experiments on the sun

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10 Science Experiments for Kids to Learn about Sun

Today we share some cool science activities for kids to learn about the sun. Kids will learn about solar power, sunlight and invisible light, and how the earth is related to the sun. You may also interested in some interesting ideas of science activities for kids to learn about the moon .

Fun Science Experiments for Kids to Learn About The Sun

Simple activity to learn about day and night , and how earth rotate around the sun.

This light box looks so interesting. Kids will think it is magic. In the mean time, you can explain about the sun light.

Try rainbow bubbles , and learn about the why we can see so many colors through the bubbles.

Make a solar oven and create some crayon art. It is interesting to watch the crayons melt, and it is a good time to talk about solar energy.

This solar still will be a fun project. Ask kids what is happening and why? Make sure taste the water.

Another fun activity to explore solar power is this solar thermal project. Why do you need put it on top of the books?

Play with the shadow , and ask why the shadow moved from noon to afternoon?

Make a sun clock . Do you have to change the marks in different seasons?

This simple science activity helps kids learn more about invisible lights in the sun light, and why we need sun screen.

Create art work with UV Beads to further knowledge about UV light.

To learn more about the sun, you will find the app Solar Walk very interesting.

Next post: Pine Cone Science Experiments for Kids

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7 Sun-Science Experiments to Make Your Day

These long summer days call for kiddie pools and ice cream, but they also call out for kids science! Solar science, to be exact. The following easy science experiments for kids will help them look at the sun in a whole new light. Scroll down to get going.

1. S'more Solar Oven

Harness the power of the sun to make your favorite campfire treat! With just a few common household items you can create an  eco-friendly oven  just for melting marshmallows and chocolate, plus you can teach kids about the power of the sun. Click  here  to learn how.

2. Solar Viewing Camera

Peer at the sun safely with a  DIY pinhole camera  as the perfect viewing tool. You can also use it to teach the kiddos about the basics of how a camera lens works. For an easy step-by-step that takes less than 30 minutes to create, click  here .

3. Melting Rates

Different colors have different heat absorbing capacities. Black has the greatest heat absorbing capacity, which results in ice melting quicker than on white, which reflects the most light. Learn how to observe and report on which colors affect ice’s melting rates  here , on Green Planet Solar Energy. Get more sidewalk science ideas  here .

4. DIY Sundial

Unravel the mysteries of time. Or at least figure out the basics by  setting up a sundial  outside. Take time each hour to check the sun’s positioning and make note of it so your sidekick can see the bigger picture. Try variations like  this one with paper and clay or use rocks and shadow to make a human sundial!

5. Make Your Own Raisins

Grapes are made up of lots of water. The heat from the sun causes the water to evaporate from the grapes, and it also caramelizes the sugar in a grape, making it sweeter. Get your recipe  here  on Planet Science.

6. Make Sun Tea

Believe it or not, making a batch of sun tea is an excellent lesson in the power of sunshine. It’s a lesson in heat—seeing how long it takes the water to heat enough to really diffuse the tea bags or fresh herbs—and it teaches kids about currents as the water heats up, something you can view as the tea begins to diffuse into the clear water. Don’t shake or stir, just let nature take its course.

7. Shadow Drawing

Set up toys on paper and let the kids draw once the shadows hit. Try drawing at different times of day and experiment with the angle of the sun and the shadows it creates as you track its journey across the sky. You can draw right on the sidewalk with chalk, too. Pick toys with distinctive outlines.

—Amber Guetebier

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Sun Science Experiments for Kids | 15 Fun Ideas!

July 31, 2024 by Sarah Leave a Comment

Earlier this week, I shared with you how we made a DIY Solar Oven . The kids had so much fun seeing what they could cook in their oven, and the whole process was filled with lots of sun science learning, too! Today, I’m going to share with you more ways that you can learn about the sun, light, and heat with 15 Sun Science Experiments for Kids!

15 Sun Science Experiments for Kids

There are so many ways to learn with the sun! From learning about how color affects light absorption, to the effect heat has on air, how shadows move and change, and how we can stay safe from UV exposure. These 15 sun science experiments cover all of those topics—and more!—through fun, hands-on learning.

#1 What Absorbs More Heat – Black or White? by Lessons for Little Ones

This is a fun little experiment to find out whether color makes a difference in how much heat is absorbed. Kids can make their predictions, set up the experiment, and learn how different colors absorb light and emit heat differently. You could also try this experiment with a black crayon and a white crayon to visibly see the effect!

#2 Solar Powered Balloons by Naples Botanical Garden

If you completed the first experiment in this list, you’ll know that the black bottle will heat up more than the white bottle. As the black bottle warms up, so does the air inside the bottle. And when air heats up, it expands and floats upward!

#3 Solar Updraft Tower by Almost Unschoolers

In the last science experiment, we learned that hot air expands and floats upward. How can we use that knowledge to make a fan? With a solar updraft tower!

#4 Shadow Experiment by The First Grade Roundup

With just a piece of chalk and a partner, you can head outside and discover how the sun affects our shadows! Mark an X on the ground and have a partner trace your shadow in the morning. Now it’s prediction time! What will happen to your shadow if you stand in that same spot in the afternoon? Enjoy another activity while you wait (maybe you can build a solar oven!) then head back out in the afternoon to find out how your shadow changes.

#5 Follow a Shadow by Science Sparks

Another fun way to learn about shadows is with this simple “follow a shadow” activity! I love how they used a chalk pen to outline the toy’s shadow to make it nice and crisp. 

#6 Experiment with Shadows by Exploratorium

Now that you’ve learned a bit about shadows and how they move throughout the day, let’s experiment and play with making different types of shadows! Grab a variety of materials and let your kids experiment with how light makes different types of shadows. Can you make a colored shadow? Or combine two shadows to make some cool designs?

#7 Light Box Experiment by Lessons for Little Ones

Learn about light refraction with this simple experiment! Kids can experiment with changing the bottles and position of the box to see how it affects the (really cool) light show inside the box.

Turner, Joanna & Parisi, Alfio & Downs, Nathan & Lynch, Mark. (2014). From Ultraviolet to Prussian blue: A spectral response for the cyanotype process and a safe educational activity to explain UV exposure for all ages. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci.. 13. 10.1039/C4PP00166D.

#8 From Ultraviolet to Prussian Blue by Joanna Turner et al.

This link is for a complete research paper about how to use cyanotype paper to show kids the effects of UV exposure. We made cyanotype art prints using nature items as part of our Sun Science Family Unit Study, but you can also use sunscreen directly on the cyanotype paper! What a fascinating way to see how sunscreen blocks UV light and learn about sun safety while you’re at it.

Don’t have any cyanotype paper? You can perform a similar experiment with regular construction paper like in this blog post by Playdough to Plato .

#9 Revealing UV with Color-Changing Beads by Steve Spangler Science

Did you know that UV color-changing beads are a thing?! I didn’t until I saw this experiment! This is a great experiment to see how different sunscreens affect the color-changing beads and to see that color transformation in real time!

#10 The Colours of Sunset Explored by STEAM Powered Family

All you need is a smooth-sided glass container, water, milk, and a flashlight to find out once and for all why the sky is blue during the day but beautiful shades of orange and red during at sunset.

#11 Simple Light Experiments by Hands On As We Grow

Learn about concepts like reflection and absorption with this three-part science experiment from Hands On As We Grow.

#12 What Melts in the Sun? by Frugal Fun for Boys and Girls

Oh, muffin tray , what can’t you do? Simply grab that trusty muffin tray and have your little one fill it with a variety of objects—some that you think will melt, some that you don’t think will melt, and some that might be a surprise to everyone!

#13 Solar Floating Balloon by Becky Stern on Instructables

Can you make a balloon float with the sun? You sure can! All you need are some black garbage bags, tape, and a thin string. Watch the video above or check out the blog post to see how to make your very own floating solar balloon. So cool!

#14 How to Pop a Balloon Inside a Balloon Using Sun by TheDadLab

This is such a fun one that’s filled with lots of learning! You could time how long it takes for different colors of balloons to pop, then when the little ones think they have it all figured out, make a double-balloon and get ready to blow your kids’ minds! 

#15 Solar Heated Home Design STEM Challenge by Solar 4 Stem

With all of that fantastic sun science learning, it’s time to put it all together into a STEM Challenge! Challenge the kids to design a cardboard house so that it will stay as cool as possible. They can decide what color the inside and outside will be, how big the windows are, what they use for a window covering, and what direction they’ll face their house outside. Test out your cardboard houses by placing them in the sun with a thermometer inside and see how much the temperature changes in each!

Ready to dive into a hands-on unit study about the Sun?

My Sun Science Family Unit Study lays out everything for you, step-by-step, with 10 fascinating topics to explore. And the best part? It’s designed to work for children ages 4 to 12, so the whole family can learn together!

Check out a sample and grab your copy right here:  https://shop.howweelearn.com/products/family-unit-study-sun-science

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Solar Science Experiments for Kids

Solar Science Experiments for Kids are a fun way to teach children about renewable energy sources. These experiments are geared for children ages 5-10, but may be adapted for all ages.

My daughter is getting VERY excited about her upcoming week at science camp!  In preparation for this amazing week-long summer camp, we are trying to get into the habit of “thinking like a scientist!”  

This week, we focused on solar science experiments and creative problem-solving.

Converting Sunlight into Heat.

Absorbing and reflecting heat: solar oven, solar heater: sun tea, solar prints, solar energy books for kids.

A collection of solar science experiments to try with your child in the backyard to encourage them to “think like a scientist!”

We bought this great little kid pool for our backyard and filled it up with cold water right from the faucet. Our baby put his finger in and announced, “COLD pool” and refused to get in. Without filling the pool with water from our home heater, I posed the question:

How can we heat up water the fastest?

This is the solar experiment we decided would best help us answer this question.

Materials Needed:

• 3 identical cups,
• 2 sheets of white paper
• 1 sheet of black.
• 1 plastic lining or plastic bag to cover one cup
• thermometer

Directions.

• Fill each cup with the same amount of liquid of the same cool temperature.
• Measure the water temperature and set one cup on each paper. Cover one of the glasses on white paper with plastic.
• Have a discussion and make predictions about what you think will happen to the water in each glass.
• Let the water sit in a sunny place for one hour.
• Remeasure and discuss the results.

What do you think my kids should do to heat up the water in their pool faster?

* Parent tips:

A black background absorbs more heat than a light background.

Covering the cup slows or stops evaporation. The plastic covering may also absorb some of the suns’ rays.

The kids were fascinated with warming the liquid with the sun and asked, “If the sun can heat up water, what else can it heat up?”  They got to work building their own SOLAR oven using recycled materials.

Materials Needed: (use recycled materials when possible!)

• cardboard box
• black paper
• tortilla chips
• shredded cheese

• Let your child build their own oven. My second grader found some black paper (the back was colored on) and started gluing it inside the box. She then added in some tinfoil, predicting that the foil would reflect the suns rays and heat up her cheese better. She covered the top with saran wrap in hopes it would heat the nachos faster.
• Set the solar oven in a sunny spot.
• Add the chips and top with shredded cheese.
• Set a timer for 5 minutes. Record your results.
• Once the cheese has melted, eat!
• Then, if you choose, try to build another model of a solar oven. Make some changes and compare your results. * THINK like a scientist!!!!* A scientist will perform experiments over and over again to collect data and to figure out better and more efficient ways of doing things.

Some people have tried cooking hot-dogs, nachos are WAY easier!

Keeping a science journal is a great way to connect literacy to science!

Now my kids were on a solar experiment role. “Hey, MOM, do you think we could make your tea with energy from the sun instead of wasting electricity to heat your water inside?” Sure kiddos, what will we need to do?

I love that they were thinking creatively, asking questions, and applying what they have learned.

• Large glass jar
• 2 Bags of Tea

• Fill the jar with water.
• Add 2 tea bags
• Place in a sunny place
• Gently shake every once in a while (per the kids instructions)
• Wait HOURS (they learned the sun is powerful, but does take time to harness the energy)
• Serve warm OR pour over ice cubes for iced tea!

You could talk to your kids about the sun and have them make sun-prints. We used the  solar sun print kit,  but should have just bought the  re-fill package  ($5.99 vs $10.49) as we just used the paper.

Here’s the directions for How to Make Solar Prints with Kids .

More Ideas for Solar FUN :

• Solar Power STEM Camp Activities
• Studying the effects of the sun and the importance of sun screen at the beach
• Solar Eclipse Videos and Activities for Kids
• Running on Sunshine: How Does Solar Energy Work?  by Carolyn Cinami DeCristofano
• Solar Power: Capturing the Sun’s Energy  by Laurie Brearley
• Solar Story: How One Community Lives Alongside the World’s Biggest Solar Plant  by Allan Drummond
• Time to Shine!  by Catherine Daly

You can explore more sun and solar energy books here in our Summer Books for Kids Book List .

Now we are going to work on keeping our “science caps” for the rest of the month (we are stopping at a thrift store tomorrow to pick up our take-apart to be used during the camp week.

We are going to be on the lookout for electronics powered by the sun – maybe a calculator with a solar panel?

Whatever it is, I’m sure it will be fun to disassemble and tinker with. I’m thinking we won’t be able to wait until camp and may have to find a couple of items for home too! I’m not sure who is more excited about a whole week of science and inventing – her or me!

Looking for more science activities for your child? Try these…

Like this idea? Pin for later or share now with a friend!

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January 24, 2020 at 9:15 am

Thanks for sharing these great solar science experiments. My kids both did camp invention a few years ago and they both had a really good time learning and getting interested in science. They are currently both interested in STEM careers as a matter of fact!

September 8, 2019 at 10:50 pm

Thank you for this great ideas. this is exactly the activity I would like for our school children to learn, and discover how useful the Solar Energy is in our daily lives most of all to our Tribal School Children.

June 4, 2015 at 7:53 am

Love the nachos idea! So much fun!

December 21, 2014 at 11:12 am

Thanks Anna – We LOVE Science and getting kids to think and explore the world around them.

It is so important to foster the curiosity at an early age – you will have to let me know how these experiments turn out!

December 21, 2014 at 11:11 am

The science camp sounds like a ton of fun! Enjoy!

Thanks Maggie – we LOVE making sun tea!

July 12, 2014 at 10:58 pm

This is awesome, Amanda! What a great bunch of science activities!

June 3, 2014 at 8:41 pm

These are such fun ideas. My little guy is so curious about the way things work. He would love to try these.

June 2, 2014 at 11:03 pm

Great summer activities. I am not looking forward to full on summer heat, but it is perfect for these kids of experiments. We are also looking forward to our science camp – camp Galileo.

June 2, 2014 at 5:41 am

Oh I love these!! Especially the Sun Tea one!!!

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Sun as a star: science learning activities for afterschool.

Grade Levels

Grades K-4, Grades 5-8, Informal Education

Physical Science, Space Science, Waves, Light, Solar System and Planets, Sun

Educator Guides, Lesson Plans / Activities

The Sun As a Star activities teach concepts related to the sun with opportunities for the students to investigate each idea. Most of the nine sequential activities can be completed in about one hour.

Sun As a Star Educator Guide [357KB PDF file]

Sun Science Experiments & Book Suggestions

The end of the school year signals the beginning of summer for many students.  This is the perfect time of year to teach about the sun and have some “fun in the sun” performing learning activities outdoors! These hands-on activities are perfect for keeping young students engaged and learning those last few days/weeks of school. They can also be used with children at home during the summer months or during summer camp programs.

Begin with a brief explanation of the sun. Explain that the sun is actually a very big star in the center of our solar system.  It is the closest star to the earth and is 109 times larger than the earth.  Two suggested books to read are:

The Sun: Our Nearest Star

The Sun Is My Favorite Star

Here are 10 simple and fun science experiments that help children learn about the sun through hands-on explorations.

Sun versus Shade Experiment

This is a simple experiment that demonstrates the sun’s heat as well as the difference between sun and shade. It helps young children understand that the sun radiates heat and can makes things hot.

Place a variety of metal objects and a piece of a chocolate bar on each metal baking sheet.

Tell students that you are going to place one of the baking sheets in the shade and one in the sun. Ask them to make predictions about what may happen to the objects.

Go outside and place one of the baking sheets in a shady area and the other one in a sunny area.  Leave them for an hour or two depending on the outdoor temperature. You want the objects in the sun to be warm to the touch but not scalding hot.

Observe and allow students to feel them after several hours (check the objects first before students touch them as they may be too hot to touch at first). Discuss what happened and why.  Lead them to understand that the objects in the sun were warmer because the sun radiates heat which makes things warm.

I like to have students record their observations on recording pages.  Since getting iPads, we were able to insert actual photos of the items using Pic Collage (Pic EDU). I like how using the iPads to record observations helps students to learn how to use technology as a tool.

What Absorbs More Heat – Black or White?

Since students learned in the previous experiment that the sun gives us heat and makes things warm/hot, I like to challenge them with the question of whether they think black paper will absorb more heat/become hotter than white paper and why.  I then have them record their predictions.

To discover the answer to the question, fill 2 jars or containers with equal amounts of water that is the same temperature. Wrap one jar with black paper and one jar with white paper. Place the black one on a piece of black construction paper and the white one on a piece of white construction paper and put them in the sun for several hours.

You can also do an additional experiment with a black crayon and a white crayon.

After several hours, use a thermometer to measure the temperature of the water in each container.  The water in the black container should measure warmer than the white.  If the water in the black container is not too hot, students can also feel each one.

Observe the crayons after several hours. You should observe that the black crayon melted more than the white.

Light energy from the sun can be converted to heat energy. The black paper absorbs more heat (light energy) from the sun because it does not reflect light like the white paper.

After discussing the results students can draw and/or write their observations or if they are using technology, they can insert actual photos of the results (we like to use Pic Collage).

The Sun Dries Water Experiment

This experiment helps students understand that the sun dries up water and introduces evaporation.

Tell students that they are going to go outside and paint with water. Ask if they think their paintings will last all day. After concluding that the heat from the sun will dry their paintings, have them estimate how long they think it will take for the sun to dry up their paintings and have them write it down.

Take students outside and allow them to paint the sidewalk, playground area, etc, with water. After they paint one picture or word or after they have painted for a set period of time, set a timer and see how long it takes for their paintings to dry. Drying times will vary depending on the outdoor temperature.

I have found that young students love doing this activity and it can keep them busy for hours. They love using “grown up” paint rollers and brushes, paint trays, etc. to paint just about anything outside (the ground, the playground equipment, the building, the fence, etc.). It is great gross motor skill practice! They can paint sight words, letters, numbers, shapes, etc. as well for extra skill practice.

You can also have students paint in both the sun and the shade and predict drying times for each.

To better demonstrate water evaporation, paint a piece of construction paper with water and then seal it inside a Ziploc bag with enough air inside so the top of the bag doesn’t touch the paper.  Place it in a sunny area (certain colors of construction paper can bleed when wet, place the baggie on a cookie sheet or newspaper if desired).  Observe the baggie after the water starts to dry and condense on the baggie. Lead students to understand that the water from the paper evaporated and turned to water vapor which was trapped in the bag and condensed on the top as water droplets.

I like to have students record their results and what they learned. When teaching pre-k students, I had them draw what they painted since it was hard for them to write all they had learned. Then, we would upload a collage of photos from Pic Collage to their Seesaw journals and they could use the Record tool to tell what they learned which was much easier for them.

Solar Oven Science Experiment

A favorite of students and myself!!

This experiment demonstrates solar energy and shows students how to trap the sun’s natural heat to make an oven.

You can choose to make one solar oven or several depending on how many snacks you wish to bake and how many students you have in the class.

This resource explains how to make s’mores in the solar oven. However, you can also melt cheese onto nacho chips if preferred.

Remove any paper liners that may be inside the pizza box.

Using the ruler and marker, measure in 1 inch from each edge of the pizza box lid except the side with the hinge.

Using the utility knife, cut all the way through the lid on those three sides of the square. Then fold the flap back slightly along the hinge side.

Put some glue on the inside of the flap. Glue a piece of aluminum foil on the inside of the flap keeping it as smooth as possible. Fold the extra foil over the edges to help hold the foil in place. Smooth it out. This will reflect sunlight into the oven.

Open the lid and cover the opening in the lid with plastic wrap. Pull the plastic wrap taut and tape it to the box on all the edges. Make sure there are no holes in the plastic wrap and that it is completely sealed. It is important to have a tight seal. This “window” helps keep the sun’s heat in the box.

Close the lid and cover the top side of the opening with plastic wrap. Pull the plastic wrap taut and tape it to the box on all 3 sides. Make sure there are no holes in the plastic wrap and that it is completely sealed. It is important to have a tight seal. Having an airtight seal is important in keeping the oven hot.

Glue a layer of aluminum foil in the bottom of the pizza box for insulation.

Cover the foil with pieces of black construction paper and glue them in place. The black paper will absorb light and generate more heat inside the box.

Place the s’mores snacks on the black paper. Make sure they are directly below the plastic wrap window.

On a bright, sunny day place the solar oven outside in direct sunlight. Adjust the foil flap to find the best angle for reflection.  Use a ruler or stick to keep the flap propped up in place.

Leave the solar oven in the sun for anywhere from a half hour to up to 2 hours depending on the outdoor temperature and how direct the sunlight. Check on the s’mores every 15 minutes to half hour. Allow students to observe the effect of the sun on the chocolate and marshmallows. When the chocolate and marshmallows are melted they are ready to eat.

While students are waiting for their solar s’mores, I have them draw the snack in the solar oven on a recording page and write what they think will happen.

We also discuss how the solar oven works.

The solar oven uses solar energy (light and heat from the sun) to cook food. The foil reflects the sun’s light into the box. The plastic wrap “window” works similar to a greenhouse. It allows the reflected and direct sunlight into the box while retaining the heat inside. The black paper absorbs the sunlight making it warm which heats the food on top of it. All of this allows the solar oven to absorb more heat than it releases.

After enjoying our delicious solar s’mores snack, I have students record what actually happened and what they learned. We also upload an actual photo of the solar oven to our Seesaw journals and then each student uses the Record and/or Draw tools to talk about it and what they learned.

Sun Prints Science Experiment

This experiment demonstrates that the light from the sun can cause chemical changes.

You don’t have to buy the special paper for this experiment, all you need is cheap construction paper that is NOT fade resistant (the cheaper the better).

Take students outdoors to a sunny area. Give each student a piece of construction paper and allow them to arrange some magnetic letters on it. They can spell their names, sight words, or just place random letters on their papers.

If magnetic letters are not available you can use any objects or toys that will block the sunlight such as blocks, Legos, Unifix Cubes, or objects from nature such as rocks, sticks, leaves (if using leaves use tape or sticky tack to attach the leaves to the paper because they will curl in the heat).

Tell students you are going to leave their papers in the sun for several hours. Go back inside and have students predict what they think will happen to the paper around the letters (the part of the paper exposed to the sun).  I like to have students record their predictions.

Go back outside after several hours, remove the magnetic letters or objects from the paper, and observe the results.  The paper should be lighter in color resulting in sun prints of the objects.

Ask children why they think the paper underneath the objects is a different color than the uncovered parts. Explain that not only does the sun make things warm, but it also can cause chemical changes. The sun’s ultraviolet rays can break down the chemical bonds in the paper and thus fade the color causing a bleaching effect.

Afterwards I like to have students draw and write what actually happened or upload an actual photo in Pic Collage.

We have also “app smashed” and created before and after collage in Pic Collage and then uploaded them to Seesaw. Once in Seesaw, students used the Record tool to tell their observations.

Why Do We Need Sunscreen? Sun Science Experiment

This experiment helps students understand the importance of wearing sunscreen when outdoors and gives them a good visual of the damaging effects of the sun.

You can choose to let each student make their own experiment or just make one for the class to observe.

Before beginning, ask the students why we should wear sunscreen when outdoors (to protect our skin from the sun).

Tell them that you are going to do a science experiment that helps show the importance of wearing sunscreen.

Fold a dark piece of construction paper in half and write “With Sunscreen” on one half and “Without Sunscreen” on the other half. Rub a SMALL amount of sunscreen on the “With Sunscreen” side. You want the sunscreen to absorb into the paper so don’t use a large amount.

Place the papers outside in the sun for several hours.

Have students predict what they think will happen to the paper without sunscreen. I created a simple recording page for them to circle their predictions.

Go outside after several hours and observe the changes to the paper. The paper without sunscreen will be faded or bleached. Any area with sunscreen should have stayed protected and be darker.

The sun’s ultra violet (UV) rays (UVA & UVB) can damage our skin. The ingredients in sunscreen protect our skin from these harmful UV rays.  The chemical ingredients in the sunscreen on the paper absorbed the UV radiation from the sun and prevented them from fading/bleaching the paper.

After discussing the results I check students’ understanding by having them draw what actually happened (or upload an actual photo if using Pic Collage) and then writing why we should use sunscreen.

Light Box Experiment

Another favorite! You will be amazed by the results of this simple experiment!

This experiment demonstrates and introduces refraction of sunlight.

This experiment works best on a very bright, sunny day.

Get 4 bottles with water. Leave one clear and place a few drops of food coloring in the others.

Tape a large box shut. Trace the bottom of one of the water bottles twice on the top of the box and cut out. Cover with foil to help reflect sunlight.

Cut a small viewing hole in one side of the box. Place it in a bright, sunny area and place 2 water bottles in the holes.

Have students take turns looking inside. They will be able to view a light show!

Depending on the angle of the sun, the lights will show on the sides of the box or if the sun is high in the sky the lights will show all through the box.  Allow students to experiment with changing the bottles and position of the box to see how it affects the lights inside.

After students have had time to view the lights and experiment with the light box discuss their observations and use the information below to explain refraction.

When the sunlight hits the water in the bottle, it bends in all directions. The light is going from the air to the water. Water is more dense than air, so it causes the light to slow down and change direction. The water makes the light spread out in the box. This is called refraction.

Check students’ understanding by having them draw and write what they observed and learned or upload actual photos in Pic Collage.

Making Shadows

This experiment helps children understand what is needed to make a shadow and that the sun acts as a light source for shadows.

Dim the lights.  Hold up an object.  Use a flashlight, a flashlight app, or a spotlight to shine light on the object so the shadow can be seen on a wall.

Turn off the flashlight.  Turn the flashlight back on.  Ask the students what is needed to see the object’s shadow?  (light source)  What shape is the shadow?  Does the light shine through the object?  Explain that the object blocks the light which makes a dark spot or shadow.  Turn and move the object or your hand and ask students what happens to the shadow (it moves too).

For an added challenge, show some clear or translucent objects such as tissue paper, plastic containers, wax paper.  Ask students how these shadows look different than the solid object’s shadow or your hand (they are not as distinct).  Remind them that a shadow is an object that blocks light. See if they can draw conclusions as to why the clear objects’ shadows were not as distinct (they do not block as much light, some of the light shines through).

Allow students to make shadows on the wall using their bodies or objects.  Ask them how they can make the shadow bigger and smaller (move closer to the light to make the shadow bigger, move farther away from the light to make the shadow smaller).

I like to have students complete these exit tickets for the experiments.

Head outside on a sunny day to look for shadows. Prior to going outside, ask students if they think they will see any shadows and why.

Explain that when you are outside, the sun is the light source that creates shadows.

Go on a “shadow hunt” and observe the shadows of trees, buildings, cars, etc.  Observe whether an object’s or person’s shadow moves if it moves and if its shape resembles the shape of the object or person.

Optional: Take photos of the shadows the students find.

We create collages of the shadow pictures using Pic Collage and then upload them to Seesaw where students talk about our shadow hunt.

I also do a quick check of students’ understanding of shadows and their shapes with this shadow matching activity page.

Paper Plate Sundial Experiment

In this experiment each student makes their own sundial from a paper plate, play dough or clay, and a pencil.

Allow students to decorate their paper plate with warm colors (orange, red, yellow) of paint, markers, or crayons.

After the paint dries, have students press a ball of play dough or clay in the center of their plates and then stick a pencil in the play dough or clay to resemble a sundial.

Take the sundials outside and place them in a sunny area (choose an area that stays sunny throughout the time period that you will be checking the sundials. You don’t want any shadows cast on the sundials during the experiment).

If it is breezy or windy, place a few rocks on the sundials to keep them in place.  It is important that they do not move during the observation period.

Have students draw a line on the paper plate where the shadow from the pencil falls and write the time of day.

Come back out in one hour or 2 hour intervals to observe and record the length and position of the shadow and observe the sun’s position in the sky.  Students can also make predictions as to where they think the shadow will be each time.

Optional: During the early morning and late afternoon hours when the sun is low in the sky, the shadow will be longer and not fit on the plate.

You can make a larger sundial using a piece of poster board or cardboard to better demonstrate how the sun’s position affects a shadow’s length. Insert a pencil or straw into a ball of clay or play dough and attach it to the sheet of poster board or cardboard.  Trace the shadows at each interval.

Ask questions to help students draw conclusions as to what they observed (the sun’s position in the sky affects a shadow’s length and position, it is longer when the sun is low in the sky, shorter when the sun is high in the sky, the paper plate looks similar to a clock).

What did you observe about the shadow and the sun? Did the sun change position? Which direction did your shadow move? When was the shadow the longest? The shortest? Why did the shadow change?

Explain that before clocks were invented, people had to rely on the position of the sun throughout the day to tell time. One of the earliest devices for telling time was the sundial. A sundial works by casting a shadow in different positions, at different times of the day. The angle of the light (sun) affects the size of the shadow. The sun is highest in the sky at midday and casts a short shadow. In the morning and afternoon, when the sun is lower in the sky, the shadow is longer.

A sundial has a pole, or gnomon, in its center and markings that tell the time like a clock. When the sun shines on the gnomon, shadows are cast at different markings on the sundial. People were able to tell the time based on the particular mark of time on which the sun’s shadow fell.

Check students’ understanding by having them draw and write what they observed and learned or use Pic Collage.

Human Sundial Sun Experiment

In this experiment each student acts as the center point or gnomon of the sundial.

Divide students in pairs – each student will need to work with a partner (they will trace each other’s shadows).

Find a large area that stays sunny for a majority of the day (or at least 4 hours) and has a surface that can be written on with sidewalk chalk (the basketball court, sidewalk, etc.).  It has to have enough area for students to spread out (if they are too close to one another their shadows will overlap).

It is important that students stand in the same place and face the same direction for each observation and shadow tracing. Once each pair of students has found an area, have them draw an X with the sidewalk chalk to mark where each of them will stand.  Make sure they are far enough apart from one another to allow room for their shadows as the shadows will move throughout the experiment.

Have each pair of students take turns tracing one another’s shadows with the sidewalk chalk. (one stands on the X while the other traces the outline of their shadow).

Repeat the shadow tracings every hour.  Remind students to stand on the X facing the same direction each time. You can do as many tracings as your schedule allows. At least 3-4 should be sufficient for students to notice the changes in their shadows’ sizes and positions.

I like to have students record each observation and then after doing several tracings have them predict where they think their shadow will be during the next tracing.

I also have them record what time of day their shadow was longest and shortest and draw conclusions.

If you would like to use the printable recording pages with your students plus get more detailed step by step directions with photos for easy set-up as well as additional technology integration ideas CLICK HERE to download my Sun Science Experiments & STEM resource .

Have engaging science experiments and stem activities throughout the entire school year with this money-saving science & stem bundle .

Book Suggestions:

Wake Up, Sun! 

What the Sun Sees

Sun Up, Sun Down

You may also like:

Sand science experiments, sand art projects, & book suggestions.

Hi! Thanks for stopping by!

I’m Tina and I’ve taught preK and K for 20+ years. I share fun and creative ideas that spark your students’ love for learning. 

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6 simple astronomy experiments you can do at home

Try our experiments using household items and illustrate the mechanics of the Solar System.

Michael Moltenbrey

Why can we observe solar eclipses? How did craters form on the Moon? Why do we have seasons on Earth? Questions like these are often asked by new astronomers, but answering them can be a bit tricky.

How do you explain abstract situations where several bodies are moving around and affecting each other?

Well, it’s easier than you think!

These six experiments will help illuminate some of the complex principles of space science for the young… and the young at heart.

Great for kids at home and easy for high school science students.

For more advice, try our simple space and astronomy activities and read our guides on stargazing for kids and the best telescopes for kids .

Demonstrate how craters form on the Moon

You will need: a basin, some flour, cocoa and pebbles or marbles of varying sizes.

Have you ever enjoyed a view of the Moon? Its scarred surface is dominated by large basins and craters of varying size and shape.

But how did these craters form and why are some of them deeper or longer than others?

The following experiment will show you what has been happening to the Moon’s surface over millions of years.

Fill the basin with flour about 2-3cm deep. Then, sprinkle some cocoa on the surface. The cocoa is just there to help the crater stand out, so any dark power will do.

Find a floor or table that’s easy to clean up and set down your basin. Then, drop your pebble into the flour. Congratulations – you’ve created your first crater!

Trying changing the speed of the pebble by dropping it from different heights, or see if you can gently throw it in from an angle (careful though, you don’t want to splash flour all over the floor). By doing so you can see how the angle and speed of impact affect the shape of the crater.

Throw a handful of smaller pebbles in with a bit of a swing and you can even create impact crater chains that resemble those on the Moon.

Measure the size of the Sun and Moon

You will need: a shoebox, some aluminium foil, sticky tape, a sheet of white paper, a ruler and a pin or needle.

Although The Sun is nearly 150 million km away from us and huge, you can measure its size from your living room.

You’re going to build a simple pinhole camera . Cut a 2x2cm square out of the centre of one of the short sides of the shoebox. Place the aluminium foil over the cut-out and tape it down.

Then, use the pin or needle to pierce the foil. Line the inside of the opposite end of the box with the white paper.

You now have a pinhole camera. Measure the length of the box, from the hole to the sheet of paper.

Point the foil-covered front end towards the Sun, being careful to never look directly at it!

An image of the Sun will appear on the piece of paper and you can measure it with a ruler. With that measurement and a bit of simple maths, you can calculate the Sun’s diameter:

• Diameter of Sun = size of image ÷ length of box x 149,600,000km

As 149,600,000km is the distance to the Sun and the ratio of size to distance from the hole is the same for both, this should give you a decent estimate of the Sun’s size.

You can use the same method for the Moon, but replace the number at the end with 384,000km.

Check your result when you’ve finished to see how close you are. The bigger the box, the more accurate you’ll be.

Show how spinning changes the shape of planets

You will need: a stick, some card, scissors, a ruler, glue and a pair of compasses.

Planets are not perfect spheres. They bulge out at the equator and flatten at their poles. The bigger the planet, the bigger the effect.

Planets are deformed this way because they spin, and this experiment will show you how.

First you need to build a model planet. Cut out three discs from the card – two need to be 4cm in diameter (we’ll call those A and B) and one should be 3cm in diameter (called C).

Next, make a hole in discs A and C just big enough for them to sit firmly on the stick. Then make a larger hole into B so that it can easily slide up and down the stick.

Now cut out eight strips of the card (each about 1.25x30cm). Glue one end of each strip around the edge of disc A so that it looks like spider.Then put it on the stick.

Next fix C on the stick about 15cm away from A as a reference point.

Finally, put B on the stick beneath C and glue the ends of the strips around its edge so that it looks like the model planet on the right.

Ensure that B can easily move along the stick.

Now, hold the stick between your hands and spin it.

Try changing how fast you spin the stick and see what happens. You should find the faster you spin the stick the more the ‘planet’ bulges.

Measure the size of the Solar System

You will need: cardboard, a pair of compasses and a roll of toilet paper.

The sizes of the planets in our Solar System and the distances between them can be hard to grasp, but this experiment will help you put things into perspective.

Start by drawing circles on pieces of card using the scale radii in the table below to make your planets (remember to label them as you go).

As a starting point we’ve given Earth a radius of 1cm and left out the Sun, as it would be 2.2m wide at this scale!

To represent the distances between planets we’ll use the toilet paper, as it is conveniently separated into sheets of the same size.

This time we say that one sheet is equal to the distance to Mercury. Unfortunately, this is a different scale to the planet sizes – if they were on the same scale, Neptune would be 7km away!

Then roll out the toilet paper and count the sheets until you reach the relevant number and put a planet on it. Isn’t it impressive how much space there is in between?

And that’s not even the whole Solar System. If you wanted to incorporate the Oort Cloud into this model, you’d need about 250,000 sheets of toilet paper.

Find out more in our guide on how to make a scale model of the Solar System .

Show why Earth has seasons

You will need: a lamp (for the Sun), an orange (for Earth) and a stick.

We have four seasons on Earth due to the inclination of the Earth’s rotational axis. But why does the tilt affect the weather?

Skewer the orange onto the stick, then draw around the equator of the orange. Like in the eclipse experiment, find a dark room and hold the orange up to the light so that half of it is illuminated.

Instead of holding the stick so it’s vertical, tilt it so that it’s at roughly the same angle as the Earth’s rotational axis, which is 23.5°.

Now take a closer look at how that angle affects Earth’s exposure to the Sun. At point A the top of the stick is tipped towards the lamp.

There’s more sunlight shining on the northern hemisphere, which in turn receives more energy and warms up. The north is experiencing summer, while in the south it is winter.

We have exactly the opposite situation when our Earth is on the other side of the lamp (at point C). At B and D the stick is neither pointing away nor towards the lamp – both hemisphere’s are lit by the same amount. These points are spring and autumn.

It’s worth noting that this experiment works much better with a lamp that’s designed to light in all directions, rather than one that’s directional, such as a desk lamp.

Show why eclipses happen

You will need: a lamp, a smaller ball (for the Moon) and a larger ball (for Earth).

One of the most amazing astronomical observations we can witness is a solar eclipse. But how do they happen?

As the Moon orbits our planet, sometimes it passes between Earth and the Sun, casting a shadow.This experiment shows you how that works.

Find a dark room and switch on the lamp, then place ‘Earth’ a few metres away so that half of it is in the light. Hold the ‘Moon’ about 20cm above the lit side of the ‘Earth’ so it casts a shadow on the surface.

It’ll only be a small shadow, which explains why a solar eclipse can only be seen within a small corridor on Earth determined by the size of the shadow and the rotation of our planet.

You can use the same method for visualising lunar eclipses. For this, the ‘Sun’, ‘Earth’ and ‘Moon’ need to be in alignment so Earth’s shadow is cast on the Moon, producing a lunar eclipse .

You can vary this experiment further: what if the ‘Moon’ doesn’t fully block out the Sun, or if Earth’s shadow isn’t completely thrown upon the lunar disc?

These experiments show what happens during a partial eclipse, when the shadow falls just beyond the edges of a planet.

This article originally appeared in the January 2016 issue of BBC Sky at Night Magazine .

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Science Projects > Earth & Space Projects > Sun and Planets Science Projects  

Sun and Planets Science Projects

Science Projects

Make a solar system model.

Make your own model of the solar system! It will help you learn the order that the planets orbit around the sun.

What You Need:

• Yellow construction paper
• Coloring page
• Colored pencils

What You Do:

1. Ask a parent or your teacher to read to you about the planets from the Science Lesson at the end of this newsletter. This will help you learn about the physical characteristics of each planet (like how big it is and what its surface is like) and the order of the planets.

2. Print out this coloring page of the eight planets.

3. Based on what you learned about the size and surface of the planets, figure out which planet is which and then color the planets the right colors.

4. Cut out a large circle from the yellow construction paper to be the sun.

5. Placing the sun down first, lay out the planets in order away from the sun. (Hint: The correct order that the planets orbit around the Sun is: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune!)

6. To make your model of the solar system more permanent, glue the sun and planets onto a large piece of cardboard or tag board. You could even paint the board black to make it look like space.

What Happened:

You just made a model of the solar system! It represents the way the planets are positioned and the different sizes and colors that each one is. The planets always remain in this order; they can’t change because they all have their own orbit that they constantly follow around the sun! However, this model does not show you how far apart the planets are from each other. They are so far away that you would not be able to represent the distance on a single piece of cardboard.

To learn more, use this site as a guide to make a scale model of the solar system. Even though your scale model will only be a fraction of the size of the actual solar system, it will give you a better idea of how big it really is and how much space is out there!

Here is another project: try making your own simple telescope to get a better view of the moon and stars.

The Color of Mars

What causes the different colors of the planets? Scientists have theories (guesses based on what they have seen and learned) about why a planet is a certain color, but often they don’t know what causes the colors of the planets, especially the planets that are farthest away from us. Try this experiment to demonstrate one of the theories about why Mars has such a red surface.

• Ceramic or glass baking dish
• Steel wool or iron filings

1. Put a layer of sand in the bottom of the baking dish.

2. Cut the steel wool into 1 inch pieces with the scissors and mix the pieces with the sand. (Or, instead of using steel wool, you can sprinkle iron filings on top of the sand.)

3. Cover the mixture with water and check it every day to see if you notice any changes.

4. As water evaporates from the dish, add more so that the sand is always wet.

After a few days, you should notice the sand starting to turn red. This happens because the oxygen in the water combines with the iron in the steel wool or the iron filings. This caused a chemical reaction that produced iron oxide, which is also known as rust. As you can see from your experiment, rust has a red color to it. Scientists think that the surface of Mars is red because there is iron oxide (rust) in the soil.

Science Lesson

The sun and the solar system.

Did you know that the sun is actually a star? It is the closest star to the Earth, which is why it seems so big and bright. Compared to some stars though, the sun is really only medium sized! Any star that has planets and other celestial bodies orbiting around it can be called a solar system. The Earth, other planets, their moons, various stars, comets, and asteroids that revolve around the sun are all part of our solar system. The word ‘sol’ means sun, so our solar system could be called a sun system. Why is the sun so important? Without the light, heat, and energy that comes from it, the Earth would be so cold that no living thing would be able to survive on it! And the sun’s gravity keeps the Earth and the rest of the planets moving in their orbits – without it, the planets would move randomly through space like comets. Even though our solar system is huge, it is a very small part of a much larger system called the Milky Way galaxy. Even the whole galaxy is small compared to what else is out there – there are many galaxies in the universe with many other solar systems in them!

The Planets

A way to remember the order of the planets is the saying: My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas. Though, with the recent removal of Pluto from the list of true planets, this could be changed to something like My Very Educated Mother Just Served Us Noodles. An easy way to help children learn about the eight planets is to split them into two groups: the four small rocky planets and the four giant gas planets.

The Small Rocky Planets

The small rocky planets are also the four inner planets (the ones closest to the sun): Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. These planets are all made of rock and have a solid surface.

Mercury is the planet closest to the sun, and it is the smallest of the eight planets. Because it is so close to the sun, from Earth it can only be seen at sunrise in the east and sunset in the west. This makes the planet seem like it is moving quickly across the night sky and is probably the reason why it got its name – Mercury is the Roman god of trade, travel, and thievery and was known for his speed. The temperature on Mercury ranges from 801 ° F on the side facing the sun to -279 ° F on the side facing away from the sun. The lack of atmosphere on Mercury means that we can see its surface directly, which is gray in color and is covered with craters.

What is an atmosphere? It is a layer of gas that surrounds a planet. When the layer of gases moves around the planet, it causes changes in a planet’s temperature and weather. For example, Earth’s atmosphere helps insulate it to keep it in a certain temperature range so that it does not get too hot or too cold.

Venus is the second planet away from the sun and is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty. It probably received this name because it is one of the brightest objects in the night sky, second only to our moon! Venus has often been referred to as Earth’s sister planet because they are similar in size (Earth is slightly larger), density, and gravity. Venus also has active volcanoes and earthquakes, but here the similarities end. The atmosphere on Venus is made out of sulfuric acid, a poisonous gas, and causes the planet to retain heat very well – the temperature stays constant at about 864 ° F! The thick clouds of Venus gives it a pale yellow color, but beneath the clouds, it appears that the surface is red and yellow.

Earth is the third planet from the sun and is the only planet that was not named after a Roman deity. The largest of the inner planets, it has often been called the ‘Big Blue Marble’ because its surface is covered with over 70% water. The atmosphere and swirling clouds over the white, brown, and green colors of the land and the blue of the oceans makes for a kaleidoscope of colors when viewed from space. Earth is also referred to as the ‘Goldilocks’ planet because it has all the ingredients in just the right amount to sustain life – water, oxygen, and a comfortable temperature range.

Mars is the fourth planet from the sun and is the second smallest planet. It is named after the Roman god of war and probably received this name because it shines red in the sky. Up close, the surface of Mars is bright reddish brown with dark patches of gray in the volcanic regions. Because of its red color, Mars is often nicknamed ‘The Red Planet.’

The Giant Gas Planets

There are four outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. These planets are often called the gas giants. Unlike Earth, they do not have a solid surface, but rather are made mostly of helium and hydrogen with a small, rocky core in the center. The giant gas planets all have ring systems and numerous moons.

Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun and is named after the king of the Roman gods. This is a very fitting name since it is the largest planet in our solar system. The gases and clouds in Jupiter’s atmosphere make colorful orange, white, red, and yellow bands on the planet. Its most famous feature is the Great Red Spot which is a giant storm similar to a hurricane on Earth. This storm is so large that 2-3 Earths could fit inside of it.

Saturn is the sixth planet from the sun and is the second largest planet in our solar system. Saturn is named after the Roman god of agriculture (farming). Even though Saturn is so large, it doesn’t weigh very much. In fact, it is less dense than water, meaning it would float on water. The most famous feature of Saturn is its beautiful rings. The rings are made of billions of chunks of ice and rock, though from Earth they look solid. The overall color of Saturn is yellowish, but its storms cause faint bands of color to appear in its atmosphere.

Uranus is the seventh planet from the sun and is the third largest planet in the solar system. Unlike the first six planets which were known to ancient civilizations, Uranus was not discovered until 1781. Uranus was named after the ancient Greek god of the heavens. Its atmosphere has small amounts of methane in it, giving it a solid blue-green color and a less exciting surface compared with the other planets. But unlike them, Uranus is tilted so much that it actually spins on its side as it orbits the sun.

Neptune is the eighth and farthest known planet from the sun and is the fourth largest planet in the solar system. Neptune was discovered in 1846 and named after the Roman god of the sea. It also has methane gas in its atmosphere, but it is deep blue in color with visible clouds. A Great Dark Spot was discovered on Neptune, indicating that it has an active atmosphere.

On August 24, 2006, Pluto was officially demoted to a dwarf planet. Why, after 76 years, did Pluto lose its status as a true planet? Well, compared with the other planets, Pluto the most unusual orbit. Sometimes it is far above the rest of the planets and at other times it is far below. Its orbit even passes in front of Neptune for a short time, the only planet in the solar system to cross another planet’s orbit. It is not made of rock or gases like the other eight planets, but instead is mostly made up of different kinds of ice. In 1992, small icy bodies like Pluto were discovered orbiting in Pluto’s orbit. These small icy bodies are comets orbiting the solar system and are known as the Kuiper belt. Pluto is one of the largest of these, so it was discovered first. Pluto has more in common with these icy bodies than it does with any of the other planets, so many (but not all) scientists agree that Pluto is not a true planet.

More Info: What the Planets Look Like

See how the planets compare in size . The small rocky planets are compared to each other and the giant gas planets are compared to each other and the Sun.

Look at real images of the planets from NASA’s planetary exploratory program.

Learn about the true colors of the planets .

Printable Worksheet

Use this coloring page to help your children learn about the planets. They can identify the planets based on size and physical features, color each planet its true colors, number the planets 1-8 in order from closest to farthest from the sun, and/or cut out the planets and make a model of the solar system.

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Simple experimental evidence that Earth revolves around Sun

What are the simplest experiments or calculations that give evidence that the earth revolves around the sun? Can you please explain them and reference the history? Many simple explanations such as this cite observations such as that relative position of two stars are observed from earth vary every night - which would not be true if the stars orbited the earth. But isn't the observation also consistent with a model where the stars orbit the earth but do so at different speeds, while the earth still orbits the sun? Simple explanations would be helpful.

• 13 $\begingroup$ Actually, as @MarkOlson notes, the geocentric view is actually quite correct for the Sun/Moon/stars, since we can view all motion as relative. The problem is with the planets: they clearly don't orbit the Earth in simple circles or even ellipses. You can compensate by using epicycles, but having the planets revolve around the Sun requires fewer artificial constructs. From there, it's a small leap to treating our solar system as heliocentric, instead of having the Sun and Moon orbit the Earth and the other planets orbit the Sun. $\endgroup$ –  user21 Commented Jul 9, 2018 at 14:43
• 6 $\begingroup$ It doesn't If the Earth tried to move that fast, the stack of turtles holding it up would fall apart. $\endgroup$ –  Carl Witthoft Commented Jul 9, 2018 at 17:06
• 4 $\begingroup$ @barrycarter That's basically Occam's Razor, which is useful as a guiding principle, but not really a proof. $\endgroup$ –  Barmar Commented Jul 9, 2018 at 18:13
• 1 $\begingroup$ Does "simple" include accepting the modern theory of gravity? Because if you start accepting the relative masses of the sun and planets, "Everything orbits the earth" can't work. $\endgroup$ –  swbarnes2 Commented Jul 9, 2018 at 21:00
• 2 $\begingroup$ The sun and the stars do orbit the earth--but the math is very complicated. The choice of reference frame (the earth is stationary, the sun is stationary, the mass-center of the solar system is stationary) is chosen for convenience, and "earth is stationary" makes the math really hard. $\endgroup$ –  chrylis -cautiouslyoptimistic- Commented Jul 11, 2018 at 2:20

9 Answers 9

The answer is ironic: Without good instruments, there is no evidence . The people who thought that the Sun went around the Earth were perfectly correct as far as the actual evidence went until the early 1700s and mid-1800s when two lines of evidence opened up that showed that the Earth moved.

Aberration of Starlight

Wikipedia has a correct but over-complicated explanation . The easiest way to think about it is to imagine yourself at a stop sign in a car in the rain, and the rain is falling straight down. When you start moving, the rain's apparent direction of fall changes so that it appears to be falling from ahead of you and slanting down towards you. That's aberration.

In the early 1700s, the stars were discovered to be shifting position, and in 1727, James Bradley correctly identified it as abberation of starlight due to the motion of the Earth around the Sun. (For any star in the ecliptic, the Earth is moving towards it at some time of the year and away from it six months later.)

Wikipedia's article on parallax is better, and I refer you to it for details. Basically, if you hold your finger up before you and look at it with your left eye closed, and then with your right eye closed, it appears to jump with respect to the background -- the wall beyond or the trees outside or whatever. Switch back and forth between your eyes quickly to see it clearly.

As the Earth circles around the Sun, nearby stars also appear to shift their position relative to the more distant stars. A key point here is that there were good scientific reasons to suppose that the stars were much smaller than the Sun. Seen through a telescope, stars showed disks and if they were like the Sun, their distance could be deduced from those disks. And they were close enough that if the Earth really went around the Sun, parallax should have been observed. But it wasn't and the lack of any noticeable parallax was a strong empirical argument against Heliocentric theories.

In reality of course parallax exists, but the parallax of all stars is small, because they are much further away than was estimated from their disks. (The visible disks were actually diffraction disks and not true disks at all -- but it was not until nearly a century later that diffraction began to be understood.) Friedrich Bessel first measure the real parallax of a star in 1838.

• 9 $\begingroup$ The change in solar zenith was known from prehistoric times and convinced no one of a heliocentric world, so, no, it doesn't strongly suggest anything until you make other assumptions (e.g., that the Sun is massive w/respect to the Earth or that something like gravitation creates the motions of the heavenly bodies) that are incompatible with geocentrism. It's not direct evidence of heliocentrism. (It's worth remembering that the lack of a visible parallax was already in ancient times one of the arguments used against heliocentrism.) $\endgroup$ –  Mark Olson Commented Jul 9, 2018 at 17:17
• 9 $\begingroup$ Part 9 of TheOFloinn's "The Great Ptlemaic Smackdown" details the historical accretion of the evidence you mention as well as Guglielmi's 1791 measurement of lateral Coriolis force showing rotation . The prior eight parts are also a fun read of the detailed replacement of geocentric with heliocentric models and probable evidence tampering against Galileo (by a justifiably angry large political institution). $\endgroup$ –  Eric Towers Commented Jul 9, 2018 at 17:27
• 6 $\begingroup$ Good answer. We tend to think of early cosmologists as flat-earther,denying an obvious truth. In fact they had good technical arguments for believing in things like 'a fixed dome of stars'. Without a good understanding of optics, how point sources can appear much larger than they actually are, they thought distant stars would have to be vastly bigger than our Sun in order to show no parallax. $\endgroup$ –  MichaelB76 Commented Jul 10, 2018 at 6:50
• 6 $\begingroup$ It is also worth noting the observation of phases of Venus ( en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phases_of_Venus ) in 1610 which ruled out the possibility that planets orbit Earth, although it is consistent with both Earth orbiting the Sun and Sun orbiting Earth while other planets orbit the Sun. $\endgroup$ –  Martin Modrák Commented Jul 10, 2018 at 12:03
• 2 $\begingroup$ @littleO: Not a stab in the dark, exactly, but it seems to have been a combination of him thinking the heliocentric hypotheses was more elegant -- which it was -- and his own cantankerous nature. (Even without the near sainthood later myth-makers gave him, he was a very good scientist for his age. But he was also one of the more unpleasant people around and enjoyed driving off his friends and benefactors. He probably liked it because it would annoy people.) Read Owen Gingerich's book on him -- or read the "The Great Ptlemaic Smackdown" recommended a dozen comments above. $\endgroup$ –  Mark Olson Commented Jul 11, 2018 at 17:49

You cannot prove that the Earth orbits the Sun rather than vice versa because this goes very much against the grain of all frames of reference being equally valid (but some make a lot more sense than others). For example, it makes much more sense to use an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed point of view rather than a non-rotating geocentric, heliocentric, barycentric, or galactocentric point of view when modeling the weather or the tides. One could, for example, use a heliocentric or even galactocentric point of view to model the Earth's weather, but doing so would be beyond stupid.

On the other hand, when modeling the behavior solar system it makes much more sense to use a heliocentric, or even better, a solar system barycentric point of view. One could however use an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed point of view because all frames of reference are equally valid (in theory). Doing so would of course make the equations of motion quite ugly, and uglier yet on trying to make those equations of motion relativistically correct. A geocentric point of view nonetheless remains theoretically valid -- even for modeling the behavior of the Milky Way.

The problem with a geocentric point of view isn't that it's invalid (which it isn't). The problem is that advocates of geocentricism argued (and sadly, continue to argue) that this is the one and only valid point of view. This argument is invalid, because once again, all frames of reference are equally valid.

Note well: Just because inertial frames are special in some sense does not mean that non-inertial frames are invalid.

• 6 $\begingroup$ As an aside, one of my favorite tests of the orbital dynamics framework I developed for NASA's Johnson Space Center was to place an object in orbit about the Earth's moon, but to model the time evolution of that object from the perspective a Neptune-centered inertial point of view. It worked, at least for a short period of time. While all frames of reference are equally valid in theory, some choices are rather dimwitted compared to others due to numerical accuracy concerns. My choice of Neptune-centered inertial was intentionally dimwitted. $\endgroup$ –  David Hammen Commented Jul 9, 2018 at 20:44
• 4 $\begingroup$ Nah, you just needed more numerical precision! :-) $\endgroup$ –  Tristan Commented Jul 9, 2018 at 22:27
• 1 $\begingroup$ all frames of reference are equally valid Not true. Both Newtonian mechanics and general relativity distinguish between inertial and noninertial frames of reference. (In GR, an inertial frame is a free-falling frame.) $\endgroup$ –  user15381 Commented Jul 10, 2018 at 0:07
• 7 $\begingroup$ @BenCrowell while equations of motion in inertial frames are generally nicer, this doesn't make non-inertial frames invalid – just introduces fictitious forces. $\endgroup$ –  Ruslan Commented Jul 10, 2018 at 6:54
• 1 $\begingroup$ Also, the basic postulates of general relativity apply in exactly the same way in all reference frames, inertial or otherwise. Newton's postulates do not. $\endgroup$ –  Ken G Commented Jul 10, 2018 at 13:14

If you start with the idea that the planets, the sun, the moon and the earth are all bodies that all move through space, exclude the apparently fixed stars, and then see what evidence there is as to how they move relative to each other, then in that context there is some evidence to be found in naked-eye astronomy aided by navigational instruments available even to the ancients.

The patterns of observed movement of the planets is evidence of heliocentric orbit. The visible planets follow certain patterns. First, Mercury and Venus:

• They are always seen in the vicinity of the sun.
• The observed angular separations of both Mercury and Venus from the sun have a regular pattern.
• Mercury has a much closer maximum separation than Venus, and its angular separation changes at a much faster rate.
• Both planets stay close to the ecliptic, and never oscillate normal to it.
• Both planets' orbits around the sun can be documented and predicted with relative ease. This can be done imprecisely even without a telescope, though it is much harder for Mercury, being so close to the sun.

Beginning with the premise of bodies moving through the heavens, I believe the evidence is there for Mercury and Venus having a heliocentric orbit. Kepler described it precisely, but the ancient Greeks were able to model their motion very well without telescopes in the Antikythera Mechanism in geocentric terms.

If an ancient Greek astronomer had wanted to precisely model the motion of the inner planets in heliocentric terms, he could have. The way to do it is to assume the fixed stars are rigidly fixed, and measure the angular distances between them all, and then plot the motions of the moving planets among them. Sextants and other devices were used by ancient mariners who were highly skilled even with primitive ones . So this could have been done to realize the "simple experiement or calculation" you are asking for. Whether it ever was done, with that question in mind, is a bit different issue.

Now for the earth itself. Even in the ancient world the relationship between the sidereal day and the solar day has been well understood . The precession of the sun around the ecliptic plane is evidence of a heliocentric orbit. One just has to model it to make this clear. Ancient calculations relating to sidereal time and the Metonic cycle reveal that the earth's heliocentric motion could have been mathematically modeled, if conceived of and desired.

As for the outer planets, to my mind this is the least intuitive, but there is evidence for a heliocentric orbit for them too, but only by building on the idea that earth and the inner planets orbit the sun. This comes from observing their retrograde motion . These planets will move retrograde against the "fixed background stars" at certain times, and those times can be correlated to their angular separation from the sun. Also the different planets move through the zodiac at different speeds, which also correlate with the amplitude of retrograde motion.

If you simulate all this with a heliocentric orrery, it is very plainly evident that we on an inner, faster planet observe an outer, slower planet in its orbit. The ancient Greeks had enough skill to model the motions of Mars, Jupiter and Saturn in their Antikythera Mechanism in geocentric terms. So it follows that a precise, mathematical model of heliocentric motion for the outer planets was within their reach, if they ever reached for it.

There is also some evidence that at least some ancient thinkers were able to decode all this into a heliocentric model. The ancient Greek Aristarchus of Samos had a heliocentric model. However, Plato and others seemed to disfavor it, and this reconstruction of the Antikythera Mechanism which is believed to come well after Aristarchus' day features a geocentric orrery which models planetary retrograde motion. And heliocentric thinking stayed within the minority in the west until the modern age. Perhaps the obvious geocentric orbit of the moon, or the question of the stars (whether they should be included in any correct model or not), or the lack of a universal theory of gravity, sufficiently obscured for them what to us is clear.

• 6 $\begingroup$ I think you're disregarding the fact that the heliocentric model doesn't do a much better job of actually modeling the system until you give up on circles. The first attempts at heliocentric models (even at the time of Galileo) had the issue of having even more exceptions than the geocentric ones due to using circles which don't actually work well. tofspot.blogspot.com/2013/10/… does seem to do a great job of explaining this. $\endgroup$ –  DRF Commented Jul 10, 2018 at 11:10
• $\begingroup$ @DRF You can probably tell I approached this from the point of view of, did the Greeks have enough information and theory , if not the insight, to prove heliocentricity at their level of mathematics, physics and technology? Following that same line, I don't know, but I wonder if you have to have good quality lenses in order to disprove circular orbits. Galileo had pretty good lenses, so maybe the Greeks were not capable of his level of precision. I'm not sure. $\endgroup$ –  wberry Commented Jul 10, 2018 at 23:32
• 1 $\begingroup$ The Antikythera Mechanism amazingly had an eccentric gear in its lunar module, accounting for the moon's elliptical orbit, which I imagine is close enough to us for a half-decent sextant to measure eccentricity. But for the others it looks like all circles in Antikythera, with the caveat that not all of the device was recovered. Nor have I seen any reference online to the Greeks discussing such issues with the visible planets. $\endgroup$ –  wberry Commented Jul 10, 2018 at 23:32
• $\begingroup$ Although your blog author you linked to makes a pretty good case that the Greeks could have proved even elliptical orbits at their level, if they had followed all the thought processes of the later European astronomers, without lenses. $\endgroup$ –  wberry Commented Jul 11, 2018 at 0:00

The best experimental evidence is probably retrograde motion . The data is not easily acquired: it takes a long time to collect, not to mention an astronomer would have to stay up every night keeping painstaking measurements of the positions of each object. But it can be done (ancient Greeks were aware of it) and in the modern world you can simply use a simulator like Stellarium .

Download Stellarium, start it up, and navigate to your local position. Then set the simulation running and speed it up many times. You should see the sun and stars rotate around you. Then turn the ground off (so you can see through the Earth), turn the atmosphere off (so you can see stars during the day), switch to the equatorial mount (Ctrl + M; this is the mount where most of the sky is stationary), and zoom out until the Sun, the Moon, and all the planets appear to move in a circle.

Now look carefully at the motions of all the planets. You should see that the Moon (and the Sun) goes in circles without ever slowing down. This is what you'd expect if they went around the Earth. However Mercury does not follow this motion - it visibly disappears around the Sun. Mars behaves differently as well: it goes round and round, then stops, goes backwards, and then goes round and round again. This last behavior is called retrograde motion and its explanation occupied a lot of ancient astronomy. Ancient Greeks came up with a complicated theory of epicycles to explain it, given that the planets orbited the Earth and moved in perfect circles (neither of these are true in modern knowledge).

However retrograde motion can be easily explained if Mars didn't go around the Earth, but went around the Sun instead. This would simply mean that Mars goes retrograde when we overtake it on its orbit. In addition, this also explains how each time Mars goes retrograde, it is at its brightest, plus it is on the opposite side of the sky relative to the Sun. It also explains why Mercury does its loops around the Sun.

This doesn't mean that the geocentric model is not able to account for the same observations, but it's drastically simpler. In the heliocentric model, every planet goes round the Sun on a simple path, an ellipse. In the geocentric model, every planet goes round the Earth, but on epicycle after epicycle. That's when we apply Occam's Razor and conclude that the simpler explanation is correct.

Well... the seasonal cycle is evidence enough that the Earth and Sun are orbiting each other. Whether A orbits B or B orbits A is an argument about relative mass. If you find that the movement of all the other planets are consistent with them orbiting the Sun but not the Earth, you can conclude that the Sun's mass is enormous and therefore barely affected by the pull of the Earth.

Detailed observations of any star in the sky reveal that the Earth moves in an elliptical orbit with a speed of approximately 30 km/s.

When the line of sight velocities of stars are measured using the Doppler effect, they have to be corrected for the motion of the Earth. If they are not, then one would see an unexplained modulation of the velocities, with a period of 1 year and an amplitude of up to 30 km/s that would differ depending on the direction of the star with respect to the Earth-Sun orbital plane.

Likewise, a geocentric model fails to explain why an observer on the Earth sees the positions of stars on the sky execute periodic ellipses on the sky with amplitudes (a.k.a. the trigonometric parallax) that appear to be inversely correlated with how far away they are, but all with a period of one year.

Perhaps these are not the"simple" experiments that you were thinking of, but the universe cannot always be understood with what is visible to the naked eye and common sense.

This might oversimplify things but here's my go:

• Create a flat surface (the larger the better as long as it stays flat), e.g. by placing a board on a still surface of water.
• Put up a long pole (the longer the better) vertically on that surface at noon.
• Measure its shadow (direction and length), which needs to be completely on the flat surface.
• Have someone do the same (esp. same length of pole) at the same time far to the north of you (the further the better).
• Have a third of the exact same measurements far to the south of you.

Evaluating the measurements should establish:

• Earth's surface is roughly spherical (actually earth is an oblate ellipsoid but you need more than 3 measurements to confirm that)
• Earth diameter is within reported values (+/- expected deviation for measurement error and the fact that you only measured a very rough estimation)
• Rough estimation of earth-sun distance by triangulating

Using a pinhole camera you can now achieve a rough estimation of sun's actual diameter by its apparent diameter and the distance estimation from above. Even accumulating all the measurement errors, the difference in size between sun and earth should be some orders of magnitude.

Attach two balls to the opposite ends of a rod (the lighter the rod compared to the balls the better). The balls need to be rough approximations of the above established measurements (e.g. you could guess the sun is pure hydrogen and the earth is pure iron to achieve an estimation of mass). Attach a string to the rod and find the point of balance. Most likely it will be way to the ball representing the sun (you need to accommodate for weight of the rod).

You can now make the two balls circle each other while hanging from the string.

Which one revolves around the other?

• $\begingroup$ Feel free to extend/correct this answer. I thought about how to have the described experiment/model as simple as possible. The only hope for this to achieve anything is that the difference in diameter and mass between earth and sun is so staggering large that the numbers work out although they are likely to be 50% (or more) off from the actual values. $\endgroup$ –  NoAnswer Commented Jul 12, 2018 at 15:59

With relatively simple equipment it is possible to observe the behaviour of the satellites of Jupiter. Assuming the hypothesis that Jupiter and all the planets rotate around the Earth, it should be expected that the occlusion of the satellites by Jupiter would happen on a highly regular basis. But what we see is the event happening at different times relative to Earth-bound clocks, even not very accurate ones, which proves that the orbit of Jupiter is not a simple epicycle around the Earth. Also the observation of any satellite not directly orbiting the Earth casts doubt on the Earth-centric view.

Very simply: because of relative motion, no proof exists. Any situation that you come up with can be explained by a tweaked geocentric module. Albert Einstein came to the same conclusion when he said "I have come to believe that the motion of the Earth cannot be detected by any optical experiment." and "...to the question whether or not the motion of the Earth in space can be made perceptible in terrestrial experiments. We have already remarked... that all attempts of this nature led to a negative result. Before the theory of relativity was put forward, it was difficult to become reconciled to this negative result."

• $\begingroup$ It really makes sense to elaborate on this particular quote. You are being downvoted, because this well-known quotation is often seen torn out of its contest to show as if E. supported the geocentric model. I am surprised, however, that no one except you has so far mentioned the GR in this context. This looks like an introduction to a very good and educational answer, if only abruptly ended. $\endgroup$ –  kkm mistrusts SE Commented Jul 12, 2018 at 4:51

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Mystery ‘Island of Death’ where visitors are BANNED that was burned from end to end after hosting eerie WW2 experiments

• Vera Demertzis
• Published : 13:38, 6 Aug 2024
• Updated : 16:15, 6 Aug 2024
• Published : Invalid Date,

A MYSTERIOUS island that was at the centre of World War II experiments has dark secrets linked to germ warfare.

Dubbed "Anthrax Island", the uninhabited Gruinard Island off the west coast of Scotland is too dangerous to visit after it was contaminated with anthrax bacteria.

In 1962, a BBC reporter set out to investigate local reports of secret WWII experiments which caused unexplained animal deaths.

Reporter Fyfe Robertson said: "Hereabouts, they call it the island of death, the mystery Island, and for good reason.

"Now, this is not a story of old dark deeds or Highland superstition. No, this story started in 1942."

Operation Vegetarian

With most of Europe on a knife's edge in 1942, then UK Prime Minister Winston Churchill tasked a team of top scientists to find a way to harness anthrax as a weapon.

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The project, called Operation Vegetarian, had started under Paul Fildes, then head of the biology department at Porton Down, a military facility in Wiltshire.

Gruinard Island was deemed the perfect location for a series of secret experiments.

What actually happened remained a mystery until the Ministry of Defence declassified a video 50 years later.

The shocking footage showed approximately 80 sheep exposed to an anthrax cloud.

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The men conducting the experiments wore cloth overalls and hair protectors as well as respirators and gloves.

The results were devastating.

Within days all the sheep were dead and infected carcasses were incinerated or buried under tonnes of rubble after a cliff on the island was blown up.

While the experiment was deemed a success, the anthrax bomb was never used and the deadly spores remained on the island.

By the end of the war, Gruinard Island had been poisoned, burned, abandoned and deemed too dangerous for anyone to visit.

The military quarantined the island indefinitely and put warning signs up.

Dark Harvest

The island's history was all but forgotten until a group known as Dark Harvest commandos launched a move to raise awareness about the deadly contamination.

The group began its campaign with a letter to the Glasgow Herald Newspaper, which said: "By the time you read this the campaign will have started in earnest.

"The first delivery will have been made - and where better to send the seeds of death than to the place from whence they came?"

That place was the Porton Down biological research centre near Salisbury, Wiltshire, a top secret Ministry of Defence laboratory.

A bucket of soil was found near the perimeter, and scientists quickly discovered that it came from the island that was abandoned in the 40s.

Four days after bringing the bucket of soil to Porton Down the group struck again, this time targeting the Conservative Party conference in Blackpool.

Unlike the first sample, this one turned out not to contain anthrax but the authorities were on high alert.

Det Insp Colin MacDonald was one of the officers tasked with finding out who was behind Dark Harvest, but he was met with a wall of silence.

He told the 2022 BBC documentary "The Mystery of Anthrax Island": "I felt there was maybe more known in the community than was being said."

On 7 December 1981, the Dark Harvest pinned a final letter to the door of the UK government's Scottish Office HQ in Edinburgh.

Instead of threats, the letter declared that the aims of their protest had been met and there would be no further action - for now.

As mysteriously as they came, the Dark Harvest commandos disappeared.

Their scare campaign seemed to hasten the clean up of anthrax spores on the island.

By 1986, Gruinard was again a hive of activity as teams of scientists, vaccinated against anthrax and dressed in protective clothing, prepared to return the island to its natural state.

The island was finally declared anthrax free on April 24, 1990.

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The uninhabited island went up in flames in 2022 after a wildfire tore through it.

Approximately 200 hectares were burnt but no damage was reported.

What is anthrax?

Anthrax is a bacteria which proves fatal in almost all cases, even with medical treatment and especially when inhaled.

Anthrax is found naturally in soil around the world and commonly affects livestock and wild animals.

People usually get sick with anthrax if they come in contact with infected animals or contaminated animal products.

However, it is rare in humans.

Symptoms show up anywhere from one day to more than two months after you're exposed to the bacteria that cause anthrax.

What are the symptoms in humans?

• Fever and chills
• Heavy sweats
• Chest pain, cough, or shortness of breath
• Confusion or dizziness
• Nausea, vomiting, or stomach pains
• Headache or body aches
• Extreme tiredness
• Swelling of neck or neck glands
• Sore throat, hoarseness, and pain when swallowing
• Red face and red eyes

Direct contact with anthrax can cause raised boil-like lesions on the skin which develop a black centre.

This skin infection normally responds to early treatment with antibiotics.

Anyone who has come in contact with anthrax must see a GP immediately.

What are the symptoms in livestock?

Cattle and sheep can die quickly from anthrax, but their carcasses may show no obvious signs of the disease.

But the length of the illness varies and some animals may have signs of illness for several days before death.

• High temperature, shivering or twitching
• Harsh dry cough
• Blood in dung or in nostrils
• Decrease or complete loss of milk
• Bright staring eyes
• Colicky pains
• Dejection and loss of appetite

All unexplained deaths of cattle are investigated for anthrax.

Anthrax is a notifiable animal disease.

If you suspect it you must report it immediately by calling the Defra Rural Services Helpline on 03000 200 301. In Wales, contact 0300 303 8268. In Scotland, contact your local Field Services Office. Failure to do so is an offence.

• World War 2

3 sun mysteries we still haven't cracked

Our understanding of the sun has come a long way in recent decades, but there are still multiple outstanding mysteries that current and future missions hope to solve.

1. The coronal heating problem

2. the sun's internal dynamo and the solar cycle, 3. predicting solar flares and coronal mass ejections, what tools do we have to answer these questions.

Since we began sending satellites to space, our knowledge of the sun has increased exponentially. We saw the sun at new wavelengths, observing our local star in ultraviolet and X-rays for the first time. These observations revealed many new unexplained phenomena on the sun. Many of these early solar observations have been long since explained, but there are still ongoing mysteries about the sun that scientists are working to understand. 

Here, we outline three of the main outstanding puzzles of our local star, although there are certainly others. Most current and future projects to observe the sun, either from the ground or in space, include one or more of these mysteries as a primary science goal.

The sun's outer atmosphere, called the corona, has a temperature of around 1.8 million degrees Fahrenheit (1 million degrees Celsius). However, the surface of the sun, called the photosphere, has a much, much cooler temperature of 10,000 F (5,500 C). At a glance, this seems puzzling. If the sun's atmosphere gets its energy from the sun, how can the corona be hotter than the sun itself? 

Related: Magnetic fields on the sun could solve long-standing solar heating mystery

A common analogy used to explain this is a campfire: If a campfire is providing heat, you would expect the air to get cooler, not hotter, farther from the campfire — as is the case with the sun. However, this is actually a horrible analogy because it misunderstands the true definition of temperature in physics.

In physics, temperature is defined as the amount of energy within the atoms that make up a substance — for example, the air around you. If air atoms are vibrating with a lot of energy, the air is hot. If they are vibrating less, the air is cooler. But this definition doesn't consider density. If the air is thicker with more atoms of the same temperature, the air temperature doesn't change. What does change, however, is the energy within the air around us. 

So, in the context of the sun, the corona is far hotter — but far less dense — than the sun's surface. The surface, on the other hand, is cooler but with much higher densities. The result is that although the temperature of the photosphere is lower, the total energy is still higher.

But although we know the corona is hot because of the higher energy in the photosphere, this still doesn't solve the coronal heating problem. What remains a mystery is how the energy is transported from the sun's surface to its atmosphere. There are multiple theories, but our observations have not provided any conclusive evidence … yet.

The sun follows an 11-year cycle of increasing and decreasing activity. At the peak of this solar cycle — called solar maximum — sunspots , solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are numerous. At solar minimum, the sun is inactive for months to years at a time. The period of the 11-year cycle is fairly predictable, consistently falling fairly close to this time span. What changes considerably from cycle to cycle, however, is the magnitude of solar maximum. Some solar cycles have a peak over twice that of others. 

In general terms, we understand what drives the solar cycle. Because the sun rotates at different speeds at different latitudes, the global magnetic field slowly winds up and becomes more concentrated, producing more magnetic activity. Eventually, the magnetic field winds up so much that it disappears below the sun's surface, revealing a basic solar minimum magnetic field. Although we understand this at a top level, the intricate physics driving the sun's magnetic field from inside the sun — called the solar dynamo — and why that causes 11-year cycles with varying peaks are not yet fully understood.

Solar flares and CMEs (eruptions from the sun) are the primary drivers of space weather — the influence of the sun on the near-Earth environment, with implications for our power grids, satellites and radio communication. Around the world, dozens of space weather forecasters release regular predictions to key stakeholders, informing them of any potential disruption from the sun. These forecasters do a fantastic job, but they are very limited by both available observations and our limited collective knowledge about the drivers of solar flares and CMEs. 

Currently, our forecasting of flares and CMEs is probabilistic and reactive. We can determine when they have a high likelihood of occurring, but not specifically when one will erupt. For us to get better at predicting these events, we must first understand the intricate processes that trigger flares and CMEs on very small scales. This is another key area of ongoing research. 

 — Snake-like magnetic fields on the sun bring scientists closer to solving a major solar mystery

— Parker Solar Probe and Solar Orbiter team up to tackle 65-year-old sun mystery

​​— 10 brilliant discoveries NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory made in its first decade in space  

We are currently in a data-rich era of solar physics research. In space, NASA has a host of heliophysics missions in Earth orbit, including the Solar Dynamics Observatory and the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph. These will be joined later this decade by NASA's Multi-slit Solar Explorer mission. Key Earth-orbit telescopes also include Japan's Hinode, India's Aditya-L1 and China's Advanced Space-based Solar Observatory . 

Orbiting the sun, we have the European Space Agency's Solar Orbiter and NASA's Parker Solar Probe . And finally, we have a host of solar telescopes on the ground, the largest of which is the National Science Foundation's Inouye Solar Telescope . Together, these solar physics missions, alongside others, are doing a fantastic job of providing the data necessary to help solve the outstanding mysteries of the sun.

Join our Space Forums to keep talking space on the latest missions, night sky and more! And if you have a news tip, correction or comment, let us know at: [email protected].

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Breaking space news, the latest updates on rocket launches, skywatching events and more!

Dr. Ryan French is a solar physicist, science communicator and author. He is pursuing the mysteries of the sun at the forefront of modern solar physics research, using cutting-edge telescopes on the ground and in space. Ryan also works to share the wonders of the sun and space with the public, through museums and observatories, television, and social media on Twitter and TikTok. Ryan's first book, " The Sun: Beginner's guide to our local star " was published in 2023.

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• HobartStinsonian Quick correction about room temperature air. It is strictly a function of the average speed of the air particles, or their kinetic energy. Temperature is not an aggregate summation of energy on a volume basis. Only on the basis of the speed of particles, on the average. At constant temperature, a greater air density has no bearing on air temperature. If molecules absorb high enough energy they may attain significant vibration states. Even higher energies and they may dissociate or ionize. Reply
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Bears' Velus Jones 'positive' in debut at running back

The bears third-year wide receiver gained 34 yards on six carries, including a four-yard touchdown and 19-yard run to culminate a one-week tryout in the backfield. coach matt eberflus did not rule out the experiment continuing next week..

Bears wide receiver/running back Velus Jones (12) scores on a four-yard run in the third quarter of the Bears’ 33-6 preseason victory over the Bills on Saturday at Highmark Stadium.

Seth Wenig/AP

ORCHARD PARK, N.Y. — For return man/wide receiver Velus Jones , it was just like old times.

Jones had six carries for 34 yards, including a four-yard touchdown run, to conclude a one-week experiment at running back in the Bears ’ 33-6 preseason victory Saturday against the Bills.

‘‘It felt good just getting the ball in my hands,’’ Jones said. ‘‘My first position at [youth] league was running back, and I played some running back my senior year of high school. I’ve got highlights.’’

The NFL is a long way from youth league and high school, but not to Jones. With 4.31-second speed in the 40-yard dash, he thinks he can do anything.

‘‘It kind of feels the same when you’ve got speed,’’ he said in jest. ‘‘Seriously, it was pretty cool. Shout-out to the [offensive] line. They made it easy on me, gave me some pretty clear looks.’’

With backup Tyson Bagent at quarterback, Jones had runs of seven, one and four yards on a third-quarter drive before going around left end for a four-yard touchdown that gave the Bears a 13-3 lead. He added a 19-yard run early in the fourth.

‘‘It was positive,’’ coach Matt Eberflus said. ‘‘He did a nice job of getting north. He’s a physical player. You can really see him denting those tackles to fall forward for positive yards, the hidden yards that are in our favor. He’s been good back there.’’

Eberflus said he would talk with offensive coordinator Shane Waldron and running backs coach Chad Morton before deciding whether Jones has earned an extended look in the backfield.

Starters out

Defensive end Montez Sweat was the most prominent of five starters, including four on defense, who didn’t play because of injuries.

The others were cornerbacks Kyler Gordon and Tyrique Stevenson , safety Jaquan Brisker and center/right guard Ryan Bates .

Long snapper Patrick Scales , who missed practice last week with a back injury, also didn’t play. Cameron Lyons replaced him.

Running back D’Andre Swift , who is eager to do more as a receiver in Waldron’s offense, got off to a fast start in that area with a 42-yard reception on the Bears’ fourth play from scrimmage.

On first down from the Bears’ 40, quarterback Caleb Williams stepped up in heavy traffic and, with no other options but taking a sack, flipped a short pass to Swift, who was in open space after a block from center Coleman Shelton . He was tackled by cornerback Rasul Douglas at the Bills’ 18.

Swift’s longest pass play in the regular-season with the Eagles last year was 20 yards, but he had touchdown receptions of 63 and 42 yards with the Lions in 2021.

Backup linebacker Micah Baskerville , who made an impact last year in training camp and the preseason, did it again with a 53-yard interception return for a touchdown after picking off a pass by third-string quarterback Shane Buechele .

Welcome to the NFL

Rookie punter Tory Taylor , who was greeted by 16 mph winds in his NFL debut, averaged 40.5 net yards on two punts. He had a 48-yard punt returned 15 yards and a 48-yard punt that went out of bounds at the Bills’ 11.

‘‘Probably the toughest stadium I’ve ever played in,’’ Taylor said.

Under the radar

Reserve running back Ian Wheeler , an undrafted rookie from Howard, scored on runs of eight and seven yards in the fourth quarter. He led the Bears in rushing with 43 yards on five carries.

Celebrate Heliophysics Big Year: Free Monthly Webinars on the Sun Touches Everything

Once a month (usually on the first Tuesday), the Heliophysics Education Community meets online to share knowledge and opportunities. During the Heliophysics Big Year (HBY) – a global celebration of the Sun's influence on Earth and the entire solar system, beginning with the Annular Solar Eclipse on October 14, 2023, continuing through the Total Solar Eclipse on April 8, 2024, and concluding with the Parker Solar Probe’s closest approach to the Sun in December, 2024 – the meetings are structured to include short presentations by subject matter experts both inside and outside NASA.

Challenged by the NASA Heliophysics Division to participate in as many Sun-related activities as possible, the NASA Heliophysics Education community has been hosting these short monthly presentations for formal and informal educators, science communicators, and other heliophysics enthusiasts to promote the understanding of heliophysics in alignment with monthly HBY themes . Presenters and team members from the NASA Science Activation program's NASA Heliophysics Education Activation Team (NASA HEAT) connect these themes with the Framework of Heliophysics Education in mind, mapping them directly to the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) – a set of research-based science content standards for grades K–12. Using the three main questions that heliophysicists investigate as a foundation, NASA HEAT cross-references heliophysics topics with the NGSS Disciplinary Core Ideas to create NGSS-aligned “heliophysics big ideas.” These community meetings welcome an average of 30 attendees, but NASA celebrated a record-breaking 234 attendees for the July meeting, which explored the Sun’s impact on physical and mental health.

Everyone is welcome to participate in upcoming presentations and topics on the following dates at 1 p.m. EDT:

8/6/24 Youth/Informal Education – NASA PUNCH Mission 9/02/24 Environment and Sustainability – Solar Sail 10/15/24 Solar Cycle and Solar Max – National Solar Observatory 11/19/24 Bonus Science 12/03/24 Parker’s Perihelion

Join the Meeting

NASA HEAT is part of NASA's Science Activation Portfolio. Learn more about how Science Activation connects NASA science experts, real content, and experiences with community leaders to do science in ways that activate minds and promote deeper understanding of our world and beyond: https://science.nasa.gov/learn

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• 2023 Solar Eclipse
• 2024 Solar Eclipse
• Grades 5 - 8 for Educators
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• Heliophysics
• Opportunities For Educators to Get Involved
• Parker Solar Probe (PSP)
• Science Activation

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Dublin Zoo hosting special ‘experience’ weekend with plenty of activities to ‘create unforgettable family memories’

• Jamie Smith
• Published : 17:16, 6 Aug 2024
• Updated : 17:16, 6 Aug 2024
• Published : Invalid Date,

DUBLIN ZOO is hosting a science weekend with plenty of fun activities and interactive experiments to create 'unforgettable family memories'.

Ireland's biggest zoo is inviting visitors to join them for a special weekend this Saturday and Sunday.

Dublin Zoo will be hosting the science weekend on August 10 & 11, with tonnes of activities to do for kids of all ages.

There will be plenty for everyone in the family to enjoy, including exciting science shows and interactive experiments to see little-known wonders come to life.

The science weekend is being held in celebration of the wonders of science, and will take place on the Great Lawn from 11.30am to 4.30pm on both days.

And don't worry about the rain, as the event will take place in the hugely popular Zoorastic house if it occurs.

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In a statement, Dublin Zoo revealed the major plans for the special weekend.

They said: "Dublin Zoo invites visitors to celebrate Science Weekend this Saturday 10 th  and Sunday 11 th  of August. 

"Over the weekend, visitors of all ages will have the chance to experience an array of exciting science shows and interactive experiments.

"We're dedicated to creating unforgettable family memories this summer. Science Week at the Zoo promises to be a weekend filled with wonder, discovery, and fun for visitors of all ages."

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Interactive activities.

As well as flying saucers and sparks of lightning, guests can also experience many interactive activities including:

• Slime Science:  Get your hands dirty in the name of science!
• Barbie’s Hair-Raising Experience:  Discover voltage and current with a Van Der Graff generator and the world’s most famous doll.
• Light Saber Lighting:  Learn how electricity flows by lighting a Light Sabre with a plasma ball.
• Cola & Mentos Explosion:  Witness the spectacular fizzy eruption.
• Elephant Toothpaste Reaction:  Come along to find out why this got its name.

For younger visitors, face painting will also be available at the zoo in the Farmhouse from 11am to 5pm on both days.

The zoo is now open seven days a week from 9.30am to 7pm.

New elephant addition

To join in the Science Week celebrations on Saturday 10th and Sunday 11th August, visitors can book online at  www.dublinzoo.ie .

This comes after Dublin zoo has welcomed a new addition to one of their most popular exhibitions.

The popular zoo, located in Phoenix Park, confirmed that an Asian elephant bull named Aung Bo has joined the other animals in the habitat.

Joining the others in the "state-of-the-art" elephant habitat at the Kaziranga Forest Trail, Aung Bo arrived from  Chester Zoo  in England.

'Very gentle'

Weighing almost five tonnes and three metres tall, Aung Bo is 22 years old and said to be very gentle.

Dublin  Zoo has said that visitors can expect to see him "curiously climbing to find delicious morsels of trees" as this is his favourite food.

Aung Bo now joins an all-female herd and will be introduced to Dina, 40, Asha, 17, Samiya, 10, Zinda, 8 and Avani, 7, over the next few weeks.

Dublin Zoo says this addition to the habitat is especially exciting as Aung Bo is the first bull  elephant  with tusks to ever live there.

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How did life begin on earth a lightning strike of an idea..

Yahya Chaudhry

Harvard Correspondent

Researchers mimic early conditions on barren planet to test hypothesis of ancient electrochemistry

About four billion years ago, Earth resembled the set of a summer sci-fi blockbuster. The planet’s surface was a harsh and barren landscape, recovering from hellish asteroid strikes, teeming with volcanic eruptions, and lacking enough nutrients to sustain even the simplest forms of life.

The atmosphere was composed predominantly of inert gases like nitrogen and carbon dioxide, meaning they did not easily engage in chemical reactions necessary to form the complex organic molecules that are the building blocks of life. Scientists have long sought to discover the key factors that enabled the planet’s chemistry to change enough to form and sustain life.

Now, new research zeroes in on how lightning strikes may have served as a vital spark, transforming the atmosphere of early Earth into a hotbed of chemical activity. In the study, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , a team of Harvard scientists identified lightning-induced plasma electrochemistry as a potential source of reactive carbon and nitrogen compounds necessary for the emergence and survival of early life.

“The origin of life is one of the great unanswered questions facing chemistry,” said George M. Whitesides, senior author and the Woodford L. and Ann A. Flowers University Research Professor in the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology. How the fundamental building blocks of “nucleic acids, proteins, and metabolites emerged spontaneously remains unanswered.”

One of the most popular answers to this question is summarized in the so-called RNA World hypothesis, Whitesides said. That is the idea that available forms of the elements, such as water, soluble electrolytes, and common gases, formed the first biomolecules. In their study, the researchers found that lightning could provide accessible forms of nitrogen and carbon that led to the emergence and survival of biomolecules.

A plasma vessel used to mimic cloud-to-ground lightning and its resulting electrochemical reactions. The setup uses two electrodes, with one in the gas phase and the other submerged in water enriched with inorganic salts.

Credit: Haihui Joy Jiang

Researchers designed a plasma electrochemical setup that allowed them to mimic conditions of the early Earth and study the role lightning strikes might have had on its chemistry. They were able to generate high-energy sparks between gas and liquid phases — akin to the cloud-to-ground lightning strikes that would have been common billions of years ago.

The scientists discovered that their simulated lightning strikes could transform stable gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen into highly reactive compounds. They found that carbon dioxide could be reduced to carbon monoxide and formic acid, while nitrogen could be converted into nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium ions.

These reactions occurred most efficiently at the interfaces between gas, liquid, and solid phases — regions where lightning strikes would naturally concentrate these products. This suggests that lightning strikes could have locally generated high concentrations of these vital molecules, providing diverse raw materials for the earliest forms of life to develop and thrive.

“Given what we’ve shown about interfacial lightning strikes, we are introducing different subsets of molecules, different concentrations, and different plausible pathways to life in the origin of life community,” said Thomas C. Underwood, co-lead author and Whitesides Lab postdoctoral fellow. “As opposed to saying that there’s one mechanism to create chemically reactive molecules and one key intermediate, we suggest that there is likely more than one reactive molecule that might have contributed to the pathway to life.”

The findings align with previous research suggesting that other energy sources, such as ultraviolet radiation, deep-sea vents, volcanoes, and asteroid impacts, could have also contributed to the formation of biologically relevant molecules. However, the unique advantage of cloud-to-ground lightning is its ability to drive high-voltage electrochemistry across different interfaces, connecting the atmosphere, oceans, and land.

The research adds a significant piece to the puzzle of life’s origins. By demonstrating how lightning could have contributed to the availability of essential nutrients, the study opens new avenues for understanding the chemical pathways that led to the emergence of life on Earth. As the research team continues to explore these reactions, they hope to uncover more about the early conditions that made life possible and to improve modern applications.

“Building on our work, we are now experimentally looking at how plasma electrochemical reactions may influence nitrogen isotopes in products, which has a potential geological relevance,” said co-lead author Haihui Joy Jiang, a former Whitesides lab postdoctoral fellow. “We are also interested in this research from an energy-efficiency and environmentally friendly perspective on chemical production. We are studying plasma as a tool to develop new methods of making chemicals and to drive green chemical processes, such as producing fertilizer used today.”

Harvard co-authors included Professor Dimitar D. Sasselov in the Department of Astronomy and Professor James G. Anderson in the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, and the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences.

The study not only sheds light on the past but also has implications for the search for life on other planets. Processes the researchers described could potentially contribute to the emergence of life beyond Earth.

“Lightning has been observed on Jupiter and Saturn; plasmas and plasma-induced chemistry can exist beyond our solar system,” Jiang said. “Moving forward, our setup is useful for mimicking environmental conditions of different planets, as well as exploring reaction pathways triggered by lightning and its analogs.”

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