dissertation title pages

Title Page Setup

A title page is required for all APA Style papers. There are both student and professional versions of the title page. Students should use the student version of the title page unless their instructor or institution has requested they use the professional version. APA provides a student title page guide (PDF, 199KB) to assist students in creating their title pages.

Student title page

The student title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline), author affiliation, course number and name for which the paper is being submitted, instructor name, assignment due date, and page number, as shown in this example.

Title page setup is covered in the seventh edition APA Style manuals in the Publication Manual Section 2.3 and the Concise Guide Section 1.6

Related handouts

• Student Title Page Guide (PDF, 263KB)
• Student Paper Setup Guide (PDF, 3MB)

Student papers do not include a running head unless requested by the instructor or institution.

Follow the guidelines described next to format each element of the student title page.

Professional title page

The professional title page includes the paper title, author names (the byline), author affiliation(s), author note, running head, and page number, as shown in the following example.

Follow the guidelines described next to format each element of the professional title page.

Graduate School

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Organizing and Formatting Your Thesis and Dissertation

Learn about overall organization of your thesis or dissertation. Then, find details for formatting your preliminaries, text, and supplementaries.

Overall Organization

A typical thesis consists of three main parts – preliminaries, text, and supplementaries. Each part is to be organized as explained below and in the order indicated below:

1. Preliminaries:

• Title page (required)
• Copyright page (required)
• Abstract (required) only one abstract allowed
• Acknowledgments (optional) located in the Preliminary Section only
• Preface (optional)
• Autobiography (optional)
• Dedication (optional)
• Table of Contents (required)
• List of Tables (optional)
• List of Figures (optional)
• List of Plates (optional)
• List of Symbols (optional)
• List of Keywords (optional)
• Other Preliminaries (optional) such as Definition of Terms

3. Supplementaries:

• References or bibliography (optional)
• Appendices (optional)
• Glossary (optional)
• List of Abbreviations (optional)

Preliminaries

These are the general requirements for all preliminary pages.

• Preliminary pages are numbered with lower case Roman numerals.
• Page numbers are ½” from the bottom of the page and centered.
• The copyright page is included in the manuscript immediately after the title page and is not assigned a page number nor counted.
• The abstract page is numbered with the Roman numeral “ii”.
• The remaining preliminary pages are arranged as listed under “Organizing and Formatting the Thesis/Dissertation” and numbered consecutively.
• Headings for all preliminary pages must be centered in all capital letters 1” from the top of the page.
• Do not bold the headings of the preliminary pages.

A sample Thesis title page pdf is available here ,  and a sample of a Dissertation title page pdf is available here.

Refer to the sample page as you read through the format requirements for the title page.

• Do not use bold.
• Center all text except the advisor and committee information.

The heading “ Thesis ” or “ Dissertation ” is in all capital letters, centered one inch from the top of the page.

• Your title must be in all capital letters, double spaced and centered.
• Your title on the title page must match the title on your GS30 – Thesis/Dissertation Submission Form

Submitted by block

Divide this section exactly as shown on the sample page. One blank line must separate each line of text.

• Submitted by
• School of Advanced Materials Discovery 
• School of Biomedical Engineering
• Graduate Degree Program in Cell and Molecular Biology
• Graduate Degree Program in Ecology

If your department name begins with “School of”, list as:

• School of Education
• School of Music, Theatre and Dance
• School of Social Work

If you have questions about the correct name of your department or degree, consult your department. Areas of Study or specializations within a program are not listed on the Title Page.

Degree and Graduating Term block

• In partial fulfillment of the requirements
• For the Degree of
• Colorado State University
• Fort Collins, Colorado (do not abbreviate Colorado)

Committee block

• Master’s students will use the heading Master’s Committee:
• Doctoral students will use the heading Doctoral Committee:
• The Master’s Committee and Doctoral Committee headings begin at the left margin.
• One blank line separates the committee heading and the advisor section.
• One blank line separates the advisor and committee section.
• Advisor and committee member names are indented approximately half an inch from the left margin.
• Titles before or after the names of your advisor and your members are not permitted (Examples – Dr., Professor, Ph.D.).

Copyright Page

• A sample copyright page pdf is available here.
• A copyright page is required.
• A copyright page is included in the manuscript immediately after the title page.
• This page is not assigned a number nor counted.
• Center text vertically and horizontally.
• A sample abstract page pdf is available here – refer to the sample page as you read through the format requirements for the abstract.
• Only one abstract is permitted.
• The heading “ Abstract ” is in all capital letters, centered one inch from the top of the page.
• Three blank lines (single-spaced) must be between the “ Abstract ” heading and your title.
• Your title must be in all capital letters and centered.
• The title must match the title on your Title Page and the GS30 – Thesis/Dissertation Submission Form
• Three blank lines (single-spaced) must be between the title and your text.
• The text of your abstract must be double-spaced.
• The first page of the abstract is numbered with a small Roman numeral ii.

Table of Contents

• A sample Table of Contents page pdf is available.
• The heading “ Table of Contents ” is in all capital letters centered one inch from the top of the page.
• Three blank lines (single-spaced) follow the heading.
• List all parts of the document (except the title page) and the page numbers on which each part begins.
• The titles of all parts are worded exactly as they appear in the document.
• Titles and headings and the page numbers on which they begin are separated by a row of dot leaders.
• Major headings are aligned flush with the left margin.
• Page numbers are aligned flush with the right margin.

The text of a thesis features an introduction and several chapters, sections and subsections. Text may also include parenthetical references, footnotes, or references to the bibliography or endnotes.

Any references to journal publications, authors, contributions, etc. on your chapter pages or major heading pages should be listed as a footnote .

• The entire document is 8.5” x 11” (letter) size.
• Pages may be in landscape position for figures and tables that do not fit in “portrait” position.
• Choose one type style (font) and font size and use it throughout the text of your thesis. Examples: Times New Roman and Arial.
• Font sizes should be between 10 point and 12 point.
• Font color must be black. 
• Hyperlinked text must be in blue. If you hyperlink more than one line of text, such as the entire table of contents, leave the text black. 
• Margins are one inch on all sides (top, bottom, left, and right).
• Always continue the text to the bottom margin except at the end of a chapter.

• Please see preliminary page requirements .
• Body and references are numbered with Arabic numerals beginning with the first page of text (numbered 1).
• Page numbers must be centered ½” from the bottom of the page.

Major Headings

• A sample page pdf for major headings and subheadings is available here.
• Use consistent style for major headings.
• Three blank lines (single-spaced) need to be between the major heading and your text.
• Each chapter is started on a new page.
• The References or Bibliography heading is a major heading and the formatting needs to match chapter headings.

Subheadings

• A sample page pdf for major headings and subheadings is available here .
• Style for subheadings is optional but the style should be consistent throughout.
• Subheadings within a chapter (or section) do not begin on a new page unless the preceding page is filled. Continue the text to the bottom of the page unless at the end of a chapter.
• Subheadings at the bottom of a page require two lines of text following the heading and at least two lines of text on the next page.

Running Head

Do not insert a running head.

When dividing paragraphs, at least two lines of text should appear at the bottom of the page and at least two lines of text on the next page.

Hyphenation

The last word on a page may not be divided. No more than three lines in succession may end with hyphens. Divide words as indicated in a standard dictionary.

• The text of the thesis is double-spaced.
• Bibliography or list of reference entries and data within large tables may be single-spaced. Footnotes should be single spaced.
• Footnotes and bibliography or list of reference entries are separated by double-spacing.
• Quoted material of more than three lines is indented and single-spaced. Quoted material that is three lines or fewer may be single-spaced for emphasis.

Poems should be double-spaced with triple-spacing between stanzas. Stanzas may be centered if lines are short.

• Consult a style manual approved by your department for samples of footnotes.
• Footnotes are numbered consecutively throughout the entire thesis.
• Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page on which the reference is made.
• Footnotes are single-spaced.
• Consult a style manual approved by your department for samples of endnotes.
• Endnotes are numbered consecutively throughout the entire thesis.
• Endnotes may be placed at the end of each chapter or following the last page of text.
• The form for an endnote is the same as a footnote. Type the heading “endnote”.

Tables and Figures

• Tables and figures should follow immediately after first mentioned in the text or on the next page.
• If they are placed on the next page, continue the text to the bottom of the preceding page.
• Do not wrap text around tables or figures. Text can go above and/or below.
• If more clarity is provided by placing tables and figures at the end of chapters or at the end of the text, this format is also acceptable.
• Tables and Figures are placed before references.
• Any diagram, drawing, graph, chart, map, photograph, or other type of illustration is presented in the thesis as a figure.
• All tables and figures must conform to margin requirements.
• Images can be resized to fit within margins
• Table captions go above tables.
• Figure captions go below figures.
• Captions must be single spaced.

Landscape Tables and Figures

• Large tables or figures can be placed on the page landscape or broadside orientation.
• Landscape tables and figures should face the right margin (unbound side).
• The top margin must be the same as on a regular page.
• Page numbers for landscape or broadside tables or figures are placed on the 11” side.

Supplementaries

These are the general requirements for all supplementary pages.

• Supplementary pages are arranged as listed under “Organizing and Formatting the Thesis/Dissertation” and numbered consecutively.
• Headings for all supplementary pages are major headings and the formatting style needs to match chapter headings.

References or Bibliography

• The References or Bibliography heading is always a major heading and the formatting style needs to match chapter headings.
• References or Bibliography are ordered after each chapter, or at the end of the text.
• References or Bibliography must start on a new page from the chapter text.
• References are aligned flush with the left margin.
• The style for references should follow the format appropriate for the field of study.
• The style used must be consistent throughout the thesis.
• Appendices are optional and used for supplementary material.
• The Appendices heading is a major heading and the formatting style needs to match chapter headings.
• As an option the appendix may be introduced with a cover page bearing only the title centered vertically and horizontally on the page. The content of the appendix then begins on the second page with the standard one inch top margin.
• Quality and format should be consistent with requirements for other parts of the thesis including margins.
• Page numbers used in the appendix must continue from the main text.

A Foreign Language Thesis

Occasionally, theses are written in languages other than English. In such cases, an English translation of the title and abstract must be included in the document.

• Submit one title page in the non-English language (no page number printed).
• Submit one title page in English (no page number printed).
• Submit one abstract in the non-English language (page number is ii).
• Submit one abstract in English (page number is numbered consecutively from previous page – example: if the last page of the abstract in the foreign language is page ii the first page of the abstract in English is numbered page iii).

Multipart Thesis

In some departments, a student may do research on two or more generally related areas which would be difficult to combine into a single well-organized thesis. The solution is the multi-part thesis.

• Each part is considered a separate unit, with its own chapters, bibliography or list of references, and appendix (optional); or it may have a combined bibliography or list of references and appendix.
• A single abstract is required.
• The pages of a multi-part thesis are numbered consecutively throughout the entire thesis, not through each part (therefore, the first page of Part II is not page 1).
• The chapter numbering begins with Chapter 1 for each part, or the chapters may be numbered consecutively.
• Pagination is consecutive throughout all parts, including numbered separation sheets between parts.
• Each part may be preceded by a separation sheet listing the appropriate number and title.

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The Dissertation Title Page

• By DiscoverPhDs
• August 12, 2020

The title page of your dissertation or thesis conveys all the essential details about your project, including:

• The title of your project
• Your full name (including student number if required)
• Clarification of whether this is a dissertation or thesis document
• The name of your academic department
• The name of your university
• The degree name that the dissertation or thesis has been written for (e.g. Doctor of Philosophy)
• The date (month and year) that you will submit the document
• The name of your supervisor(s)

This page can also be referred to as the dissertation cover page when your degree program is at the undergraduate or Masters level.

Format of the Title Page

Your university will provide you with the exact formatting requirements of your dissertation title page. This will include how to present the above information but also the font size to use, line spacing and the size of margins. For example, a graduate school may require the title to be in all caps, all text to be double-spaced and margins on the binding side to be 4cm. Don’t include the page number and have all text centred. You may also need to include the university logo. The APA style is commonly referred to for guidance on how to format research documents. This guide from University College London on their requirements is also an interesting read.

Example of a Dissertation Title Page

The example below is what a dissertation title page would usually look like for a Masters degree project in the UK. You can use this as a template when writing your own title page. The format presented here is also applicable for a doctoral dissertation or thesis title page.

The title page may be followed by an approval page, signed by the project chair and any other committee members. After this comes your abstract, presented on a separate page and then your table of contents. Some institutions may also require a copyright page to be included. Whilst the title page doesn’t have a page number, pages after this may use Roman numerals with the traditional page number format starting after your table of contents.

The term partial fulfillment means that this research document was one of several requirements for you to obtain your degree. For a Master’s degree, the other requirements will typically include exams and coursework.

Follow the advice in this guide to ensure your title page is in the correct format before final submission of your research project. This will be a normal part of undergraduate and graduate study.

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Thesis and Dissertation Title Page 

The title page, also known as the cover page, is a crucial component of your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, as it presents all the essential information about your work in one place. The title page includes the following elements:

• The title of your thesis or dissertation, which should be concise and descriptive.
• Your full name as the author of the work.
• The type of document you are submitting, such as a dissertation , thesis, or research paper.
• The department and institution to which you are submitting your work.
• The degree program you are completing.
• The date you are submitting your document.

In some cases, additional information may be required on the title page, such as:

• Your specific dissertation topic or field of study
• Your student identification number
• The name of your academic supervisor or advisor
• The official logo of your university or institution

Consult your institution’s guidelines or style guide to ensure your title page meets specific formatting and content requirements.

Thesis or Dissertation Title page format

The format of the title page for your dissertation or thesis may vary depending on your institution’s guidelines and the citation style you are using. This crucial first page of your dissertation title page typically includes essential information such as the title, your name, and the degree you’re pursuing. Many graduate schools have specific format requirements for the title page, including font type and size, spacing, and whether to include a page number (often a lowercase Roman numeral).

Some institutions may require additional elements like a copyright page or mention of “partial fulfillment” of degree requirements. It’s important to check with your graduate school for a title page example or template to ensure you meet all formatting criteria before proceeding to other preliminary pages like the table of contents or list of tables.

Title pages for APA and MLA style

The layout and content of your title page may vary based on the citation style you must follow for your dissertation or thesis . Each citation style has its own set of rules and guidelines that dictate the specific formatting, such as text alignment, page numbering, and the essential components that must be included on the title page.

MLA title page format

When formatting a title page in MLA style, begin by aligning the following information on the left side of the page, with each item on a separate line:

• Your full name
• If the work is a collaborative effort, include the names of your co-authors, with each name on a new line
• The name of your instructor
• The course name, followed by its designated number
• The date you are submitting the paper

After listing this information, skip a few lines and position the title of your paper in the center of the page, approximately halfway down. The title should be written in title case , capitalizing the principal words.

Ensure that all the text on the title page is double-spaced and uses the same font as the remainder of your paper. This consistency in formatting helps maintain a professional and cohesive appearance throughout your document.

APA title page format

The American Psychological Association (APA) offers guidelines for formatting title pages, depending on whether the paper is a student or professional work. When creating a title page for a student paper in APA style, include the following details centered on the page and double-spaced:

• The title of your paper
• Your full name (the author)
• The name of your department and university
• The course number and its corresponding name
• Your instructor’s name
• The deadline for submitting the assignment

In contrast, the title page for a professional paper in APA style includes an additional element called the author note, which is aligned to the left side of the page. However, unlike the student version, the professional title page does not require including the course name, instructor’s name, or the assignment’s due date.

Title page templates

To assist you in creating the title page for your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, we have developed a selection of templates you can easily customize to suit your needs. These templates are available in various formats, allowing you to choose the one that best suits your requirements.

Research paper

Dissertation

Title page example

Here’s an example of a title page for a dissertation or thesis:

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Turabian Writing Guide: Title Page

• Bibliography
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Writing Center

The Liberty University Writing Center is available to provide writing coaching to students. Residential students should contact the  On-Campus Writing Center  for assistance. Online students should contact the  Online Writing Center  for assistance.

• For all papers that are not dissertations, use the student paper style for the title page. You can see an example of the student title page on the Writing Center's sample paper .
• For dissertations, follow the dissertation style title page as shown in the Writing Center's dissertation sample .

Student Title Page

• Your name should be centered and approximately fifteen lines below the tile.
• The full name of the class should be listed on the line immediately below your name, including the class number, i.e., Class 706: Introduction to Examples.
• The month and year should be listed on the line immediately below the class information.

Page Numbers

• The title page is not numbered. If you have a table of contents or other front matter, you can consider the title page as small roman numeral "i" but do not include a page number on the title page. The first page of the front matter begins with small roman numeral "ii", centered on the page. You can remove the page number from the title page in Word by inserting page numbers, then selecting the header, selecting Design under "Header Footer Tools" and selecting the check box for "Different First Page" as described in the screenshot below.

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• Last Updated: Aug 28, 2023 2:25 PM
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Q. How do I number pages differently in the various sections of my thesis or dissertation?

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Answered By: Jeff Beuck Last Updated: Apr 03, 2020     Views: 1478923

See Also:  How do I add page numbers in Microsoft Word?

To use different page numbering schemes in different sections of your Word document, there are two tricks: 1) you must include a "Section Break - Next page" between each section of your document where the numbering will change, and 2) you must "unlink" each section's footer from the one before it.

To start, temporarily turn on the viewing of hidden formatting symbols by clicking the "Show/Hide" symbol on the "Home" tab in the "Paragraph" box -- this will enable you to see the Section Breaks between sections of your document.

One of the required page numbering changes for your thesis or dissertation is that you need to use Roman numerals (e.g., "i, ii, iii") for your introductory sections (Abstract, Table of Contents), and then switch to Arabic numerals (e.g., "1, 2, 3") and begin the page numbering at "1" at the start of Chapter I of your main text.

If you do not already have a "Section Break" between these two sections of your document, you will need to add one.  Place your cursor at the very end of the text in the first section (after your Table of Contents and any Lists of Tables and Figures), being careful NOT to place it in the footer where the page number is (if the text above becomes grayed out, you are in the footer – try clicking higher).

Add a "Section Break – Next Page" by selecting the "Page Layout" tab on the menu, clicking the arrow next to "Breaks", and selecting "Next Page" under Section Breaks.

After doing this, you should see a "Section Break (Next Page)" code inserted into your document.  This tells Word that the next page begins a new section which may have a different header or footer.

Go down to the next page below the section break (in this example, the first page of Chapter I), and click on the page number in the Footer.  If your cursor is in the Footer, you should see "Footer -Section [#]-" to the left, and "Same as Previous" on the right.

You should also see a new tab appear on the menu, labeled "Header & Footer Tools: Design".  Select this.  (Be careful not to confuse this with another tab labeled "Design" between the "Insert" and "Page Layout" tabs.)  In the "Navigation" section of this tab, you will see a highlighted button labeled "Link to Previous" which tells Word to link the footer in this section to the previous section and to continue its page numbering scheme.  Click the "Link to Previous" button to UNSELECT it.

After clicking this, the "Link to Previous" button should no longer be highlighted.  The "Same as Previous" box to the right of your footer should also disappear.

Confirm your cursor is still next to the page number in the Footer, then go back to the Header & Footer Tools – Design tab on the menu, and in the "Header & Footer" section, select Page Number > Format Page Numbers.

The "Page Number Format" window will appear.  Select the appropriate "Number format" for this section ("1, 2, 3," or "i, ii, iii", etc.), and tell Word whether to continue the page numbering from the previous section or to start at "1" or another number.  In this example, we want Section 2 (which begins at Chapter I and contains the main text of our thesis or dissertation) to use Arabic numerals and to start numbering this section from page 1.  Click "OK" to finish.

You will notice that the page numbering for the current section has now been corrected, and if you unlinked it properly from the previous sections, the numbering in those sections should remain as it was before.

Next, you will need to change the page number format to lower-case Roman numerals (i.e., "i, ii, iii, ...") for the section with your Abstract and Table of Contents.  Click your cursor on the footer of your Abstract or Table of Contents page.

Open the "Format Page Numbers" window by going to the Header & Footer Tools – Design tab on the menu, and in the "Header & Footer" section, select Page Number > Format Page Numbers.

Next to "Number format", select the "i, ii, iii, ..." option for lower-case Roman numerals, then click "OK".

The page numbering for the section with your Abstract and Table of Contents should change to lower-case Roman numerals.  As long as you correctly unlinked the following section from this one, the page numbering in the following section, the main body of your text, should remain Arabic numerals starting with 1.

You will also need to remove page numbers completely from the title page and other preliminary pages of your thesis or dissertation.  To do this, you will use the same method as above, but delete the page numbers from the first section of your document.

Place your cursor at the very end of the last page which will not be numbered (probably your approval page, dedication, or acknowledgment), being careful NOT to place it in the footer where the page number is (if the text above becomes grayed out, you are in the footer – try clicking higher).

After doing this, you should see a "Section Break (Next Page)" code inserted into your document on the page before your Abstract.

Go down to the next page below the section break (in this example, the Abstract), and click on the page number in the Footer.  If your cursor is in the Footer, you should see "Footer -Section [#]-" to the left, and "Same as Previous" on the right. Be sure you are not in Section 1 of your document.

On the main menu, select the "Header & Footer Tools: Design" tab, then in the "Navigation" section of this tab, click the "Link to Previous" button if it is highlighted to UNSELECT it and unlink this section from the section above.  This will allow you to modify the page number in the first section without affecting this or subsequent sections.

Return to your Title Page (or any page in Section 1 which will not be numbered) and click on the page number in the footer.  Click-and-drag your cursor over the page number to select it.

Click the "Delete" key on your keyboard to delete the page number from this section.  As long as you removed the "Link to Previous" connection from the next section, you should the page number disappear from the first section, but remain in the following sections.

If your paper includes additional sections (for example, if your Approval Page was added as a separate section from your Title page), you may have to experiment with linking and unlinking sections from each other -- unlink a section if its page numbering will be different from the one before it, but link together any sections where the page numbering will continue from the one before it.  It is generally a good idea to start with the last section of your document and work your way backwards.

When you are finished, don't forget that you can hide the formatting symbols to make it easier to view your text by turning off the "Show/Hide" symbol on the "Home" tab in the "Paragraph" box.

Footer Sections and page numbering can be very complex, especially if your document has multiple sections.  If you need additional assistance getting your page numbering correct, contact Jeff Beuck at 216-523-7486 to set up an appointment.

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Comments (378)

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• Thank you so much for this, it is so helpful! by thankfulalmostmaster on Dec 04, 2018
• This post was a life saver. It was crunch time and I underestimated the pagination of my APA action research. "Hidden formatting symbol", "Section Break"? I NEVER would have thought to do those things. Thanks to you I submitted at 11:51 pm, lol, in the nick of time, lol. by KMo on Dec 13, 2018
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• Can we also change the total number of pages? I tried using this and it does restart the page number but the total number of pages do not change. by Mayur on Jul 13, 2022
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• Amazingly well explained...You have saved me a great amount of time dealing with page numbers writting my thesis... Thank you! by MS on May 14, 2023
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Title Pages

A title page is the first page of a document and its purpose is to show important information about the work, such as the author(s), title, subtitle, course, supervisor, publisher and date. The title page's job is to clearly display this information at a glance and pull the reader into the document.

Formal Book Title Page

This title page template is best suited to books and formal applications, such as in the fields of science or engineering. It features a formal layout with a clear title highlighted by two horizontal rules. A subtitle is available to further describe the work and multiple authors/editors are catered for towards the centre of the page.

• View Template Information

Vertical Line Title Page

This title page template features a central vertical line which frames the rest of the text on the page. The title is clearly visible in a large bold font and the design also includes a subtitle, author name and publisher information. The title page would be well suited to a book but it can be used for other applications too.

Classic Lined Title Page

This title page template features a classic lined look most suited to a book or other larger work. The title is highlighted with large red all-caps text and a thin rule underneath separates it from the author name and publisher further down the page.

Stylish Title Page

This title page template features a large title and subtitle surrounded by two curly brackets to bring focus to the title and add to the stylish design of the template. The author name is centered below the title and publisher information is seen at the bottom. This makes the template best suited to a book or other large work, but it can be easily adapted to any other usage.

Minimalist Book Title Page

This title page template is best suited for a book. The minimalistic design immediately highlights the title and the use of red further focuses the eye on the core of what the work is about. The subtitle is neatly tucked away under the title to expand on it and the author/publisher information frames the title.

Multi-Purpose Large Font Title Page

This title page template can be used for almost any document type. The title is displayed in a very large font size in a wide grey box to accentuate the subject matter while your details are shown at the bottom in a small section. The box colour can be changed from grey and the template includes a secondary serif font option.

Academic Title Page

This title page is useful for academic works such as assignments, reports, theses or books. The headings can be used to neatly display the institute, course or subject matter of the work. It design is clean with the major feature being two horizontal lines highlighting the title. The template contains code for an alternate layout without a supervisor name and for an institution logo at the bottom of the page.

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List of Abbreviations | Example, Template & Best Practices

Published on May 23, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on July 18, 2023.

A list of abbreviations is an alphabetical list of abbreviations that you can add to your thesis or dissertation . If you choose to include it, it should appear at the beginning of your document, just after your table of contents .

Abbreviation lists improve readability, minimizing confusion about abbreviations unfamiliar to your reader. This can be a worthwhile addition to your thesis or dissertation if your dissertation topic or field of study uses a lot of abbreviations in papers.

If you only use a few abbreviations, you don’t necessarily need to include a list. However, it’s never a bad idea to add one if your abbreviations are numerous, or if you think they will not be known to your audience.

You can download our template below in the format of your choice to help you get started.

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Example list of abbreviations

Best practices for abbreviations and acronyms, additional lists to include, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions.

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There are a few rules to keep in mind about using abbreviations in academic writing. Here are a few tips.

• Acronyms are formed using the first letter of each word in a phrase. The first time you use an acronym, write the phrase in full and place the acronym in parentheses immediately after it. You can then use the acronym throughout the rest of the text.
• The same guidance goes for abbreviations: write the explanation in full the first time you use it, then proceed with the abbreviated version.
• If you’re using very common acronyms or abbreviations, such as USA, PC, or NASA, you can abbreviate them from the get-go. If you’re in doubt, just write it out in full the first time.

As well as the list of abbreviations, you can also use a list of tables and figures and a glossary for your thesis or dissertation.

Include your lists in the following order:

• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

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As a rule of thumb, write the explanation in full the first time you use an acronym or abbreviation. You can then proceed with the shortened version. However, if the abbreviation is very common (like PC, USA, or DNA), then you can use the abbreviated version from the get-go.

Be sure to add each abbreviation in your list of abbreviations !

If you only used a few abbreviations in your thesis or dissertation , you don’t necessarily need to include a list of abbreviations .

If your abbreviations are numerous, or if you think they won’t be known to your audience, it’s never a bad idea to add one. They can also improve readability, minimizing confusion about abbreviations unfamiliar to your reader.

A list of abbreviations is a list of all the abbreviations that you used in your thesis or dissertation. It should appear at the beginning of your document, with items in alphabetical order, just after your table of contents .

An abbreviation is a shortened version of an existing word, such as Dr. for Doctor. In contrast, an acronym uses the first letter of each word to create a wholly new word, such as UNESCO (an acronym for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization).

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Presenting your thesis

This document is also available in a downloadable, printable format (Word - 78KB) .

Introduction

This is a guide to the presentation of a thesis required for the award of a research degree at the University of Birmingham.  It deals only with the practicalities of producing your thesis in a format that is acceptable for examination and deposit in the Library.  It supplements Regulation 7.4.1 which covers thesis requirements and Regulation 7.4.2 which contains key information about language and word count.  See the  regulations relevant to your cohort .

If your thesis will be presented as a series of published or publishable papers, please refer to the Alternative Format Thesis guidelines (Word - 24KB)  in addition to this document.

For aspects of thesis presentation not mentioned in the regulations or in this document, discuss with your supervisor what might be appropriate for your discipline.

Legal considerations

Whilst there may be valid reasons to restrict access to your thesis temporarily, an electronic copy of your thesis will become publicly available immediately or within a few years of your graduation.  Just as would be required with a formal publication, it is your responsibility to ensure your thesis can be legally shared with a broad audience.

It is your responsibility to ensure that you comply with copyright legislation when including third-party material (e.g. quotations, images).  See  copyright for researchers .

Data Protection

Unless you have explicit permission, your thesis must not include commercially sensitive data or sensitive personal data relating to your research participants.  Where it is essential to include such data, you should ensure it is fully anonymised.  See  Anonymisation: managing data protection risk code of practice from the Information Commissioner's Office (PDF - 1.84MB) .

Accessibility

There is a legal requirement to make theses available to those who would benefit from an accessible document, including those using screen-reading software.  For more information, see LinkedIn Learning .

Elements of the thesis

A thesis normally consists of the following elements, in the order presented here:

• Dedication (optional)

Acknowledgements

Table of contents.

• List of illustrations (if appropriate)
• List of tables (if appropriate)
• List of definitions/abbreviations (if appropriate)

Main body text

References/bibliography, preliminaries.

The preliminary pages should not be included in the table of contents or the word count for the thesis.  They should be numbered separately from the main body of the thesis, or left unnumbered. 

The title page gives the title, author, statement of the degree for which the thesis is submitted, department/school, university and month of submission.  Give your full name on the title page to ensure it matches that on your student record.

For a thesis being deposited after minor or major corrections have been made and approved, the date on the title page should be the original date of submission.  For a resubmitted thesis, the date should be the month of resubmission.

If your thesis consists of more than one volume, a title page should be included in each volume.  In this case, the title page should additionally include the number of the particular volume and the total number of volumes of the thesis.

It should be laid out as in the following example:

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTS OF SELECTION WITHIN AN INBREEDING PROGRAMME IN SUNFLOWERS

MARTIN TREVOR SMITH

A thesis submitted to the University of Birmingham for the degree of  DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Institute of Local Government Studies School of Government and Society College of Social Sciences University of Birmingham October 2020

The abstract should immediately follow the title page, and be no longer than 2 pages.  The abstract will be used when the thesis is indexed in EThOS, Index to Theses and elsewhere.

You must include acknowledgement of any funding you have received. 

Where a third-party editor has been used you must also acknowledge the contribution they have made, by stating for example “this thesis was copy edited for conventions of language, spelling and grammar by [name of editor/editing company]”.  See the  full statement on editorial help (PDF - 190KB) .

Inclusion of further acknowledgements is a matter for your own discretion, and they may be omitted if the above do not apply to you.

Contents listings

The table of contents should show chapter and section titles, demonstrating the relationship of the parts to each other by indentation and numbering.  Chapters and sections should be referenced to their page numbers.

If your thesis consists of more than one volume, each volume should have its own table of contents as well as a complete table of contents. 

Other preliminary listings

You may also choose to include lists of illustrations, tables, definitions and/or abbreviations.

If your list of illustrations includes different types of illustrations, it can be subdivided into headed sections (e.g. figures, plates, maps, charts).  The title of each illustration should be referenced to its page number.  If illustrations have been inserted without page numbers then the terms “Facing page” (for one illustration) or “Following page” (series of illustrations) should precede the appropriate page number.

Lists of definitions and/or abbreviations act as an aid to the reader, and do not replace full explanations in the main text when an abbreviation, symbol or new term is used for the first time.

The main body of the text follows the preliminaries and the sequence of page numbers begins here.  This section must be included in your word count (less any exemptions such as footnotes, tables, diagrams and figures – see regulation 7.4.2). 

A referencing style appropriate to your discipline should be used consistently throughout your thesis.  See the  iCite referencing guide .

A list of references must contain all of the sources which you have mentioned in the text, according to your chosen referencing style.  This can be headed either “List of References” or “Bibliography” as appropriate to your discipline. 

Additionally, you may include a bibliography of sources which you have not cited in the text itself, but which you think readers might wish to go on to consult.  This may be sub-divided into sections if that is likely to prove helpful.

Appendices contain information which is supportive but not critical for understanding of the main text.  Copyright and appropriate handling of sensitive information also apply to the appendices as in the main text, and it is your responsibility to ensure that you comply. 

Where more than one appendix is included, assign each one a number.

Typesetting and word processing

The thesis must be clearly set out and easy to read. 

Page layout

The margin on the binding edge must be at least 3 cm.  It is desirable to have margins of 3 cm at the top and bottom of the page and 2 cm at the outer edge.

Document layout

It is recommended that you use the heading styles within your word processing software properly.  This will facilitate creation of a table of contents, simplify navigation of your document, and increase the accessibility of your thesis to screen readers.

New chapters should always commence on a fresh page.  Titles should be in capitals and centred.  Sub-headings within chapters should be left justified.

Quotations not integrated in the text should be clearly distinguished from the main text. 

Equations and formulae should be indented from the margin and separated from the surrounding text by an extra space.  They may be numbered.

Illustrations and tables should be positioned near the first reference made to them in the text, and a fully descriptive caption provided.  Avoid using colour to convey meaning.

• See guidance on Canvas for using Microsoft Word to manage long documents . 

Recommended fonts include Arial, but any clear, standard sans serif typeface may be used.  Font colour should be black, and font size 12 is recommended for general use. 

Use double line spacing throughout the body of your text.  Single spacing is acceptable for quotations, footnotes, captions, and the bibliography.  Layout should be reasonably uniform regarding the length of lines and the number of lines per page.

Printing and binding for examination

You are not required to submit printed copies of your thesis in the first instance. However, if your examiners specifically request a printed copy, Research Student Administration will contact you and you will then be required to submit a printed copy. These guidelines should be followed in this case.

You should use white A4 paper, of good quality (minimum 80gsm if single-sided or minimum 100gsm if double-sided).  We encourage printing on both sides of the paper, provided the paper doesn’t allow printing to show through and affect legibility.

It is normal practice for copies of your thesis submitted for examination to be bound in a glued soft binding.  This binding must be sufficiently secure to ensure that pages do not fall out during the examination process. 

Library deposit copy

After your work has been examined, your corrections (if applicable) have been approved, and you have received your letter of award, you must upload an electronic copy for permanent deposit in the eTheses Repository . See more information on depositing your thesis in the UBIRA eTheses repository . 

If your thesis has any supplementary media, this should be provided electronically.  Contact Scholarly Communications Services  in Library Services for advice.

Further reading

Allison, B. & Race, P. (2004).  The student’s guide to preparing dissertations and theses .  2 nd ed.  London; New York: RoutledgeFalmer.  eBook via FindIt@Bham .

International Organization for Standardization (1986).  ISO 7144: Documentation – presentation of theses and similar documents .   FindIt@Bham .

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Theses and Dissertations Collection

Open Access Repository of University of Idaho Graduate ETD

Description

An open access repository of theses and dissertations from University of Idaho graduate students. The collection includes the complete electronic theses and dissertations submitted 2014 - 2023, as well as, select digitized copies of earlier documents dating back to 1910.

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How to Cite in APA Format (7th edition): Citation Style Guide

Table of Contents

What is APA 7th Edition ?    

The American Psychological Association (APA) introduced the latest edition of the APA Style Manual (i.e., APA 7 th edition ) in 2019. APA Style has its origins in 1929 , when a group of academics and professionals decided to develop a set of guidelines that would standardize scientific writing. The earliest form was a seven-page guide published in the Psychological Bulletin . The first formal edition of the APA Publication Manual was published in 1952, with subsequent editions appearing in 1974, 1983, 1994, 2001, 2009, and most recently, in 2019.  

Over the years, the APA style guide has evolved considerably to meet the changing needs of a wide range of disciplines, from social and behavioral sciences to health care, natural sciences, and humanities. APA Style is widely used by academic journals and books.  

As APA 7 th edition is the current and most updated version, students and researchers should familiarize themselves with the style guidelines, including the reference and citation styles.  

Who Should Use APA 7th Edition ?    

The aim of style guides such as the APA Style Guide is to simplify the work of editors and make it easier for readers to understand a text by ensuring a uniform format for a given publication. For example, the APA Style Guide will contain guidelines that lay down the APA reference format and APA style citation for authors to follow.  

The APA Style Guide can be a valuable reference when writing and formatting academic papers, irrespective of discipline. However, this style is primarily used by professionals, researchers, and students in the social sciences (e.g., sociology, psychology, anthropology), behavioral sciences, education, business, and nursing.  

If you are a student, you may consult with an instructor to check what style your discipline uses before using APA Style in your work. Most importantly, be sure to check the guidelines of your university or the journal you plan to publish in to ensure APA 7 th edition is the correct style to use.   

APA In-text Citations    

Researchers rely on citations and references to give credit to original sources, support their arguments, and guide readers to additional information for further study. Let us now look at how to cite sources in APA format. The formatting requirements of APA 7th edition citation for referring to secondary sources in your text are as follows.  

The APA citation format includes the author’s last name and the year of publication. When referring to a particular part of a source, the page number may be included, e.g., “(Rawat et al., 2018, p. 115).”  

APA style citation in the text may be parenthetical or narrative.  

In parenthetical citation, the author’s name and the year of publication are placed in parentheses within the text. This style is used at the end of a sentence. See below for an example:  

• Gender, age, education, and income determine a person’s risk and adaptive capacities (Birkmann et al., 2022).  

In narrative citation, the author’s name appears as a part of the sentence, followed by the publication year in parentheses. See below for an example:  

• Birkman et al. (2022) note that gender, age, education, and income determine a person’s risk and adaptive capacities.

Table 1: How to cite sources in APA format when there are multiple authors and organizations as authors  

*First time with an abbreviation: (World Health Organization [WHO], 2016); all subsequent citations: (WHO, 2016)  

Table 2: How to cite sources in APA format when some information is missing  

  APA Reference Format    

After APA citations , let us now look at the APA reference format. As an academic, you might use a wide array of source types. According to the APA style guide , each type is formatted in a certain manner. The most commonly used sources are journal articles, books, and dissertations. However, you occasionally might need to cite webpages, podcasts, and news article. How would all these appear in an APA 7 reference page ? You will find your answers in Table 3!  

Table 3: How to format various sources in the APA reference list  

Formatting the APA Paper    

Papers formatted according to APA 7th edition typically contain the following elements:  

Title page with the title (bold, centered), running head and page number in the header, author names and affiliations, and author notes (ORCID ID, conflicts of interest, etc.); see below:  

Next comes the abstract . It should be double spaced and use consistent font. The keywords appear below the abstract, with an indent.  

For the main text, margins are 1 inch on all four side s. T he text is double spaced . T he font used should be consistent . H eadings are used to separate sections , and d etails on heading levels are as follows:  

Source: https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/paper-format/headings

Finally, the APA 7 reference page contains the references to all sources used in the paper. References are double-spaced and use hanging indents :  

Style guides in academic writing serve to standardize formatting, citations, and language use across scholarly works. They provide readers with cues they can use to follow the text more efficiently and to locate information of interest to them. In other words, it avoids distraction of unfamiliar or non-uniform formatting.  

In this piece about APA 7th edition , we have explained in detail the nuances of APA citations , including how to cite in APA format and how to format the APA 7 reference page . A brief primer on formatting a manuscript in line with APA 7th edition is also provided.  

Frequently Asked Questions    

• What are the major changes from APA 6th to APA 7th Edition ?  

The updates from APA 6th to APA 7th Edition reflect a commitment to improving clarity, inclusivity, and usability in scholarly writing. The salient differences from APA 6 th edition are as follows:  

• Title page format: The title page has been updated for professionals. The author note includes information such as ORCID IDs and conflict of interest disclosures.
• Running head: The running head format has been simplified for professional authors.
• Font flexibility : There is greater flexibility in font specifications to enhance accessibility.
• Bias-free language guidelines: The guidelines for bias-free language have been updated to promote inclusivity and respect when writing about various identities.  
• Reference formatting: In APA 7th edition , the number of authors included in a reference entry has changed to allow up to 20 authors before using an ellipsis. The presentation of DOIs and URLs has been standardized.  
• In-text citations: In-text citations for works with three or more authors have been simplified to include only the first author’s name followed by “et al.”
• Accessibility: APA 7th edition emphasizes accessibility for users with disabilities, ensuring that guidelines support various modalities, including screen readers.  
• How do I cite a journal article in APA 7th Edition ?  

According to APA 7 th edition , a reference would appear as below:  

Author, A. A. (Year of Publication). Title of the article. Title of the Journal, volume number (issue number), pages. https://doi.org/xx.xxx/yyyy .  

The in-text citation would include the author name(s) and year of publication, e.g., (Andriolatou, 2007).   

• How should multiple authors be cited in APA 7th Edition?  

APA 7 citation style would vary depending on the number of authors and whether you are citing the source parenthetically or narratively:  

Single author, parenthetical: (Bik, 2020)  

Single author, narrative: Bik (2020) reported that…  

Two authors, parenthetical: (Bik & Urs, 2019)  

Two authors, narrative: As demonstrated by Bik and Urs (2019), …  

Three or more authors, parenthetical: (Bik et al., 2023)  

Three or more authors, narrative: Bik et al. (2023) have published…  

• How do I format in-text citations for a direct quote?  

When someone else’s words are copied verbatim in your paper, it refers to a direct quote.   

For APA 7 citation of short direct quotes (<40 words), use quotation marks around the quote and cite the author, year, and page number:  

Another way to look at it is how people “get a broader range of experience than they would on a feature” (Catmull, 2014, p. 209).  

For APA 7 citation of longer quotes, or block quotes, the sentence preceding the quote ends in a colon and is followed by the quoted text. No quotation marks are used. The quote is indented and cited without a period at the end (see the figure below).   

Figure: How to cite block quotes in APA citations

To conclude  

Over the years, the APA style guide has evolved significantly. The current version, APA 7th edition , has expanded in both scope and size to accommodate the needs of wide-ranging fields and to address changing times. Despite these changes, the core intention—to provide clear, consistent guidelines for effective communication—remains at the heart of APA Style .   

For busy researchers, not only is it difficult to remember the different elements of citations and references and the subtle differences in formatting, but it also a tedious task to manually format in-text citations and reference lists and ensure consistency between them. In addition, you might need to format (and even re-format) your manuscript according to different journals, which might follow styles different from APA 7th edition (MLA, Chicago, AMA, etc.)! But there is no need to worry…help is at hand!

Citation generators are online tools that format references in different styles. There are a number of citation generators available, and Paperpal has launched its new citation generator , which stands out from the others in many ways. As a part of Paperpal’s writing workflow, you can easily find and cite sources accurately in a matter of seconds.

This free citation generator supports the updated recent versions of 10,000+ styles, including APA 7th edition . Therefore, it can serve as an APA 7th edition citation generator if you need one! What’s more, you don’t need to switch between multiple tools to search, save, or format your citations. You can rely Paperpal’s citation generation feature for help with citing sources accurately and consistently in your writing. Explore Paperpal for free now!  

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed.  Try for free or  upgrade to Paperpal Prime  starting at US$19 a month  to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing –  Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

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V. I. Lenin

Theses on fundamental tasks of, the second congress of the communist international.

Written: 30 June, 1920 First Published: July of 1920 Source: Lenin’s Collected Works , 4th English Edition, Progress Publishers, Moscow, 1965, Volume 31 , pages 184-201 Translated: Julius Katzer Transcription\HTML Markup: David Walters & R. Cymbala Copyleft: V. I. Lenin Internet Archive (www.marx.org) 2002. Permission is granted to copy and/or distribute this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License

The Essence of the Dictatorship of the Proletariat and of Soviet Power

What Immediate and Universal Preparation for the Dictatorship of the Proletariat Should Consist of

Rectification of the Political Line—Partly Also the Composition—of Parties Affiliated or Desiring to Affiliate to the Communist International

1.The present stage in the development of the international communist movement is marked by the fact that the finest representatives of the revolutionary proletariat in all capitalist countries have fully grasped the fundamental principles of the Communist International, viz., dictatorship of the proletariat and Soviet power, and have ranged themselves with unbounded enthusiasm on the side of the Communist International. An even bigger and more important step forward is the definite sympathy with these fundamental principles that has everywhere taken shape among the broadest masses; not only of the urban proletariat, but of the advanced section of the rural workers as well.

On the other hand, two errors, or failings, are to be observed in the very rapidly growing international communist movement. One, which is very grave and constitutes an immense and immediate danger to the success of the cause of proletarian emancipation, is that a section of the old leaders and of the old parties of the Second International—some yielding half-unconsciously to the wishes and pressure of the masses, and some deliberately deceiving the masses in order to retain their function of agents and assistants of the bourgeoisie within the working-class movement—declare their qualified or even unqualified adherence to the Third International, while actually remaining in all their practical party and political work, on the level of the Second International. Such a state of affairs is absolutely intolerable, because it leads to downright corruption of the masses, detracts from the Third International’s prestige, and threatens a repetition of the same acts of treachery as were perpetrated by the Hungarian Social-Democrats, who so hastily assumed the title of Communists. The other error, which is far less significant and is more in the nature of growing pains of the movement, consists in a tendency towards “Leftism” which results in a wrong appraisal of the role and the tasks of the party with regard to the class and the masses, and a wrong attitude towards the revolutionary Communists’ obligation to work in bourgeois parliaments and reactionary trade unions.

Communists are in duty bound, not to gloss over shortcomings in their movement, but to criticise them openly so as to remedy them the more speedily and radically. For this purpose it is necessary: first, to define as concretely as possible, particularly on the basis of the practical experience already acquired, the content of the concepts “dictatorship of the proletariat” and “Soviet power”; second, to specify the precise content of the immediate and systematic preparatory work to be carried on in all countries so as to give effect to these slogans; and third, to specify the methods and means of rectifying the faults in our movement.

The Essence Of The Dictatorship Of The Proletariat and of Soviet Power

2.The victory of socialism (as the first stage of communism) over capitalism requires that the proletariat, as the only really revolutionary class, shall accomplish the following three tasks. First—overthrow the exploiters, and first and foremost the bourgeoisie, as their principal economic and political representative; utterly rout them; crush their resistance; absolutely preclude any attempt on their part to restore the yoke of capital and wage-slavery. Second—win over and bring under the leadership of the Communist Party, the revolutionary vanguard of the proletariat, not only the entire proletariat, or its vast majority, but all who labour and are exploited by capital; educate, organise, train and discipline them in the actual course of a supremely bold and ruthlessly firm struggle against the exploiters; wrest this vast majority of the pqpulation in all the capitalist countries from dependence on the bourgeoisie; imbue it, through its own practical experience, with confidence in the leading role of the proletariat and of its revolutionary vanguard. Third—neutralise, or render harmless, the inevitable vacillation between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, between bourgeois democracy and Soviet power, to be seen in the class of petty proprietors in agriculture, industry and commerce—a class which is still fairly numerous in nearly all advanced countries, although comprising only a minority of the population—as well as in the stratum of intellectuals, salary earners, etc., which corresponds to this class.

The first and second tasks are independent ones, each requiring its own special methods of action with regard to the exploiters and to the exploited respectively. The third task follows from the first two, and merely requires a skilful, timely and flexible combination of methods of the first and second type, depending on the specific circumstances in each separate instance of vacillation.

3.In the concrete situation created throughout the world, and above all in the most advanced, powerful, enlightened and free capitalist countries, by militarism, imperialism, the oppression of colonies and weak countries, the world wide imperialist butchery and the “Peace” of Versailles—in that situation the very idea of the capitalists peacefully submitting to the will of the majority of the exploited, the very idea of a peaceful, reformist transition to socialism, is not merely sheer philistine stupidity but also down right deception of the workers, embellishment of capitalist wage-slavery, and concealment of the truth. That truth consists in the bourgeoisie, even the most enlightened and democratic, no longer hesitating at any fraud or crime, even the massacre of millions of workers and peasants, so as to preserve private ownership of the means of production. Only the forcible overthrow of the bourgeoisie, the confiscation of its property, the destruction of the entire bourgeois state apparatus from top to bottom—parliamentary. judicial, military, bureaucratic, administrative, municipal, etc.—right down to the wholesale deportation or internment of the most dangerous and stubborn exploiters and the institution of strict surveillance over them so as to foil their inevitable attempts to resist and to restore capitalist slavery—only such measures can ensure real submission of the whole class of exploiters.

On the other hand, the idea, common among the old parties and the old leaders of the Second International, that the majority of the exploited toilers can achieve complete clarity of socialist consciousness and firm socialist convictions and character under capitalist slavery, under the yoke of the bourgeoisie (which assumes an inIinite variety of forms that become more subtle and at the same time more brutal and ruthless the higher the cultural level in a given capitalist country) is also idealisation of capitalism and of bourgeois democracy, as well as deception of the workers. In fact, it is only after the vanguard of the proletariat, supported by the whole or the majority of this, the only revolutionary class, overthrows the exploiters, suppresses them, emancipates the exploited from their state of slavery and-immediately improves their conditions of life at the expense of the expropriated capitalists—it is only after this, and only in the actual process of an acute class strugg]e, that the masses of the toilers and exploited can be educated, trained and organised around the proletariat under whose influence and guidance, they can get rid of the selfishness, disunity, vices and weaknesses engendered by private property; only then will they be converted into a free union of free workers.

4.Victory over capitalism calls for proper relations between the leading (Communist) party, the revolutionary class (the proletariat) and the masses, i.e., the entire body of the toilers and the exploited. Only the Communist Party, if it is really the vanguard of the revolutionary class, if it really comprises all the finest representatives of that class, if it consists of fully conscious and staunch Communists who have been educated and steeled by the experience of a persistent revolutionary struggle, and if it has succeeded in linking itself inseparably with the whole life of its class and, through it, with the whole mass of the exploited, and in completely winning the confidence of this class and this mass—only such a party is capable of leading the proletariat in a final, most ruthless and decisive struggle against all the forces of capitalism. On the other hand, it is only under the leadership of such a party that the proletariat is capable of displaying the full might of its revolutionary onslaught, and of overcoming the inevitable apathy and occasional resistance of that small minority, the labour aristocracy, who have been corrupted by capitalism, the old trade union and co-operative leaders, etc.—only then will it be capable of displaying its full might, which, because of the very economic structure of capitalist society, is infinitely greater than its proportion of the population. Finally, it is only after they have been really emancipated from the yoke of the bourgeoisie and of the bourgeois machinery of state, only after they have found an opportunity of organising in their Soviets in a really free way (free from the exploiters), that the masses, i.e., the toilers and exploited as a body, can display, for the first time in history, all the initiative and energy of tens of millions of people who have been crushed by capitalism. Only when the Soviets have become the sole state apparatus is it really possible to ensure the participation, in the work of administration, of the entire mass of the exploited, who, even under the most enlightened and freest bourgeois democracy, have always actually been excluded 99 per cent from participation in the work of administration. It is only in the Soviets that the exploited masses really begin to learn—not in books, but from their own practical experience—the work of socialist construction, of creating a new social discipline and a free union of free workers.

What Immediate And Universal Preparation for the Dictatorship of the Proletariat Should Consist of

5.The present stage in the development of the international communist movement is marked by the fact that in the vast majority of capitalist countries, the proletariat’s preparations to effect its dictatorship have not been completed, and, in many cases, have not even been systematically begun. From this it does not, however, follow that the proletarian revolution is impossible in the immediate future; it is perfectly possible, since the entire economic and political situation is most inflammable and abounds in causes of a sudden flare-up; the other condition for revolution, apart from the proletariat’s preparedness, viz., a general state of crisis in all the ruling and in all bourgeois parties, also exists. However, it does follow that the Communist Parties’ current task consists not in accelerating the revolution, but in intensifying the preparation of the proletariat. On the other hand, the facts cited above from the history of many socialist parties make it incumbent on us to see that “recognition” of the dictatorship of the proletariat shall not remain a more matter of words.

Hence, from the point of view of the international proletarian movement, it is the Communist parties ’ principal task at the present moment to unite the scattered Communist forces, to form a single Communist Party in every country (or to reinforce or renovate the already existing Party) in order to increase tenfold the work of preparing the proletariat for the conquest of political power—political power, moreover, in the form of the dictatorship of the proletariat. The ordinary socialist work conducted by groups and parties which recognise the dictatorship of the proletariat has by no means undergone that fundamental reorganisation, that fundamental renovation, which is essential before this work can be considered communist work and adequate to the tasks to be accomplished on the eve of proletarian dictatorship.

6.The proletariat’s conquest of political power does not put a stop to its class struggle against the bourgeoisie; on the contrary, it renders that struggle most widespread, intense and ruthless. Owing to the extreme intensification of the struggle all groups, parties and leaders in the working-class movement who have fully or partly adopted the stand of reformism, of the “Centre”, etc., inevitably side with the bourgeoisie or join the waverers, or else (what is the most dangerous of all) land in the ranks of the unreliable friends of the victorious proletariat. Hence, preparation for the dictatorship of the proletariat calls, not only for an intensification of the struggle against reformist and “Centrist” tendencies, but also for a change in the character of that struggle. The struggle cannot be restricted to explaining the erroneousness of these tendencies; it must unswervingly and ruthlessly expose any leader of the working-class movement who reveals such tendencies, for otherwise the proletariat cannot know who it will march with into the decisive struggle against the bourgeoisie. This struggle is such that at any moment it may—and actually does, as experience has shown—substitute criticism with weapons for the weapon of criticism. [6] Any inconsistency or weakness in exposing those who show themselves to be reformists or “Centrists” means directly increasing the danger of the power of the proletariat being overthrovn by the bourgeoisie, which tomorrow will utilise for the counter-revolution that which short-sighted people today see merely as “theoretical difference”.

7.In particular, we must not restrict ourselves to the usual repudiation, in principle, of all collaboration between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, of all “collaborationism”. Under the dictatorship of the proletariat, which will never be able, at one stroke, to abolish private property completely, mere defence of “liberty”’ and “equality”, while private ownership of the means of production is preserved, turns into “collaboration” with the bourgeoisie, and undermines the rule of the working class. The dictatorship of the proletariat means that the state uses its whole machinery of power to uphold and perpetuate “no-liberty” for the exploiters to continue their oppression and exploitation, “inequality” between the owner of property (i.e., one who has appropriated for himself certain means of production created by social labour) and the non-owner. That which, prior to the victory of the proletariat, seems merely a theoretical difference on the question of “democracy” inevitably becomes, on the day following victory, a question that is settled by force of arms. Consequently, even preliminary work in preparing the masses to effect the dictatorship of the proletariat is impossible without a radical change in the entire character of the struggle against the “Centrists” and the “champions of democracy “.

8.The dictatorship of the proletariat is the most determined and revolutionary form of the proletariat’s class struggle against the bourgeoisie. This struggle can be successful only when the most revolutionary vanguard of the proletariat has the backing of the overwhelming majority of the proletariat. Hence, preparation for the dictatorship of the proletariat entails not only explanation of the bourgeois character of all reformism, of all defence of democracy, while private ownership of the means of production is preserved; it entails, not only exposure of such trends, which are in fact a defence of the bourgeoisie within the labour movement; it also calls for old leaders being replaced by Communists in proletarian organisations of absolutely every type—not only political, but also trade union, co-operative, educational, etc. The more complete, lengthy and firmly established the rule of bourgeois democracy has been in a given country, the more the bourgeoisie will have succeeded in securing the appointment to such leading posts of people whose minds have been moulded by it and imbued with its views and prejudices, and who have very often been directly or indirectly bought by it. These representatives of the labour aristocracy, bourgeoisified workers, should be ousted from all their posts a hundred times more sweepingly than hitherto, and replaced by workers—even by wholly inexperienced men, provided they are connected with the exploited masses and enjoy their confidence in the struggle against the exploiters. The dictatorship of the proletariat will require the appointment of such inexperienced workers to the most responsible posts in the state; otherwise the workers’ government will be impotent and will not have the support of the masses.

9.The dictatorship of the proletariat means that all toiling and exploited people, who have been disunited, deceived, intimidated, oppressed, downtrodden and crushed by the capitalist class, come under the full leadership of the only class trained for that leadership by the whole history of capitalism. That is why the following is one of the methods whereby preparations for the dictatorship of the proletariat should be started everywhere and immediately:

In all organisations, unions and associations without exception, and first and foremost in proletarian organisations, but also in those of the non-proletarian toiling and exploited masses (political, trade union, military, co-operative, educational, sports, etc., etc.), groups or cells of Communists should be formed—preferably open groups, but underground groups as well, the latter being essential whenever there is reason to expect their suppression, or the arrest or banishment of their members on the part of the bourgeoisie; these cells, which are to be in close touch with one another and with the Party centre, should, by pooling their experience, carrying on work of agitation, propaganda and organisation, adapting themselves to absolutely every sphere of public life and to every variety and category of the toiling masses, systematically educate themselves, the Party, the class, and the masses by means of such diversified work.

In this connection, it is of the utmost importance that necessary distinctions between the methods of work should be evolved in practice: on the one hand, in relation to the “leaders”, or “responsible representatives”, who are very often hopelessly beset with petty-bourgeois and imperialist prejudices—such “leaders” must be ruthlessly exposed and expelled from the working-class movement—and, on the other hand, in relation to the masses, who, particularly after the imperialist holocaust, are for the most part inclined to listen to and accept the doctrine that the guidance from the proletariat is essential, as the only way of escape from capitalist slavery. We must learn to approach the masses with particular patience and caution so as to be able to understand the distinctive features in the mentality of each stratum, calling, etc., of these masses.

10.In particular, there is a group or cell of Communists that deserves exceptional attention and care from the Party, i.e., the parliamentary group of Party members, who are deputies to bourgeois representative institutions (primarily the national, but also local, municipal, etc., representative institutions). On the one hand, it is this tribune which is held in particular regard by large sections of the toiling masses, who are backward or imbued with petty-bourgeois prejudices; it is therefore imperative for Communists to utilise this tribune to conduct propaganda, agitation and organisational work and to explain to the masses why the dispersal of the bourgeois parliament by the national congress of Soviets was legitimate in Russia (and, at the proper time, will be legitimate in any country). On the other hand, the entire history of bourgeois democracy, particularly in the advanced countries, has converted the parliamentary rostrum into one of the principal, if not the principal, venues of unparalleled fraudulency, financial and political deception of the people, careerism, hypocrisy and oppression of the working people. The intense hatred of parliaments felt by the best representatives of the revolutionary proletariat is therefore quite justified. The Communist parties and all parties affiliated to the Third International—especially those which have not arisen by splitting away from the old parties and by waging a long and persistent struggle against them, but through the old parties accepting (often nominally) the new stand—should therefore adopt a most strict attitude towards their parliamentary groups; the latter must be brought under the full control and direction of the Central Committees of the Parties; they must consist, in the main, of revolutionary workers; speeches by members of parliament should be carefully analysed in the Party press and at Party meetings, from a strictly communist standpoint; deputies should be sent to carry on agitational work among the masses; those who manifest Second International leanings should be expelled from the parliamentary groups, etc.

11.One of the chief causes hampering the revolutionary working-class movement in the developed capitalist countries is the fact that because of their colonial possessions and the super-profits gained by finance capital, etc., the capitalists af these countries have been able to create a relatively larger and more stable labour aristocracy, a section which comprises a small minority of the working class. This minority enjoys better terms of employment and is most-imbued with a narrow-minded craft spirit and with petty-bourgeois and imperialist prejudices. It forms the real social pillar of the Second International, of the reformists and the “Centrists”; at present it might even be called the social mainstay of the bourgeoisie. No preparation of the proletariat for the overthrow of the bourgeoisie is possible, even in the preliminary sense, unless an immediate, systematic, extensive and open struggle is waged against this stratum, which, as experience has already fully shown, will no doubt provide the bourgeois White guards with many a recruit after the victory of the proletariat. All parties affiliated to the Third International must at all costs give effect to the slogans: “Deeper into the thick of the masses”, “Closer links with the masses”—meaning by the masses all those who toil and are exploited by capital, particularly those who are least organised and educated, who are most oppressed and least amenable to organisation.

The proletariat becomes revolutionary only insofar as it does not restrict itself to the narrow framework of craft interests, only when in all matters and spheres of public life, it acts as the leader of all the toiling and exploited masses; it cannot achieve its dictatorship unless it is prepared and able to make the greatest sacrifices for the sake of victory over the bourgeoisie. In this respect, the experience of Russia is significant both in principle and in practice. The proletariat could not have achieved its dictatorship there, or won the universally acknowledged respect and confidence of all the toiling masses, had it not made the most sacrifices, or starved more than any other section of those masses at the most crucial moments of the onslaught, war and blockade effected by the world bourgeoisie.

In particular, the Communist Party and all advanced proletarians must give all-round and unstinted support especially to the spontaneous and mass strike movement, which, under the yoke of capital, is alone capable of really rousing, educating and organising the masses, of imbuing them with complete confidence in the leadership of the revolutionary proletariat. Without such preparation, no dictatorship of the proletariat is possible; those who are capable of publicly opposing strikes, such as Kautsky in Germany and Turati in Italy, cannot possibly be tolerated in the ranks of parties affiliated to the Third International. This applies even more, of course, to those trade union and parliamentary leaders who so often betray the workers by using the experience of strikes to teach them reformism, and not revolution (for instance, in Britain and in France in recent years).

12.In all countries, even in those that are freest, most “legal”, and most “peaceful” in the sense that the class struggle is least acute there, it is now absolutely indispensable for every Communist Party to systematically combine legal and illegal work, legal and illegal organisations. Notwithstanding their false and hypocritical declarations, the governments of even the most enlightened and freest of countries, where the bourgeois-democratic system is most “stable”, are already systematically and secretly drawing up blacklists of Communists and constantly violating their own constitutions so as to give secret or semi-secret encouragement to the whiteguards and to the murder of Communists in all countries, making secret preparations for the arrest of Communists, planting agents provocateurs among the Communists, etc., etc. Only a most reactionary philistine, no matter what cloak of fine “democratic” and pacifist phrases he may don, will deny this fact or the conclusion that of necessity follows from it viz., that all legal Communist parties must immediately form illegal organisations for the systematic conduct of illegal work and for complete preparations for the moment the bourgeoisie resorts to persecution. Illegal work is most necessary in the army, the navy and the police because, since the imperialist holocaust, governments the world over have begun to stand in dread of people’s armies which are open to the workers and peasants, and are secretly resorting to all kinds of methods to set up military units specially recruited from the bourgeoisie and equipped with the most up-to-date weapons.

On the other hand, it is likewise necessary that, in all cases without exception, the parties should not restrict themselves to illegal work, but should conduct legal work as well, overcoming all obstacles, starting legal publications, and forming legal organisations under the most varied names, which should be frequently changed if necessary. This is being practised by the illegal Communist parties in Finland, Hungary, partly in Germany, Poland, Latvia, etc. It should be practised by the Industrial Workers of the World in the U.S.A. and by all Communist parties at present legal, should public prosecutors see fit to take proceedings against them on the grounds of resolutions adopted by Congresses of the Communist International, etc.

A combination of illegal and legal work is an absolute principle dictated, not only by all features of the present period, that of the eve of the proletarian dictatorship, but also by the necessity of proving to the bourgeoisie that there is not, nor can there be, any sphere of activity that cannot be won by the Communists; above all, it is dictated by the fact that broad strata of the proletariat and even broader strata of the non-proletarian toiling and exploited masses still exist everywhere, who continue to believe in bourgeois-democratic legality and whom we must undeceive without fail.

13.In particular, the conditions of the working-class press in most advanced capitalist countries strikingly reveal the utter fraudulency of liberty and equality under bourgeois democracy, as well as the necessity of systematically combining legal work with illegal work. Both in vanquished Germany and in victorious America, the entire power of the bourgeoisie’s machinery of state and all the machinations of the financial magnates are employed to deprive the workers of their press, these including legal proceedings, the arrest (or murder by hired assassins) of editors, denial of mailing privileges, the cutting off of paper supplies, and so on and so forth. Besides, the news services essential to daily newspapers are run by bourgeois telegraph agencies, while advertisements, without which a large newspaper cannot pay its way, depend on the “good will” of the capitalists. To sum up: through skulduggery and the pressure of capital and the bourgeois state, the bourgeoisie is depriving the revolutionary proletariat of its press.

To combat this, the Communist parties must create a new type of periodical press for mass distribution among the workers: first, legal publications, which, without calling themselves communist and without publicising their links with the Party, must learn to make use of any legal opportunity, however slight, just as the Bolsheviks did under the tsar, after 1905; secondly, illegal leaflets, even the briefest and published at irregular intervals, but reprinted at numerous printshops by workers (secretly, or, if the movement has become strong enough, by the revolutionary seizure of printshops), and providing the proletariat with outspoken revolutionary information and revolutionary slogans.

Preparations for the dictatorship of the proletariat is impossible without a revolutionary struggle, into which the masses are drawn, for the freedom of the communist press.

Rectification Of The Political Line— Partly Also Of The Composition— Of Parties Affiliated Or Desiring To Affiliate To The Communist International

14.The measure in which the proletariat in countries most important from the viewpoint of world economics and politics is prepared to establish its dictatorship can be seen with the greatest objectivity and precision in the fact that the most influential parties of the Second International, viz., the French Socialist Party, the Independent Social-Democratic Party of Germany, the Independent Labour Party of Great Britain and the Socialist Party of America, [7] have withdrawn from this yellow International, and have decided—the first three conditionally, the latter even unconditionally—to affiliate to the Third In ternational. This proves that not only the vanguard of the revolutionary proletariat but its majority too have begun to come over to our side, convinced by the entire course of events. The main thing now is the ability to consummate this process and to consolidate firmly in point of organisation what has been achieved, so as to advance all along the line, without the slightest wavering.

15.All the activities of the parties mentioned (to which should be added the Socialist Party of Switzerland, [8] if the telegraph reports of its decision to join the Third International are true) show—as any periodical of these parties will strikingly confirm—that they are not yet communist, and quite often run directly counter to the fundamental principles of the Third International, viz., the recognition of the dictatorship of the proletariat and Soviet government in place of bourgeois democracy.

Accordingly, the Second Congress of the Communist International must resolve that it cannot immediately accept the affiliation of these parties; that it endorses the reply given by the Executive Committee of the Third International to the German “Independents” [9] ; that it confirms its readiness to conduct negotiations with any party that withdraws from the Second International and desires to enter into closer relations with the Third International; that it will admit the delegates of such parties in a deliberative capacity to all its congresses and conferences; that it sets the following conditions for the complete adhesion of these (and similar), parties with the Communist International:

1)All decisions of all Congresses of the Communist International and of its Executive Committee to be published in all the periodicals of the parties concerned;

2)These decisions to be discussed at special meetings of all sections or local organisations of the parties;

3)After such discussion, special congresses of the parties to be convened to sum up the results, and for the purpose of—

4)Purging the parties of elements that continue to act in the spirit of the Second International;

5)All periodical publications of the parties to be placed under exclusively Communist editorship.

The Second Congress of the Third International should instruct its Executive Committee formally to accept these and similar parties into the Third International after ascertaining that all these conditions have actually been met and that the activities of the parties have assumed a communist character.

16.As to the question of the conduct of Communists now holding a minority of the responsible posts in these and similar parties, the Second Congress of the Communist International should resolve that, in view of the obvious growth of sincere sympathy for communism among working men belonging to these parties, it would be undesirable for Communists to resign from the latter, as long as they can carry on work within them for the recognition of the dictatorship of the proletariat and Soviet government, and as long as it is possible to criticise the opportunists and Centrists who still remain in these parties.

At the same time, the Second Congress of the Third International should declare in favour of Communist groups and organisations, or groups and organisations sympathising with communism, joining the Labour Party in Great Britain, despite its membership in the Second International. As long as this party ensures its affiliated organisations their present freedom of criticism and freedom to carry on work of propaganda, agitation and organisation in favour of the dictatorship of the proletariat and Soviet government, and as long as this party preserves the character of a federation of all trade union organisations of the working class, it is imperative for Communists to do everything and to make certain compromises in order to be able to exercise their influence on the broadest masses of the workers, to expose their opportunist leaders from a higher tribune, that is in fuller view of the masses, and to hasten the transfer of political power from the direct representatives of the bourgeoisie to the “labour lieutenants of the capitalist class”, so that the masses may be more quickly weaned away from their last illusions on this score.

17.Concerning the Socialist Party of Italy, the Second Congress of the Third International considers that the criticism of that party and the practical proposals submitted to the National Council of the Socialist Party of Italy in the name of the party’s Turin section, [10] as set forth in L’Ordine Nuovo of May 8, 1920, are in the main correct and are fully in keeping with the fundamental principles of the Third International.

Accordingly, the Second Congress of the Third International requests the Socialist Party of Italy to convene a special congress to discuss these proposals and also all the decisions of the two Congresses of the Communist International for the purpose of rectifying the party’s line and of purging it, particularly its parliamentary group, of non-Communist elements.

18.The Second Congress of the Third International considers erroneous the views on the Party’s relation to the class and to the masses, and the view that it is not obligatory for Communist parties to participate in bourgeois parliaments and in reactionary trade unions. These views have been refuted in detail in special decisions of the present Congress, and advocated most fully by the Communist Workers’ Party of Germany, and partly by the Communist Party of Switzerland [11] , by Kommunismus , organ of the East-European Secretariat of the Communist International in Vienna, by the now dissolved secretariat in Amsterdam, by several Dutch comrades, by several Communist organisations in Great Britain, as, for example, the Workers’ Socialist Federation, etc., and also by the Industrial Workers of the World in the U.S.A. and the Shop Stewards’ Committees in Great Britain, etc.

Nevertheless, the Second. Congress of the Third International considers it possible and desirable that those of the above-mentioned organisations which have not yet officially affiliated to the Communist International should do so immediately; for in the present instance, particularly as regards the Industrial Workers of the World in the U.S.A. and Australia, as well as the Shop Stewards’ Committees in Great Britain, we are dealing with a profoundly proletarian and mass movement, which in all essentials actually stands by the basic principles of the Communist International. The erroneous views held by these organisations regarding participation in bourgeois parliaments can be explained, not so much by the influence of elements coming from the bourgeoisie, who bring their essentially petty-bourgeois views into the movement—views such as anarchists often hold—as by the political inexperience of proletarians who are quite revolutionary and connected with the masses.

For this reason, the Second Congress of the Third International requests all Communist organisations and groups in the Anglo-Saxon countries, even if the Industrial Workers of the World and the Shop Stewards’ Committees do not immediately affiliate to the Third International, to pursue a very friendly policy towards these organisations, to establish closer contacts with them and the masses that sympathise with them, and to explain to them in a friendly spirit—on the basis of the experience of all revolutions, and particularly of the three Russian revolutions of the twentieth century—the erroneousness of their views as set forth above, and not to desist from further efforts to amalgamate with these organisations to form a single Communist party.

19.In this connection, the Congress draws the attention of all comrades, particularly in the Latin and Anglo-Saxon countries, to the fact that, since the war, a profound ideological division has been taking place among anarchists all over the world regarding the attitude to be adopted towards the dictatorship of the proletariat and Soviet government. Moreover, a proper understanding of these principles is particularly to be seen among proletarian elements that have often been impelled towards anarchism by a perfectly legitimate hatred of the opportunism and reformism of the parties of the Second International. That understanding is growing the more widespread among them, the more familiar they become with the experience of Russia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Poland and Germany.

The Congress therefore considers it the duty of all Communists to do everything to help all proletarian mass elements to abandon anarchism and come over to the side of the Third International. The Congress points out that the measure in which genuinely Communist parties succeed in winning mass proletarian elements rather than intellectual, and petty-bourgeois elements away from anarchism, is a criterion of the success of those Parties.

July 4, 1920

[6] Lenin is quoting from Marx’s work “Zur Kritik der Hegelschen Rechtsphilosophie” (see Marx/Engels, Werke , Bd. 1, S. 385).

[7] The American Socialist Party was formed in July 1901 at a congress held in Indianapolis, as the result of a merger of groups that had broken away from the Socialist Workers’ Party and the Social-Democratic Party of the U.S.A. Among the new party’s organisers was Eugene Debs, a popular figure in the U.S. labour movement. The social composition of the party was not uniform, it contained native-born and immigrant workers, as well as small farmers and people of petty-bourgeois origin. The Centrist and the Right-wing opportunist leaders of the party (Victor Berger, Morris Hillquit and others) denied the necessity of the proletarian dictatorship, renounced revolutionary methods of struggle, and reduced all party activities to participation in election campaigns. During the First World War (1914-18) three trends appeared in the Socialist Party: the social-chauvinists, who supported the imperialist policy of the Administration, the Centrists, who opposed the imperialist war only in word, and the revolutionary minority, who took an internationalist stand and struggled against the war.

The Socialist Party’s Left wing, headed by Charles Ruthenberg, William Foster, William Haywood and others, relying on the proletarian elements, waged a struggle against the party’s opportunist leadership, for independent proletarian action and the formation of industrial trade unions based on the principles of the class struggle. In 1919 a split took place in the Socialist Party. The party’s Left wing broke away, bccoming the initiator and nucleus of the Communist Party of the U.S.A. At present the Socialist Party is a small sectarian organisation.

[8] The Social-Democratic Party of Switzerland (known as the Swiss Socialist Party) was formed in the seventies of the last century and affiliated to the First International. The party was re-formed in 1888. The opportunists were very influential in the party, and during the First World War took a social-chauvinist stand. In the autumn of 1916, the Party’s Right wing broke away to form their own organisation. The majority, headed by Robert Grimm, took a Centrist, social-pacifist stand, while the Left wing of the party adhered to an internationalist stand. The Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia influenced and strengthened the Left wing which, in December 1920, broke away and joined the Communist Party of Switzerland in 1921 (see Note 69).

[9] “Draft (or the Theses) of the R.C.P.’s Reply to a Letter from the German Independent Social-Democratic Party” (see present edition, Vol. 30, pp. 337-44).

[10] The Turin section accused the Italian Socialist Party with its conciliatory leadership, of failing to give a correct analysis of events, in the conditions of the revolutionary upsurge in Italy (1919-20) that had created the possibility of the seizure of political power by the proletariat, and of having failed to advance any slogan acceptable to the revolutionary masses, and expel the reformists from its ranks. The section made a number of practical proposals: the expulsion of the opportunists from the party; the formation of communist groups in each factory, in the trade unions, co-operatives, and army barracks, the setting-up of factory T.U. committees to organise control of production in industry and agriculture. The section demanded that work to prepare the working masses for the creation of Soviets should be begun at once.

[11] In October 1918, part of the Social-Democrat Left wing united to form the Communist Party of Switzerland. It was not a big party at the time, being represented by two delegates at the Second Congress of the Comintern.

In December 1920, the Left wing of the Swiss Social-Democratic Party broke away from it, and raised the question of forming a strong section of the Communist International in Switzerland. At a congress held in Zurich in March 1921, attended by 28 delegates from the Communist Party and 145 delegates representing the former Left wing of the Social-Democratic Party, the two groups officially united to form a single Communist Party of Switzerland.

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Sarah Rozenblum Receives the 2024 Leonard D. White Award!

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Congratulations to Sarah Rozenblum, who received the 2024 Leonard D. White Award !

This award is presented annually by the American Political Science Association (APSA) to honor the best doctoral dissertation in public administration.

Sarah Denise Rozenblum is a Postdoctoral Associate at Cornell University’s Jeb E. Brooks School of Public Policy and a health policy consultant for the World Health Organization. She received a dual Ph.D. in Public Health and Political Science from the University of Michigan in August 2023. A comparative political scientist and public health scholar, she applies mixed methods to understand how governmental actors in high-income countries address significant health security challenges, such as pandemics, drug shortages, and environmental health crises.

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