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The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: How Language Influences How We Express Ourselves

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What to Know About the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Real-world examples of linguistic relativity, linguistic relativity in psychology.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, also known as linguistic relativity, refers to the idea that the language a person speaks can influence their worldview, thought, and even how they experience and understand the world.

While more extreme versions of the hypothesis have largely been discredited, a growing body of research has demonstrated that language can meaningfully shape how we understand the world around us and even ourselves.

Keep reading to learn more about linguistic relativity, including some real-world examples of how it shapes thoughts, emotions, and behavior.  

The hypothesis is named after anthropologist and linguist Edward Sapir and his student, Benjamin Lee Whorf. While the hypothesis is named after them both, the two never actually formally co-authored a coherent hypothesis together.

This Hypothesis Aims to Figure Out How Language and Culture Are Connected

Sapir was interested in charting the difference in language and cultural worldviews, including how language and culture influence each other. Whorf took this work on how language and culture shape each other a step further to explore how different languages might shape thought and behavior.

Since then, the concept has evolved into multiple variations, some more credible than others.

Linguistic Determinism Is an Extreme Version of the Hypothesis

Linguistic determinism, for example, is a more extreme version suggesting that a person’s perception and thought are limited to the language they speak. An early example of linguistic determinism comes from Whorf himself who argued that the Hopi people in Arizona don’t conjugate verbs into past, present, and future tenses as English speakers do and that their words for units of time (like “day” or “hour”) were verbs rather than nouns.

From this, he concluded that the Hopi don’t view time as a physical object that can be counted out in minutes and hours the way English speakers do. Instead, Whorf argued, the Hopi view time as a formless process.

This was then taken by others to mean that the Hopi don’t have any concept of time—an extreme view that has since been repeatedly disproven.

There is some evidence for a more nuanced version of linguistic relativity, which suggests that the structure and vocabulary of the language you speak can influence how you understand the world around you. To understand this better, it helps to look at real-world examples of the effects language can have on thought and behavior.

Different Languages Express Colors Differently

Color is one of the most common examples of linguistic relativity. Most known languages have somewhere between two and twelve color terms, and the way colors are categorized varies widely. In English, for example, there are distinct categories for blue and green .

Blue and Green

But in Korean, there is one word that encompasses both. This doesn’t mean Korean speakers can’t see blue, it just means blue is understood as a variant of green rather than a distinct color category all its own.

In Russian, meanwhile, the colors that English speakers would lump under the umbrella term of “blue” are further subdivided into two distinct color categories, “siniy” and “goluboy.” They roughly correspond to light blue and dark blue in English. But to Russian speakers, they are as distinct as orange and brown .

In one study comparing English and Russian speakers, participants were shown a color square and then asked to choose which of the two color squares below it was the closest in shade to the first square.

The test specifically focused on varying shades of blue ranging from “siniy” to “goluboy.” Russian speakers were not only faster at selecting the matching color square but were more accurate in their selections.

The Way Location Is Expressed Varies Across Languages

This same variation occurs in other areas of language. For example, in Guugu Ymithirr, a language spoken by Aboriginal Australians, spatial orientation is always described in absolute terms of cardinal directions. While an English speaker would say the laptop is “in front of” you, a Guugu Ymithirr speaker would say it was north, south, west, or east of you.

As a result, Aboriginal Australians have to be constantly attuned to cardinal directions because their language requires it (just as Russian speakers develop a more instinctive ability to discern between shades of what English speakers call blue because their language requires it).

So when you ask a Guugu Ymithirr speaker to tell you which way south is, they can point in the right direction without a moment’s hesitation. Meanwhile, most English speakers would struggle to accurately identify South without the help of a compass or taking a moment to recall grade school lessons about how to find it.

The concept of these cardinal directions exists in English, but English speakers aren’t required to think about or use them on a daily basis so it’s not as intuitive or ingrained in how they orient themselves in space.

Just as with other aspects of thought and perception, the vocabulary and grammatical structure we have for thinking about or talking about what we feel doesn’t create our feelings, but it does shape how we understand them and, to an extent, how we experience them.

Words Help Us Put a Name to Our Emotions

For example, the ability to detect displeasure from a person’s face is universal. But in a language that has the words “angry” and “sad,” you can further distinguish what kind of displeasure you observe in their facial expression. This doesn’t mean humans never experienced anger or sadness before words for them emerged. But they may have struggled to understand or explain the subtle differences between different dimensions of displeasure.

In one study of English speakers, toddlers were shown a picture of a person with an angry facial expression. Then, they were given a set of pictures of people displaying different expressions including happy, sad, surprised, scared, disgusted, or angry. Researchers asked them to put all the pictures that matched the first angry face picture into a box.

The two-year-olds in the experiment tended to place all faces except happy faces into the box. But four-year-olds were more selective, often leaving out sad or fearful faces as well as happy faces. This suggests that as our vocabulary for talking about emotions expands, so does our ability to understand and distinguish those emotions.

But some research suggests the influence is not limited to just developing a wider vocabulary for categorizing emotions. Language may “also help constitute emotion by cohering sensations into specific perceptions of ‘anger,’ ‘disgust,’ ‘fear,’ etc.,” said Dr. Harold Hong, a board-certified psychiatrist at New Waters Recovery in North Carolina.

As our vocabulary for talking about emotions expands, so does our ability to understand and distinguish those emotions.

Words for emotions, like words for colors, are an attempt to categorize a spectrum of sensations into a handful of distinct categories. And, like color, there’s no objective or hard rule on where the boundaries between emotions should be which can lead to variation across languages in how emotions are categorized.

Emotions Are Categorized Differently in Different Languages

Just as different languages categorize color a little differently, researchers have also found differences in how emotions are categorized. In German, for example, there’s an emotion called “gemütlichkeit.”

While it’s usually translated as “cozy” or “ friendly ” in English, there really isn’t a direct translation. It refers to a particular kind of peace and sense of belonging that a person feels when surrounded by the people they love or feel connected to in a place they feel comfortable and free to be who they are.

Harold Hong, MD, Psychiatrist

The lack of a word for an emotion in a language does not mean that its speakers don't experience that emotion.

You may have felt gemütlichkeit when staying up with your friends to joke and play games at a sleepover. You may feel it when you visit home for the holidays and spend your time eating, laughing, and reminiscing with your family in the house you grew up in.

In Japanese, the word “amae” is just as difficult to translate into English. Usually, it’s translated as "spoiled child" or "presumed indulgence," as in making a request and assuming it will be indulged. But both of those have strong negative connotations in English and amae is a positive emotion .

Instead of being spoiled or coddled, it’s referring to that particular kind of trust and assurance that comes with being nurtured by someone and knowing that you can ask for what you want without worrying whether the other person might feel resentful or burdened by your request.

You might have felt amae when your car broke down and you immediately called your mom to pick you up, without having to worry for even a second whether or not she would drop everything to help you.

Regardless of which languages you speak, though, you’re capable of feeling both of these emotions. “The lack of a word for an emotion in a language does not mean that its speakers don't experience that emotion,” Dr. Hong explained.

What This Means For You

“While having the words to describe emotions can help us better understand and regulate them, it is possible to experience and express those emotions without specific labels for them.” Without the words for these feelings, you can still feel them but you just might not be able to identify them as readily or clearly as someone who does have those words. 

Rhee S. Lexicalization patterns in color naming in Korean . In: Raffaelli I, Katunar D, Kerovec B, eds. Studies in Functional and Structural Linguistics. Vol 78. John Benjamins Publishing Company; 2019:109-128. Doi:10.1075/sfsl.78.06rhe

Winawer J, Witthoft N, Frank MC, Wu L, Wade AR, Boroditsky L. Russian blues reveal effects of language on color discrimination . Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2007;104(19):7780-7785.  10.1073/pnas.0701644104

Lindquist KA, MacCormack JK, Shablack H. The role of language in emotion: predictions from psychological constructionism . Front Psychol. 2015;6. Doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00444

By Rachael Green Rachael is a New York-based writer and freelance writer for Verywell Mind, where she leverages her decades of personal experience with and research on mental illness—particularly ADHD and depression—to help readers better understand how their mind works and how to manage their mental health.

Linguistic Determinism

Linguistic determinism, also known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, is a theory in linguistics that suggests language has the power to determine and shape a person’s thoughts, perceptions, and worldview. According to this hypothesis, the structure, vocabulary, and grammatical patterns of a language directly influence and limit an individual’s cognitive abilities, as well as the way they perceive and interpret the world around them.

Strong and Weak Linguistic Determinism

There are two variations of linguistic determinism: strong and weak.

The strong linguistic determinism holds that language not only influences but completely determines an individual’s thoughts and worldview. In this view, language acts as a prison, constraining our thinking and limiting our ability to perceive concepts and experiences that are not represented in our language.

On the other hand, the weak linguistic determinism argues that while language does have an impact on our thoughts and perceptions, it does not determine them entirely. Instead, it suggests that language influences and shapes our thinking to a certain extent, but other factors such as culture, individual experience, and non-linguistic cognitive abilities also play significant roles.

Evidence and Debates

The hypothesis of linguistic determinism has been the subject of much debate among linguists, cognitive scientists, and philosophers. Proponents of linguistic determinism argue that language plays a crucial role in shaping our thoughts, as it provides the framework and categories through which we view the world. They also point to examples where different languages have unique vocabulary or grammatical structures that allow speakers to express certain concepts more easily.

However, critics of linguistic determinism argue that language is just one of many factors that influence cognition and perception. They maintain that while language may influence our thinking, it does not determine it completely. Additionally, empirical evidence supporting the strong form of linguistic determinism remains limited.

Implications

If linguistic determinism were to hold true, it would have profound implications for various fields, including psychology, anthropology, and cross-cultural communication. Understanding how language influences our thoughts and perceptions could help bridge linguistic and cultural gaps, inform language education strategies, and shed light on the relationship between language, cognition, and culture.

Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis)

Mia Belle Frothingham

Author, Researcher, Science Communicator

BA with minors in Psychology and Biology, MRes University of Edinburgh

Mia Belle Frothingham is a Harvard University graduate with a Bachelor of Arts in Sciences with minors in biology and psychology

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Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

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There are about seven thousand languages heard around the world – they all have different sounds, vocabularies, and structures. As you know, language plays a significant role in our lives.

But one intriguing question is – can it actually affect how we think?

It is widely thought that reality and how one perceives the world is expressed in spoken words and are precisely the same as reality.

That is, perception and expression are understood to be synonymous, and it is assumed that speech is based on thoughts. This idea believes that what one says depends on how the world is encoded and decoded in the mind.

However, many believe the opposite.

In that, what one perceives is dependent on the spoken word. Basically, that thought depends on language, not the other way around.

What Is The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?

Twentieth-century linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf are known for this very principle and its popularization. Their joint theory, known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis or, more commonly, the Theory of Linguistic Relativity, holds great significance in all scopes of communication theories.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that the grammatical and verbal structure of a person’s language influences how they perceive the world. It emphasizes that language either determines or influences one’s thoughts.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that people experience the world based on the structure of their language, and that linguistic categories shape and limit cognitive processes. It proposes that differences in language affect thought, perception, and behavior, so speakers of different languages think and act differently.

For example, different words mean various things in other languages. Not every word in all languages has an exact one-to-one translation in a foreign language.

Because of these small but crucial differences, using the wrong word within a particular language can have significant consequences.

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is sometimes called “linguistic relativity” or the “principle of linguistic relativity.” So while they have slightly different names, they refer to the same basic proposal about the relationship between language and thought.

How Language Influences Culture

Culture is defined by the values, norms, and beliefs of a society. Our culture can be considered a lens through which we undergo the world and develop a shared meaning of what occurs around us.

The language that we create and use is in response to the cultural and societal needs that arose. In other words, there is an apparent relationship between how we talk and how we perceive the world.

One crucial question that many intellectuals have asked is how our society’s language influences its culture.

Linguist and anthropologist Edward Sapir and his then-student Benjamin Whorf were interested in answering this question.

Together, they created the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, which states that our thought processes predominantly determine how we look at the world.

Our language restricts our thought processes – our language shapes our reality. Simply, the language that we use shapes the way we think and how we see the world.

Since the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis theorizes that our language use shapes our perspective of the world, people who speak different languages have different views of the world.

In the 1920s, Benjamin Whorf was a Yale University graduate student studying with linguist Edward Sapir, who was considered the father of American linguistic anthropology.

Sapir was responsible for documenting and recording the cultures and languages of many Native American tribes disappearing at an alarming rate. He and his predecessors were well aware of the close relationship between language and culture.

Anthropologists like Sapir need to learn the language of the culture they are studying to understand the worldview of its speakers truly. Whorf believed that the opposite is also true, that language affects culture by influencing how its speakers think.

His hypothesis proposed that the words and structures of a language influence how its speaker behaves and feels about the world and, ultimately, the culture itself.

Simply put, Whorf believed that you see the world differently from another person who speaks another language due to the specific language you speak.

Human beings do not live in the matter-of-fact world alone, nor solitary in the world of social action as traditionally understood, but are very much at the pardon of the certain language which has become the medium of communication and expression for their society.

To a large extent, the real world is unconsciously built on habits in regard to the language of the group. We hear and see and otherwise experience broadly as we do because the language habits of our community predispose choices of interpretation.

Studies & Examples

The lexicon, or vocabulary, is the inventory of the articles a culture speaks about and has classified to understand the world around them and deal with it effectively.

For example, our modern life is dictated for many by the need to travel by some vehicle – cars, buses, trucks, SUVs, trains, etc. We, therefore, have thousands of words to talk about and mention, including types of models, vehicles, parts, or brands.

The most influential aspects of each culture are similarly reflected in the dictionary of its language. Among the societies living on the islands in the Pacific, fish have significant economic and cultural importance.

Therefore, this is reflected in the rich vocabulary that describes all aspects of the fish and the environments that islanders depend on for survival.

For example, there are over 1,000 fish species in Palau, and Palauan fishers knew, even long before biologists existed, details about the anatomy, behavior, growth patterns, and habitat of most of them – far more than modern biologists know today.

Whorf’s studies at Yale involved working with many Native American languages, including Hopi. He discovered that the Hopi language is quite different from English in many ways, especially regarding time.

Western cultures and languages view times as a flowing river that carries us continuously through the present, away from the past, and to the future.

Our grammar and system of verbs reflect this concept with particular tenses for past, present, and future.

We perceive this concept of time as universal in that all humans see it in the same way.

Although a speaker of Hopi has very different ideas, their language’s structure both reflects and shapes the way they think about time. Seemingly, the Hopi language has no present, past, or future tense; instead, they divide the world into manifested and unmanifest domains.

The manifested domain consists of the physical universe, including the present, the immediate past, and the future; the unmanifest domain consists of the remote past and the future and the world of dreams, thoughts, desires, and life forces.

Also, there are no words for minutes, minutes, or days of the week. Native Hopi speakers often had great difficulty adapting to life in the English-speaking world when it came to being on time for their job or other affairs.

It is due to the simple fact that this was not how they had been conditioned to behave concerning time in their Hopi world, which followed the phases of the moon and the movements of the sun.

Today, it is widely believed that some aspects of perception are affected by language.

One big problem with the original Sapir-Whorf hypothesis derives from the idea that if a person’s language has no word for a specific concept, then that person would not understand that concept.

Honestly, the idea that a mother tongue can restrict one’s understanding has been largely unaccepted. For example, in German, there is a term that means to take pleasure in another person’s unhappiness.

While there is no translatable equivalent in English, it just would not be accurate to say that English speakers have never experienced or would not be able to comprehend this emotion.

Just because there is no word for this in the English language does not mean English speakers are less equipped to feel or experience the meaning of the word.

Not to mention a “chicken and egg” problem with the theory.

Of course, languages are human creations, very much tools we invented and honed to suit our needs. Merely showing that speakers of diverse languages think differently does not tell us whether it is the language that shapes belief or the other way around.

Supporting Evidence

On the other hand, there is hard evidence that the language-associated habits we acquire play a role in how we view the world. And indeed, this is especially true for languages that attach genders to inanimate objects.

There was a study done that looked at how German and Spanish speakers view different things based on their given gender association in each respective language.

The results demonstrated that in describing things that are referred to as masculine in Spanish, speakers of the language marked them as having more male characteristics like “strong” and “long.” Similarly, these same items, which use feminine phrasings in German, were noted by German speakers as effeminate, like “beautiful” and “elegant.”

The findings imply that speakers of each language have developed preconceived notions of something being feminine or masculine, not due to the objects” characteristics or appearances but because of how they are categorized in their native language.

It is important to remember that the Theory of Linguistic Relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) also successfully achieves openness. The theory is shown as a window where we view the cognitive process, not as an absolute.

It is set forth to look at a phenomenon differently than one usually would. Furthermore, the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is very simple and logically sound. Understandably, one’s atmosphere and culture will affect decoding.

Likewise, in studies done by the authors of the theory, many Native American tribes do not have a word for particular things because they do not exist in their lives. The logical simplism of this idea of relativism provides parsimony.

Truly, the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis makes sense. It can be utilized in describing great numerous misunderstandings in everyday life. When a Pennsylvanian says “yuns,” it does not make any sense to a Californian, but when examined, it is just another word for “you all.”

The Linguistic Relativity Theory addresses this and suggests that it is all relative. This concept of relativity passes outside dialect boundaries and delves into the world of language – from different countries and, consequently, from mind to mind.

Is language reality honestly because of thought, or is it thought which occurs because of language? The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis very transparently presents a view of reality being expressed in language and thus forming in thought.

The principles rehashed in it show a reasonable and even simple idea of how one perceives the world, but the question is still arguable: thought then language or language then thought?

Modern Relevance

Regardless of its age, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, or the Linguistic Relativity Theory, has continued to force itself into linguistic conversations, even including pop culture.

The idea was just recently revisited in the movie “Arrival,” – a science fiction film that engagingly explores the ways in which an alien language can affect and alter human thinking.

And even if some of the most drastic claims of the theory have been debunked or argued against, the idea has continued its relevance, and that does say something about its importance.

Hypotheses, thoughts, and intellectual musings do not need to be totally accurate to remain in the public eye as long as they make us think and question the world – and the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis does precisely that.

The theory does not only make us question linguistic theory and our own language but also our very existence and how our perceptions might shape what exists in this world.

There are generalities that we can expect every person to encounter in their day-to-day life – in relationships, love, work, sadness, and so on. But thinking about the more granular disparities experienced by those in diverse circumstances, linguistic or otherwise, helps us realize that there is more to the story than ours.

And beautifully, at the same time, the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis reiterates the fact that we are more alike than we are different, regardless of the language we speak.

Isn’t it just amazing that linguistic diversity just reveals to us how ingenious and flexible the human mind is – human minds have invented not one cognitive universe but, indeed, seven thousand!

Kay, P., & Kempton, W. (1984). What is the Sapir‐Whorf hypothesis?. American anthropologist, 86(1), 65-79.

Whorf, B. L. (1952). Language, mind, and reality. ETC: A review of general semantics, 167-188.

Whorf, B. L. (1997). The relation of habitual thought and behavior to language. In Sociolinguistics (pp. 443-463). Palgrave, London.

Whorf, B. L. (2012). Language, thought, and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. MIT press.

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis Linguistic Theory

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The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is the  linguistic theory that the semantic structure of a language shapes or limits the ways in which a speaker forms conceptions of the world. It came about in 1929. The theory is named after the American anthropological linguist Edward Sapir (1884–1939) and his student Benjamin Whorf (1897–1941). It is also known as the   theory of linguistic relativity, linguistic relativism, linguistic determinism, Whorfian hypothesis , and Whorfianism .

History of the Theory

The idea that a person's native language determines how he or she thinks was popular among behaviorists of the 1930s and on until cognitive psychology theories came about, beginning in the 1950s and increasing in influence in the 1960s. (Behaviorism taught that behavior is a result of external conditioning and doesn't take feelings, emotions, and thoughts into account as affecting behavior. Cognitive psychology studies mental processes such as creative thinking, problem-solving, and attention.)

Author Lera Boroditsky gave some background on ideas about the connections between languages and thought:

"The question of whether languages shape the way we think goes back centuries; Charlemagne proclaimed that 'to have a second language is to have a second soul.' But the idea went out of favor with scientists when  Noam Chomsky 's theories of language gained popularity in the 1960s and '70s. Dr. Chomsky proposed that there is a  universal grammar  for all human languages—essentially, that languages don't really differ from one another in significant ways...." ("Lost in Translation." "The Wall Street Journal," July 30, 2010)

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis was taught in courses through the early 1970s and had become widely accepted as truth, but then it fell out of favor. By the 1990s, the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis was left for dead, author Steven Pinker wrote. "The cognitive revolution in psychology, which made the study of pure thought possible, and a number of studies showing meager effects of language on concepts, appeared to kill the concept in the 1990s... But recently it has been resurrected, and 'neo-Whorfianism' is now an active research topic in  psycholinguistics ." ("The Stuff of Thought. "Viking, 2007)

Neo-Whorfianism is essentially a weaker version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and says that language  influences  a speaker's view of the world but does not inescapably determine it.

The Theory's Flaws

One big problem with the original Sapir-Whorf hypothesis stems from the idea that if a person's language has no word for a particular concept, then that person would not be able to understand that concept, which is untrue. Language doesn't necessarily control humans' ability to reason or have an emotional response to something or some idea. For example, take the German word  sturmfrei , which essentially is the feeling when you have the whole house to yourself because your parents or roommates are away. Just because English doesn't have a single word for the idea doesn't mean that Americans can't understand the concept.

There's also the "chicken and egg" problem with the theory. "Languages, of course, are human creations, tools we invent and hone to suit our needs," Boroditsky continued. "Simply showing that speakers of different languages think differently doesn't tell us whether it's language that shapes thought or the other way around."

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LINGUISTIC DETERMINISM

a hypothesis first proposed by the U.S. linguists Edward Sapir (1884 - 1939) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897 - 1941) which implies the semantic structure (its makeup) of a particular language will determine the structural categorization of the speakers of that language.

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Linguistic Determinism: 10 Examples, Definition, Criticism

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Linguistic determinism posits that language determines the way a person sees the world.

The structure of a specific language and the customary practices in its use affect how the world is categorized, shapes memory, and affects perception.

According to linguistic determinism, because an individual’s native language affects their thought processes and worldview, then people will have different perspectives based on their native language.

As the famous linguist Benjamin lee Whorf (1956) stated, “We dissect nature along lines laid out by our native language” (p. 213).

Origins of Linguistic Determinism

Early notions that language shapes an individual’s thought processes and worldview can be traced to the writings of Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-1835).

An edited version of one his writings appeared in the introduction of the book “The Heterogeneity of Language and its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind .”

The essay has been credited with laying the foundation for linguistic determinism and a later, milder version of this philosophical orientation known as linguistic relativity .

Today, the strong version of linguistic determinism is less popular among scholars.

It has been supplanted by the milder linguistic relativity, often referred to as the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis , and credited to Edward Sapir and Whorf.

Unfortunately, this is an inaccurate term because the two scholars never co-authored a statement regarding the distinction between linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity.

Linguistic Determinism vs Linguistic Relativity

The fundamental difference between linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity is that determinism more rigidly holds to the belief that language shapes thought; while relativity accepts more levels of human agency .

Determinism is the strong version of the notion that language affects meaning and perception, hence the root of the term “determine.”

An individual’s understanding of the world is trapped in the perspective that the language enforces.

However, linguistic relativity is more flexible. Proponents prefer to use words such as “shapes” and “influences” instead of “determines.” This flexibility acknowledges that other factors can shape meaning and that language is not the sole factor.

Relativists often point to cultural factors that shape meaning as evidence that a more flexible version of linguistic determinism is appropriate.

As quoted in Brumer (1961), Sapir wrote:

“Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society…The fact of the matter is that the ‘real world’ is to a large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group. . .  We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation.”  (p. 57).

Linguistic Determinism Examples

• Spanish Gender Pronouns: The Spanish language has a different word for whether referring to a group (they), depending on if they are men or women: “ellos” or “ellas,” respectively.
• In Color Labelling: Some languages do not make a distinction between specific shades of a particular color.
• 50 Words for Snow: The word “ aqilokoq” means “softly falling snow,” while “piegnartoq” refers to “snow good for driving sled.” 
• Language Shapes Expressiveness: Some people that are normally quite reserved and calm might notice that they become much more expressive when speaking Spanish.
• Cornish words for “hill”: While the word “hill” in English refers to a rounded natural elevation of land lower than a mountain, the Cornish language has at least 8 words for different types and features of hills. “ Mulvra” refers to a round-topped hill and “ godolgh” is a very small hill.
• “Think” and “Know” : The metacognitive distinction between “thinking” and “knowing” does not exist in very young children until their cognitive-linguistic development has reached a certain milestone.   
• Grading Foreign Essays: A native English-speaking professor might have trouble understanding an academic paper written by Asian students because logic in the English language progresses in a linear fashion, whereas many Asian students present arguments that seem circular.
• Missing the Bus: The Hopi language spoken by native American Indians does not conceptualize “time” as being divided into measurable units, which makes adhering to rigid schedules so prominent in English-speaking cultures difficult to understand.
• In International Business Negotiations: Having two completely different worldviews that have been shaped by deeply ingrained linguistic parameters can make international partnerships extremely difficult.   
• Newspeak: George Orwell’s 1984 described how the totalitarian government restricted linguistic use to make it nearly impossible to even think about rebelling and forcing citizens to adopt its political ideology.

Supporting Evidence

1. color perception.

Physiologically speaking, color stimuli impact the rods and cones in the retina the same in all human beings.

The boundaries between one color and another exist on a continuum that are so seamless that they can be imperceptible. Those boundaries are only defined linguistically, not physically or physiologically.

As Hussein (2020) argues

“Undoubtedly the human eye perceives the colors of the world around it according to the same physiological mechanism regardless of the differences of our languages, races and cultures…we differ linguistically only in the naming context within which we use various lexical names to call various color degrees” (Hussein, 2020, p. 17).

2. Language and Cognitive Development

There are numerous examples in developmental psychology that support a strong version of linguistic determinism.

These examples come directly from research examining children of different ages and how their understanding of the world is dependent on reaching a certain cognitive developmental milestone.

For example, Moore et al. (1995) found that children aged three years old were unable to distinguish between the concepts of “want” and “need,” whereas four- and five-year-olds were more likely to understand the difference.

This illustrates how linguistic capability, bound by cognitive development , limits understanding.

3. The Pirahã Language

Everett and Madora (2012) studied a South American Amazonian tribe that spoke the Pirahã language.

Various members of the tribe were presented with number-matching tasks. The results revealed that members of the tribe were incapable of distinguishing between numbers larger than three.

The researchers concluded that it was the limited vocabulary of the language that prevented them from understanding the numerical concepts.

“The most plausible motivation for this difficulty is, we believe, that they do not have access to the crucial ‘‘conceptual tool’’ of number terminology” (p. 140).

Criticisms of Linguistic Determinism

1. thinking without language.

Wynn (1992) demonstrated that human infants were capable of performing mental calculations without the benefits of language.

Infants were presented with different scenes involving a doll (Mickey Mouse). The scene displayed to the infants changed. For some infants, the scenes changed in a numerically logical sequence. That is, seeing one doll, then witnessing another being added, should equal two dolls revealed in the final scene.

For other infants, the scenes changed in a numerically illogical sequence. That is, seeing one doll, then witnessing another being added, but the final scene displaying only one doll.

The results revealed that infants “looked longer at the incorrect outcome” (p. 749).

This means that infants can perform “numerical relationships between small numbers, and can manipulate these concepts in numerically meaningful ways” (p. 150).

In regards to ramifications for linguistic determinism, the results indicate that infants can perform mental calculations long before they possess the linguistic terminology needed for mathematical operations of addition and subtraction.

2. The Pirahã Language II

It is often the case that the findings of a particular published paper can support competing theories. This is the case with studies involving the Amazonian tribe mentioned above.

Laurence and Margolis (2007) report on the findings of previous research by Gordon (2004) in which the researcher attempted to teach members of the tribe words for counting above three using Portuguese. Apparently, those attempts failed.

There has since been considerable debate regarding the efficacy of the training, motivation of the tribe, or genetic abnormalities.

However, as Laurence and Margolis point out, linguistic determinism would assert that:

“teaching them number words in conjunction with the cultural practice of counting ought to give them just what they need to acquire concepts of natural numbers…linguistic determinism should predict the Pirahã would overcome their alleged difficulties with precise numbers as they are exposed to the Portuguese counting system” (p. 165).

3. Mentalese

Mentalese is a hypothetical mental system that is similar to language, but precedes its occurrence during cognitive processes.

All human beings utilize mentalize when thinking, but knowledge of a particular language allows for those thoughts to be communicated with others.

In this sense, mentalese supersedes the vehicle of communication called language.

The most recent proponent of mentalese being the driver of language rather than the other way around is Pinker (1994).

“The idea that thought is the same thing as language is an example of what can be called a conventional absurdity: a statement that goes against all common sense but that everyone believes because they dimly recall having heard it somewhere and because it is so pregnant with implications” (p. 57).

To make the point, Pinker uses the example of how new words are coined. If thought was dependent on language, then the emergence of new words could not occur.

Applications of Linguistic Determinism

The debate regarding the merits of linguistic determinism in its strongest form can be divisive, forcing scholars to choose between dichotomies that can and have been debated for decades.

Despite this ongoing debate, there are many practical applications of linguistic determinism.

1. In Cross-Cultural Relations

Understanding the impact of language in the shaping of worldviews is important when traveling, working internationally, and geopolitics.

When visiting a foreign country, one will undoubtedly encounter strange customs and beliefs. Encountering these situations can easily lead to a traveler feeling offended, or likewise, the local citizenry feeling offended by the words or deeds of tourists.

The same applies when working as an expat in a foreign land or in the realm of geopolitics, in which the stakes are potentially much more consequential.

Therefore, being aware of how language shapes perceptions and worldviews can help a person avoid unintentional misunderstandings and avoid conflict of all degrees.

2. In Academics

Whether it be in reading an academic paper, grading, or writing for a particular audience, it is important to account for the different thinking patterns that exist across languages (Kaplan, 1966).

Native English-speaking individuals think linearly. Presentation of arguments to support or rebut a point of view occur in a direct fashion.

However, in other language contexts, such as in some Asian cultures, thinking patterns revolve around a central idea, not from points that directly intersect the central tenets. Kaplan presents a graphical representation of these thinking patterns, reproduced below.

By understanding the pattern of thought that is represented by a language, it is easier to interpret and cope with the rationale of others.

There are two perspectives on how language affects thinking and perception of the world . The strong version is linguistic determinism, which posits that language is the defining framework from which perception emanates.

The milder version is linguistic relativity, which posits that language is more of a lens that shapes perception of the world. This version allows for some flexibility, acknowledges the role of culture, and accepts the malleability of language.

Research that supports either view can be found in the literature.

A balanced perspective in the debate would lead to a practical approach which allows one to apply the notions of both to various situations when interacting with others from different language backgrounds.

Bruner, E. M. (1961 ). Language, culture and personality. Essays in memory of Edward Sapir . Leslie Spier, A. Irving Hallowell, and Stanley S. Newman, (Eds.). Sapir Memorial Publication Fund; reissued by the University of Utah Press, Salt Lake City.

Bower, B. (2005). The Pirahá Challenge: An Amazonian tribe takes grammar to a strange place. Science News , 168 (24), 376-377.

De Cruz, H. (2009). Is linguistic determinism an empirically testable hypothesis? Logique et Analyse , 52 (208), 327-341.

De Villiers, J. G., & De Villiers, P. A. (2000). Linguistic determinism and the understanding of false. Children’s reasoning and the mind , 191 .

Everett, C., & Madora, K. (2012). Quantity recognition among speakers of an anumeric language. Cognitive Science , 36 (1), 130-141.

Fleming, J. V. (1972). [Review of The Meaning of Courtly Love , by F. X. Newman]. Comparative Literature Studies , 9 (1), 93–95. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40245965

Gordon, P. (2004). Numerical cognition without words: Evidence from Amazonia. Science , 306 (5695), 496-499.

Hussein, K. (2020). The rise and fall of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.16307.37928

Kaplan, R. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education. Language Learning , 16 (1-2), 11- 25.

Laurence, S., & Margolis, E. (2007). Linguistic determinism and the innate basis of number. In P. Carruthers et al. (Eds.), The Innate Mind, vol. 3: Foundations and the Future (Oxford University Press), pp. 139-169.

Lyons, J. (2009). Language and Linguistics: An Introduction . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.  

Moore, C., Gilbert, C., & Sapp, F. (1995). Children’s comprehension of the distinction between want and need. Journal of Child Language, 22 (3), 687-701. https://doi.org/10.1017/S030500090001000X

Pinker, S. (1994). The Language instinct. New York: William Morrow and Company.

Pinker, S. (2010). Language instinct: How the mind creates language . London: Penguin Books.

Robson, D. (2013, January 14). There really are 50 Eskimo words for “snow.” The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/there-really-are-50-eskimo-words-for-snow/2013/01/14/e0e3f4e0-59a0-11e2-beee-6e38f5215402_story.html

Whorf, B. (1956). Language, thought and reality: Selected writings of Benjamin Lee Whorf. (J. Carroll, Ed.). Cambridge, Ma.: MIT Press. Wynn, K. (1992). Addition and subtraction by human infants. Nature , 358 (6389), 749–750.

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Understanding the Concept of Linguistic Determinism in Psychology

Have you ever wondered how the language we speak influences our thoughts and behaviors? In the field of psychology, this fascinating phenomenon is known as Linguistic Determinism. From its origins to key theories like the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, we will explore the impact of language on perception and cultural values.

Join us as we dive into examples of Linguistic Determinism in everyday life, criticisms, and its relation to other psychological theories. Discover how language shapes our minds and interactions with the world around us.

• Linguistic determinism suggests that language plays a crucial role in shaping our thoughts and behaviors.
• The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis and strong/weak linguistic determinism are key theories that explain the influence of language on perception and cultural values.
• Understanding linguistic determinism has practical applications in areas like language learning, teaching, and promoting cultural competence.
• 1 What is Linguistic Determinism?
• 2 Origins of Linguistic Determinism
• 3.1 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
• 3.2 Strong and Weak Linguistic Determinism
• 4.1 Influence of Language on Perception
• 4.2 Impact of Language on Cultural Values
• 5 Criticism of Linguistic Determinism
• 6.1 Behaviorism
• 6.2 Cognitive Psychology
• 7.1 Language Learning and Teaching
• 7.2 Cultural Competence and Diversity
• 8 Conclusion: The Role of Language in Shaping Our Thoughts and Behaviors
• 9.1 What is Linguistic Determinism in Psychology?
• 9.2 How does Linguistic Determinism affect our perception?
• 9.3 Is Linguistic Determinism supported by scientific evidence?
• 9.4 Can a person’s language limit their thinking abilities?
• 9.5 What are the implications of Linguistic Determinism in a multicultural society?
• 9.6 Can a person’s thoughts and behaviors change if they learn a new language?

What is Linguistic Determinism?

Linguistic determinism is a theory that suggests language has the power to influence how individuals perceive the world, shape their behavior, and structure their thoughts based on their vocabulary and linguistic structure.

This theory posits that the language we use not only serves as a means of communication but also serves as a filter through which we experience reality. The vocabulary we possess, the way our language is structured, and the nuances of expression all play a significant role in shaping our cognitive processes and influencing our behaviors.

For example, the presence or absence of certain words in a language can affect how easily concepts are understood or expressed. Words are not just placeholders for objects or ideas but carry layers of cultural, social, and historical meanings.

Origins of Linguistic Determinism

The origins of linguistic determinism can be traced back to the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis , developed by linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, which posited that language shapes thought and culture.

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf were instrumental in shaping the field of linguistic determinism, with their groundbreaking research shedding light on the intricate relationship between language, cognition, and societal norms.

Sapir, a renowned linguist, emphasized the importance of language in constructing reality for individuals and societies, while Whorf, a student of Sapir, further expanded upon this notion by diving into how language influences perception and behavior.

Their collective work challenged traditional views on language and influenced a generation of scholars in the study of linguistic relativity.

Key Theories of Linguistic Determinism

Key theories of linguistic determinism delve into the impact of language on perception, behavior, and the expression of reality, offering insights into how linguistic structures shape human understanding and societal norms.

Linguistic determinism asserts that the language one speaks greatly influences their cognition and worldview. The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, a core theory in this field, delineates between strong and weak versions of linguistic relativity, suggesting various degrees of language determinism. While the strong version posits that language entirely determines thought, the weak version implies that language influences and shapes thought to some extent. This distinction is crucial in understanding the power language holds over the human mind and societal constructs.

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, also known as linguistic relativity, posits that language influences thought, culture, and worldview through its vocabulary and linguistic structure.

One of the key aspects of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis is the idea that the language we speak shapes not only how we communicate, but also how we perceive and understand the world around us. Language serves as a framework through which individuals interpret, categorize, and interact with their environment.

Linguistic relativity suggests that the structure and vocabulary of a language can significantly impact cognitive processes, such as memory, reasoning, and perception. This implies that different languages may lead speakers to perceive and interpret the same events or concepts in distinct ways.

Strong and Weak Linguistic Determinism

The debate between strong and weak linguistic determinism centers on the extent to which language influences perception, behavior, and cognition, with proponents of each viewpoint offering nuanced perspectives on the power of language.

Those who adhere to strong linguistic determinism argue that language not only shapes but also determines our thoughts and worldview. According to this view, the structure and vocabulary of a language dictate how individuals perceive and interpret the world around them.

In contrast, proponents of weak linguistic determinism posit that while language does play a role in influencing cognition and behavior, it does not entirely constrain or control thought processes. They believe that language acts as a tool for expression and communication, rather than being a limiting factor on cognition.

Examples of Linguistic Determinism in Everyday Life

Examples of linguistic determinism in everyday life showcase how language influences perception, behavior, and the expression of reality, highlighting the ways in which linguistic structures shape human interactions and societal norms.

For instance, studies have revealed how the Eskimos, also known as the Inuit people, have numerous words to describe different types of snow, such as ‘aqilokoq’ for soft snow and ‘pukak’ for crystalline snow. This rich vocabulary allows them to capture the nuances of snow quality, enhancing their perception and understanding of their environment. Similarly, the presence of gender-specific pronouns in languages like Spanish or French can influence societal views on gender roles and reinforce gender stereotypes.

Influence of Language on Perception

Language exerts a profound influence on perception, as evidenced by studies on color perception, temporal categorization, and cognitive frameworks shaped by linguistic structures.

Research has shown that individuals from different language backgrounds perceive colors differently, with some languages having more primary color terms than others, impacting how individuals categorize and interpret colors.

Studies on temporal categorization reveal how language influences how people perceive time, with languages varying in their past, present, and future tenses, affecting how speakers mentally organize time.

Cognitive categorization studies suggest that the linguistic frameworks people are exposed to can shape their cognitive processes and categorization patterns, demonstrating the intricate relationship between language, perception, and cognition.

Impact of Language on Cultural Values

Language plays a pivotal role in shaping cultural values by influencing emotional expressions, social norms, and gender identities within diverse societies, showcasing the intricate relationship between language and cultural constructs.

Emotional expressions heavily rely on the vocabulary and linguistic structures available in a particular language, thereby influencing how individuals perceive and communicate their feelings. Social norms, such as politeness conventions or forms of address, are deeply embedded in the linguistic fabric of a society, dictating appropriate behaviors and interactions. Additionally, gender identities are often reinforced through language, with specific terms and linguistic nuances contributing to the construction of masculine and feminine roles in different cultures.

Criticism of Linguistic Determinism

Criticism of linguistic determinism arises from psychological perspectives that question the theory’s implications on concepts of individual agency, mental health, and cognitive processes.

Many psychologists argue that while language can influence thought processes to some extent, it does not entirely predetermine an individual’s cognitive abilities or mental well-being. They highlight the complexity and diversity of human experiences, suggesting that language is just one among many factors shaping our understanding of the world. Moreover, studies have shown that individuals can still exhibit agency and make decisions that defy linguistic constraints, challenging the deterministic stance on language’s influence on cognition.

Relation to Other Psychological Theories

The relationship between linguistic determinism and other psychological theories, such as cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics, forms a crucial academic discourse that examines how language influences cognitive processes and behavioral patterns.

Linguistic determinism, a concept in psycholinguistics, proposes that language shapes and determines thought processes, perception, and behavior. This hypothesis suggests that the structure and vocabulary of a person’s native language can significantly impact their worldview and cognition.

Within cognitive psychology, researchers explore how language, as a tool for communication and thought organization, influences memory, problem-solving, and decision-making. Studies in this field delve into the intricate relationship between language acquisition, linguistic categories, and cognitive development.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism and linguistic determinism share a complex relationship centered on the influence of language on behavior, with behaviorist principles intersecting with linguistic theories to understand the cognitive underpinnings of human actions.

Language serves as a pivotal tool in shaping perception and cognition, reflecting the core tenets of linguistic determinism that suggest language molds thought patterns. Behaviorism, on the other hand, emphasizes observable behaviors tied to environmental stimuli, offering insights into how language structures influence behavior.

The interaction between language and behavior has far-reaching implications, impacting social interactions, learning processes, and individual worldviews. Language not only conveys information but also constructs the framework for categorizing experiences and shaping mental representations.

This dynamic interplay between language and behavior underscores the intricate web of connections between verbal communication and behavioral responses, elucidating the complexities of human cognition and social interactions.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology and linguistic determinism interconnect in exploring the intricate relationship between language, cognition, behavior , and understanding, highlighting the cognitive processes influenced by linguistic structures.

Language, being a fundamental aspect of human experience, shapes not only how individuals communicate but also how they think and perceive the world around them. The concept of linguistic determinism posits that language not only reflects but also determines the way individuals conceptualize and categorize their experiences.

This idea suggests that the structure and vocabulary available in a language influence the cognitive processes and perceptual frameworks of its speakers. For instance, different languages may have unique ways of expressing concepts or nuances that can impact how individuals understand and interact with the world.

Applications of Linguistic Determinism

Applications of linguistic determinism extend to language learning and teaching practices, fostering cultural competence and diversity by acknowledging the role of language in shaping individual perspectives and societal interactions.

Linguistic determinism in language education serves as a cornerstone for effective communication and understanding across various cultures. By recognizing how language shapes thought processes and influences communication styles, educators can tailor teaching methodologies to accommodate diverse learners. Incorporating cultural competency approaches in language teaching enables students to develop a deeper appreciation for linguistic nuances and societal norms. Through exposure to different languages and cultures, individuals can broaden their perspectives and enhance their ability to engage with the world around them.

Language Learning and Teaching

Language learning and teaching practices are deeply intertwined with linguistic determinism , as educators explore concepts of language structure, understanding, and cognitive processes in pedagogical contexts.

This interplay between language and cognition is crucial in shaping how individuals acquire and utilize their linguistic skills. The theory of linguistic determinism asserts that language not only influences, but also determines thought and perception. When applied in language learning and teaching, this concept underscores the significance of understanding how language structures shape the way individuals think and interpret the world around them.

By recognizing the impact of linguistic determinism, educators can tailor their instructional strategies to foster more effective language acquisition and communication. This approach involves creating learning environments that facilitate comprehension and cognitive development through linguistic engagements such as storytelling, dialogue, and language games.

Cultural Competence and Diversity

Cultural competence and diversity initiatives leverage linguistic determinism to foster inclusive societies that respect diverse expressions of reality, emphasizing the importance of language in shaping societal interactions.

Language plays a crucial role in defining how individuals perceive the world around them, influencing their beliefs, values, and behaviors. The concept of linguistic determinism posits that the language we use shapes our thoughts and worldview, ultimately impacting our interactions within society.

By understanding the role of linguistic determinism, individuals can develop a deeper appreciation for the diversity of cultural expressions and norms. This awareness facilitates improved cross-cultural communication, enabling people from different backgrounds to engage in meaningful dialogue and collaboration.

Embracing linguistic diversity promotes empathy, tolerance, and mutual respect within communities, fostering a more inclusive and harmonious social fabric.

Conclusion: The Role of Language in Shaping Our Thoughts and Behaviors

Language serves as a powerful tool that shapes our thoughts, behaviors, and perception of reality, with linguistic determinism offering valuable insights into the intricate relationship between language and human cognition.

Through the lens of linguistic determinism, we come to understand how the language we use not only reflects but also molds our reality. It suggests that the structure and vocabulary of our language directly influence our thoughts and perceptions, ultimately shaping the way we experience the world around us.

This theory implies that individuals from different linguistic backgrounds may perceive and interpret experiences in unique ways, highlighting the profound impact of language on shaping individual realities. As a result, language is not merely a means of communication but a fundamental force that constructs the very fabric of our cognitive processes and behavioral tendencies.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is linguistic determinism in psychology.

Linguistic Determinism is a theory in psychology that suggests that the language we speak influences the way we think and perceive the world around us. It proposes that our native language shapes our thoughts, behaviors, and even our cultural values and beliefs.

How does Linguistic Determinism affect our perception?

According to Linguistic Determinism, our language determines the categories and concepts that we use to understand and interpret the world. This means that speakers of different languages may have different ways of perceiving and conceptualizing the same events or objects.

Is Linguistic Determinism supported by scientific evidence?

There is ongoing debate and research on the validity of Linguistic Determinism in psychology. While some studies have provided support for the theory, others have found little to no evidence to support the claim that language determines our thoughts and behaviors.

Can a person’s language limit their thinking abilities?

Linguistic Determinism proposes that a person’s language can restrict their cognitive abilities and limit their understanding of the world. This means that individuals who speak different languages may have varying levels of cognitive abilities based on the complexity and structure of their language.

What are the implications of Linguistic Determinism in a multicultural society?

In a multicultural society, where individuals speak different languages, Linguistic Determinism highlights the importance of understanding and valuing different cultural perspectives. It also emphasizes the need for effective communication and the potential for misunderstandings due to language differences.

Can a person’s thoughts and behaviors change if they learn a new language?

Linguistic Determinism suggests that learning a new language can significantly impact a person’s thoughts and behaviors. This is because acquiring a new language means acquiring a new way of perceiving and understanding the world, which can lead to changes in behavior and thought patterns.

Nicholas Reed is a theoretical psychologist who explores the philosophical underpinnings of psychological theories and practices. His writings examine the assumptions, values, and questions at the heart of psychology, encouraging a deeper understanding of the discipline’s broader implications for knowledge and society. Nicholas’s articles are for those intrigued by the conceptual and existential dimensions of psychology.

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From our first moments on earth, humans began constructing a worldview. Our native language has been our intimate partner from the beginning of this journey. Each language has a unique way of coding and categorizing events, locations, objects — everything! So, it would make sense that language would affect how we perceive the world. But the question is: how much does it impact us?

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Why is linguistic determinism also called the Sapir-Whorf theory?

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What is linguistic determinism?

Which of the following is the least synonymous with linguistic determinism?

True or false:  Proponents of linguistic determinism would argue that language controls how humans think, and therefore how entire cultures are structured. 

True or false: linguistic determinism is still highly regarded and considered the best explanation for how language affects the brain.

What is the difference between linguistic relativity and linguistic determinism?

Which theory argues that language determines  the way humans think?

Select any of the following reasons to explain why linguistic determinism has been largely abandoned.

Which of the following statements is a tenet of linguistic determinism?

True or false: Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf believed languaged was largely responsible for shaping our world view.

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The theory of linguistic determinism believes that language determines how we think. That’s a significant impact! Other theories, like linguistic relativism, agree that language impacts our thinking, but to a lesser extent. There is a lot to unpack about linguistic determinism and how language interacts with human thought.

Linguistic Determinism: Theory

A linguist named Benjamin Lee Whorf formally introduced the basic theory of linguistic determinism in the 1930s.

Linguistic determinism: the theory that differences in languages and their structures determine how people think and interact with the world around them.

Anyone who knows how to speak more than one language can personally attest to the fact that the language you speak will influence how you think. A simple example is an English speaker learning Spanish; they must learn how to consider objects as either feminine or masculine because Spanish is a gendered language.

Spanish speakers don’t have every word combination in the language memorized. They must consider whether something is feminine or masculine and speak about it accordingly. This process begins in the speaker’s mind.

Linguistic determinism theory goes beyond recognizing the connection between language and thought, though. Proponents of linguistic determinism would argue that language controls how humans think and therefore how entire cultures are structured.

If a language lacked any terms or ways of communicating about time, for example, the culture of that language might not have a way to understand or represent time. Benjamin Whorf argued this exact notion. After studying various indigenous languages, Whorf concluded that language indeed directly influences how cultures understand reality.

These findings confirmed the theory of linguistic determinism initially posited by Whorf’s teacher, Edward Sapir.

Linguistic Determinism: The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

Because of their work together, linguistic determinism is called the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. Edward Sapir was a major contributor to modern linguistics in the United States, and he devoted much of his attention to the crossover between anthropology and linguistics. Sapir studied how language and culture interact with one another and believed that language could actually be responsible for the development of culture.

His student Benjamin Whorf picked up this line of reasoning. In the early twentieth century, Whorf studied various North-American indigenous languages and found striking differences between those languages and many standard average European languages, particularly the way they reflected on and represented reality.

After studying the language, Whorf came to believe that Hopi had no word for the concept of time. Not only that, but he detected no tenses to represent the passage of time. If there is no way to linguistically communicate about time, Whorf assumed the speakers of Hopi must not interact with time in the same way as speakers of other languages. His findings would later come under heavy criticism, but this case study helped inform his belief that language not only impacts our thinking but controls it.

According to this Whorf's perspective about language, society is confined by language because language develops thought, not the reverse (which was the previous assumption).

Both Sapir and Whorf argued that language is largely responsible for creating our worldview and shapes how we experience the world, which was a novel concept.

Linguistic Determinism: Examples

Some examples of linguistic determinism include:

The Eskimo-Aleut language family includes multiple words for "snow," reflecting the importance of snow and ice in their environment. This has led to the idea that their language has shaped their perception and understanding of the physical world around them.

The Hopi language of Native Americans has no words for time or temporal concepts, leading to the idea that their culture and worldview does not prioritize linear time as Western cultures do.

The use of gendered pronouns in languages such as Spanish or French can influence how individuals perceive and assign gender roles in society.

The Japanese language has different words for addressing people based on their social status or relationship to the speaker, reinforcing the importance of social hierarchies in Japanese culture.

As you can see from above, there are many examples of how language influences the human brain. There are, however, varying degrees of just how central the role of language is. The following example is one of the more “extreme” cases of language influencing how people understand their existence.

There are two tenses in Turkish grammar, for example, definite past tense and reported past tense.

Definite past tense is used when the speaker has personal, usually firsthand, knowledge of an event.

Adds one of the suffixes dı/di/du/dü to the verb root

Reported past tense is used when the speaker only knows about something through indirect means.

Adds one of the suffixes mış/miş/muş/müş to the verb root

In Turkish, if one wished to explain that there was an earthquake last night, they would have to choose between two options for expressing it:

Saying it from the perspective of experiencing the earthquake (using dı/di/du/dü), or

Saying it from the perspective of waking up to find the aftermath of an earthquake (mış/miş/muş/müş)

Due to this distinction, Turkish speakers must adjust their use of language based on the nature of their involvement or knowledge of a past event. Language, in this case, influences their understanding of past events and how to communicate about them.

Linguistic Determinism Criticisms

The work of Sapir and Whorf has been largely criticized.

First, additional research by Ekkehart Malotki (1983-present) into the Hopi language has shown that many of Whorf’s assumptions were incorrect. Furthermore, other linguists have since argued in favor of a “universalist” view. This is the belief that there are universal truths present in all languages that allow them to adapt to express common human experiences.

For more information on a universalist perspective on language, see Eleanor Rosch's research in The nature of mental codes for color categories (1975).

Research examining the role of language in human thought processes and behavior has been mixed. Generally speaking, it’s agreed that language is one of many factors to influence thought and behavior. There are many instances where the structure of a particular language requires speakers to think in light of how the language is formed (remember the gender example in Spanish).

Today, research points to a “weak” version of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis as a more likely way to explain the interplay between language and the human perception of reality.

Linguistic Determinism vs. Linguistic Relativity

The “weaker” version of linguistic determinism is known as linguistic relativity.

Linguistic relativity: the theory that languages influence how humans think and interact with the world.

Although the terms may be used interchangeably, the difference is that linguistic relativity argues that language influences — as opposed to determines — the way humans think. Again, there is a consensus in the psycholinguistic community that language is inextricably connected to each person's worldview.

Linguistic relativity explains that there is a degree to which languages might vary in their expression of a single concept or way of thinking. No matter what language you speak, you have to be mindful of the meaning that is grammatically marked in that language. We see this in the way the Navajo language uses verbs according to the shape of the object to which they’re attached. This means Navajo speakers are likely more aware of the shape of objects than speakers of other languages.

In this way, meaning and thought may be relative from language to language. Much more research is needed in this area to fully explain the relationship between thought and language. For now, linguistic relativity is accepted as the more reasonable approach to express this part of the human experience.

Linguistic Determinism - Key takeaways

• Linguistic determinism is the theory that differences in languages and their structures determine how people think and interact with the world around them.
• Linguists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf introduced the concept of linguistic determinism. Linguistic determinism is also called the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

An example of linguistic determinism is how the Turkish language has two different past tenses: one to express personal knowledge of an event and another to express a more passive knowledge.

• Linguistic relativity is the theory that languages influence how humans think and interact with the world.
• Linguistic relativity is the "weak" version of linguistic determinism and is preferred over the latter.

Flashcards in Linguistic Determinism 31

Because the two linguistics, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf together brought linguistic determinism to the consciousness of the linguistic world.

Edward Sapir.

Linguistic determinism is   the theory that differences in languages and their structures determine how people think and interact with the world around them.

Linguistic relativity.

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Frequently Asked Questions about Linguistic Determinism

Linguistic determinism is a theory that suggests that the language one speaks has a significant influence on the way one thinks and perceives the world. This theory posits that the structure and vocabulary of a language can shape and influence an individual's thought processes, beliefs, and cultural values. 

Who came up with linguistic determinism?

Linguistic determinism was first brought up by linguist Edward Sapir, and later taken up by his student Benjamin Whorf.

What is an example of linguistic determinism?

When was the linguistic determinism theory developed?

The linguistic determinism theory developed in the 1920s and 1930s as linguist Edward Sapir studied various indigenous languages.

What is linguistic relativity vs determinism?

Although the terms may be used interchangeably, the difference is that linguistic relativity argues that language influences—as opposed to determines—the way humans think. 

Test your knowledge with multiple choice flashcards

True or false: Proponents of linguistic determinism would argue that language controls how humans think, and therefore how entire cultures are structured. 

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linguistic determinism n.  

The theory propounded originally by the US fire prevention officer and linguist Benjamin Lee Whorf (1897–1943) that language ...

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