quantitative research studies in nursing

Nursing Research (NURS 3321/4325/5366)

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• Understand What Quantitative Research Is
• Understand What Qualitative Research Is
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What is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative methodology is the dominant research framework in the social sciences. it refers to a set of strategies, techniques and assumptions used to study psychological, social and economic processes through the exploration of numeric patterns . quantitative research gathers a range of numeric data. some of the numeric data is intrinsically quantitative (e.g. personal income), while in other cases the numeric structure is  imposed (e.g. ‘on a scale from 1 to 10, how depressed did you feel last week’). the collection of quantitative information allows researchers to conduct simple to extremely sophisticated statistical analyses that aggregate the data (e.g. averages, percentages), show relationships among the data (e.g. ‘students with lower grade point averages tend to score lower on a depression scale’) or compare across aggregated data (e.g. the usa has a higher gross domestic product than spain). quantitative research includes methodologies such as questionnaires, structured observations or experiments and stands in contrast to qualitative research. qualitative research involves the collection and analysis of narratives and/or open-ended observations through methodologies such as interviews, focus groups or ethnographies..

Coghlan, D., Brydon-Miller, M. (2014).  The SAGE encyclopedia of action research  (Vols. 1-2). London, : SAGE Publications Ltd doi: 10.4135/9781446294406

What is the purpose of quantitative research?

The purpose of quantitative research is to generate knowledge and create understanding about the social world. Quantitative research is used by social scientists, including communication researchers, to observe phenomena or occurrences affecting individuals. Social scientists are concerned with the study of people. Quantitative research is a way to learn about a particular group of people, known as a sample population. Using scientific inquiry, quantitative research relies on data that are observed or measured to examine questions about the sample population.

Allen, M. (2017).  The SAGE encyclopedia of communication research methods  (Vols. 1-4). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc doi: 10.4135/9781483381411

How do I know if the study is a quantitative design?  What type of quantitative study is it?

Quantitative Research Designs: Descriptive non-experimental, Quasi-experimental or Experimental?

Studies do not always explicitly state what kind of research design is being used.  You will need to know how to decipher which design type is used.  The following video will help you determine the quantitative design type.

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• Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

You can find evidence for clinical decision making in quantitative and qualitative research studies .  Quantitative research  refers to any research based on something that can be accurately and precisely measured and will include studies that have numerical data . Quantitative data are expressed numerically and analyzed statistically. The data are collected from experiments and tests, metrics, databases, and surveys. In healthcare research they  often  include studies of intervention effectiveness, satisfaction with care, the incidence, prevalence, and etiology of diseases, and the properties of measurement tools (Kolaski, 2023).

Findings in qualitative studies are not based on measurable statistics. Qualitative data are descriptive rather than numerical. Qualitative research derives data from observation, interviews, verbal interactions, or textual analyses and focuses on the meanings and interpretations of the participants. Qualitative research studies in healthcare investigate the impact of illnesses and interventions. The research explores experiences, attitudes, beliefs, and perspectives of patients, caregivers, and clinicians (Kolaski, 2023). The analysis of qualitative research is interpretative, subjective, and impressionistic.  

Kolaski, K., Logan, L. R., & Ioannidis, J. P. A. (2023). Guidance to best tools and practices for systematic reviews. Systematic Reviews , 12 (1), 96. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13643-023-02255-9

For more information on qualitative research:

Curtis, A. & Keeler, C. (2022). An introduction to qualitative methods for the nurse researcher.  American Journal of Nursing, 122  (8), 52-56. https://doi: 10.1097/01.NAJ.0000854992.17329.51.

Noyes, J., Booth, A., Cargo, M., Flemming, K., Harden, A., Harris, J., Garside, R., Hannes, K., Pantoja, T., & Thomas, J. (2023). Chapter 21: Qualitative evidence.  In Higgins, J.P.T., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M.J., Welch, V.A. (Eds.).  Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews of interventions version 6.4.  Cochrane.  www.training.cochrane.org/handbook

Video:  UniversityNow: Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research

Appraising Quantitative and Qualitative Research

The articles below provide a step-by-step appraisal on how to critique quantitative and qualitative research articles:

Ryan, F., Coughlan, M. & Cronin, P. (2007). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 1: quantitative research.  British Journal of Nursing, 16 (11), 658-663 .

Ryan, F., Coughlan, M. & Cronin, P. (2007). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 2: qualitative research.  British Journal of Nursing, 16 (2), 738-744 .

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Qualitative and Quantitative Research

In general, quantitative research seeks to understand the causal or correlational relationship between variables through testing hypotheses, whereas qualitative research seeks to understand a phenomenon within a real-world context through the use of interviews and observation. Both types of research are valid, and certain research topics are better suited to one approach or the other. However, it is important to understand the differences between qualitative and quantitative research so that you will be able to conduct an informed critique and analysis of any articles that you read, because you will understand the different advantages, disadvantages, and influencing factors for each approach. 

The table below illustrates the main differences between qualitative and quantitative research. Be aware that these are generalizations, and that not every research study or article will fit neatly into these categories. 

Systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and integrative reviews are not exactly designs, but they synthesize, analyze, and compare the results from many research studies and are somewhat quantitative in nature. However, they are not truly quantitative or qualitative studies.

References:

LoBiondo-Wood, G., & Haber, J. (2010). Nursing research: Methods and critical appraisal for evidence-based practice (7 th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier

Mertens, D. M. (2010). Research and evaluation in education and psychology (3 rd ed.). Los Angeles: SAGE

Quick Overview

This 2-minute video provides a simplified overview of the primary distinctions between quantitative and qualitative research.

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Understanding quantitative research: part 1, juanita hoe senior clinical research associate, research department of mental health sciences, university college london, london, zoë hoare clinical trials statistician, bangor university, bangor.

This article, which is the first in a two-part series, provides an introduction to understanding quantitative research, basic statistics and terminology used in research articles. Critical appraisal of research articles is essential to ensure that nurses remain up to date with evidence-based practice to provide consistent and high-quality nursing care. This article focuses on developing critical appraisal skills and understanding the use and implications of different quantitative approaches to research. Part two of this article will focus on explaining common statistical terms and the presentation of statistical data in quantitative research.

Nursing Standard . 27, 17, 52-58. doi: 10.7748/ns.27.17.52.s65

All articles are subject to external double-blind peer review and checked for plagiarism using automated software.

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Evidence-based practice - quantitative research - statistics - study design

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200+ Quantitative Research Topics for Nursing Students [Updated 2023]

Quantitative research plays an important role in the field of nursing education. It empowers nursing students to develop critical thinking skills, fosters evidence-based practice, and paves the way for career growth in the nursing profession. However, the journey of a nursing student in selecting the right quantitative research topic can be daunting. In this blog, we’ll delve into the world of quantitative research topics for nursing students. 

We’ll discuss why these topics matter, offer tips on choosing them, and provide a comprehensive list of intriguing research ideas across various nursing subfields.

Benefits of Quantitative Research for Nursing Students

Table of Contents

Before we dive into the world of quantitative research topics for nursing students, let’s understand why quantitative research is so crucial for nursing students:

• Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills: Nursing students often find themselves in situations where they must assess, analyze, and make decisions that directly impact patient care. Engaging in quantitative research hone these critical thinking skills, enabling students to approach complex problems methodically.
• Contributing to Evidence-Based Nursing Practice: Evidence-based practice is the cornerstone of modern healthcare. Quantitative research empowers nursing students to explore and apply the latest evidence in their clinical practice, ensuring the best possible care for patients.
• Career Advancement: As nursing professionals progress in their careers, research experience becomes increasingly valuable. Nurses who can conduct and interpret quantitative research are more likely to secure leadership roles, contribute to policy development, and influence positive change in healthcare systems.

How to Choose Quantitative Research Topics

Selecting suitable quantitative research topics for nursing students is the first and often the most critical step in the research process. Here are some tips for nursing students on how to choose the right quantitative research topic:

Opt for a topic that aligns with your interests and career goals. Research is a long journey, and enthusiasm for your topic will sustain your motivation.

Feasibility

Consider the resources available to you. Assess the feasibility of data collection, analysis, and the overall research process. A well-planned study within your means is more likely to succeed.

Literature Review

Conduct a thorough literature review to identify gaps in existing research. Your topic should address an unanswered question or provide a fresh perspective on an existing issue.

Consult with Advisors

Seek guidance from your professors or mentors. They can help you refine your research question and provide valuable insights based on their experience.

200+ Quantitative Research Topics for Nursing Students

Now, let’s explore a range of quantitative research topics that nursing students can consider across different subfields:

Nursing Workforce and Patient Outcomes

• The Impact of Nurse-Patient Ratios on Patient Outcomes in Critical Care Units.
• Assessing the Relationship Between Nurse Staffing Levels and Falls Among Hospitalized Patients.
• The Effect of Nursing Workload on Medication Errors in Acute Care Settings.
• Investigating the Influence of Nurse Experience on Surgical Site Infections.
• Nurse Burnout and Its Consequences on Patient Safety and Satisfaction.
• Examining the Link Between Nurse-to-Patient Ratios and Pressure Ulcer Development.
• The Role of Nurse Education and Certification in Reducing Hospital Readmissions.
• Assessing the Impact of Nursing Leadership Styles on Patient Outcomes.
• Investigating the Association Between Nurse Retention Rates and Patient Mortality.
• The Effect of Multidisciplinary Team Collaboration on Patient Care in Oncology Units.
• Nurse-Patient Communication and Its Effect on Pain Management in Postoperative Patients.
• The Influence of Nurse Staffing on the Length of Hospital Stay for Surgical Patients.
• Examining the Relationship Between Nurse-Patient Ratios and Delirium in Elderly Patients.
• The Impact of Shift Length and Overtime on Nurse Performance and Patient Safety.
• Assessing the Effectiveness of Nurse-Managed Early Warning Systems in Identifying Deteriorating Patients.
• Investigating the Link Between Nurse Workforce Diversity and Cultural Competence in Patient Care.
• Nurse-to-Patient Ratios and the Incidence of Healthcare-Associated Infections in Long-Term Care Facilities.
• The Role of Nursing Workforce Development Programs in Enhancing Patient-Centered Care.
• Exploring the Effect of Nurse Staffing Levels on Patient Satisfaction and Hospital Ratings.
• Nurse Burnout and Its Influence on Discharge Planning and Patient Education.

Telehealth and Remote Monitoring

• The Effectiveness of Telehealth in Improving Access to Mental Health Services in Rural Areas.
• Assessing the Impact of Remote Monitoring on Medication Adherence Among Chronic Disease Patients.
• Telehealth for Pediatric Care: Examining Parental Satisfaction and Child Outcomes.
• Investigating the Use of Telehealth in Post-Operative Care and Its Effect on Recovery Rates.
• Telehealth and Diabetes Management: A Comparative Analysis of Telemedicine vs. Traditional Care.
• The Role of Telehealth in Preventive Care: Evaluating its Effectiveness in Promoting Healthier Lifestyles.
• Telehealth for Stroke Rehabilitation: A Study on Functional Outcomes and Cost Savings.
• Telemedicine in Mental Health Crisis Intervention: Assessing Crisis Resolution and Patient Satisfaction.
• Exploring the Use of Wearable Devices and Remote Monitoring in Monitoring Elderly Patients’ Health.
• Telehealth and Chronic Pain Management: A Comparative Study of Virtual vs. In-Person Consultations.
• The Impact of Telehealth on Reducing Hospital Readmissions Among Heart Failure Patients.
• Telehealth and Maternal Care: Investigating its Role in Prenatal Monitoring and Postpartum Support.
• Telemedicine in Emergency Medical Services: Evaluating its Effectiveness in Triage and Decision-Making.
• Telehealth and Home-Based Palliative Care: A Study on Patient Comfort and Quality of Life.
• Remote Monitoring of COVID-19 Patients: Assessing its Role in Early Detection of Complications.
• Telehealth for Geriatric Care: Analyzing its Impact on Aging-in-Place and Independence.
• Investigating the Cost-Effectiveness of Telehealth Interventions in Managing Obesity and Weight Loss.
• Telemedicine in Speech Therapy for Children with Speech Disorders: Evaluating Speech Outcomes.
• Telehealth for Dermatology Consultations: A Comparative Analysis of Diagnostic Accuracy.
• The Use of Telehealth in Mental Health Crisis Intervention for Veterans: Assessing PTSD Symptom Reduction.

Mental Health Nursing

• The Efficacy of Telehealth Interventions in Providing Mental Health Support to Remote or Underserved Populations.
• Assessing the Impact of Peer Support Programs on the Recovery of Individuals with Severe Mental Illness.
• Exploring the Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and the Development of Mental Health Disorders in Adulthood.
• The Role of Mindfulness-Based Interventions in Reducing Anxiety and Depression Among College Students.
• Investigating the Effectiveness of Art Therapy in Improving Emotional Regulation in Adolescents with Behavioral Disorders.
• Assessing the Impact of Music Therapy on Agitation Levels in Dementia Patients in Long-Term Care Facilities.
• The Influence of Nurse-Administered Cognitive Behavioral Therapy on Depression Remission Rates.
• Exploring the Use of Digital Mental Health Apps in Improving Treatment Adherence Among Individuals with Bipolar Disorder.
• Investigating the Association Between Sleep Patterns and Mental Health Outcomes in Adolescents.
• The Effect of Family Involvement in Therapy on the Outcomes of Schizophrenia Patients.
• Evaluating the Role of Mental Health Nurses in Suicide Prevention and Postvention Strategies.
• Assessing the Effectiveness of School-Based Mental Health Programs in Reducing Bullying and Its Impact on Mental Health.
• Exploring the Use of Animal-Assisted Therapy in Reducing Anxiety and Depression in Psychiatric Patients.
• Investigating the Relationship Between Social Media Use and Mental Health in Young Adults.
• The Impact of Cultural Competence Training on Mental Health Care Delivery for Diverse Populations.
• Assessing the Effect of Physical Activity and Exercise Programs on the Mental Health of Individuals with Schizophrenia.
• Exploring the Role of Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation in Mental Health Disparities and Access to Care.
• Investigating the Influence of Stigma on Help-Seeking Behavior Among Individuals with Mental Health Disorders.
• The Effectiveness of Psychoeducation Programs in Reducing Relapse Rates in Individuals with Bipolar Disorder.
• Assessing the Impact of Trauma-Informed Care in Mental Health Settings on Patient Outcomes and Staff Well-being.

Pediatric Nursing

• The Impact of Parental Involvement in Pediatric Pain Management.
• The Effectiveness of Child Life Specialists in Reducing Pediatric Anxiety During Medical Procedures.
• Assessing the Role of Pediatric Nurse Practitioners in Early Childhood Development Screening.
• Investigating the Relationship Between Pediatric Obesity and Long-Term Health Outcomes.
• Exploring the Use of Play Therapy in Pediatric Pain Management.
• The Impact of Pediatric Palliative Care on Quality of Life for Seriously Ill Children and Their Families.
• The Role of School Nurses in Promoting Mental Health Awareness Among School-Aged Children.
• Investigating the Efficacy of Pediatric Vaccination Education Programs in Increasing Immunization Rates.
• The Effect of Parenting Styles on Pediatric Asthma Management and Control.
• Assessing the Impact of Pediatric Sickle Cell Disease Management Programs on Disease Outcomes.
• Exploring the Influence of Family-Centered Care on Pediatric Hospitalization Experiences.
• The Relationship Between Childhood Trauma and Mental Health Outcomes in Adolescents.
• Investigating the Effectiveness of Pediatric Telehealth Services for Rural and Underserved Populations.
• The Impact of Pediatric Nursing Interventions on Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome in Infants Born to Substance-Using Mothers.
• Assessing the Efficacy of Pediatric Nutrition Education Programs in Reducing Childhood Obesity Rates.
• Exploring the Use of Technology and Apps for Pediatric Diabetes Management.
• The Role of Pediatric Nurses in Early Detection and Intervention for Developmental Delays.
• Investigating the Relationship Between Childhood Vaccination Rates and School Immunization Policies.
• The Effect of Child Abuse Prevention Programs on Reducing Child Maltreatment Incidents.
• Assessing the Impact of Pediatric Pain Assessment Tools on Pain Management Practices in Pediatric Settings.

Gerontological Nursing

• The Impact of Comprehensive Geriatric Assessment on Hospital Readmission Rates in Elderly Patients with Multiple Comorbidities.
• Evaluating the Effectiveness of Fall Prevention Interventions in Nursing Homes for Older Adults with Dementia.
• The Role of Family Caregivers in Managing Chronic Illnesses and Maintaining Quality of Life for Elderly Patients.
• Investigating the Relationship Between Social Isolation and Cognitive Decline in the Aging Population.
• Assessing the Effectiveness of Palliative Care Services in Improving End-of-Life Quality for Elderly Patients.
• The Influence of Nutrition and Diet on Functional Independence in Older Adults.
• Examining the Impact of Gerontological Nursing Education on the Competence and Confidence of Nursing Students in Caring for Older Adults.
• Exploring the Role of Exercise and Physical Activity in Preventing Falls and Fractures in Elderly Individuals.
• The Effect of Medication Management Programs on Medication Adherence and Health Outcomes in Older Adults.
• Investigating the Prevalence and Risk Factors of Elder Abuse in Long-Term Care Facilities.
• Assessing the Impact of Cognitive Training Programs on Delaying the Onset of Alzheimer’s Disease in Older Adults.
• Exploring the Relationship Between Sleep Quality and Cognitive Function in the Aging Population.
• The Role of Gerontological Nurses in Promoting Advance Care Planning and End-of-Life Decision-Making in Older Adults.
• Evaluating the Effectiveness of Home-Based Telehealth Services in Managing Chronic Conditions for Elderly Patients Living Alone.
• Investigating the Influence of Multimorbidity on Healthcare Utilization and Quality of Life in Older Adults.
• The Impact of Music Therapy on Emotional Well-Being and Quality of Life in Nursing Home Residents with Dementia.
• Assessing the Effectiveness of Interventions to Reduce Polypharmacy in Older Adults.
• Exploring the Role of Gerontological Nurses in Addressing Loneliness and Social Isolation in Older Adults.
• The Relationship Between Oral Health and Overall Health in the Aging Population: Implications for Nursing Care.
• Investigating the Use of Robotics and Assistive Technologies in Promoting Independence and Quality of Life for Older Adults.

Women’s Health Nursing

• The Impact of Midwife-Led Care on Maternal and Neonatal Outcomes.
• Assessing the Effectiveness of Prenatal Education Programs in Reducing Maternal Anxiety and Stress.
• Investigating the Relationship Between Maternal Nutrition and Birth Weight in Low-Income Communities.
• The Role of Postpartum Support in Preventing Postpartum Depression.
• Exploring the Barriers to Accessing Reproductive Health Services Among Underserved Women.
• Evaluating the Effectiveness of Intimate Partner Violence Screening and Intervention in Obstetric Care.
• The Association Between Breastfeeding Duration and Postpartum Weight Loss in Mothers.
• Assessing the Impact of Menopause Education Programs on Women’s Quality of Life.
• Investigating the Role of Nurse Practitioners in Providing Comprehensive Menopausal Care.
• The Effect of Body Image and Self-Esteem on Women’s Health Behaviors.
• Exploring Factors Influencing Women’s Decision-Making Regarding Contraceptive Methods.
• Evaluating the Efficacy of Sex Education Programs in Preventing Teenage Pregnancy.
• The Relationship Between Fertility Awareness-Based Methods and Contraceptive Efficacy.
• Assessing the Effect of Pelvic Floor Muscle Training in Managing Urinary Incontinence in Women.
• Investigating the Impact of Hormone Replacement Therapy on Cardiovascular Health in Postmenopausal Women.
• The Role of Preconception Health Promotion in Reducing Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes.
• Exploring the Use of Telehealth for Gynecological Consultations and Follow-Up.
• The Association Between Body Mass Index (BMI) and Infertility in Women.
• Assessing the Effectiveness of Nurse-Led Support Groups for Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOS).
• Investigating the Influence of Cultural and Socioeconomic Factors on Maternal Health Disparities in Minority Populations.

Community Health Nursing

• The Impact of Community Health Education Programs on Smoking Cessation Rates in High-Risk Populations.
• Evaluating the Effectiveness of School-Based Nutrition Interventions in Reducing Childhood Obesity.
• Assessing the Role of Community Health Nurses in Promoting Vaccination Compliance and Preventing Infectious Disease Outbreaks.
• Investigating the Relationship Between Access to Green Spaces and Mental Health in Urban Communities.
• The Effect of Community-Based Diabetes Management Programs on Glycemic Control and Health Outcomes.
• Exploring the Challenges and Strategies in Providing Culturally Competent Care in Diverse Community Settings.
• The Influence of Social Determinants of Health on Health Disparities in Underserved Communities.
• Assessing the Impact of Mobile Health (mHealth) Apps in Promoting Healthy Lifestyles in Rural Areas.
• Investigating the Role of Community Health Nurses in Disaster Preparedness and Response.
• The Effectiveness of Community Health Worker (CHW) Programs in Reducing Healthcare Costs and Hospital Readmissions.
• Exploring the Relationship Between Community Health Nursing Interventions and Reductions in Substance Abuse Rates.
• Evaluating the Impact of Maternal and Child Health Programs on Infant Mortality Rates in Low-Income Communities.
• Assessing the Effectiveness of Community-Based Mental Health Support Services in Preventing Hospitalizations.
• Investigating the Influence of Community Health Promotion Campaigns on Immunization Rates.
• The Role of Community Health Nurses in Addressing the Opioid Epidemic Through Harm Reduction Strategies.
• Exploring the Impact of Community Health Initiatives on Improving Access to Healthcare Services in Rural Areas.
• Assessing the Effect of Home Visiting Programs on Maternal and Child Health Outcomes.
• Investigating the Relationship Between Food Insecurity and Chronic Disease Management in Urban Communities.
• The Effectiveness of Telehealth Services in Providing Mental Health Support to Underserved Populations.
• Exploring the Implementation of Community-Based Palliative Care Programs and Their Impact on Quality of Life for Terminally Ill Patients.

Nursing Education and Training

• The Impact of Simulation-Based Training on Nursing Student Competency.
• Evaluating the Effectiveness of Blended Learning Models in Nursing Education.
• Assessing the Integration of Cultural Competence Training in Nursing Curricula.
• Investigating the Role of Interprofessional Education in Preparing Nursing Students for Collaborative Practice.
• The Influence of Emotional Intelligence Training on Nursing Students’ Interpersonal Skills.
• Exploring the Use of Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) in Nursing Education.
• The Effect of Peer Mentoring Programs on Retention and Success Rates of Nursing Students.
• Analyzing the Efficacy of Team-Based Learning in Nursing Curriculum.
• Investigating the Impact of Preceptorship Programs on Transition to Practice for New Graduates.
• Assessing the Role of Reflective Practice in Developing Clinical Decision-Making Skills in Nursing Students.
• The Influence of Evidence-Based Practice (EBP) Training on Nursing Student’s EBP Implementation.
• Exploring the Integration of Mindfulness and Resilience Training in Nursing Education.
• Investigating the Use of Social Media and Technology in Enhancing Nursing Education.
• Assessing the Role of Nursing Simulation Centers in Improving Clinical Competence.
• The Effect of Cultural Immersion Experiences on Cultural Competency Development in Nursing Students.
• Analyzing the Impact of High-Fidelity Patient Simulators on Critical Thinking Skills in Nursing Education.
• Investigating the Use of Competency-Based Education in Nursing Programs.
• Assessing the Role of Clinical Reasoning Development in Nursing Education.
• The Influence of Team-Based Care Training on Nursing Students’ Understanding of Collaborative Healthcare Models.
• Exploring Strategies to Enhance Clinical Placement Experiences for Nursing Students.

Healthcare Quality and Patient Safety

• The Impact of Electronic Health Records (EHRs) on Patient Safety and Data Accuracy.
• Strategies to Reduce Medication Errors in Hospital Settings.
• The Role of Nurse Staffing Levels in Preventing Adverse Patient Outcomes.
• Assessing the Effectiveness of Rapid Response Teams in Hospitals.
• Investigating the Relationship Between Hospital Accreditation and Patient Safety.
• The Use of Human Factors Engineering to Enhance Healthcare Quality and Patient Safety.
• Evaluating the Implementation of Surgical Safety Checklists and Their Impact on Surgical Complications.
• Analyzing the Link Between Hand Hygiene Compliance and Hospital-Acquired Infections.
• The Role of Patient and Family Engagement in Promoting Healthcare Quality and Safety.
• Investigating the Effect of Healthcare Provider Burnout on Patient Safety.
• Assessing the Impact of Telemedicine on Patient Safety and Care Quality.
• Strategies for Reducing Diagnostic Errors in Healthcare.
• The Role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning in Predicting and Preventing Patient Safety Incidents.
• Examining the Influence of Organizational Culture on Patient Safety Practices.
• The Effectiveness of Team-Based Training in Enhancing Communication and Reducing Errors in Healthcare.
• Investigating the Relationship Between Nurse Leadership Styles and Patient Safety Culture.
• Assessing the Impact of Patient Safety Initiatives on Healthcare Costs.
• Strategies for Improving Patient Handoff Communication to Enhance Continuity of Care.
• Analyzing the Effect of Healthcare Policy Changes on Patient Safety Outcomes.
• The Role of Interdisciplinary Collaboration in Enhancing Healthcare Quality and Patient Safety.

Cultural Competence in Nursing

• The Impact of Cultural Competence Training on Nurses’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices in Diverse Healthcare Settings.
• Exploring the Role of Cultural Competence in Reducing Health Disparities Among Minority Populations.
• Assessing the Influence of Cultural Competence on Patient-Centered Care and Patient Satisfaction.
• The Relationship Between Language Proficiency and Effective Communication in Cross-Cultural Nursing Care.
• Investigating the Effect of Cultural Competence on Nursing Student Preparedness for Providing Culturally Sensitive Care.
• The Influence of Cultural Competence on Nurse-Patient Trust and Rapport Building in Multicultural Healthcare Settings.
• Evaluating the Impact of Cultural Competence Education on Nursing Curricula and Program Outcomes.
• Exploring the Challenges and Barriers Faced by Nurses in Providing Culturally Competent Care.
• The Effect of Cultural Competence on Medication Adherence and Health Outcomes Among Diverse Patient Groups.
• Assessing the Cultural Competence of Healthcare Organizations and Its Relationship to Quality of Care.
• Investigating the Influence of Cultural Competence on Ethical Decision-Making in Nursing Practice.
• The Role of Cultural Competence in Reducing Healthcare Misdiagnoses and Medical Errors.
• Exploring the Effectiveness of Cultural Competence Models and Frameworks in Nursing Education.
• Assessing the Cultural Competence of Nursing Leadership and Its Impact on Staff Morale and Retention.
• Investigating the Influence of Cultural Competence on End-of-Life Care Preferences and Decision-Making in Diverse Populations.
• The Relationship Between Cultural Competence and the Delivery of Culturally Tailored Health Promotion Programs.
• Evaluating the Role of Cultural Competence in Shaping Nursing Practice Guidelines and Protocols.
• Exploring the Impact of Cultural Competence on the Management of Chronic Diseases in Culturally Diverse Patient Populations.
• Assessing the Effectiveness of Culturally Competent Care in Reducing Hospital Readmission Rates.
• Investigating the Link Between Cultural Competence and Health Equity Initiatives in Healthcare Systems.

Tips for Conducting Quantitative Nursing Research

Now that you have a glimpse of potential research topics, it’s essential to understand the key steps involved in conducting quantitative nursing research:

• Research Design and Methodology: Choose the most appropriate research design (e.g., cross-sectional, longitudinal, experimental) and methodology (e.g., surveys, experiments) for your research question.
• Data Collection Methods: Determine how you’ll collect data. Will it involve surveys, observations, or analysis of existing datasets? Ensure your data collection methods align with your research design.
• Data Analysis Techniques: Familiarize yourself with statistical analysis tools and techniques (e.g., regression analysis , t-tests) to analyze your data accurately.
• Data Management: Develop a robust data management plan to organize, store, and protect your research data. Adherence to ethical data handling is crucial.
• Ethical Considerations: Always prioritize ethical principles in your research. Obtain informed consent from participants, maintain confidentiality, and seek ethical approval if required.

Resources for Nursing Students

To support your journey in quantitative research topics for nursing students, here are some recommended resources:

• “Nursing Research: Generating and Assessing Evidence” by Denise F. Polit and Cheryl Tatano Beck.
• “Quantitative Research in Nursing and Healthcare” by Immy Holloway and Stephanie Wheeler.
• “Journal of Nursing Scholarship”
• “Research in Nursing & Health”

Online Resources

• The National Institute of Nursing Research (NINR) offers valuable research resources and funding opportunities.
• Online courses and webinars on research methods and statistical analysis (e.g., Coursera, edX).

Quantitative research is an indispensable tool for nursing students looking to make a meaningful impact in their field. By choosing the right quantitative research topics for nursing students and following ethical research practices, nursing students can contribute to the body of nursing knowledge, improve patient care, and advance their careers. 

So, don’t hesitate to embark on your quantitative research journey, and let your curiosity and passion drive you toward excellence in nursing practice.

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Differences between Qualitative & Quantitative Research

" Quantitative research ," also called " empirical research ," refers to any research based on something that can be accurately and precisely measured.  For example, it is possible to discover exactly how many times per second a hummingbird's wings beat and measure the corresponding effects on its physiology (heart rate, temperature, etc.).

" Qualitative research " refers to any research based on something that is impossible to accurately and precisely measure.  For example, although you certainly can conduct a survey on job satisfaction and afterwards say that such-and-such percent of your respondents were very satisfied with their jobs, it is not possible to come up with an accurate, standard numerical scale to measure the level of job satisfaction precisely.

It is so easy to confuse the words "quantitative" and "qualitative," it's best to use "empirical" and "qualitative" instead.

Hint: An excellent clue that a scholarly journal article contains empirical research is the presence of some sort of statistical analysis

See "Examples of Qualitative and Quantitative" page under "Nursing Research" for more information.

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A Practical Guide to Writing Quantitative and Qualitative Research Questions and Hypotheses in Scholarly Articles

Edward barroga.

1 Department of General Education, Graduate School of Nursing Science, St. Luke’s International University, Tokyo, Japan.

Glafera Janet Matanguihan

2 Department of Biological Sciences, Messiah University, Mechanicsburg, PA, USA.

The development of research questions and the subsequent hypotheses are prerequisites to defining the main research purpose and specific objectives of a study. Consequently, these objectives determine the study design and research outcome. The development of research questions is a process based on knowledge of current trends, cutting-edge studies, and technological advances in the research field. Excellent research questions are focused and require a comprehensive literature search and in-depth understanding of the problem being investigated. Initially, research questions may be written as descriptive questions which could be developed into inferential questions. These questions must be specific and concise to provide a clear foundation for developing hypotheses. Hypotheses are more formal predictions about the research outcomes. These specify the possible results that may or may not be expected regarding the relationship between groups. Thus, research questions and hypotheses clarify the main purpose and specific objectives of the study, which in turn dictate the design of the study, its direction, and outcome. Studies developed from good research questions and hypotheses will have trustworthy outcomes with wide-ranging social and health implications.

INTRODUCTION

Scientific research is usually initiated by posing evidenced-based research questions which are then explicitly restated as hypotheses. 1 , 2 The hypotheses provide directions to guide the study, solutions, explanations, and expected results. 3 , 4 Both research questions and hypotheses are essentially formulated based on conventional theories and real-world processes, which allow the inception of novel studies and the ethical testing of ideas. 5 , 6

It is crucial to have knowledge of both quantitative and qualitative research 2 as both types of research involve writing research questions and hypotheses. 7 However, these crucial elements of research are sometimes overlooked; if not overlooked, then framed without the forethought and meticulous attention it needs. Planning and careful consideration are needed when developing quantitative or qualitative research, particularly when conceptualizing research questions and hypotheses. 4

There is a continuing need to support researchers in the creation of innovative research questions and hypotheses, as well as for journal articles that carefully review these elements. 1 When research questions and hypotheses are not carefully thought of, unethical studies and poor outcomes usually ensue. Carefully formulated research questions and hypotheses define well-founded objectives, which in turn determine the appropriate design, course, and outcome of the study. This article then aims to discuss in detail the various aspects of crafting research questions and hypotheses, with the goal of guiding researchers as they develop their own. Examples from the authors and peer-reviewed scientific articles in the healthcare field are provided to illustrate key points.

DEFINITIONS AND RELATIONSHIP OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

A research question is what a study aims to answer after data analysis and interpretation. The answer is written in length in the discussion section of the paper. Thus, the research question gives a preview of the different parts and variables of the study meant to address the problem posed in the research question. 1 An excellent research question clarifies the research writing while facilitating understanding of the research topic, objective, scope, and limitations of the study. 5

On the other hand, a research hypothesis is an educated statement of an expected outcome. This statement is based on background research and current knowledge. 8 , 9 The research hypothesis makes a specific prediction about a new phenomenon 10 or a formal statement on the expected relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. 3 , 11 It provides a tentative answer to the research question to be tested or explored. 4

Hypotheses employ reasoning to predict a theory-based outcome. 10 These can also be developed from theories by focusing on components of theories that have not yet been observed. 10 The validity of hypotheses is often based on the testability of the prediction made in a reproducible experiment. 8

Conversely, hypotheses can also be rephrased as research questions. Several hypotheses based on existing theories and knowledge may be needed to answer a research question. Developing ethical research questions and hypotheses creates a research design that has logical relationships among variables. These relationships serve as a solid foundation for the conduct of the study. 4 , 11 Haphazardly constructed research questions can result in poorly formulated hypotheses and improper study designs, leading to unreliable results. Thus, the formulations of relevant research questions and verifiable hypotheses are crucial when beginning research. 12

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Excellent research questions are specific and focused. These integrate collective data and observations to confirm or refute the subsequent hypotheses. Well-constructed hypotheses are based on previous reports and verify the research context. These are realistic, in-depth, sufficiently complex, and reproducible. More importantly, these hypotheses can be addressed and tested. 13

There are several characteristics of well-developed hypotheses. Good hypotheses are 1) empirically testable 7 , 10 , 11 , 13 ; 2) backed by preliminary evidence 9 ; 3) testable by ethical research 7 , 9 ; 4) based on original ideas 9 ; 5) have evidenced-based logical reasoning 10 ; and 6) can be predicted. 11 Good hypotheses can infer ethical and positive implications, indicating the presence of a relationship or effect relevant to the research theme. 7 , 11 These are initially developed from a general theory and branch into specific hypotheses by deductive reasoning. In the absence of a theory to base the hypotheses, inductive reasoning based on specific observations or findings form more general hypotheses. 10

TYPES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions and hypotheses are developed according to the type of research, which can be broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative research. We provide a summary of the types of research questions and hypotheses under quantitative and qualitative research categories in Table 1 .

Research questions in quantitative research

In quantitative research, research questions inquire about the relationships among variables being investigated and are usually framed at the start of the study. These are precise and typically linked to the subject population, dependent and independent variables, and research design. 1 Research questions may also attempt to describe the behavior of a population in relation to one or more variables, or describe the characteristics of variables to be measured ( descriptive research questions ). 1 , 5 , 14 These questions may also aim to discover differences between groups within the context of an outcome variable ( comparative research questions ), 1 , 5 , 14 or elucidate trends and interactions among variables ( relationship research questions ). 1 , 5 We provide examples of descriptive, comparative, and relationship research questions in quantitative research in Table 2 .

Hypotheses in quantitative research

In quantitative research, hypotheses predict the expected relationships among variables. 15 Relationships among variables that can be predicted include 1) between a single dependent variable and a single independent variable ( simple hypothesis ) or 2) between two or more independent and dependent variables ( complex hypothesis ). 4 , 11 Hypotheses may also specify the expected direction to be followed and imply an intellectual commitment to a particular outcome ( directional hypothesis ) 4 . On the other hand, hypotheses may not predict the exact direction and are used in the absence of a theory, or when findings contradict previous studies ( non-directional hypothesis ). 4 In addition, hypotheses can 1) define interdependency between variables ( associative hypothesis ), 4 2) propose an effect on the dependent variable from manipulation of the independent variable ( causal hypothesis ), 4 3) state a negative relationship between two variables ( null hypothesis ), 4 , 11 , 15 4) replace the working hypothesis if rejected ( alternative hypothesis ), 15 explain the relationship of phenomena to possibly generate a theory ( working hypothesis ), 11 5) involve quantifiable variables that can be tested statistically ( statistical hypothesis ), 11 6) or express a relationship whose interlinks can be verified logically ( logical hypothesis ). 11 We provide examples of simple, complex, directional, non-directional, associative, causal, null, alternative, working, statistical, and logical hypotheses in quantitative research, as well as the definition of quantitative hypothesis-testing research in Table 3 .

Research questions in qualitative research

Unlike research questions in quantitative research, research questions in qualitative research are usually continuously reviewed and reformulated. The central question and associated subquestions are stated more than the hypotheses. 15 The central question broadly explores a complex set of factors surrounding the central phenomenon, aiming to present the varied perspectives of participants. 15

There are varied goals for which qualitative research questions are developed. These questions can function in several ways, such as to 1) identify and describe existing conditions ( contextual research question s); 2) describe a phenomenon ( descriptive research questions ); 3) assess the effectiveness of existing methods, protocols, theories, or procedures ( evaluation research questions ); 4) examine a phenomenon or analyze the reasons or relationships between subjects or phenomena ( explanatory research questions ); or 5) focus on unknown aspects of a particular topic ( exploratory research questions ). 5 In addition, some qualitative research questions provide new ideas for the development of theories and actions ( generative research questions ) or advance specific ideologies of a position ( ideological research questions ). 1 Other qualitative research questions may build on a body of existing literature and become working guidelines ( ethnographic research questions ). Research questions may also be broadly stated without specific reference to the existing literature or a typology of questions ( phenomenological research questions ), may be directed towards generating a theory of some process ( grounded theory questions ), or may address a description of the case and the emerging themes ( qualitative case study questions ). 15 We provide examples of contextual, descriptive, evaluation, explanatory, exploratory, generative, ideological, ethnographic, phenomenological, grounded theory, and qualitative case study research questions in qualitative research in Table 4 , and the definition of qualitative hypothesis-generating research in Table 5 .

Qualitative studies usually pose at least one central research question and several subquestions starting with How or What . These research questions use exploratory verbs such as explore or describe . These also focus on one central phenomenon of interest, and may mention the participants and research site. 15

Hypotheses in qualitative research

Hypotheses in qualitative research are stated in the form of a clear statement concerning the problem to be investigated. Unlike in quantitative research where hypotheses are usually developed to be tested, qualitative research can lead to both hypothesis-testing and hypothesis-generating outcomes. 2 When studies require both quantitative and qualitative research questions, this suggests an integrative process between both research methods wherein a single mixed-methods research question can be developed. 1

FRAMEWORKS FOR DEVELOPING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

Research questions followed by hypotheses should be developed before the start of the study. 1 , 12 , 14 It is crucial to develop feasible research questions on a topic that is interesting to both the researcher and the scientific community. This can be achieved by a meticulous review of previous and current studies to establish a novel topic. Specific areas are subsequently focused on to generate ethical research questions. The relevance of the research questions is evaluated in terms of clarity of the resulting data, specificity of the methodology, objectivity of the outcome, depth of the research, and impact of the study. 1 , 5 These aspects constitute the FINER criteria (i.e., Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant). 1 Clarity and effectiveness are achieved if research questions meet the FINER criteria. In addition to the FINER criteria, Ratan et al. described focus, complexity, novelty, feasibility, and measurability for evaluating the effectiveness of research questions. 14

The PICOT and PEO frameworks are also used when developing research questions. 1 The following elements are addressed in these frameworks, PICOT: P-population/patients/problem, I-intervention or indicator being studied, C-comparison group, O-outcome of interest, and T-timeframe of the study; PEO: P-population being studied, E-exposure to preexisting conditions, and O-outcome of interest. 1 Research questions are also considered good if these meet the “FINERMAPS” framework: Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, Relevant, Manageable, Appropriate, Potential value/publishable, and Systematic. 14

As we indicated earlier, research questions and hypotheses that are not carefully formulated result in unethical studies or poor outcomes. To illustrate this, we provide some examples of ambiguous research question and hypotheses that result in unclear and weak research objectives in quantitative research ( Table 6 ) 16 and qualitative research ( Table 7 ) 17 , and how to transform these ambiguous research question(s) and hypothesis(es) into clear and good statements.

a These statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

b These statements are direct quotes from Higashihara and Horiuchi. 16

a This statement is a direct quote from Shimoda et al. 17

The other statements were composed for comparison and illustrative purposes only.

CONSTRUCTING RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

To construct effective research questions and hypotheses, it is very important to 1) clarify the background and 2) identify the research problem at the outset of the research, within a specific timeframe. 9 Then, 3) review or conduct preliminary research to collect all available knowledge about the possible research questions by studying theories and previous studies. 18 Afterwards, 4) construct research questions to investigate the research problem. Identify variables to be accessed from the research questions 4 and make operational definitions of constructs from the research problem and questions. Thereafter, 5) construct specific deductive or inductive predictions in the form of hypotheses. 4 Finally, 6) state the study aims . This general flow for constructing effective research questions and hypotheses prior to conducting research is shown in Fig. 1 .

Research questions are used more frequently in qualitative research than objectives or hypotheses. 3 These questions seek to discover, understand, explore or describe experiences by asking “What” or “How.” The questions are open-ended to elicit a description rather than to relate variables or compare groups. The questions are continually reviewed, reformulated, and changed during the qualitative study. 3 Research questions are also used more frequently in survey projects than hypotheses in experiments in quantitative research to compare variables and their relationships.

Hypotheses are constructed based on the variables identified and as an if-then statement, following the template, ‘If a specific action is taken, then a certain outcome is expected.’ At this stage, some ideas regarding expectations from the research to be conducted must be drawn. 18 Then, the variables to be manipulated (independent) and influenced (dependent) are defined. 4 Thereafter, the hypothesis is stated and refined, and reproducible data tailored to the hypothesis are identified, collected, and analyzed. 4 The hypotheses must be testable and specific, 18 and should describe the variables and their relationships, the specific group being studied, and the predicted research outcome. 18 Hypotheses construction involves a testable proposition to be deduced from theory, and independent and dependent variables to be separated and measured separately. 3 Therefore, good hypotheses must be based on good research questions constructed at the start of a study or trial. 12

In summary, research questions are constructed after establishing the background of the study. Hypotheses are then developed based on the research questions. Thus, it is crucial to have excellent research questions to generate superior hypotheses. In turn, these would determine the research objectives and the design of the study, and ultimately, the outcome of the research. 12 Algorithms for building research questions and hypotheses are shown in Fig. 2 for quantitative research and in Fig. 3 for qualitative research.

EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH QUESTIONS FROM PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Descriptive research question (quantitative research)
• - Presents research variables to be assessed (distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes)
• “BACKGROUND: Since COVID-19 was identified, its clinical and biological heterogeneity has been recognized. Identifying COVID-19 phenotypes might help guide basic, clinical, and translational research efforts.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Does the clinical spectrum of patients with COVID-19 contain distinct phenotypes and subphenotypes? ” 19
• EXAMPLE 2. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Shows interactions between dependent variable (static postural control) and independent variable (peripheral visual field loss)
• “Background: Integration of visual, vestibular, and proprioceptive sensations contributes to postural control. People with peripheral visual field loss have serious postural instability. However, the directional specificity of postural stability and sensory reweighting caused by gradual peripheral visual field loss remain unclear.
• Research question: What are the effects of peripheral visual field loss on static postural control ?” 20
• EXAMPLE 3. Comparative research question (quantitative research)
• - Clarifies the difference among groups with an outcome variable (patients enrolled in COMPERA with moderate PH or severe PH in COPD) and another group without the outcome variable (patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH))
• “BACKGROUND: Pulmonary hypertension (PH) in COPD is a poorly investigated clinical condition.
• RESEARCH QUESTION: Which factors determine the outcome of PH in COPD?
• STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS: We analyzed the characteristics and outcome of patients enrolled in the Comparative, Prospective Registry of Newly Initiated Therapies for Pulmonary Hypertension (COMPERA) with moderate or severe PH in COPD as defined during the 6th PH World Symposium who received medical therapy for PH and compared them with patients with idiopathic pulmonary arterial hypertension (IPAH) .” 21
• EXAMPLE 4. Exploratory research question (qualitative research)
• - Explores areas that have not been fully investigated (perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment) to have a deeper understanding of the research problem
• “Problem: Interventions for children with obesity lead to only modest improvements in BMI and long-term outcomes, and data are limited on the perspectives of families of children with obesity in clinic-based treatment. This scoping review seeks to answer the question: What is known about the perspectives of families and children who receive care in clinic-based child obesity treatment? This review aims to explore the scope of perspectives reported by families of children with obesity who have received individualized outpatient clinic-based obesity treatment.” 22
• EXAMPLE 5. Relationship research question (quantitative research)
• - Defines interactions between dependent variable (use of ankle strategies) and independent variable (changes in muscle tone)
• “Background: To maintain an upright standing posture against external disturbances, the human body mainly employs two types of postural control strategies: “ankle strategy” and “hip strategy.” While it has been reported that the magnitude of the disturbance alters the use of postural control strategies, it has not been elucidated how the level of muscle tone, one of the crucial parameters of bodily function, determines the use of each strategy. We have previously confirmed using forward dynamics simulations of human musculoskeletal models that an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. The objective of the present study was to experimentally evaluate a hypothesis: an increased muscle tone promotes the use of ankle strategies. Research question: Do changes in the muscle tone affect the use of ankle strategies ?” 23

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESES IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES

• EXAMPLE 1. Working hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - A hypothesis that is initially accepted for further research to produce a feasible theory
• “As fever may have benefit in shortening the duration of viral illness, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response when taken during the early stages of COVID-19 illness .” 24
• “In conclusion, it is plausible to hypothesize that the antipyretic efficacy of ibuprofen may be hindering the benefits of a fever response . The difference in perceived safety of these agents in COVID-19 illness could be related to the more potent efficacy to reduce fever with ibuprofen compared to acetaminophen. Compelling data on the benefit of fever warrant further research and review to determine when to treat or withhold ibuprofen for early stage fever for COVID-19 and other related viral illnesses .” 24
• EXAMPLE 2. Exploratory hypothesis (qualitative research)
• - Explores particular areas deeper to clarify subjective experience and develop a formal hypothesis potentially testable in a future quantitative approach
• “We hypothesized that when thinking about a past experience of help-seeking, a self distancing prompt would cause increased help-seeking intentions and more favorable help-seeking outcome expectations .” 25
• “Conclusion
• Although a priori hypotheses were not supported, further research is warranted as results indicate the potential for using self-distancing approaches to increasing help-seeking among some people with depressive symptomatology.” 25
• EXAMPLE 3. Hypothesis-generating research to establish a framework for hypothesis testing (qualitative research)
• “We hypothesize that compassionate care is beneficial for patients (better outcomes), healthcare systems and payers (lower costs), and healthcare providers (lower burnout). ” 26
• Compassionomics is the branch of knowledge and scientific study of the effects of compassionate healthcare. Our main hypotheses are that compassionate healthcare is beneficial for (1) patients, by improving clinical outcomes, (2) healthcare systems and payers, by supporting financial sustainability, and (3) HCPs, by lowering burnout and promoting resilience and well-being. The purpose of this paper is to establish a scientific framework for testing the hypotheses above . If these hypotheses are confirmed through rigorous research, compassionomics will belong in the science of evidence-based medicine, with major implications for all healthcare domains.” 26
• EXAMPLE 4. Statistical hypothesis (quantitative research)
• - An assumption is made about the relationship among several population characteristics ( gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD ). Validity is tested by statistical experiment or analysis ( chi-square test, Students t-test, and logistic regression analysis)
• “Our research investigated gender differences in sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of adults with ADHD in a Japanese clinical sample. Due to unique Japanese cultural ideals and expectations of women's behavior that are in opposition to ADHD symptoms, we hypothesized that women with ADHD experience more difficulties and present more dysfunctions than men . We tested the following hypotheses: first, women with ADHD have more comorbidities than men with ADHD; second, women with ADHD experience more social hardships than men, such as having less full-time employment and being more likely to be divorced.” 27
• “Statistical Analysis
• ( text omitted ) Between-gender comparisons were made using the chi-squared test for categorical variables and Students t-test for continuous variables…( text omitted ). A logistic regression analysis was performed for employment status, marital status, and comorbidity to evaluate the independent effects of gender on these dependent variables.” 27

EXAMPLES OF HYPOTHESIS AS WRITTEN IN PUBLISHED ARTICLES IN RELATION TO OTHER PARTS

• EXAMPLE 1. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “Pregnant women need skilled care during pregnancy and childbirth, but that skilled care is often delayed in some countries …( text omitted ). The focused antenatal care (FANC) model of WHO recommends that nurses provide information or counseling to all pregnant women …( text omitted ). Job aids are visual support materials that provide the right kind of information using graphics and words in a simple and yet effective manner. When nurses are not highly trained or have many work details to attend to, these job aids can serve as a content reminder for the nurses and can be used for educating their patients (Jennings, Yebadokpo, Affo, & Agbogbe, 2010) ( text omitted ). Importantly, additional evidence is needed to confirm how job aids can further improve the quality of ANC counseling by health workers in maternal care …( text omitted )” 28
• “ This has led us to hypothesize that the quality of ANC counseling would be better if supported by job aids. Consequently, a better quality of ANC counseling is expected to produce higher levels of awareness concerning the danger signs of pregnancy and a more favorable impression of the caring behavior of nurses .” 28
• “This study aimed to examine the differences in the responses of pregnant women to a job aid-supported intervention during ANC visit in terms of 1) their understanding of the danger signs of pregnancy and 2) their impression of the caring behaviors of nurses to pregnant women in rural Tanzania.” 28
• EXAMPLE 2. Background, hypotheses, and aims are provided
• “We conducted a two-arm randomized controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate and compare changes in salivary cortisol and oxytocin levels of first-time pregnant women between experimental and control groups. The women in the experimental group touched and held an infant for 30 min (experimental intervention protocol), whereas those in the control group watched a DVD movie of an infant (control intervention protocol). The primary outcome was salivary cortisol level and the secondary outcome was salivary oxytocin level.” 29
• “ We hypothesize that at 30 min after touching and holding an infant, the salivary cortisol level will significantly decrease and the salivary oxytocin level will increase in the experimental group compared with the control group .” 29
• EXAMPLE 3. Background, aim, and hypothesis are provided
• “In countries where the maternal mortality ratio remains high, antenatal education to increase Birth Preparedness and Complication Readiness (BPCR) is considered one of the top priorities [1]. BPCR includes birth plans during the antenatal period, such as the birthplace, birth attendant, transportation, health facility for complications, expenses, and birth materials, as well as family coordination to achieve such birth plans. In Tanzania, although increasing, only about half of all pregnant women attend an antenatal clinic more than four times [4]. Moreover, the information provided during antenatal care (ANC) is insufficient. In the resource-poor settings, antenatal group education is a potential approach because of the limited time for individual counseling at antenatal clinics.” 30
• “This study aimed to evaluate an antenatal group education program among pregnant women and their families with respect to birth-preparedness and maternal and infant outcomes in rural villages of Tanzania.” 30
• “ The study hypothesis was if Tanzanian pregnant women and their families received a family-oriented antenatal group education, they would (1) have a higher level of BPCR, (2) attend antenatal clinic four or more times, (3) give birth in a health facility, (4) have less complications of women at birth, and (5) have less complications and deaths of infants than those who did not receive the education .” 30

Research questions and hypotheses are crucial components to any type of research, whether quantitative or qualitative. These questions should be developed at the very beginning of the study. Excellent research questions lead to superior hypotheses, which, like a compass, set the direction of research, and can often determine the successful conduct of the study. Many research studies have floundered because the development of research questions and subsequent hypotheses was not given the thought and meticulous attention needed. The development of research questions and hypotheses is an iterative process based on extensive knowledge of the literature and insightful grasp of the knowledge gap. Focused, concise, and specific research questions provide a strong foundation for constructing hypotheses which serve as formal predictions about the research outcomes. Research questions and hypotheses are crucial elements of research that should not be overlooked. They should be carefully thought of and constructed when planning research. This avoids unethical studies and poor outcomes by defining well-founded objectives that determine the design, course, and outcome of the study.

Disclosure: The authors have no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Author Contributions:

• Conceptualization: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Methodology: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - original draft: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.
• Writing - review & editing: Barroga E, Matanguihan GJ.

NUR 39000: Nursing Research: Quantitative Study Searching

• Quantitative Study Searching
• Qualitative Study from a Specific Journal
• Inferential Statistics Tips
• Find Informative Articles
• Primary & Secondary Sources
• Nursing Databases
• Journal Types
• Accessing Full-Text
• Asking the PICO or PICo Question
• Acquiring Evidence
• Appraising the Evidence
• Research Designs
• Levels of Evidence
• Grey Literature Resources
• Writing & APA Citation Help
• How to Get Help
• COVID-19 Resources
• Video Tutorials

Identifying Research Articles

Identify research articles by reviewing the abstract and other bibliographic information. Many citations for research articles include the following headings:

• Participants
• Data Collection
• Data Analysis

Read the full text  of the article to learn more.

Identifying Peer Reviewed Sources

There are several ways that you can determine the peer reviewed status of a journal. Review the selections in the database advanced search page for a peer reviewed check box or menu limiter. You can also look at  title lists  which include  peer reviewed information. Click on the following database to see the title lists for  CINAHL Plus with Full Text ,  MEDLINE  or  Health Source: Nursing .

A basic Google search of "Is Journal Name peer reviewed" will often produce results that link you to a reliable source and answer.  The journal’s website will usually mention if it is peer reviewed in the description. 

Tips for Finding Nursing Journals

Tip: You may choose to use a journal-type limiter to narrow your search to nursing journals.

Here are nursing journals limits from CINAHL, MEDLINE (Ebsco), and PubMed:

In CINAHL you can target nursing journals by selecting Nursing from the Journal Subset menu options. This is not usually necessary, since CINAHL stands for Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature.  Nearly all publications in the CINAHL database are nursing journals.

In MEDLINE (Ebsco) you can target nursing journals by selecting Nursing from the Journal & Citation Subset menu options.

In PubMed, you can target nursing journals after you have performed your search.  On the results page, there will be a column on the left with filters including Article types, Text availability, Publication dates. Select Show additional filters , check the box next to Journal categories then the Show button. Click on Nursing journals to see results from nursing journals. 

Starting Your Assignment

This page offers tips on locating research articles from library databases for your NUR 390 assignment to find a primary quantitative research study.  Before you start your database search it is important to familiarize yourself with the requirements outlined on the assignment checklist.    

Please note that the help provided on this page is not exhaustive. The tips are intended to help generate potential relevant search results. Librarians will NOT be able to help you distinguish quantitative vs. qualitative research or determine whether or not a chosen article includes appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics.  Ultimately, you must read the full text of an article and use your textbook and other course materials to determine if it meets the assignment's criteria.

Video for Selecting a Quantitative Research Article

This link connects you to a demonstration video on how to locate articles for the assignment to find a primary quantitative research study.

PLEASE NOTE: The example demonstrates searching for research articles using search limiters in the CINAHL database.  However, the date range at the time of the recording will not necessarily match the range for your specific assignment.  

Please be sure to note the correct date range and other criteria from your instructor's checklist .

Tips for Finding Quantitative Research

The following are tips that can help you find quantitative research articles. These tips work best when your initial search produces a large amount of results. I do not recommend these methods if your initial search generates few results or if your required date range is less than one year.

Tip:  Although CINAHL does not have a checkbox to limit your search to either quantitative or qualitative research, it is sometimes helpful to add vocabulary that describes quantitative research tools, methodology or assessments. In the advanced search screen page, you can add a search box that will include words that describe quantitative research.

Tip: CINAHL allows you to filter by publication type.  If your initial search has returned lots of results, you might try using the Publication Type limiter to select only  Clinical Trial and/or  Randomized Controlled Trial.   These are types of  quantitative studies .  

Tips for Finding Nurse as Author

In CINHAL, you can find articles where a nurse is the first author by checking the First Author is Nurse checkbox in the advanced search page.

Although this limiter is useful for searches with a long date range (several years), it is not recommended for searches with a shorter date range, since the detailed index information in each record is not always up to date.  You may miss articles that were authored by a nurse but do not show up in your search results.

You may need to search the databases using other criteria, and then scan the resulting studies to see if the first author's credentials are listed on the page.

Library Liaison for Nursing Students & Faculty

About the Library

The library offers a wide range of online resources, including databases with various journals from which to choose articles and research studies.

To access your Library resources, please visit the homepage

Please consult your Library Liaison directly for research assistance.

If your Librarian is unavailable, please contact the Library's Reference desk at (219) 989-2676 or click on the CHAT WITH A LIBRARIAN  link below to submit a question or see answers to frequently asked questions.

Library Hours : 

Library staff members are available to assist you during library hours . 

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NURB 361: Introduction to Nursing Research

• scholarly vs. popular
• Search Strategies
• Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research
• Evidence Pyramid
• General evaluation This link opens in a new window
• reliability vs. validity
• Finding Statistics
• Sample Format
• Nursing resources This link opens in a new window
• APA citations This link opens in a new window
• Quality Improvement Posters

1.  Sample =    group of people, objects, or items that are taken from a larger population for measurement. The sample should be representative of the population to ensure findings can be generalized from the research sample to the population as a whole.

2.   Probability sampling:   Probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which the researcher chooses samples from a larger population using a method based on the theory of probability. For a participant to be considered as a probability sample, he/she must be selected using a random selection.

• simple random
• Quantitative studies usually rely on probability sampling but can use nonprobability as well

3.    Nonprobability sampling:    Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which the researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the researcher rather than random selection. It is a less stringent method. This sampling method depends heavily on the expertise of the researchers. It is carried out by observation. 

• convenience
• Qualitative studies only use nonprobability sampling

F. Oguz, personal communication, May 22, 2019. 

Generally speaking,   quantitative research   seeks to understand the relationship between variables through testing hypotheses. Qualitative research   hopes to understand a phenomenon through the use of interviews and real-world observation. Both types of research are valid; however, certain research topics are better suited to one approach or the other. It is important to understand the differences between these two types of research so that you will be able to effectively analyze any articles that you read.  Because you will understand the different advantages and disadvantages of each approach, you will be better prepared to critique the articles you read. 

Quantitative Research

What is Quantitative Research?

• Quantitative research is a way to learn about  a sample population (or a group of people chosen from the whole). Using scientific inquiry, quantitative research relies on observed or measured data to examine questions about this sample population.
• This type of research focuses on numbers, and is thus precise.  
• Uses statistics
• Typically it is to determine the relationship between two variables. 

Sample Size

• Usually large samples
• Often simple random probability sampling 

Types of Data

• Tests, surveys, frequently multiple-choice questionnaires 

Qualitative Research

What is Qualitative Research?

• Uses interpretive techniques to describe, decode, and translate the meaning -- not the frequency -- of certain naturally occurring phenomena.
• Uses non-statistical techniques
• interested in how people interpret their experiences, how they construct their worlds, and what meaning they attribute to their experiences
• Case studies tend to be qualitative
• To understand a phenomenon
• purposeful sampling -- the investigator wants to discover, understand, and gain insight and therefore must select a sample from which the most can be learned. There is an emphasis on in-depth understanding of specific cases. 
• Focus groups, interviews, field observation, historical comparison
• mostly open-ended questions

F. Oguz, personal communication, June 10, 2019. 

U nowacademics. (2014 May 19). UniversityNow:  Quantitative vs. qualitative research [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/bCuwX35MHyE

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• URL: https://research.moreheadstate.edu/nursingresearch

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A Quantitative Research Study Protocol to Advance Simulation Science in Nursing Education

Cantrell, Mary Ann; Mariani, Bette; Lengetti, Evelyn

About the Authors The authors are faculty at M. Louise Fitzpatrick College of Nursing, Villanova University, Villanova, Pennsylvania. Mary Ann Cantrell, PhD, RN, CNE, ANEF, FAAN, is a professor and director, PhD Program. Bette Mariani, PhD, RN, ANEF, is vice dean for academic affairs and associate professor. Evelyn Lengetti, PhD, RN-BC, is assistant dean of continuing education. This research was supported by a National League for Nursing Ruth Donnelly Corcoran Research Award and by the Center for Research, M. Louise Fitzpatrick College of Nursing. Dr. Mariani, Nursing Education Perspectives Research Brief editor, did not participate in the review or decision for this article. For more information, contact Dr. Cantrell at [email protected] .

The authors have declared no conflict of interest.

Supplemental digital content is available for this article. Direct URL citations appear in the printed text and are provided in the HTML and PDF versions of this article on the journal’s website ( www.neponline.net ).

This article describes a quantitative simulation study protocol and identifies important methodological considerations for future high-level, rigorous quantitative simulation studies.

BACKGROUND 

Quantitative simulation research studies have been found to be lacking in their conceptualization, study design, and measurement of outcomes, with small samples and lack of rigor in overall study methods.

METHOD 

This protocol reflects research priorities of organizations that drive simulation science and nursing education, published standards of simulation best practice, and use of research methodology within and outside the simulation literature, which includes psychometrically sound instruments and outcomes of importance to cognitive and simulation science.

RESULTS 

The protocol was a multisite, longitudinal study, guided by the integrative model of clinical judgment, with a high degree of intervention fidelity to measure the study outcomes of clinical judgment and clinical competence.

CONCLUSION 

To advance simulation science, rigorous study protocols, reflective of the one described in this article, are needed.

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