a platform for individuals to test their beliefs and assumptions . This can lead to a shift in their thinking patterns and behaviors.
• Gain self-confidence: By successfully completing behavioral experiments, individuals can boost their self-confidence and self-esteem.
• Improve problem-solving skills: Behavioral experiments encourage individuals to approach problems in a systematic and logical manner, thereby improving their problem-solving skills.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a widely recognized form of psychotherapy that deals with the interplay between our thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. A central component of CBT is the identification and modification of core beliefs and schemas— deeply held beliefs about ourselves, others, and the world around us. One of the most effective ways to challenge and change these core beliefs is through the use of behavioral experiments.

Understanding Core Beliefs and Schemas

Before diving into the role of behavioral experiments, it’s essential to understand what core beliefs and schemas are. Schemas are cognitive structures that help us organize and interpret information. They are developed from early life experiences and shape the way we view the world. Over time, if these schemas are negative or distorted, they can lead to patterns of maladaptive behavior.

The Role of Behavioral Experiments in CBT

Behavioral experiments are structured activities that therapists and clients design to test the validity of a particular belief. They act as “real-world tests” where beliefs are put to the challenge.

 1. Hypothesis Formation: Just like in scientific experiments, a behavioral experiment starts with forming a hypothesis based on a core belief. For instance, someone with social anxiety might have a belief, “If I go to the party, everyone will judge me.”

 2. Designing the Experiment: The therapist and client then design an experiment to test this belief. In this case, the individual might decide to attend a social gathering and observe people’s reactions.

 3. Gathering Evidence: During and after the experiment, the client gathers evidence to support or refute their core belief. Did people genuinely judge them, or were they welcoming and friendly?

 4. Reflection: After the experiment, the client and therapist discuss the results. In many cases, individuals find that their negative core beliefs are not supported by evidence. They can then work on forming a more balanced and accurate belief based on their findings.

The Benefits of Behavioral Experiments in Modifying Schemas

Behavioral experiments are experiential activities where individuals deliberately and systematically test out their negative beliefs or fears to determine their validity. The premise is straightforward: beliefs treated as hypotheses are subjected to testing in real-world conditions.

This approach embodies the scientific method within therapy, wherein hypotheses (beliefs) are put to the test, data is collected through experience, and conclusions are drawn based on outcomes.For example, consider someone with social anxiety who holds the core belief: “If I attend a social gathering, I will embarrass myself, and people will judge me.”

A corresponding behavioral experiment might involve attending a social event and observing the reactions of others, collecting data on instances of perceived judgment or embarrassment, and then reflecting on the outcome. If the individual finds that people didn’t judge them, or even if they did but the consequences weren’t as dire as anticipated, it challenges and weakens the initial negative belief. Here’s why behavioral experiments are so impactful:

 1 Real-world Evidence : Behavioral experiments move beyond the realm of theoretical discussions. By encouraging individuals to face feared situations, they collect tangible evidence that either supports or refutes their core beliefs.

 2 Emotional Processing : Experiencing the outcome of an experiment can lead to emotional shifts. For instance, realizing that a fear is unwarranted after confronting it can lead to feelings of relief and empowerment.

 3 Feedback Loop : Every experiment provides feedback. If the core belief is validated, the experiment can be modified to maximize exposure and learning in future iterations. Conversely, if the belief is refuted, it offers a stepping stone to restructuring cognitive frameworks.

 4. Skill Development : Engaging in behavioral experiments helps individuals hone skills like assertion, social interaction, or even distress tolerance. Over time, repeated exposure and practice make these skills more innate, reducing the impact of the initial negative schema.

 5. Strengthening Adaptive Beliefs : As negative beliefs are challenged and refuted, space is made for the cultivation and reinforcement of more adaptive and realistic beliefs. Strengthening adaptive beliefs helps develop new neuronal connections in neural networks and pathways, which helps rewire the brain towards more adaptive beliefs

Behavioral experiments in CBT are not just about disproving negative beliefs. They are about paving the way for individuals to build a more positive, realistic, and adaptive worldview. By emphasizing action and real-world testing, CBT ensures that individuals are not just passive recipients of therapy but active participants in their journey towards mental well-being.

Overcoming Barriers to Behavioral Experiments

It’s not uncommon for individuals to face significant resistance when attempting to conduct behavioral experiments. These resistances often manifest as deeply entrenched thoughts and emotions, serving as barriers to the actual experiment.

Cognitive Barriers:

Cognitive barriers, such as automatic thoughts, predictions, stories, and narratives, can prevent you from aligning with your values and taking effective actions. Creating distance from these schema-driven thoughts reduces the impact of these narratives on your behaviors.

These exercises help in distancing yourself from your automatic schema-driven thoughts. By doing so, you reduce their influence on your actions.

• Identify schemas: The first step is recognizing the thought holding you back. What belief does this thought stem from? By identifying the underlying schema, you provide clarity to the nature of your resistance.
• Defusion Exercises: These are techniques where you observe your thoughts without judgment, see them as just ‘thoughts’ and not facts, and create space between you and these thoughts.
• Mindfulness Exercises: Focus on being present and attentive to the current moment, allowing thoughts and feelings to come and go without judgment.
• Self as context: Refers to the broader perspective where one recognizes themselves as separate from their thoughts, emotions, or physical sensations. In addressing schema-driven thoughts, it allows individuals to observe their ingrained beliefs without being defined or limited by them.
• Wise Mind: This perspective fosters detachment from restrictive thought patterns and provides a space to evaluate them without judgment
• Clarify Your Values: By understanding what truly matters to you, you gain motivation and direction to challenge and behave in oprotion to your automatic thoughts.

Somatic Barriers:

Somatic barriers often encompass schema-driven feelings and sensations that hinder individuals from undertaking behavioral experiments or acting in accordance with their values.

To navigate these barriers: 

 1. Label the Feeling: Recognize and name the emotion you’re experiencing as this is the foundational step in its management.

 2. Connect to a Schema: Dive into understanding the roots of this emotion and discern which of your schemas triggers this specific feeling.

 3. Practice Somatic Interventions: Use techniques specifically tailored to address both the emotions and bodily sensations associated with these barriers, fostering self-compassion and creating a conducive space for managing challenging emotions.

Somatic techniques: 

• Emotion Exposure : Gradually and safely exposing yourself to the difficult emotion to decrease its intensity over time.
• Vagus Nerve Stimulation Exercises: Techniques that stimulate the vagus nerve, promote calmness and relaxation.
• Self-compassion Meditations: Guided meditations that focus on cultivating love and understanding for oneself.
• Loving Kindness Phrases or Mantras: Repeating positive affirmations or mantras that foster a sense of well-being and kindness.
• Somatic Experiencing: A therapeutic technique designed to release trauma stored in the body.
• Grounding or Anchoring: Exercises that help you connect with the present moment through physical sensations.
• Five Senses Mindfulness Exercise: Focusing on each of the five senses one by one to anchor oneself in the present.
• Diaphragmatic Breathing : Breathing exercises that reduce stress and promote relaxation.
• Tonglen Meditation: A Tibetan Buddhist practice of breathing in suffering and breathing out compassion.
• Distress Tolerance Skills: Techniques to endure and withstand distressing emotions without reacting impulsively.

These cognitive and somatic interventions help you create space for challenging emotions and internal experiences. They transform these emotions from insurmountable barriers to manageable aspects of the self, enabling you to engage more freely in behavioral experiments and move closer to your core values.

Misconceptions About Changing Thoughts

One common misconception in cognitive therapy is the idea that, to change our core beliefs, we merely need to change our thoughts. This assumption stems from the intrinsic human tendency to rationalize or intellectualize our problems. We believe that if we can just “think” differently, we’ll “feel” differently. However, the reality is not so straightforward.

Simply distracting ourselves from negative thoughts or trying to rationalize them away often provides only temporary relief. Our core beliefs, built over time and reinforced by experiences, are resistant to such surface-level tactics.

The Reality: Changing Thoughts with Behaviors

The true key to modifying our deeply held beliefs lies not in changing our thoughts directly but in changing our behaviors. Why? Because behaviors yield experiences, and experiences shape beliefs. The phrase “seeing is believing” captures this essence perfectly.

This is where the importance of behavioral experiments in CBT comes into play. The thought process is simple: “I can’t change thoughts with thoughts; I can only change thoughts with behaviors.”

Mindfulness and Non-Attachment

As our core beliefs soften, we become more “defused” from our automatic, schema-driven thoughts. We start observing these thoughts without being entirely defined by them, akin to watching clouds pass by in the sky. This observational stance is a form of mindfulness—a present-focused awareness that brings clarity and calmness.

Behavioral experiments, in this context, serve a dual purpose. They not only challenge and reshape our core beliefs but also cultivate a mindfulness of our interpersonal dynamics . We become keenly aware of the patterns, triggers, and reactions that shape our behaviors and relationships.

In the end, we don’t merely achieve a change in thought. We evolve into individuals who can hold their beliefs with a gentle non-attachment, allowing us to navigate the complexities of human relationships with greater wisdom, resilience, and grace.

The Role of Behavioral Interventions in Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is anchored in the understanding that our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are intricately connected. Among these, behaviors often serve as the most tangible and modifiable component.

That’s why behavioral interventions are the cornerstone of cognitive psychotherapy , aiming to facilitate tangible changes in how people act and react.

Behavioral interventions are designed to help you modify your behaviors through experiments. While altering deeply ingrained negative beliefs can be challenging, tweaking small behaviors using experiential activities is relatively simpler. Starting with these small actions, therapists and clients collaboratively design experiments to challenge and test certain core beliefs.

Designing Effective Behavioral Experiments

For instance, a person might have the core belief that “If I speak up, I will be ridiculed.” A corresponding behavioral experiment might involve that person voicing their opinion in a safe environment to test if this belief holds true. Collecting data from the outcome of these experiments helps in the process of testing the accuracy of the prediction of what might happen.

One example can be drawn from someone suffering from social anxiety. They might hold a negative belief: “People will judge me if I speak in public.” To challenge this belief, the individual can start by speaking in front of a small, supportive group and gradually increasing the audience size, maximizing exposure therapy. Over time, as they gain positive experiences and feedback, the old belief starts to waver, making way for more adaptive beliefs.

The importance of such behavioral experiments in cognitive therapy cannot be understated. These techniques, such as maximizing exposure therapy, coping strategies, cognitive restructuring, and skill-building, provide individuals with practical tools to replace maladaptive behaviors. The objective is to align actions with one’s values and desired outcomes, replacing harmful patterns with constructive ones.

Changing Behaviors and Habits  

One vital aspect of behavioral interventions is their capacity to teach clients to create a distance from debilitating thoughts and feelings . Instead of being ensnared by negative beliefs or overwhelming emotions in the feared situation, the focus shifts to what’s within an individual’s control: their actions. By concentrating on actions, individuals can foster positive experiences that, over time, can recalibrate their thinking patterns.

Lastly, part of the behavioral interventions toolkit is the cost-benefit analysis. It’s a pragmatic approach, asking individuals to evaluate the efficacy of a certain behavior or belief. Behaviors that seem to offer more immediate benefits than costs can be challenging to change. The costs must outweigh the benefits in order to be able to commit to behavioral change.

If a particular behavior isn’t serving them well or is causing distress, what might be a more effective alternative? What does evidence from their own life and experiences suggest? Reflecting on the identified implications and consequences of their choices, this analysis empowers clients to make choices that better align with their goals and values.

Tailoring Behavioral Experiments for Each Schema

It’s not enough to conduct generic behavioral experiments. Our core beliefs and schemas are as unique as our fingerprints. Therefore, we must design specific, unique behavioral experiments that directly challenge each interpersonal schema , especially those we carry into our relationships.

When we regularly and meticulously conduct these experiments, something transformative happens. Our once rigid core belief begins to waver. The iron grip it had on our psyche loosens. We no longer cling to it with unwavering certainty but instead approach it with a sense of curiosity and open-mindedness.

Behavioral Experiments in Challenging Maladaptive Schemas

Maladaptive schemas are deeply ingrained patterns of thought and belief that influence our behaviors and reactions to various situations. They often stem from childhood experiences and can shape our adult relationships and self-perception.

One effective way to challenge these schemas and potentially reshape them is through behavioral experiments in therapy. By directly confronting these beliefs and collecting real-world evidence, we can reevaluate and adjust our understanding. Below are examples of behavioral experiments for a few common schemas:

• Description: The belief that you must submit to the will of others to avoid negative consequences.
• Hypothesis/Belief: “If I say ‘no’ in relationships, others will retaliate or punish me.”
• Behavioral Experiment: In a situation where you’d typically feel compelled to say ‘yes’, either decline politely or state, “let me think about it,” and observe the reaction of the other person.
• Description: The belief that one is internally flawed and will be exposed and rejected by others.
• Hypothesis/Belief: “If people truly get to know me, they won’t like me.”
• Behavioral Experiment: Share something vulnerable or potentially shameful with a trusted person and gauge their reaction and continued support.
• Description: The belief that your emotional needs will never be met by others.
• Hypothesis/Belief: “People won’t meet my emotional needs even if I express them.”
• Behavioral Experiment: Share a clear request with a trusted person using the nonviolent communication formula and see if they provide the support or understanding you’re asking for.

Each of these behavioral experiments serves as a means to confront and potentially reshape the beliefs underpinning each schema. By engaging in these activities, individuals can gather evidence that might challenge and change their long-held perceptions.

At the Bay Area CBT Center we specialize in CBT and employ behavioural experiments techniques. Offering individual therapy , online counseling , and group workshops , we guide clients in challenging long-held beliefs through real-world tests. With the guidance of a therapist in San Francisco , clients explore and identify their core beliefs.

This safe environment allows you to reflect, process, and establish new beliefs. Many clients discover their fears and assumptions aren’t rooted in reality. Such insights lead to learning, where these new perspectives are tested, fostering improved mental well-being and healthier behaviors. Through this process of reflection and learning, many embrace new beliefs, leading to healthier ways of viewing themselves and the world around them. This approach underscores our commitment to providing transformative therapy in San Francisco.

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Evidence-based therapy involves interventions that are scientifically proven to be effective for particular issues. In this approach, a strong partnership based on trust and collaboration is formed between you and your therapist. Within this supportive and unbiased environment, you can freely express yourself without fear of judgment. Over a series of sessions, you and your therapist will work together to address obstacles and set goals aimed at personal growth and fulfillment. This method ensures that the techniques and strategies used are not only supportive but also empirically validated to help you achieve your therapeutic goals.

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Studies show that the bond between you and your therapist, known as the therapeutic alliance, is a key factor in treatment success. This alliance is characterized by the strength of your relationship and how well you both agree on treatment goals. Research indicates that individuals with a solid therapeutic alliance experience better treatment outcomes including greater productivity at work, more satisfying relationships, improved stress management, and decreased engagement in risky behaviors.

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At the Bay Area CBT Center, we accept PPO insurance plans that allow you to use out-of-network providers. This means if your insurance plan is a PPO and it includes mental health benefits, you could get back some or all of the money you pay for our services, depending on what your insurance company allows. When you see one of our therapists, they’ll give you a superbill. You can send this superbill to your insurance company to ask for reimbursement. If you’re not sure if your insurance covers services from providers not in their network, it’s a good idea to give them a call and check.

You may be eligible to have  60-80%  of your costs covered by out-of-network benefits.

Also, if you have an FSA (Flexible Spending Account), you can usually use it to pay for individual counseling sessions. It’s wise to double-check with your FSA provider or talk to your accountant to make sure that counseling sessions are considered an allowed expense.

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Behavioral Experiment

Behavioral experiments are planned experiential activities to test the validity of a belief. They are one of the most powerful techniques available to CBT therapists. Behavioral experiments are an information gathering exercise, the purpose of which is to test the accuracy of an individual’s beliefs (about themselves, others, and the world) or to test new, more adaptive beliefs. The use of behavioral experiments in cognitive behavioral therapy mirrors the role that experiments play in other branches of science: experiments are used to gather evidence with which to test a theory.

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Techniques associated with this resource

• Behavioral experiments
• Cognitive restructuring

Mechanisms associated with this resource

• Cognitive distortion
• Safety behaviors
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Introduction & Theoretical Background

Behavioural experimentation is widely regarded as the single most powerful way of changing cognitions. (Waller, 2009)

The value of behavioural experiments transcends mere exposure; such experiments allow patient and therapist to collaborate in the gathering of new information assessing the validity of non-threatening explanations of anxiety and associated symptoms. (Salkovskis, 1991)

Beliefs rarely change as a result of intellectual challenge, but only through engaging emotions and behaving in new ways that produce evidence that confirms new beliefs. (Chadwick, Birchwood, Trower, 1996)

Behavioral experiments are planned experiential activities to test the validity of a belief. They are an information gathering exercise, the purpose of which is to test the accuracy of an individual’s beliefs (about themselves, others, and the world) or to test new, more adaptive beliefs (Bennett-Levy et al., 2004). The use of behavioral experiments in cognitive behavioral therapy mirrors the role

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Therapist Guidance

Step 1: identify the target cognition .

The first step in carrying out a behavioral experiment is to identify the target cognition. It is essential to identify these as precisely as possible, and to assess how strongly the individual believes in this prediction or outcome at the outset.

• Beliefs might take the form of an “if… then…” statement, such as “If I make eye contact with people they will attack me”.
• It can be helpful to explore what safety behaviours clients use to prevent negative outcomes. These can then be used to explore underlying beliefs. It can be helpful to ask “What would happen if you were in that situation and didn’t use that safety behavior?”.
• An essential step is to rate the client’s degree of conviction in the belief. This allows for later assessment of change in belief. Conviction ratings can be taken on a 0–10 or 0–100 scale.

References And Further Reading

• Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., Emery, G. (1979). Cognitive therapy of depression . Guilford press.
• Bennett-Levy, J., Butler, G., Fennell, M. J. V., Hackmann, A., Mueller, M., & Westbrook, D. (Eds.) (2004). The Oxford handbook of behavioural experiments . Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Bennett–Levy, J. (2003). Mechanisms of change in cognitive therapy: the case of automatic thought records and behavioural experiments. Behavioural and Cognitive
• Psychotherapy , 31, 261–77.
• Chadwick, P. D. J., Birchwood, M. J., & Trower, P. (1996). Cognitive therapy for delusions, voices and paranoia . Chichester: Wiley.
• Craske, M. G., Treanor, M., Conway, C. C., Zbozinek, T., & Vervliet, B. (2014). Maximizing exposure therapy: an inhibitory learning approach. Behaviour Research and Therapy , 58, 10-23.  
• Herbert, E. A., Dugas, M. J. (2018). Behavioral expeirments for intolerance of uncertainty: challenging the unknown in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice , 26(2), 421-436.  
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