joule experiment energy

Joule and the Conservation of Energy

James Joule was born in 1818, the second son of a prosperous brewer in Manchester, England. His father hired John Dalton (who had proposed the atomic theory of chemistry in 1803) as a private tutor for his two sons. Dalton met with the boys twice a week, guided them through Euclid’s books on geometry, and covered a vast range of natural phenomena. There was also a wilder side to Joule’s science education: he blew his eyebrows off in a gun experiment; he flew kites in thunderstorms. He asked a servant girl to report her sensations as he gave her increasing electric shocks, but stopped when she fell unconscious. (Cardwell, page 16).

But Joule worked with meticulous care in the laboratory. In 1840, at the age of 22, he established that a conductor carrying an electric current became hot, and that the rate of heating for a current I flowing through a resistance R was given by I 2 R for any kind of wire , and even for electric currents in fluids. This was a kind of heat production no-one had seen before—previously, heat had only come from either chemical combustion, or friction, or radiation. And, sad to relate, Rumford’s assertions had had little impact on the scientific community, so the big question was: how did the electric current deliver caloric fluid into the wire? Well, actually, this wasn’t too difficult to explain. In the battery, caloric was no doubt being released in the chemical reactions involved in producing the electric current, and the caloric was then transported down the wire by the current.

( Cultural footnote : Cardwell, page 35) F rom a London perspective, Manchester was (and maybe still is) the boondocks. When Joule submitted his paper on the discovery of the electrical I 2 R heating (now known as Joule heating) to the Royal Society, it was rejected, except for a short abstract. Much later, when asked if that cursory treatment surprised him, he replied : “I was not surprised—I could imagine those gentleman in London sitting round a table and saying to each other ‘what good can come out of a town where they dine in the middle of the day?’”

Next, Joule did an experiment that was tougher for the caloric theory to explain. He found that the very same heating of the wire took place if the electrical current involved, instead of being generated by chemical reactions in a battery, came from a dynamo, a simple coil of wire rotating in a magnetic field. Now where was the “caloric fluid” coming from? The only explanation anyone could come up with was that rotating the coil in the magnetic field must be somehow pumping caloric out of it. So the coil should cool down. Joule tested this hypothesis, and found that instead the coil heated up a little. It was impossible to reconcile this finding with the caloric theory—heat could not be a conserved fluid after all. Joule wrote that in magneto electricity, we have an agent capable by simple means of … generating heat . (Cardwell, page 56).

So “caloric fluid” could be manufactured! The basic assumption of the caloric theory, that this was a conserved fluid, was wrong! Joule next asked if a given amount of work always produced the same amount of heat (we’ll say “heat” instead of the discredited “caloric fluid” from now on). He drove his electrical generator at a steady pace by wrapping fine string around the axle, and tying a weight to the end of it. As the weight fell, the generator settled to a steady pace, which he timed. He then turned the generator at that pace by hand for fifteen minutes, and measured how much heat was generated in a piece of wire immersed in a calorimeter. From that measurement, he was able to calculate that the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water by 1 ° F (that is, one British Thermal Unit of heat, usually written one BTU) could be generated by an 896 pound weight falling through one foot—or a one pound weight falling through 896 feet, etc., in other words, 896 foot × pounds of mechanical work. This figure is in the right ballpark, but almost 20% too high—his later, much more accurate, measurement was 772 foot × pounds per BTU. This was the first time anyone had stated that a measured quantity of heat was equivalent to a corresponding amount of mechanical work .

Finally, in 1845, Joule realized that the electrical apparatus was an unnecessary intermediary—heat could be produced directly by a falling weight. He arranged for the falling weight to drive paddle wheels in a calorimeter, churning up the water. This led to a slight but measurable rise in temperature. He found one BTU was generated by an energy expenditure of 772 foot × pounds (switching his results to the metric system, that one calorie was the equivalent of 4.2 newton.meters, or, as we now say, 4.2 joules). Incidentally, Joule amused himself by demonstrating that Rumford’s detailed records of bringing the water to a boil in the cannon boring could be used to find the mechanical equivalent of heat. Rumford had claimed that he had two horses working for two and a half hours, but he was working them lightly, they were only really doing the work of one. Joule used Watt’s estimate that one horse can work at 33,000 foot × pounds per minute to find an equivalence of over 1000 foot × pounds per BTU, about fifty percent too high, but not a bad estimate in view of all the uncertainties involved.

Joule also calculated that the water just beyond the bottom of a waterfall will be one degree Fahrenheit warmer than the water at the top for every 800 feet of drop, approximately, the kinetic energy turning to heat as the water crashed into rocks at the bottom. Joule spent his honeymoon at Chamonix in the French Alps, and Lord Kelvin claimed later that when he chanced to meet the honeymooners in Switzerland, Joule was armed with a large thermometer to check out the local waterfalls (but it is generally believed that Kelvin made this up).

Joule also did a series of beautiful experiments on electrolysis and combustion. Batteries work because some of the ions in solution are chemically attracted to the metal plates. For example, oxygen ions move to a zinc or iron plate, become chemically attached and deliver charge. By carefully measuring currents, Joule was able to find the “affinity” of oxygen with plates of various elements. He then compared this with the heat produced when zinc or iron, say, were burned in an oxygen atmosphere. He saw, correctly, that this was just another way for oxygen to attach itself to these metals, and he was able to confirm that the same heat was released in these very different-seeming reactions. These chemical investigations, carried out in 1842, were no doubt in the back of his mind when he found that heat was interchangeable with mechanical and electrical energy, and suggested that chemical energy, too, must be in the list.

Joule’s work was so impressive that his provincial origins were forgiven, and by the late 1840’s he was regularly presenting papers to the British Association and the Royal Society. His experiments establishing the equivalence of heat and mechanical work, the cornerstone of the principle of conservation of energy, are among the greatest achievements of nineteenth-century science.

But was Carnot so wrong?

On the face of it, once it became clear that the caloric fluid wasn’t conserved, and therefore didn’t exist in the way Carnot and others had imagined, one would think that Carnot’s elegant analysis of the heat engine as a water wheel using caloric fluid had little remaining value. But that turned out not to be the case. In particular, his analysis of the efficiency of a heat engine was right.

James Joule: A Biography , Donald S. L. Cardwell, Manchester University Press.

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Joule's experiment and the first law of thermodynamics.




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Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

Joule experiment, the original joule experiment consists of a receptacle filled with water and a mechanism with spinning plates. the kinetic energy of the plates is transformed into heat, because the force of gravity performs work on the weight falling a distance . this gave an experimental confirmation of the equivalence between heat and work, now defined to be exactly 1 calorie for every 4.1855 joules and called a "thermochemical calorie"., set the mass of the two suspended spheres in kg, set the mass of water contained in the calorimeter (includes the equivalent mass in water of the calorimeter) in grams, enter a value by moving the sliders or by entering the numbers in the corresponding boxes, press the "start" button, suspended objects will be free to fall under the action of gravity;, at the end of the fall the thermometer will mark a given temperature, greater than the initial one;, press the "start" button to drop the masses again ;, press the "reset" button to reset all the initial conditions;, proposed activity, press the reset button, record the initial temperature ti, drop the spheres n times, record the final temperature tf, calculate the work done: l = 2mgh * n ( we have 2 falling masses and the height h = 2m), calculate the product heat : q =ma (tf-ti) * c (c: specific heat of water = 1cal / (g ° c), ma = mass of water + equivalent mass in water of the calorimeter), calculate j = l / q, note mass of spheres in kilograms water mass in grams sensitivity of the thermometer 0.1 c length of the fall 2m ±1cm, james prescott joule (1818 – 1889) calculated in 1843 the mechanical equivalent of heat in a series of experiments. in the most famous apparatus he built for this end, now called the joule apparatus (see image below), a descending weight attached to a string caused a paddle immersed in water to rotate and heat the water. joule supposed that the gravitational potential energy lost by the weight in descending was equal to the thermal energy (heat) gained by the water by friction with the paddle., in this experiment, the friction and agitation by the paddle-wheel of the body of water, trapped in an insulated barrel (calorimeter), caused heat to be generated which, in turn, increased the temperature of the water. the temperature change ∆t of the water and the height of the fall ∆h of the weight m*g were recorded. using these values, joule was able to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat., joule contended that motion and heat were mutually interchangeable and that, in every case, a given amount of work (motion) would generate the same amount of heat. moreover, he also claimed that heat was only one of many forms of energy (electrical, mechanical, chemical) and only the sum of all forms was conserved. otherwise the calculated mechanical equivalent of heat is meaningless., in 1845, james joule reported his experiment in a paper on the mechanical equivalent of heat for the british association meeting in cambridge..

The quantity of heat produced is given by Q = C (Tf - Ti) cal, in which (Tf - Ti) is the difference between the final and initial temperature and C it is the total amount of heat of the system, given from Maca +Mrcr, in which Ma, ca and Mr, cr are respectively the masses and the specific heats of the distilled water and the calorimeter.

Problems/exercises, ( please insert here some problems and/or exercises), torna alla pagina principale.

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What is the importance of Joule's experiment?

I was reading about the experiment of Joule (Italian wiki page). I'm not sure how it's called in English, since there is only an Italian and French version. In any case, in the page it is stated that (my translation):

Through this experiment, Joule determined the mechanical equivalent of heat to be equal to 4,186 J/cal, value of extraordinary precision for the time.

Is the importance of this experiment "only" ascribable to the fact that the evaluation was really precise and exact for the time? Or are there other reasons?

I don't need a whole list of reasons, just the most exemplary/important 1 fact(s) will suffice.

1: Objectively considered as such by most researchers, experts, etc.

thermodynamics

The answer can be found in the Wikipedia page you linked to! Historically, heat had been considered a substance, called caloric . Joule's experiment proved that heat was actually a form of mechanical energy, so was a crucial step towards our modern understanding of the conservation of energy .

$\begingroup$ Where is it stated? I can't find it. I probably wouldn't have asked if I had seen it. :P $\endgroup$ – Alenanno Commented Nov 27, 2012 at 12:32
$\begingroup$ You should read the entire first section, linked here . $\endgroup$ – Mark Mitchison Commented Nov 27, 2012 at 12:50
$\begingroup$ Ok thanks for the link/answer. Even then, I think it was worth asking here anyway, if anything for having a much better explanation here. :) $\endgroup$ – Alenanno Commented Nov 27, 2012 at 12:58

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At the end of the 18th century the prevailing heat theory was the, obsolete now, , according to which heat consists of a fluid called that flows from hotter to colder bodies. Caloric was also thought of as a weightless gas that could pass in and out of pores in solids and liquids.

Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford (1753 – 1814) was an Anglo-American physicist and inventor whose challenges to established physical theory were part of the 19th century revolution in thermodynamics.

While holding a position for the Bavarian army, Rumford’s experiments on gunnery and explosives led him to an interest in heat. Rumford had observed the large frictional amounts of heat generated by boring brass cannon barrels at the arsenal in Munich. Rumford immersed a cannon barrel in water and arranged for a specially blunted boring tool in order to generate more heat than usual. He showed that the water could be boiled within roughly two and a half hours and that the supply of frictional heat was seemingly inexhaustible since as long as the boring process takes place heat is generated.

Rumford also confirmed that no physical change had taken place in the material of the cannon by comparing the specific heats of the material machined away and that remaining.

Those findings, of Rumford, were incompatible with the caloric theory, speaking about liquids and gases passing between materials since anything that could be generated without limitation could not be a material substance such as a caloric fluid or gas. He contended that the only thing that boiled the water, in his cannon experiments, was the motion of the bore inside the barrel and its resulting friction.

Rumford published his findings in 1798 in his , arguing that in his experiments heat was not the “caloric” but a form of motion.

Count Rumford suspected that there is an equivalence between heat and mechanical work with a definite conversion factor between the two.

However, Rumford made no attempt to further quantify the heat generated or to measure or calculate the mechanical equivalent of heat.

Though Rumford’s work met with a hostile reception, it was subsequently important in establishing the laws of later in the 19th century.

James Prescott Joule (1818 – 1889), an English physicist, calculated in 1843, a few decades after Rumford’s cannon experiments, the mechanical equivalent of heat in a series of experiments. In the most famous apparatus he built for this end, now called the Joule apparatus (see image below), a descending weight attached to a string caused a paddle immersed in water to rotate and heat the water. Joule supposed that the gravitational potential energy lost by the weight in descending was equal to the thermal energy (heat) gained by the water by friction with the paddle.

In this experiment, the friction and agitation by the paddle-wheel of the body of water, trapped in an insulated barrel, caused heat to be generated which, in turn, increased the temperature of the water. The temperature change ∆T of the water and the height of the fall ∆h of the weight m*g were recorded. Using these values, Joule was able to determine the mechanical equivalent of heat.

Specifically, Joule had experimented on the amount of mechanical work generated by friction needed to raise the temperature of a pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit and found a consistent value of 772.24 foot pound force (in English units) or 4.1550 J/cal (SI metric units) in comparison to the 4.1868 J/cal modern value – meaning that around 4.2 J were needed to raise the temperature of 1g of water by 1°.C - and that’s the mechanical equivalent of heat in its respective units (The Joule unit was introduced after Joule's times (after him) and he calculated the mechanical equivalent of heat in English units).

Joule contended that motion and heat were mutually interchangeable and that, in every case, a given amount of work (motion) would generate the same amount of heat. Moreover, he also claimed that heat was only one of many forms of energy (electrical, mechanical, chemical) and only the sum of all forms was conserved. Otherwise the calculated mechanical equivalent of heat is meaningless.

In 1845, James Joule reported his experiment in a paper On the mechanical equivalent of heat for the British Association meeting in Cambridge. http://www.chemteam.info...

Topics of Interest

Others, like Julius von Mayer and Ludwig A. Colding , also contributed independently to the measuring and calculation of the mechanical equivalent of heat in the same time as Joule and also reached similar results, but at the end the credit went to Joule maybe because of simplicity and clarity of his experiments and ideas concerning the matter.

The concept of equivalence stated that motion and heat (and other types of energy) are mutually interchangeable and that in every case, a given amount of work would generate the same amount of heat, provided the work done is totally converted to heat energy. Those early energy pioneers like Joule, Mayer, Colding and others paved the way for the conservation of energy principle , definitively stated by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1847, and the establishment of the science of thermodynamics in the 19th century.

Build a Joule Apparatus and Repeat Joule's Experiment

Before we begin our experiment, a little bit about the physical units involved. The following explanation refers to the more modern and popular SI system of units that can be converted with no much effort (also with the help of online converters) to English units if needed.

The small calorie or gram calorie (symbol: cal) is the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 °C. This is about 4.2 joules.

The large calorie , kilogram calorie or food calorie (symbol: Cal) is the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1 kilogram of water by 1 °C. This is exactly 1000 small calories or about 4.2 kilojoules (4200 J).

In an attempt to avoid confusion, the large calorie is sometimes written as Calorie (with a capital C). This convention, however, is not always followed. Whether the large or small calorie is intended often must be inferred from context. When used in scientific contexts, the term calorie refers to the gram calorie (small calorie). In nutritional contexts, however, a larger unit is more useful. In such contexts the term calorie can be taken to refer to the kilogram calorie (symbol: kcal).

1 Joule is the energy consumed in applying a force of one newton through a distance of one metre (1 newton•metre or N•m).

Specific heat of water = the energy needed to increase the temperature of 1g of water by 1° C (by definition of the calorie) = 1 cal or 4.18 J (inferred from the mechanical equivalent of heat value). Take in account that other materials and liquids have different values for their specific heat.

Joule made a series of measurements and found that, on average a weight of 772 pounds falling through a distance of one foot would raise the temperature of one pound of water by 1° F. 772 pounds means around 350 kg – not so practical of a weight to experiment with. Therefore, Joule used a lesser weight falling over a greater distance, repeated a number of times.

In order to increase the temperature of 1kg (1 liter) of water by 1° C you’ll need some 4200 J of energy generated by the falling body. According to the potential energy loss of the falling body 4200=m*g*h where g the gravitational constant is around 10 m/s 2 so our equation comes to 4200=10m*h or 420=m*h . If we are going to use a mass of 1kg and drop it from a height of 1 m, then we’ll need to repeat this procedure 420 times in order to conclude the experiment.

From this simple equation ( 420=m*h ) is clear that increasing the mass m or the height h or using a sensitive thermometer say with digital display of 0.1°C, with no big effort we can reduce the repetitions needed to much less than one hundred.

We should take in consideration that some energy will be lost by the friction of the falling weight with the air, the string / rope friction, and heat transferred to the insulated barrel. So, your results will be a little higher than the 4.18 J/c. Therefore, the barrel must be caped and insulated as much as possible and the thermometer inserted through the cape not allowing contact with room air. And the experiment should be performed around 25 °C room temperature since physical values are defined for room temperature.

In order to achieve accurate results as much as possible it is recommended to repeat the entire experiment a few times, remove the extremes and calculate the average.

Another option for experimentation with Joule's apparatus is to try to measure the specific heat of other liquids than water.

Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas: Joule’s Experiments

The Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas : Joule’s Experiments

In an adiabatic expansion the work is done by the system on the surrounding at the expense of the internal energy. This was experimentally demonstrated by J. P. Joule in 1844. The experiments were per-formed in an apparatus described in Figure. Two similar copper vessels, one filled with an ‘ideal gas’ at a high pressure and the other evacuated, were used.

Fig: Joule’s Experiments

The vessels were connected by means of a stop-cock. These were then placed in a water bath, the temperature of which was recorded. When the stop-cork was open gas rushed from the high pressure vessel to the evacuated vessel. As a result the temperature of the vessel containing the gas under pressure fell, but that of the originally evacuated vessel rose by an equal amount. When equilibrium was established the temperature of the water bath was again recorded. There was no change in the temperature of the bath which means that there was neither absorption nor evolution of heat in the system.

Since the total volume of the system consisting of the two vessels had not changed, no external work was done against the atmosphere. Since q = 0 and w = 0, it follows from equation that ∆U must be zero. In other words, for an ideal gas the internal energy is independent of volume, i.e.,

(δU/δV) r = 0

This is regarded as a thermodynamic criterion for an ideal gas.

Intensive and Extensive Thermodynamic Properties

Conventions in Heat of Reaction

Cyclic Process in Thermodynamics

Gibbs Free Energy: Spontaneity and Equilibrium

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SEC Combats Scourge of Affinity Fraud With Proactive Experiment

By Matthew Bultman

Sanjay Singh pitched an investment in his Florida trucking company as a path for the middle class to achieve the American dream.

Money would be used to expand his fleet and build out the company’s operations, with investors guaranteed to make returns of 12.5% to 325%, the pitch went, according to authorities.

“We take the risk, we take the liability, you enjoy the investment,” he said in a 2023 promotional video , “Driving American Dream.” “That is our business model.”

Singh’s company, Royal Bengal Logistics, took in $112 million before the Securities and Exchange Commission shut it down, alleging Singh was running a Ponzi scheme targeting South Florida’s Haitian American community. Singh has denied the allegations.

The SEC’s investigation was part of an experiment from its regional office in Miami, home to one of the largest US immigrant populations, to more proactively root out fraud targeting people of particular religious, social, or ethnic groups.

The agency has brought more than 30 cases alleging affinity fraud since 2022, when the Miami program began, according to agency data. The Fraud Against Minority Groups Initiative has been credited in several of them, and is inspiring similar efforts in other parts of the country.

“The initiative strives to serve as a counter to some of the fraudsters’ most potent tools in their schemes,” said Eric Bustillo, the Miami office director.

Authorities face a number of challenges in preventing affinity fraud.

Alleged fraudsters often are part of the group they’re trying to defraud, or pretend that they are, and establish their credibility by appealing to the trust that members of the group share, University of Pennsylvania law professor Lisa Fairfax wrote in an academic paper . This group trust and sense of community can persuade otherwise cautious people to participate in fraudulent schemes.

The perpetrators also benefit from the mistrust of law enforcement that many immigrants brought with them.

“To paraphrase one prominent securities regulator, ‘You can trust me because I’m like you’ is a siren song that has been used in recent years to defraud many investors,” Fairfax wrote.

Countering Fraudsters’ Tools

The SEC is trying to combat that by going into targeted communities to educate people about the warning signs of fraud. It also looks to identify scams in time to freeze fraudsters’ ill-gotten gains and give investors a chance at recovery.

Cases brought by the SEC this year charge schemes targeting Latino, Nigerian American, and Indian American communities. But affinity fraud has hit the Haitian community particularly hard.

Singh ensnared hundreds of Haitian Americans among the estimated 1,500 victims, according to the SEC.

Separately, New York Attorney General Letitia James (D) in June sued crypto companies NovaTechFX and AWS Mining Pty Ltd., accusing the companies of defrauding investors, including Haitian immigrants, out of more than $1 billion in cryptocurrency. The SEC filed its own civil suit against NovaTech on Aug. 12.

And earlier this year, a judge in the US District Court for the Eastern District of New York sentenced a Brooklyn man to two years in prison for an investment fraud that targeted Haitian Americans living in Brooklyn and Queens.

The First Born Again Baptist Church in Miami, with a congregation of more than 350 predominately Haitian American members, has hosted SEC staff members twice in recent months.

Pastor Fritzner Jules said the SEC’s presentations included tips for protecting against credit card fraud. He said he’d “strongly” recommend the SEC’s presentation to other churches and community groups in the Haitian community.

Information the SEC presented “is what we need the most,” Jules said.

The SEC’s Los Angeles and San Francisco offices in May started an initiative, the “Western Alliance to Protect Targeted Communities,” to pursue at an early stage investment frauds that target identifiable communities. Similarly, the New York and New Jersey offices have teamed up for a “FraudWise” education program to target affinity fraud.

“We have seen tremendous success in the initiative that the Miami Regional Office has spearheaded, and we are working to replicate these efforts and achievements in other parts of the country where we see fraudsters targeting minority communities,” the SEC’s enforcement director, Gurbir Grewal, said.

Wanting Better Future

In the case against Singh’s Royal Bengal Logistics, the SEC won an emergency order freezing the company’s assets and appointing receivers to trace and recover investor funds.

The receivers’ efforts continue, according to an Aug. 12 court filing , which includes bringing lawsuits against two former RBL employees to recover “unusual payments” that exceeded $1 million. The receivers also sold several trucks and RBL equipment, including laptops and computer monitors.

The SEC brought another civil case last month against two other RBL executives involved in the alleged scheme.

Singh in court filings accused the SEC of making inaccurate statements in its complaint. He and RBL had assets “to support any emergency relief for the so-called investors” and the “Haitian American community made substantial amount of profit in partnering with the defendants,” Singh wrote.

“My position is that this is affinity enforcement against minorities in South Florida who collectively wanted to do business together and they labeled them as a Ponzi scheme,” Singh said in an interview.

Singh also faces criminal charges, including wire fraud. The criminal case is scheduled for trial in October in Fort Lauderdale, Fla. If convicted of all charges, he faces up to 150 years in prison.

Hundreds of RBL investors wrote a letter to the judge last summer, asking that their money be returned as soon as possible. The RBL scheme had plunged them into “a deep social, economic, and financial mess,” the letter said.

“We trusted RBL because it was presented as a secure investment opportunity,” the investors wrote. “We invested because we were seeking to contribute to our community while creating a better future for ourselves and our children.”

To contact the reporter on this story: Matthew Bultman in New York at [email protected]

To contact the editors responsible for this story: Michael Smallberg at [email protected] ; Bernie Kohn at [email protected]

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Currently, the predominant energy source utilized by humanity is fossil fuels. However, as demand surges and supplies wane, identifying alternative sources of energy becomes increasingly critical. Solar energy has emerged as a promising solution to this energy crisis, and dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) represent a particularly viable technology. DSSCs are the most confident choice for a cost-effective and reliable substitute for other types of photovoltaic devices including organic, inorganic and hybrid solar cells. DSSCs help to convert light energy into electrical energy directly. DSSCs are simple to manufacture, require less energy to produce, and can be made from abundant and non-toxic materials. In addition, they can function effectively even in environments with low levels of lighting conditions, making them a versatile option for various applications. This review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the operating principle, components, and progress of DSSCs. It begins by explaining the operational mechanics of DSSCs. Specifically, it highlights the process by which the cells convert solar energy into electrical energy via a photoelectrochemical mechanism. This report also delves into the various components of DSSCs, including the photoanode, counter electrode, and electrolyte, and their respective roles in the conversion process. This review investigates the recent advancements in the field of DSSC technology which encompasses novel approaches such as the utilization of new materials to enhance light harvesting efficiency and the development of efficient DSSCs. It also discusses the present state of development of DSSCs, including their commercial availability and widespread adoption. Finally, the review highlights the potential future prospects for DSSCs, such as their integration with other renewable energy sources and their use in building-integrated photovoltaics. By gaining a comprehensive understanding of the benefits and limitations of DSSCs, we can make informed decisions on how to optimally harness this technology to meet our energy requirements sustainably and efficiently.

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S. S. Malhotra, M. Ahmed, M. K. Gupta and A. Ansari, Sustainable Energy Fuels , 2024, Accepted Manuscript , DOI: 10.1039/D4SE00406J

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Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia

The capital city of Sverdlovsk oblast: Ekaterinburg .

Sverdlovsk Oblast - Overview

Sverdlovsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia, the largest region of the Urals, located on the border between Europe and Asia in the Urals Federal District. Yekaterinburg is the capital city of the region.

The population of Sverdlovsk Oblast is about 4,264,300 (2022), the area - 194,307 sq. km.

Sverdlovsk oblast flag

Sverdlovsk oblast coat of arms.

Sverdlovsk oblast map, Russia

Sverdlovsk oblast latest news and posts from our blog:.

26 May, 2020 / Unique Color Photos of Yekaterinburg in 1909 .

2 December, 2018 / Yekaterinburg - the view from above .

21 November, 2018 / Abandoned Railway Tunnel in Didino .

12 October, 2017 / Northern Urals: Manpupuner Plateau and Dyatlov Pass .

20 April, 2015 / Multicolored aurora borealis in the Northern Urals .

History of Sverdlovsk Oblast

The first people settled here in the Stone Age. At the end of the 16th century, the Russian kingdom gained control of the region. In the 17th century, the most significant stage of the initial development of this area happened, when Russian settlers began a massive advance to the east. In 1598, the first settlers founded the town of Verkhoturye on the territory of the present Sverdlovsk region.

Verkhoturye became the first capital of the Urals because of its strategic location on the Babinov road - an important crossroads of trade routes. Sverdlovsk oblast acted as a transshipment base between the central part of the country and the actively developed regions of Siberia and Central Asia.

The presence of strategic reserves of iron and copper ore, as well as large forest areas, predetermined the specialization of the region (ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, wood processing, mining, etc.). Exploration of minerals in the Sverdlovsk region began at the end of the 17th century.

In the 18th century, the Demidov dynasty founded several plants in the region that turned into large production and economic complexes. The local industry was characterized by a high level of technological development. The blast furnaces of the Ekaterinburg, Nevyansk, Tagil iron-making plants were superior in performance to the best European models of that time, and their products were the leading item of Russian exports.

More historical facts…

The launch of the Trans-Siberian Railway became a landmark event in the life of the Middle Urals, allowing large-scale export of plant products. Between 1920 and 1930, the Urals was able to once again take its place as the leading industrial region of Russia by strengthening its mining industry, creating new production facilities, developing energy and mass urban construction.

In the years of the first five-year plans, along with the reconstruction of old enterprises, several new large industrial facilities were opened: Uralmashzavod, Uralelektrotyazhmash, tool and ball bearing plants in Sverdlovsk, Uralvagonzavod and Nizhny Tagil metallurgical plant in Nizhny Tagil, pipe plants in Pervouralsk and Kamensk-Uralsky, copper smelters in Krasnouralsk and Sredneuralsk, the Ural aluminum smelter in Kamensk-Uralsky and others.

On October 3, 1938, the territory of Sverdlovsk Oblast was finally formed. During the Second World War, from July 1941 to December 1942, more than 2 million people came to the Urals region, of which more than 700 thousand stayed in Sverdlovsk Oblast.

In the postwar period, Sverdlovsk Oblast continued to develop as a major industrial center of the Urals. The industry of the region was a supplier of the most important types of machinery, products of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical, electric power, light, and food industries. Mechanical engineering and metalworking retained their leading place in the structure of the local industry.

Being one of the most important industrial and defense centers of the Soviet Union, the Sverdlovsk region remained closed to foreigners until 1991.

Beautiful nature of Sverdlovsk Oblast

Forest stream in Sverdlovsk Oblast

Author: Vlasov Pavel

Sverdlovsk Oblast nature

Author: Oleg Seliverstov

Sverdlovsk Oblast is rich in forests

Sverdlovsk Oblast - Features

Sverdlovsk Oblast received its name from its administrative center - the city of Sverdlovsk (Yekaterinburg). The name appeared on January 17, 1934, together with the formation of the region. After renaming Sverdlovsk back to Yekaterinburg, the region was not renamed and retained its Soviet name.

The territory of Sverdlovsk Oblast stretches from west to east for 560 kilometers, from north to south - for 660 kilometers. The climate is continental. The average temperature in January is about minus 16-20 degrees Celsius, in July - plus 19-30 degrees Celsius.

The Sverdlovsk region, being one of the oldest mining regions of Russia, is rich in a variety of natural resources. Today, the local mineral and raw materials base provides a significant part of the production of Russian vanadium, bauxite, chrysotile-asbestos, iron ore, refractory clay. The region is the main raw source for Russian aluminum industry.

There are significant reserves of nickel ores, precious metals, mineral and fresh groundwater, practically unlimited reserves of building materials. There are deposits of stone and brown coals, chromites, manganese and certain prospects for discovering oil and gas fields. Forests cover about 80% of the territory.

Sverdlovsk Oblast is an important transport hub of Russia. The Trans-Siberian Railway passes through its territory. Koltsovo is a large international airport located in Yekaterinburg. The largest cities and towns of Sverdlovsk Oblast are Yekaterinburg (1,493,600), Nizhny Tagil (340,700), Kamensk-Uralsky (162,500), Pervouralsk (117,700), Serov (93,900), Novouralsk (79,000), and Verkhnyaya Pyshma (76,400).

Sverdlovsk Oblast is known for its traditional International exhibition of armament in Nizhny Tagil, annual Russian Economic Forum in Yekaterinburg. Yekaterinburg is the 4th largest scientific center in Russia after Moscow, Saint-Petersburg and Novosibirsk.

It is one of the most important industrial regions of Russia. The structure of the local industrial complex is dominated by ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, enrichment of uranium and iron ore, engineering.

The largest enterprises of ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy are the Nizhnetagilsky Metallurgical Combine, the Kachkanar GOK Vanadiy, VSMPO-Avisma, the Pervouralsky Novotrubny Plant, the Bogoslovsky and the Ural Aluminum Smelters, the Kamensk-Uralsk Metallurgical Plant, the Sinarsky Pipe Plant, the Seversk Pipe Plant, as well as enterprises of the Ural Mining and Metallurgical Company (Uralelectromed, Sredneuralsky Copper Smelting Plant, Metallurgical Plant named after A.K. Serov, etc.).

The most important enterprises of the machine-building complex are Uralvagonzavod, Ural Heavy Machinery Plant, Uralelectrotyazhmash, Uralkhimmash, Ural Turbine Plant, Ural Civil Aviation Plant. Uralkhimplast, which produces synthetic resins, is the largest chemical plant in Russia.

Attractions of Sverdlovsk Oblast

Coniferous forests and numerous rivers make the nature of the Sverdlovsk region attractive for tourists. There is a number of reserves and nature parks: Visimsky State Nature Reserve, Denezhkin Kamen National Nature Reserve, Pripyshminsky Bory National Park, Oleny Ruchi Nature Park, Chusovaya River Nature Park, Bazhovskiye Places Nature Park, Rezhevskoy Nature and Mineralogical Reserve.

Some of the most interesting sights located outside of Yekaterinburg:

Nevyansk Tower - a leaning tower in the center of the town of Nevyansk, built by the order of Akinfiy Demidov, the founder of the mining industry in the Urals, in the first half of the 18th century;
Cathedral of the Savior’s Transfiguration in Nevyansk;
Battle glory of the Urals - an open-air museum of military equipment in Verkhnyaya Pyshma;
Automotive equipment museum in Verkhnyaya Pyshma - one of the largest collections of Russian cars, special equipment, motorcycles, bicycles;
Obelisk symbolizing the border between Europe and Asia in Pervouralsk;
Verkhoturye - a historical town with a kremlin and a lot of churches called the spiritual center of the Urals. The Cross Exaltation Cathedral of the St. Nicholas Monastery is the third largest cathedral in Russia after the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow and St. Isaac’s Cathedral in St. Petersburg;
Mount Kachkanar located near the border between Europe and Asia. At the top of the mountain there is the Buddhist Monastery of Shad Tchup Ling;
Monastery in the name of the Holy Royal Passion-Bearers on Ganina Yama standing on the site of the extermination and the first burial of the remains of the family of the last Russian Emperor Nicholas II and his servants;
Museum Complex Severskaya Domna in Polevskoy, 52 kilometers from Ekaterinburg - an industrial and architectural monument (1860);
Open-air museum in Nizhnyaya Sinyachikha - Ural wooden architecture and the richest collection of the Ural house painting;
Severskaya Pisanitsa - a monument with rock paintings and images of the Neolithic Age located near the village of Severka.

Sverdlovsk oblast of Russia photos

Pictures of the sverdlovsk region.

Sverdlovsk Oblast scenery

Author: Anatoliy Kislov

Bridge in Sverdlovsk Oblast

Author: Igor Romanov

Road in the Sverdlovsk region

Sverdlovsk Oblast views

Field of dandelions in Sverdlovsk Oblast

Winter in Sverdlovsk Oblast

Author: Isupov Sergei

Churches in Sverdlovsk Oblast

Abandoned church in the Sverdlovsk region

Author: Timofey Zakharov

Wooden church in Sverdlovsk Oblast

Orthodox church in Sverdlovsk Oblast

Author: Kutenyov Vladimir

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Yekaterinburg

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Yekaterinburg , city and administrative center of Sverdlovsk oblast (region), west-central Russia . The city lies along the Iset River, which is a tributary of the Tobol River , and on the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains , slightly east of the border between Europe and Asia . Yekaterinburg is situated 1,036 miles (1,667 km) east of Moscow .

Near the village of Shartash, which was founded in 1672 by members of the Russian sect of Old Believers, an ironworks was established in 1721 and a fortress in 1722. In 1723 the new settlement was named Yekaterinburg in honor of Catherine I , the wife of Peter I the Great . The town grew as the administrative center for all the ironworks of the Urals region, and its importance increased after 1783, when the Great Siberian Highway was built through it. After 1878 the Trans-Siberian Railroad linked the city with Siberia. After the Russian Revolution of 1917 (October), Yekaterinburg achieved notoriety as the scene of the execution of the last tsar , Nicholas II , and his family in July 1918. In 1924 it was renamed Sverdlovsk in honor of the Bolshevik leader Yakov M. Sverdlov, but the city reverted to its original name in 1991.

Modern Yekaterinburg is one of the major industrial centers of Russia, especially for heavy engineering. The Uralmash produces heavy machinery and is the city’s largest enterprise; it once employed some 50,000 workers, though it now has a small fraction of that number. Engineering products manufactured in the city include metallurgical and chemical machinery, turbines, diesels, and ball bearings . During the Soviet period the city was a major center of biological and chemical warfare research and development . There is a range of light industries, including a traditional one of gem cutting. Food processing is also important. The city, laid out on a regular gridiron pattern, sprawls across the valley of the Iset—there dammed to form a series of small lakes—and the low surrounding hills.

Yekaterinburg is an important railway junction, with lines radiating from it to all parts of the Urals and the rest of Russia. The city is the leading cultural center of the Urals and has numerous institutions of higher education , including the Urals A.M. Gorky State University (founded 1920), a conservatory, and polytechnic, mining, forestry, agricultural, law, medical, and teacher-training institutes. The Urals branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences and many scientific-research establishments are also located there. Boris Yeltsin , the first democratically elected president of Russia, was educated and spent much of his political career in the city. Pop. (2005 est.) 1,304,251.

IMAGES

Introduction
Joule's heat-equivalence experiment, 1840s
Explain Joule’s Experiment of the mechanical equivalent of heat
Joule's Experiment and First law of thermodynamics
Joule's heat-equivalence experiment, 1840s
First law of Thermodynamics

COMMENTS

Joule's Experiment
In this video, I explained Joule's Experiment.= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = Chapter: First Law of Thermodynamics Joule's Experiment: https://...
Joule's Experiment
The original Joule experiment consists of a receptacle filled with water and a mechanism with spinning plates. The kinetic energy of the plates is transformed into heat because the force of gravity performs work on the weight falling a distance . This gave an experimental confirmation of the equivalence between heat and work now defined to be exactly 1 calorie for every 4.184 joules and called a;;
Joule and the Conservation of Energy
Joule and the Conservation of Energy. Joule and the Conservation of Energy. James Joule was born in 1818, the second son of aprosperous brewer in Manchester, England. His father hired John Dalton (who hadproposed the atomic theory of chemistry in 1803) as a private tutor for his twosons. Dalton met with the boys twice aweek, guided them through ...
Joule Experiment on Free
In 1843 Joule did this simple experiment to show that the internal energy of a gas is a function of temperature independent of pressure or volume. When the gas in the left sphere initially flows without resistance into the vacuum of the right sphere no work is performed and no heat is transferred. Thus the temperature remains constant. It is now understood that this result is accurate only for ;;
Joule's Experiment and the First Law of Thermodynamics
Joule's experiment demonstrated the validity of the first law of thermodynamics. Electrical or mechanical energy can be converted into thermal energy, but the total amount of energy is conserved. In this Demonstration, the amount of heat in joules generated in a circuit element of resistance (immersion heater) is measured by a calorimeter.
Joule's Experiment
Joule experiment The original Joule experiment consists of a receptacle filled with water and a mechanism with spinning plates. The kinetic energy of the plates is transformed into heat, because the force of gravity performs work on the weight falling a distance .
Heat, work and subtle fluids: a commentary on Joule (1850) 'On the
Joule's paddle-wheel experiment [ 4] is the most famous of his conservation-of-energy experiments because, as we now know, it gave the most accurate results for the mechanical equivalent of heat.
Joule expansion
The Joule expansion, treated as a thought experiment involving ideal gases, is a useful exercise in classical thermodynamics. It provides a convenient example for calculating changes in thermodynamic quantities, including the resulting increase in entropy of the universe ( entropy production) that results from this inherently irreversible process. An actual Joule expansion experiment ...
thermodynamics
The answer can be found in the Wikipedia page you linked to! Historically, heat had been considered a substance, called caloric. Joule's experiment proved that heat was actually a form of mechanical energy, so was a crucial step towards our modern understanding of the conservation of energy. Improve this answer. answered.
James Prescott Joule: The Discovery of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
James Prescott Joule (1818 - 1889), an English physicist, calculated in 1843, a few decades after Rumford's cannon experiments, the mechanical equivalent of heat in a series of experiments. In the most famous apparatus he built for this end, now called the Joule apparatus (see image below), a descending weight attached to a string caused a ...
Joule's experiment, internal energy, thermodynamics
Physics video, Joule's experiment which shows that the internal energy of a thermodynamic system depends on the temperature.Post your comments/questions belo...
James Prescott Joule
James Prescott Joule FRS FRSE ( / dʒuːl /; [ 1][ 2][ a] 24 December 1818 - 11 October 1889) was an English physicist, mathematician and brewer, born in Salford, Lancashire. Joule studied the nature of heat, and discovered its relationship to mechanical work. This led to the law of conservation of energy, which in turn led to the development of the first law of thermodynamics. The SI ...
Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas: Joule's Experiments
The Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas: Joule's Experiments. In an adiabatic expansion the work is done by the system on the surrounding at the expense of the internal energy. This was experimentally demonstrated by J. P. Joule in 1844. The experiments were per-formed in an apparatus described in Figure.
James Prescott Joule
James Prescott Joule, English physicist who established that the various forms of energy, such as electrical and heat, are basically the same and can be changed one into another. Thus, he formed the basis of conservation of energy, the first law of thermodynamics. Learn more about Joule's life and work.
SEC Combats Scourge of Affinity Fraud With Proactive Experiment
The SEC's investigation was part of an experiment from its regional office in Miami, home to one of the largest US immigrant populations, to more proactively root out fraud targeting people of particular religious, social, or ethnic groups.
New twist on synthesis technique promises sustainable ...
Researchers developed a new method known as flash-within-flash Joule heating (FWF) that could transform the synthesis of high-quality solid-state materials, offering a cleaner, faster and more ...
Metal-free and natural dye sensitized solar cells: Recent advancement
Currently, the predominant energy source utilized by humanity is fossil fuels. However, as demand surges and supplies wane, identifying alternative sources of energy becomes increasingly critical. Solar energy has emerged as a promising solution to this energy crisis, and dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) r
Yekaterinburg
Yekaterinburg[ a ] is a city and the administrative centre of Sverdlovsk Oblast and the Ural Federal District, Russia. The city is located on the Iset River between the Volga-Ural region and Siberia, with a population of roughly 1.5 million residents, [ 14 ] up to 2.2 million residents in the urban agglomeration.
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Sverdlovsk Oblast, Russia guide
Sverdlovsk Oblast - Overview Sverdlovsk Oblast is a federal subject of Russia, the largest region of the Urals, located on the border between Europe and Asia in the Urals Federal District. Yekaterinburg is the capital city of the region.
Yekaterinburg
Yekaterinburg, city and administrative center of Sverdlovsk region, west-central Russia. The city lies along the Iset River, which is a tributary of the Tobol River, and on the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains, slightly east of the border between Europe and Asia.
PolyJoule joins Amazon AWS green energy accelerator cohort for
A couple of years later, PolyJoule — poly for polymers and joule for the measurement of electricity — is using conductive polymers in a new approach to batteries that can be manufactured ...


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