sample literature review for action research

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Action research: literature review .

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Exploring the literature review 

Literature review model: 6 steps.

Adapted from The Literature Review , Machi & McEvoy (2009, p. 13).

Your Literature Review

Step 2: search, boolean search strategies, search limiters, ★ ebsco & google drive.

1. Select a Topic

"All research begins with curiosity" (Machi & McEvoy, 2009, p. 14)

Selection of a topic, and fully defined research interest and question, is supervised (and approved) by your professor. Tips for crafting your topic include:

• Be specific. Take time to define your interest.
• Topic Focus. Fully describe and sufficiently narrow the focus for research.
• Academic Discipline. Learn more about your area of research & refine the scope.
• Avoid Bias. Be aware of bias that you (as a researcher) may have.
• Document your research. Use Google Docs to track your research process.
• Research apps. Consider using Evernote or Zotero to track your research.

Consider Purpose

What will your topic and research address?

In The Literature Review: A Step-by-Step Guide for Students , Ridley presents that literature reviews serve several purposes (2008, p. 16-17).  Included are the following points:

• Historical background for the research;
• Overview of current field provided by "contemporary debates, issues, and questions;"
• Theories and concepts related to your research;
• Introduce "relevant terminology" - or academic language - being used it the field;
• Connect to existing research - does your work "extend or challenge [this] or address a gap;" 
• Provide "supporting evidence for a practical problem or issue" that your research addresses.

★ Schedule a research appointment

At this point in your literature review, take time to meet with a librarian. Why? Understanding the subject terminology used in databases can be challenging. Archer Librarians can help you structure a search, preparing you for step two. How? Contact a librarian directly or use the online form to schedule an appointment. Details are provided in the adjacent Schedule an Appointment box.

2. Search the Literature

Collect & Select Data: Preview, select, and organize

AU Library is your go-to resource for this step in your literature review process. The literature search will include books and ebooks, scholarly and practitioner journals, theses and dissertations, and indexes. You may also choose to include web sites, blogs, open access resources, and newspapers. This library guide provides access to resources needed to complete a literature review.

Books & eBooks: Archer Library & OhioLINK

Databases: scholarly & practitioner journals.

Review the Library Databases tab on this library guide, it provides links to recommended databases for Education & Psychology, Business, and General & Social Sciences.

Expand your journal search; a complete listing of available AU Library and OhioLINK databases is available on the Databases  A to Z list . Search the database by subject, type, name, or do use the search box for a general title search. The A to Z list also includes open access resources and select internet sites.

Databases: Theses & Dissertations

Review the Library Databases tab on this guide, it includes Theses & Dissertation resources. AU library also has AU student authored theses and dissertations available in print, search the library catalog for these titles.

Did you know? If you are looking for particular chapters within a dissertation that is not fully available online, it is possible to submit an ILL article request . Do this instead of requesting the entire dissertation.

Newspapers:  Databases & Internet

Consider current literature in your academic field. AU Library's database collection includes The Chronicle of Higher Education and The Wall Street Journal .  The Internet Resources tab in this guide provides links to newspapers and online journals such as Inside Higher Ed , COABE Journal , and Education Week .

Search Strategies & Boolean Operators

There are three basic boolean operators:  AND, OR, and NOT.

Used with your search terms, boolean operators will either expand or limit results. What purpose do they serve? They help to define the relationship between your search terms. For example, using the operator AND will combine the terms expanding the search. When searching some databases, and Google, the operator AND may be implied.

Overview of boolean terms

About the example: Boolean searches were conducted on November 4, 2019; result numbers may vary at a later date. No additional database limiters were set to further narrow search returns.

Database Search Limiters

Database strategies for targeted search results.

Most databases include limiters, or additional parameters, you may use to strategically focus search results.  EBSCO databases, such as Education Research Complete & Academic Search Complete provide options to:

• Limit results to full text;
• Limit results to scholarly journals, and reference available;
• Select results source type to journals, magazines, conference papers, reviews, and newspapers
• Publication date

Keep in mind that these tools are defined as limiters for a reason; adding them to a search will limit the number of results returned.  This can be a double-edged sword.  How? 

• If limiting results to full-text only, you may miss an important piece of research that could change the direction of your research. Interlibrary loan is available to students, free of charge. Request articles that are not available in full-text; they will be sent to you via email.
• If narrowing publication date, you may eliminate significant historical - or recent - research conducted on your topic.
• Limiting resource type to a specific type of material may cause bias in the research results.

Use limiters with care. When starting a search, consider opting out of limiters until the initial literature screening is complete. The second or third time through your research may be the ideal time to focus on specific time periods or material (scholarly vs newspaper).

★ Truncating Search Terms

Expanding your search term at the root.

Truncating is often referred to as 'wildcard' searching. Databases may have their own specific wildcard elements however, the most commonly used are the asterisk (*) or question mark (?).  When used within your search. they will expand returned results.

Asterisk (*) Wildcard

Using the asterisk wildcard will return varied spellings of the truncated word. In the following example, the search term education was truncated after the letter "t."

Explore these database help pages for additional information on crafting search terms.

• EBSCO Connect: Searching with Wildcards and Truncation Symbols
• EBSCO Connect: Searching with Boolean Operators
• EBSCO Connect: EBSCOhost Search Tips
• EBSCO Connect: Basic Searching with EBSCO
• ProQuest Help: Search Tips
• ERIC: How does ERIC search work?

★ EBSCO Databases & Google Drive

Tips for saving research directly to Google drive.

Researching in an EBSCO database?

It is possible to save articles (PDF and HTML) and abstracts in EBSCOhost databases directly to Google drive. Select the Google Drive icon, authenticate using a Google account, and an EBSCO folder will be created in your account. This is a great option for managing your research. If documenting your research in a Google Doc, consider linking the information to actual articles saved in drive.

EBSCO Databases & Google Drive

EBSCOHost Databases & Google Drive: Managing your Research

This video features an overview of how to use Google Drive with EBSCO databases to help manage your research. It presents information for connecting an active Google account to EBSCO and steps needed to provide permission for EBSCO to manage a folder in Drive.

About the Video:  Closed captioning is available, select CC from the video menu.  If you need to review a specific area on the video, view on YouTube and expand the video description for access to topic time stamps.  A video transcript is provided below.

• EBSCOhost Databases & Google Scholar

Defining Literature Review

What is a literature review.

A definition from the Online Dictionary for Library and Information Sciences .

A literature review is "a comprehensive survey of the works published in a particular field of study or line of research, usually over a specific period of time, in the form of an in-depth, critical bibliographic essay or annotated list in which attention is drawn to the most significant works" (Reitz, 2014). 

A systemic review is "a literature review focused on a specific research question, which uses explicit methods to minimize bias in the identification, appraisal, selection, and synthesis of all the high-quality evidence pertinent to the question" (Reitz, 2014).

Recommended Reading

About this page

EBSCO Connect [Discovery and Search]. (2022). Searching with boolean operators. Retrieved May, 3, 2022 from https://connect.ebsco.com/s/?language=en_US

EBSCO Connect [Discover and Search]. (2022). Searching with wildcards and truncation symbols. Retrieved May 3, 2022; https://connect.ebsco.com/s/?language=en_US

Machi, L.A. & McEvoy, B.T. (2009). The literature review . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press: 

Reitz, J.M. (2014). Online dictionary for library and information science. ABC-CLIO, Libraries Unlimited . Retrieved from https://www.abc-clio.com/ODLIS/odlis_A.aspx

Ridley, D. (2008). The literature review: A step-by-step guide for students . Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.

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Contact a librarian directly (email), or submit a request form. If you have worked with someone before, you can request them on the form.

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Literature Review: Conducting & Writing

• Sample Literature Reviews
• Steps for Conducting a Lit Review
• Finding "The Literature"
• Organizing/Writing
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Sample Lit Reviews from Communication Arts

Have an exemplary literature review.

• Literature Review Sample 1
• Literature Review Sample 2
• Literature Review Sample 3

Have you written a stellar literature review you care to share for teaching purposes?

Are you an instructor who has received an exemplary literature review and have permission from the student to post?

Please contact Britt McGowan at [email protected] for inclusion in this guide. All disciplines welcome and encouraged.

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Step 3a: Literature Review

Module 2: Action Research Question & Literature Review

What is a Literature Review?

Generally speaking, a literature review would involve an in-depth scan of available material to identify material and gaps in your field of study.

The following videos explain the purpose and steps of a literature review in more detail.

What is a Literature Review? Explained with a REAL Example

Source: Scribbr . YouTube, 25 Mar 2020.

Additional Resources

To further your understanding, view the following video: What is a Literature Review?

The Key Benefits of a Literature Review

Completing a lit review provides numerous benefits to the researcher.

Flash Cards

Using Databases and Keyword Searches to Find Scholarly Research Literature

Keywords/Descriptors: These are specific terms related to your research topic. By searching with these keywords, you will find a list of scholarly articles where these terms appear.

Alternative Search Methods: Beyond keywords, there are other methods to explore, which can be equally effective.

To learn about conducting effective searches in scholarly databases, please review the following booklets and watch the instructional videos provided. These will guide you through the process of keyword searches and introduce other search strategies.

Interactive Book

Finding Scholarly Research Literature

Be sure to view the following booklet, which will help you to search for scholarly articles.

Action Research Handbook Copyright © by Dr. Zabedia Nazim and Dr. Sowmya Venkat-Kishore is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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• Knowledge Base
• Dissertation
• What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples

Published on 22 February 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on 7 June 2022.

What is a literature review? A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research.

There are five key steps to writing a literature review:

• Search for relevant literature
• Evaluate sources
• Identify themes, debates and gaps
• Outline the structure
• Write your literature review

A good literature review doesn’t just summarise sources – it analyses, synthesises, and critically evaluates to give a clear picture of the state of knowledge on the subject.

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Table of contents

Why write a literature review, examples of literature reviews, step 1: search for relevant literature, step 2: evaluate and select sources, step 3: identify themes, debates and gaps, step 4: outline your literature review’s structure, step 5: write your literature review, frequently asked questions about literature reviews, introduction.

• Quick Run-through
• Step 1 & 2

When you write a dissertation or thesis, you will have to conduct a literature review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a chance to:

• Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
• Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
• Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
• Show how your dissertation addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly debates around a topic.

The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature review follows the same steps. We’ve written a step-by-step guide that you can follow below.

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Writing literature reviews can be quite challenging! A good starting point could be to look at some examples, depending on what kind of literature review you’d like to write.

• Example literature review #1: “Why Do People Migrate? A Review of the Theoretical Literature” ( Theoretical literature review about the development of economic migration theory from the 1950s to today.)
• Example literature review #2: “Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines” ( Methodological literature review about interdisciplinary knowledge acquisition and production.)
• Example literature review #3: “The Use of Technology in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Thematic literature review about the effects of technology on language acquisition.)
• Example literature review #4: “Learners’ Listening Comprehension Difficulties in English Language Learning: A Literature Review” ( Chronological literature review about how the concept of listening skills has changed over time.)

You can also check out our templates with literature review examples and sample outlines at the links below.

Download Word doc Download Google doc

Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic .

If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search for literature related to your research objectives and questions .

If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.

Make a list of keywords

Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research topic. Include each of the key concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.

• Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
• Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
• Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth

Search for relevant sources

Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some databases to search for journals and articles include:

• Your university’s library catalogue
• Google Scholar
• Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
• Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
• EconLit (economics)
• Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)

You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:

Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.

To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.

You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic – you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.

For each publication, ask yourself:

• What question or problem is the author addressing?
• What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
• What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established frameworks or take an innovative approach?
• What are the results and conclusions of the study?
• How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or challenge established knowledge?
• How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key insights and arguments?
• What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?

Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and major theories in your field of research.

You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar – a high citation count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your literature review.

The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective (for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).

Remember that you can use our template to summarise and evaluate sources you’re thinking about using!

Take notes and cite your sources

As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate into the text of your literature review.

It’s important to keep track of your sources with references to avoid plagiarism . It can be helpful to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full reference information and write a paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and saves time later in the process.

You can use our free APA Reference Generator for quick, correct, consistent citations.

To begin organising your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes, you can look for:

• Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become more or less popular over time?
• Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
• Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
• Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the direction of the field?
• Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?

This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.

• Most research has focused on young women.
• There is an increasing interest in the visual aspects of social media.
• But there is still a lack of robust research on highly-visual platforms like Instagram and Snapchat – this is a gap that you could address in your own research.

There are various approaches to organising the body of a literature review. You should have a rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.

Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies (for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed chronologically).

Chronological

The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarising sources in order.

Try to analyse patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.

If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organise your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic.

For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and economic access.

Methodological

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research methods , you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different approaches. For example:

• Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
• Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources

Theoretical

A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework . You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.

You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.

Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction , a main body, and a conclusion . What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.

The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review.

If you are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can emphasise the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”) or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers have taken y into consideration”).

Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.

As you write, make sure to follow these tips:

• Summarise and synthesise: give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole.
• Analyse and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole.
• Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources.
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transitions and topic sentences to draw connections, comparisons and contrasts.

In the conclusion, you should summarise the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasise their significance.

If the literature review is part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate how your research addresses gaps and contributes new knowledge, or discuss how you have drawn on existing theories and methods to build a framework for your research. This can lead directly into your methodology section.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a dissertation , thesis, research paper , or proposal .

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarise yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your  dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the ‘Cite this Scribbr article’ button to automatically add the citation to our free Reference Generator.

McCombes, S. (2022, June 07). What is a Literature Review? | Guide, Template, & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved 14 May 2024, from https://www.scribbr.co.uk/thesis-dissertation/literature-review/

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• Section 2: Home
• Developing the Quantitative Research Design
• Qualitative Descriptive Design
• Design and Development Research (DDR) For Instructional Design
• Qualitative Narrative Inquiry Research
• Action Research Resource

What is Action Research?

Considerations, creating a plan of action.

• Case Study Design in an Applied Doctorate
• SAGE Research Methods
• Research Examples (SAGE) This link opens in a new window
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Action research is a qualitative method that focuses on solving problems in social systems, such as schools and other organizations. The emphasis is on solving the presenting problem by generating knowledge and taking action within the social system in which the problem is located. The goal is to generate shared knowledge of how to address the problem by bridging the theory-practice gap (Bourner & Brook, 2019). A general definition of action research is the following: “Action research brings together action and reflection, as well as theory and practice, in participation with others, in the pursuit of practical solutions to issues of pressing concern” (Bradbury, 2015, p. 1). Johnson (2019) defines action research in the field of education as “the process of studying a school, classroom, or teacher-learning situation with the purpose of understanding and improving the quality of actions or instruction” (p.255).

Origins of Action Research

Kurt Lewin is typically credited with being the primary developer of Action Research in the 1940s. Lewin stated that action research can “transform…unrelated individuals, frequently opposed in their outlook and their interests, into cooperative teams, not on the basis of sweetness but on the basis of readiness to face difficulties realistically, to apply honest fact-finding, and to work together to overcome them” (1946, p.211).

Sample Action Research Topics

Some sample action research topics might be the following:

• Examining how classroom teachers perceive and implement new strategies in the classroom--How is the strategy being used? How do students respond to the strategy? How does the strategy inform and change classroom practices? Does the new skill improve test scores? Do classroom teachers perceive the strategy as effective for student learning?
• Examining how students are learning a particular content or objectives--What seems to be effective in enhancing student learning? What skills need to be reinforced? How do students respond to the new content? What is the ability of students to understand the new content?
• Examining how education stakeholders (administrator, parents, teachers, students, etc.) make decisions as members of the school’s improvement team--How are different stakeholders encouraged to participate? How is power distributed? How is equity demonstrated? How is each voice valued? How are priorities and initiatives determined? How does the team evaluate its processes to determine effectiveness?
• Examining the actions that school staff take to create an inclusive and welcoming school climate--Who makes and implements the actions taken to create the school climate? Do members of the school community (teachers, staff, students) view the school climate as inclusive? Do members of the school community feel welcome in the school? How are members of the school community encouraged to become involved in school activities? What actions can school staff take to help others feel a part of the school community?
• Examining the perceptions of teachers with regard to the learning strategies that are more effective with special populations, such as special education students, English Language Learners, etc.—What strategies are perceived to be more effective? How do teachers plan instructionally for unique learners such as special education students or English Language Learners? How do teachers deal with the challenges presented by unique learners such as special education students or English Language Learners? What supports do teachers need (e.g., professional development, training, coaching) to more effectively deliver instruction to unique learners such as special education students or English Language Learners?

Remember—The goal of action research is to find out how individuals perceive and act in a situation so the researcher can develop a plan of action to improve the educational organization. While these topics listed here can be explored using other research designs, action research is the design to use if the outcome is to develop a plan of action for addressing and improving upon a situation in the educational organization.

Considerations for Determining Whether to Use Action Research in an Applied Dissertation

• When considering action research, first determine the problem and the change that needs to occur as a result of addressing the problem (i.e., research problem and research purpose). Remember, the goal of action research is to change how individuals address a particular problem or situation in a way that results in improved practices.
• If the study will be conducted at a school site or educational organization, you may need site permission. Determine whether site permission will be given to conduct the study.
• Consider the individuals who will be part of the data collection (e.g., teachers, administrators, parents, other school staff, etc.). Will there be a representative sample willing to participate in the research?
• If students will be part of the study, does parent consent and student assent need to be obtained?
• As you develop your data collection plan, also consider the timeline for data collection. Is it feasible? For example, if you will be collecting data in a school, consider winter and summer breaks, school events, testing schedules, etc.
• As you develop your data collection plan, consult with your dissertation chair, Subject Matter Expert, NU Academic Success Center, and the NU IRB for resources and guidance.
• Action research is not an experimental design, so you are not trying to accept or reject a hypothesis. There are no independent or dependent variables. It is not generalizable to a larger setting. The goal is to understand what is occurring in the educational setting so that a plan of action can be developed for improved practices.

Considerations for Action Research

Below are some things to consider when developing your applied dissertation proposal using Action Research (adapted from Johnson, 2019):

• Research Topic and Research Problem -- Decide the topic to be studied and then identify the problem by defining the issue in the learning environment. Use references from current peer-reviewed literature for support.
• Purpose of the Study —What need to be different or improved as a result of the study?
• Research Questions —The questions developed should focus on “how” or “what” and explore individuals’ experiences, beliefs, and perceptions.
• Theoretical Framework -- What are the existing theories (theoretical framework) or concepts (conceptual framework) that can be used to support the research. How does existing theory link to what is happening in the educational environment with regard to the topic? What theories have been used to support similar topics in previous research?
• Literature Review -- Examine the literature, focusing on peer-reviewed studies published in journal within the last five years, with the exception of seminal works. What about the topic has already been explored and examined? What were the findings, implications, and limitations of previous research? What is missing from the literature on the topic?  How will your proposed research address the gap in the literature?
• Data Collection —Who will be part of the sample for data collection? What data will be collected from the individuals in the study (e.g., semi-structured interviews, surveys, etc.)? What are the educational artifacts and documents that need to be collected (e.g., teacher less plans, student portfolios, student grades, etc.)? How will they be collected and during what timeframe? (Note--A list of sample data collection methods appears under the heading of “Sample Instrumentation.”)
• Data Analysis —Determine how the data will be analyzed. Some types of analyses that are frequently used for action research include thematic analysis and content analysis.
• Implications —What conclusions can be drawn based upon the findings? How do the findings relate to the existing literature and inform theory in the field of education?
• Recommendations for Practice--Create a Plan of Action— This is a critical step in action research. A plan of action is created based upon the data analysis, findings, and implications. In the Applied Dissertation, this Plan of Action is included with the Recommendations for Practice. The includes specific steps that individuals should take to change practices; recommendations for how those changes will occur (e.g., professional development, training, school improvement planning, committees to develop guidelines and policies, curriculum review committee, etc.); and methods to evaluate the plan’s effectiveness.
• Recommendations for Research —What should future research focus on? What type of studies need to be conducted to build upon or further explore your findings.
• Professional Presentation or Defense —This is where the findings will be presented in a professional presentation or defense as the culmination of your research.

Adapted from Johnson (2019).

Considerations for Sampling and Data Collection

Below are some tips for sampling, sample size, data collection, and instrumentation for Action Research:

Sampling and Sample Size

Action research uses non-probability sampling. This is most commonly means a purposive sampling method that includes specific inclusion and exclusion criteria. However, convenience sampling can also be used (e.g., a teacher’s classroom).

Critical Concepts in Data Collection

Triangulation- - Dosemagen and Schwalbach (2019) discussed the importance of triangulation in Action Research which enhances the trustworthiness by providing multiple sources of data to analyze and confirm evidence for findings.

Trustworthiness —Trustworthiness assures that research findings are fulfill four critical elements—credibility, dependability, transferability, and confirmability. Reflect on the following: Are there multiple sources of data? How have you ensured credibility, dependability, transferability, and confirmability? Have the assumptions, limitations, and delimitations of the study been identified and explained? Was the sample a representative sample for the study? Did any individuals leave the study before it ended? How have you controlled researcher biases and beliefs? Are you drawing conclusions that are not supported by data? Have all possible themes been considered? Have you identified other studies with similar results?

Sample Instrumentation

Below are some of the possible methods for collecting action research data:

• Pre- and Post-Surveys for students and/or staff
• Staff Perception Surveys and Questionnaires
• Semi-Structured Interviews
• Focus Groups
• Observations
• Document analysis
• Student work samples
• Classroom artifacts, such as teacher lesson plans, rubrics, checklists, etc.
• Attendance records
• Discipline data
• Journals from students and/or staff
• Portfolios from students and/or staff

A benefit of Action Research is its potential to influence educational practice. Many educators are, by nature of the profession, reflective, inquisitive, and action-oriented. The ultimate outcome of Action Research is to create a plan of action using the research findings to inform future educational practice. A Plan of Action is not meant to be a one-size fits all plan. Instead, it is mean to include specific data-driven and research-based recommendations that result from a detailed analysis of the data, the study findings, and implications of the Action Research study. An effective Plan of Action includes an evaluation component and opportunities for professional educator reflection that allows for authentic discussion aimed at continuous improvement.

When developing a Plan of Action, the following should be considered:

• How can this situation be approached differently in the future?
• What should change in terms of practice?
• What are the specific steps that individuals should take to change practices?
• What is needed to implement the changes being recommended (professional development, training, materials, resources, planning committees, school improvement planning, etc.)?
• How will the effectiveness of the implemented changes be evaluated?
• How will opportunities for professional educator reflection be built into the Action Plan?

Sample Action Research Studies

Anderson, A. J. (2020). A qualitative systematic review of youth participatory action research implementation in U.S. high schools. A merican Journal of Community Psychology, 65 (1/2), 242–257. https://onlinelibrary-wiley-com.proxy1.ncu.edu/doi/epdf/10.1002/ajcp.12389

Ayvaz, Ü., & Durmuş, S.(2021). Fostering mathematical creativity with problem posing activities: An action research with gifted students. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 40. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edselp&AN=S1871187121000614&site=eds-live

Bellino, M. J. (2018). Closing information gaps in Kakuma Refugee Camp: A youth participatory action research study. American Journal of Community Psychology, 62 (3/4), 492–507. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ofs&AN=133626988&site=eds-live

Beneyto, M., Castillo, J., Collet-Sabé, J., & Tort, A. (2019). Can schools become an inclusive space shared by all families? Learnings and debates from an action research project in Catalonia. Educational Action Research, 27 (2), 210–226. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=135671904&site=eds-live

Bilican, K., Senler, B., & Karısan, D. (2021). Fostering teacher educators’ professional development through collaborative action research. International Journal of Progressive Education, 17 (2), 459–472. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=149828364&site=eds-live

Black, G. L. (2021). Implementing action research in a teacher preparation program: Opportunities and limitations. Canadian Journal of Action Research, 21 (2), 47–71. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=149682611&site=eds-live

Bozkuş, K., & Bayrak, C. (2019). The Application of the dynamic teacher professional development through experimental action research. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 11 (4), 335–352. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=135580911&site=eds-live

Christ, T. W. (2018). Mixed methods action research in special education: An overview of a grant-funded model demonstration project. Research in the Schools, 25( 2), 77–88. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=135047248&site=eds-live

Jakhelln, R., & Pörn, M. (2019). Challenges in supporting and assessing bachelor’s theses based on action research in initial teacher education. Educational Action Research, 27 (5), 726–741. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=140234116&site=eds-live

Klima Ronen, I. (2020). Action research as a methodology for professional development in leading an educational process. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 64 . https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edselp&AN=S0191491X19302159&site=eds-live

Messiou, K. (2019). Collaborative action research: facilitating inclusion in schools. Educational Action Research, 27 (2), 197–209. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=135671898&site=eds-live

Mitchell, D. E. (2018). Say it loud: An action research project examining the afrivisual and africology, Looking for alternative African American community college teaching strategies. Journal of Pan African Studies, 12 (4), 364–487. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ofs&AN=133155045&site=eds-live

Pentón Herrera, L. J. (2018). Action research as a tool for professional development in the K-12 ELT classroom. TESL Canada Journal, 35 (2), 128–139. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ofs&AN=135033158&site=eds-live

Rodriguez, R., Macias, R. L., Perez-Garcia, R., Landeros, G., & Martinez, A. (2018). Action research at the intersection of structural and family violence in an immigrant Latino community: a youth-led study. Journal of Family Violence, 33 (8), 587–596. https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ccm&AN=132323375&site=eds-live

Vaughan, M., Boerum, C., & Whitehead, L. (2019). Action research in doctoral coursework: Perceptions of independent research experiences. International Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 13 . https://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsdoj&AN=edsdoj.17aa0c2976c44a0991e69b2a7b4f321&site=eds-live

Sample Journals for Action Research

Educational Action Research

Canadian Journal of Action Research

Sample Resource Videos

Call-Cummings, M. (2017). Researching racism in schools using participatory action research [Video]. Sage Research Methods  http://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?URL=https://methods.sagepub.com/video/researching-racism-in-schools-using-participatory-action-research

Fine, M. (2016). Michelle Fine discusses community based participatory action research [Video]. Sage Knowledge. http://proxy1.ncu.edu/login?URL=https://sk-sagepub-com.proxy1.ncu.edu/video/michelle-fine-discusses-community-based-participatory-action-research

Getz, C., Yamamura, E., & Tillapaugh. (2017). Action Research in Education. [Video]. You Tube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X2tso4klYu8

Bradbury, H. (Ed.). (2015). The handbook of action research (3rd edition). Sage.

Bradbury, H., Lewis, R. & Embury, D.C. (2019). Education action research: With and for the next generation. In C.A. Mertler (Ed.), The Wiley handbook of action research in education (1st edition). John Wiley and Sons. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/nu/reader.action?docID=5683581&ppg=205

Bourner, T., & Brook, C. (2019). Comparing and contrasting action research and action learning. In C.A. Mertler (Ed.), The Wiley handbook of action research in education (1st edition). John Wiley and Sons. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/nu/reader.action?docID=5683581&ppg=205

Bradbury, H. (2015). The Sage handbook of action research . Sage. https://www-doi-org.proxy1.ncu.edu/10.4135/9781473921290

Dosemagen, D.M. & Schwalback, E.M. (2019). Legitimacy of and value in action research. In C.A. Mertler (Ed.), The Wiley handbook of action research in education (1st edition). John Wiley and Sons. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/nu/reader.action?docID=5683581&ppg=205

Johnson, A. (2019). Action research for teacher professional development. In C.A. Mertler (Ed.), The Wiley handbook of action research in education (1st edition). John Wiley and Sons. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/nu/reader.action?docID=5683581&ppg=205

Lewin, K. (1946). Action research and minority problems. In G.W. Lewin (Ed.), Resolving social conflicts: Selected papers on group dynamics (compiled in 1948). Harper and Row.

Mertler, C. A. (Ed.). (2019). The Wiley handbook of action research in education. John Wiley and Sons. https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/nu/detail.action?docID=5683581

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Literature Reviews

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What is a literature review?

Why conduct a literature review, stages of a literature review, lit reviews: an overview (video), check out these books.

• Types of reviews
• 1. Define your research question
• 2. Plan your search
• 3. Search the literature
• 4. Organize your results
• 5. Synthesize your findings
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Definition: A literature review is a systematic examination and synthesis of existing scholarly research on a specific topic or subject.

Purpose: It serves to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge within a particular field.

Analysis: Involves critically evaluating and summarizing key findings, methodologies, and debates found in academic literature.

Identifying Gaps: Aims to pinpoint areas where there is a lack of research or unresolved questions, highlighting opportunities for further investigation.

Contextualization: Enables researchers to understand how their work fits into the broader academic conversation and contributes to the existing body of knowledge.

tl;dr  A literature review critically examines and synthesizes existing scholarly research and publications on a specific topic to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current state of knowledge in the field.

What is a literature review NOT?

❌ An annotated bibliography

❌ Original research

❌ A summary

❌ Something to be conducted at the end of your research

❌ An opinion piece

❌ A chronological compilation of studies

The reason for conducting a literature review is to:

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Writing a Literature Review

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A literature review is a document or section of a document that collects key sources on a topic and discusses those sources in conversation with each other (also called synthesis ). The lit review is an important genre in many disciplines, not just literature (i.e., the study of works of literature such as novels and plays). When we say “literature review” or refer to “the literature,” we are talking about the research ( scholarship ) in a given field. You will often see the terms “the research,” “the scholarship,” and “the literature” used mostly interchangeably.

Where, when, and why would I write a lit review?

There are a number of different situations where you might write a literature review, each with slightly different expectations; different disciplines, too, have field-specific expectations for what a literature review is and does. For instance, in the humanities, authors might include more overt argumentation and interpretation of source material in their literature reviews, whereas in the sciences, authors are more likely to report study designs and results in their literature reviews; these differences reflect these disciplines’ purposes and conventions in scholarship. You should always look at examples from your own discipline and talk to professors or mentors in your field to be sure you understand your discipline’s conventions, for literature reviews as well as for any other genre.

A literature review can be a part of a research paper or scholarly article, usually falling after the introduction and before the research methods sections. In these cases, the lit review just needs to cover scholarship that is important to the issue you are writing about; sometimes it will also cover key sources that informed your research methodology.

Lit reviews can also be standalone pieces, either as assignments in a class or as publications. In a class, a lit review may be assigned to help students familiarize themselves with a topic and with scholarship in their field, get an idea of the other researchers working on the topic they’re interested in, find gaps in existing research in order to propose new projects, and/or develop a theoretical framework and methodology for later research. As a publication, a lit review usually is meant to help make other scholars’ lives easier by collecting and summarizing, synthesizing, and analyzing existing research on a topic. This can be especially helpful for students or scholars getting into a new research area, or for directing an entire community of scholars toward questions that have not yet been answered.

What are the parts of a lit review?

Most lit reviews use a basic introduction-body-conclusion structure; if your lit review is part of a larger paper, the introduction and conclusion pieces may be just a few sentences while you focus most of your attention on the body. If your lit review is a standalone piece, the introduction and conclusion take up more space and give you a place to discuss your goals, research methods, and conclusions separately from where you discuss the literature itself.

Introduction:

• An introductory paragraph that explains what your working topic and thesis is
• A forecast of key topics or texts that will appear in the review
• Potentially, a description of how you found sources and how you analyzed them for inclusion and discussion in the review (more often found in published, standalone literature reviews than in lit review sections in an article or research paper)
• Summarize and synthesize: Give an overview of the main points of each source and combine them into a coherent whole
• Analyze and interpret: Don’t just paraphrase other researchers – add your own interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the literature as a whole
• Critically Evaluate: Mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
• Write in well-structured paragraphs: Use transition words and topic sentence to draw connections, comparisons, and contrasts.

Conclusion:

• Summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and emphasize their significance
• Connect it back to your primary research question

How should I organize my lit review?

Lit reviews can take many different organizational patterns depending on what you are trying to accomplish with the review. Here are some examples:

• Chronological : The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time, which helps familiarize the audience with the topic (for instance if you are introducing something that is not commonly known in your field). If you choose this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order. Try to analyze the patterns, turning points, and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field. Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred (as mentioned previously, this may not be appropriate in your discipline — check with a teacher or mentor if you’re unsure).
• Thematic : If you have found some recurring central themes that you will continue working with throughout your piece, you can organize your literature review into subsections that address different aspects of the topic. For example, if you are reviewing literature about women and religion, key themes can include the role of women in churches and the religious attitude towards women.
• Qualitative versus quantitative research
• Empirical versus theoretical scholarship
• Divide the research by sociological, historical, or cultural sources
• Theoretical : In many humanities articles, the literature review is the foundation for the theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts. You can argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach or combine various theorical concepts to create a framework for your research.

What are some strategies or tips I can use while writing my lit review?

Any lit review is only as good as the research it discusses; make sure your sources are well-chosen and your research is thorough. Don’t be afraid to do more research if you discover a new thread as you’re writing. More info on the research process is available in our "Conducting Research" resources .

As you’re doing your research, create an annotated bibliography ( see our page on the this type of document ). Much of the information used in an annotated bibliography can be used also in a literature review, so you’ll be not only partially drafting your lit review as you research, but also developing your sense of the larger conversation going on among scholars, professionals, and any other stakeholders in your topic.

Usually you will need to synthesize research rather than just summarizing it. This means drawing connections between sources to create a picture of the scholarly conversation on a topic over time. Many student writers struggle to synthesize because they feel they don’t have anything to add to the scholars they are citing; here are some strategies to help you:

• It often helps to remember that the point of these kinds of syntheses is to show your readers how you understand your research, to help them read the rest of your paper.
• Writing teachers often say synthesis is like hosting a dinner party: imagine all your sources are together in a room, discussing your topic. What are they saying to each other?
• Look at the in-text citations in each paragraph. Are you citing just one source for each paragraph? This usually indicates summary only. When you have multiple sources cited in a paragraph, you are more likely to be synthesizing them (not always, but often
• Read more about synthesis here.

The most interesting literature reviews are often written as arguments (again, as mentioned at the beginning of the page, this is discipline-specific and doesn’t work for all situations). Often, the literature review is where you can establish your research as filling a particular gap or as relevant in a particular way. You have some chance to do this in your introduction in an article, but the literature review section gives a more extended opportunity to establish the conversation in the way you would like your readers to see it. You can choose the intellectual lineage you would like to be part of and whose definitions matter most to your thinking (mostly humanities-specific, but this goes for sciences as well). In addressing these points, you argue for your place in the conversation, which tends to make the lit review more compelling than a simple reporting of other sources.

Improvement of Instruction Through Action Research (61-682/683)

Structure of a research article, how to write a literature review, why and how.

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17 - what is a literature review from Joshua Vossler on Vimeo .

"The purpose of a literature review is to help you explain how the question to be investigated fits into the larger picture and why you have approached the topic the way you have. This section of a scholarly report allows the reader to be brought up to date regarding the state of research in the field and familiarizes him or her to any contrasting perspectives and viewpoints on the topic."

"Summarize and explain what research has been done on the topic, citing the sources as you mention them. Point out the different ways researchers have treated the topic. Point out any connections between the sources especially where one source built upon prior study. Explain how this past work fits together to make your research question significant. Your literature review should present your synthesis of previous research and lay the foundation for understanding your research and appreciating its value."

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Literature review on the use of action research in higher education

2016, Educational Action Research

Related Papers

Journal of Further and Higher Education

Educational Action Research

Lily Orland-Barak

Denise Sweeney

Psychology Learning & Teaching

Cathal O'Siochru

Psychology lecturers are well-qualified to carry out action research which would contribute to the theoretical understanding of learning as well as having practical benefits for students. Researchers are urged to collect evidence to influence policy where higher education is facing new challenges, whether from changing economic conditions, technological developments, globalisation, student diversity, or greater expectations for personalised, engaging, and flexible learning. Five specific areas within the teaching of psychology are identified as offering rich opportunities for collaborative action research: study abroad, study skills for transition to university, engaging students with statistics, gamification, and teaching psychology to students from other disciplines. Pedagogical action research demonstrates how knowledge and skills in psychology can be applied to solve practical problems, providing role models of psychological literacy to students, who can also beneficially be involved as participant researchers. Pedagogical research is particularly desirable when students are learning a new way of thinking.

Kenan DİKİLİTAŞ , Ida Bruheim Jensen

Japie Heydenrych

Pieter Du Toit

Roxanne Greenidge-Waithe

British Educational Research Journal

Juny Montoya

JALT Journal

Jerry Gebhard

In this article I describe three action research projects done by teachers at Teachers College, Columbia University, Tokyo MA TESOL Program. I discuss the benefits of doing action research (how it helps us to make more informed teaching decisions; gain skills at posing and solving teaching problems; expand reflective skills; create a forum to discuss teaching issues and beliefs), as well as its limitations (a focus only on problems; a narrowly defined linear process). I then highlight other avenues to expand awareness, such as &quot;exploring to see what happens&quot; by trying the opposite, exploring &quot;what we actually do&quot; as opposed to &quot;what we think we do,&quot; considering &quot;what we believe in relation to what we do,&quot; and exploring to &quot;gain emotional clarity.&quot; アクションリサーチを使った教育について考える-検証例、利点と限界 本論文では、コロンビア大学ティーチャーズ･カレッジ東京校英語教授法修士課程プログラムで学ぶ教師たちによって行われた３つのアクションリサーチについて語り、アクションリサーチがもたらす利点（教師自身の自律した教育的判断能力、問題提示能力、解決能力、また、反省能力が高まること。教育やその信念について話し合う場が提供さ...

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Implementing Action Research in EFL/ESL Classrooms: a Systematic Review of Literature 2010–2019

• Published: 09 March 2020
• Volume 33 , pages 341–362, ( 2020 )

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• Amira Desouky Ali   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-4175-4194 1  

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Action research studies in education often address learners’ needs and empower practitioners to effectively change instructional practices and school communities. A systematic review of action research (AR) studies undertaken in EFL/ESL setting was conducted in this paper to systematically analyze empirical studies on action research published within a ten-year period (between 2010 and 2019). The review also aimed at investigating the focal themes in teaching the language skills at school level and evaluating the overall quality of AR studies concerning purpose, participants, and methodology. Inclusion criteria were established and 40 studies that fit were finally selected for the systematic review. Garrard’s ( 2007 ) Matrix Method was used to structure and synthesize the literature. Results showed a significant diversity in teaching the language skills and implementation of the AR model. Moreover, findings revealed that (50%) of the studies used a mixed-method approach followed by a qualitative method (37.5%); whereas only (12.5%) employed quantitative methodology. Research gaps for future action research in developing language skills were highlighted and recommendations were offered.

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Ali, A.D. Implementing Action Research in EFL/ESL Classrooms: a Systematic Review of Literature 2010–2019. Syst Pract Action Res 33 , 341–362 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11213-020-09523-y

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Use of Action Research in Nursing Education

Susan d. moch.

1 Department of Nursing, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, 105 Garfield Avenue, P.O. Box 4004, Eau Claire, WI 54702-4004, USA

R. Todd Vandenbark

2 Vogel Library, Wartburg College, No. 225, 100 Wartburg Blvd, P.O. Box 1003, Waverly, IA 50677, USA

Shelley-Rae Pehler

3 Department of Nursing, College of Nursing and Health Sciences, No. 219 Nursing Building, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire, 105 Garfield Ave, P.O. Box 4004, Eau Claire, WI 54702, USA

Angela Stombaugh

4 Center for Excellence in Teaching and Learning, University of WI-Eau Claire, Eau Claire, WI, USA

Purpose. The purpose of this article is to describe action research in nursing education and to propose a definition of action research for providing guidelines for research proposals and criteria for assessing potential publications for nursing higher education. Methods. The first part of this project involved a search of the literature on action research in nursing higher education from 1994 to 2013. Searches were conducted in the CINAHL and MEDLINE databases. Applying the criteria identified, 80 publications were reviewed. The second part of the project involved a literature review of action research methodology from several disciplines to assist in assessing articles in this review. Results. This article summarizes the nursing higher education literature reviewed and provides processes and content related to four topic areas in nursing higher education. The descriptions assist researchers in learning more about the complexity of both the action research process and the varied outcomes. The literature review of action research in many disciplines along with the review of action research in higher education provided a framework for developing a nursing-education-centric definition of action research. Conclusions. Although guidelines for developing action research and criteria for publication are suggested, continued development of methods for synthesizing action research is recommended.

1. Introduction

Despite the call for knowledge development in nursing education [ 1 – 3 ] and concerns about the lack of dissemination of nursing education knowledge [ 4 , 5 ], limited research to guide nursing education is available. The use of action research in knowledge development and in assessing nursing knowledge for publications could increase nursing knowledge. At its core, action research methodology involves a systematic research process and thoughtful reflection on the process for making a change. The purpose of this article is to describe action research in nursing education and to propose a definition of action research that provides both guidelines for action research proposals and criteria for potential action research publications in nursing higher education.

Although publications on action research are available in nursing higher education in some countries, the use of action research is much more prevalent in related disciplines. Use of action research is evident in addressing health disparities [ 6 , 7 ], leadership/organization development [ 8 – 11 ], and nursing practice in general [ 12 ]. Action research is also widely used within all levels of education. At the K-12 level, research is often discussed as personal or collaborative reflection to delineate educational outcomes [ 13 – 15 ]. According to some authors, action research in higher education makes the research more applicable to the real world through combining research and practice [ 16 , 17 ]. In 2005, Herr and Anderson [ 18 ] described how action research proposals and dissertations are evaluated. However, acceptance of action research in higher education has been difficult because of the historical focus on empirical research and behavioral outcomes [ 19 , 20 ] and because of misconceptions about action research itself [ 21 ].

Due to the increasing use of action research in many disciplines and the need for outcome research in nursing higher education, a review of action research in nursing higher education literature was undertaken to describe action research in nursing education. A definition of action research that provides both guidelines for developing action research proposals and criteria for assessing potential action research publications for nursing higher education was developed. And much like action research methodology, the process used in this review study was iterative, in that, after a review was completed, it became apparent that a clear, consistent, and actionable definition was needed. Using existing definitions and ideas from several disciplines, the authors propose a new definition of action research. For this project, the definition proposed was used in assessing the body of literature on nursing higher education research.

2.1. Literature Review Process of Action Research in Nursing

The first part of this project involved a search of the literature in nursing higher education related to action research. Searches were conducted in the CINAHL and MEDLINE databases using the search string “action research” AND nurs ∗ AND education , including all articles from 1994 to 2013. Initially, 386 articles were retrieved. They were initially evaluated based on review of each title and abstract, eliminating those articles that were dissertations, conference abstracts, or articles pertaining to nursing practice. Also eliminated were items not directly related to nursing education, such as postdegree continuing education, as well as those that did not offer a description of a systematic research processes. Since few of the articles before 2003 described the research process and met the criteria identified, a decision was made to eliminate those published before 2003, leaving 80 publications.

While completing the initial review, the research team found that not having a consistent definition for action research hampered their efforts for determining which articles should be included in the review. Based on the initial review of articles, a working definition for action research was developed (described in detail below). The remaining 80 citations were then reviewed in detail, with an additional 41 being articles eliminated because they did not meet the criteria of the author definition as identified from a second general literature review on action research definitions. The final inclusion criteria for the higher education research articles were as follows:

• Published between 2003 and 2013
• Related to higher education in nursing
• Indicated which action research methodology was used
• Included a clear description of the research methodology
• Stated which data collection processes were employed
• Analyzed findings and/or process of the research

This process is diagrammed in Figure 1 .

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. building a definition of action research.

The many variations in approaches to action research became apparent in the nursing education literature review. Reviewing the nursing articles initially included looking at all research articles that included action research in nursing higher education. However, as stated earlier, upon review of the higher education articles, many variations of “action research” were found. Therefore, a review of definitions and key concepts of action research was completed to develop criteria for inclusion of articles for the review. The following paragraphs include both definitions and key concepts of action research from a variety of disciplines.

Action research methods are based on many broad philosophical and theoretical traditions such as Freire [ 22 ], Lewin [ 23 ], and Schön [ 11 ]. The various traditions and the manner in which action research is employed in the disciplines provide great diversity in action research. In addition, definitions of action research within disciplines can often emphasize different components. Discussion of these traditions and/or definitions within the research report can provide important information for framing the research and is suggested. For instance, within the body of organizational development literature, action research is “a term for describing a spectrum of activities that focus on research, planning, theorizing, learning, and development” which includes a “process of research and learning through the researcher's long-term relationship with a problem” [ 24 , p. 4]. Another important reference to action research in education clarifies that both action and research are involved in the term so that systematic data collection processes must be in place for the research component [ 25 ]. The “action” in the research can involve evaluation of a process being used or demonstration of a change over time, both of which require clear data collection processes. Action research, often used in educational research [ 26 ], is promoted as a way to integrate teaching and learning [ 27 ]. Kemmis [ 28 ] promotes the importance of both knowledge and change as results through action research. From a social sciences perspective, Reason and Bradbury [ 29 ] describe action research as a participatory process for developing practical knowledge for solutions to issues of importance. In a later article, Bradbury Huang [ 21 ] emphasized the importance of the integration of practice and research or the merging of “understand and act” (pg. 93) and promote “actionability” (pg. 103) as important to the research process. In the same article, Bradbury Huang also shared “suggestions” for publishing articles in the Action Research journal.

Within nursing, action research definitions have been proposed and used in the organization of reported research. Margaret Newman, an early nurse theorist, proposed an action research definition in Theory Development in Nursing [ 30 ]. According to Newman, action research involves “the collaboration of the researcher in the real-world situation of the client system with the purposes of improving the situation, developing the competencies of the system, and generating new knowledge” (p. 71). Although useful for a general understanding of the action research process, this definition does not provide enough direction for nurse educators in developing research and publishing outcomes. Winter and Munn-Giddings [ 31 ] describe action research as a “single activity which is simultaneously a form of inquiry and a form of practical action” (p. 5) and “involves people in a process of change, which is based in professional, organizational or community action” (p. 5). Four types of research foci for action research were proposed by Hart and Bond [ 32 ] and used to organize research in a nursing-related evidence-based practice article [ 12 ]. The four types, based on the theoretical underpinnings of action research, included the following: experimental, organizational, professionalizing, and empowering.

In a systematic literature review of action research published in the Journal of Research in Nursing , Munn-Giddings and colleagues found 24 different names attributed to the action research method [ 33 ]. Terms often associated with action research in nursing include community-based action research, participatory action research, appreciative inquiry, cooperative inquiry, praxis, process knowledge, reflective practice, and pattern recognition. Although definitions for some of these research processes exist, the definitions do not provide enough direction for nursing education research and publication.

3.2. Action Research Definition

Action research methodology is a systematic research process that can be articulated by the researcher, involving data collection and analysis as well as reflection and discussion with coresearchers or others for the purpose of making change in a situation over time .

This proposed definition addresses a number of shortcomings in the existing literature, both in and out of nursing education. It can provide researchers with a common starting point for conducting higher education research, where, because of the stage of knowledge development, the participation of collaborators in change, or for other reasons, using more traditional research through involving control groups, large numbers of subjects, or multiple sites may not be appropriate.

The definition calls for a systematic research process that can be articulated by the researcher , which assists in developing and publishing research. Adding the component of that can be articulated by the researcher is important because action research can include great variability in process, but the need for describing how the research was done is important to research development and dissemination in nursing education. Involving data collection and analysis is essential for identifying research outcomes as called for in nursing.

The components of reflection and discussion with coresearchers or others include the need to demonstrate reflection on the research in order to consider important factors that may affect the outcomes. The discussion component also includes the possibility of collaboration with practice partners to affect change or the implementation of the research. Including collaborations with coresearchers such as students or community partners in the development and process of the research project is also possible. At times, reflection includes representatives of those directly affected by any proposed changes, such as in participatory action research or community-based collaboration. While this methodology directly involves the researchers in an iterative and reflective research process, varying degrees of participation can be employed [ 34 ]. Reflection and discussion with coresearchers may be less relevant in some nursing education contexts.

Making a change in a situation over time implies that such research is primarily concerned with outcomes such as change leading to improvement with quality data and analysis resulting in dissemination of knowledge. Making change is important in action research and is implied in its name, including and involving both action (change) and research. This often involves engagement with a project for several years, such as continual improvement in learning outcomes which contributes to change over time. It is collaborative in nature, with the researcher(s) playing the part of active participant or actor in the research. And the power of this role can be used to promote change and create new knowledge [ 35 ].

As described previously, the author definition provided a general framework for exclusion of articles within the action research in higher education literature review. The final 39 articles selected included a systematic research process, and many, but not all, incorporated reflection and discussion with coresearchers or others for the purpose of making change in a situation over time . However, since the components of the action research definition emerged from both the review of action research definitions and the nursing education action research articles, a decision was made to retain reflection and discussion with coresearchers or others and making change in a situation over time in the definition.

3.3. Applying the Definition Structure

The following is a summary of the action research articles found in nursing higher education. Summarizing action research is challenging because all elements of the action research process and its outcomes (such as all the components of the definition) are important for understanding the research. For instance, a systematic research process that can be articulated by the researcher may be different for each study due to the use of different yet valid processes. Often the description of the research is detailed and includes how the collaborators were involved or how data was collected through meetings, discussions, or surveys. In addition, challenges arise in summarizing this particular literature research because the topic of  “action research in nursing higher education” is very broad. No narrowing of the research focus was used in this study, so many different topics, processes, and collaborations are included. Thus the articles are organized according to four general topic areas in nursing higher education with the purpose of providing an overview of the subject matter and the types of action research available. The author intent is to encourage understanding about the possibilities that exist in conducting action research in regard to content focus as well as in variety of methodology. A summary table of some information is included (see Table 1 ), but the central idea or topic of the articles within each group is also presented in narrative form through summaries to assist readers and potential future researchers considering an action research approach. To facilitate greater understanding of this methodology, the research process from one article is highlighted at the end of each summary to demonstrate action research process within each topic area. Within each article example, action research issues such as the research tradition, dilemmas in conducting the research, and identified “action” for the research are also shared if identified in the research report.

Overview of review articles' focus, participants/researchers, and data collection tools.

The general topic areas are as follows:

• Theory: research conducted in a nonclinical, in-classroom setting, often with a focus on knowledge sharing
• Clinical: instruction-related research with an experiential component
• Curricular: research applied to nursing curriculum at the department or school/college level
• Graduate: focus on research with students in nursing graduate programs.

3.4. Theory

The use of action research methodology to improve or enrich student learning in nursing education ranged from the individual instructor to the class as a whole and from lecture content to facilitating professional development. Research within the classroom involved student feedback that shifted the focus of lectures from the instructor to the students [ 36 ]; improved the structure and effectiveness of cooperative learning activities [ 37 ]; refocused course content from family health policy to clinical ethics [ 38 ]; incorporated artistic aspects of the humanities into two graduate-level nursing classes [ 39 ]; and helped deepen nursing students' understanding of the challenges of living in poverty [ 40 ]. Also, a participatory action research approach helped administrators better understand the needs of clinical facilitators who supervise student nurses which led to increased feedback and mentoring among facilitators [ 41 ]. The diversity in approaches, settings, and areas of focus demonstrate how action research can bring real and immediate improvements to nursing education courses.

As an example of how one article discusses the action research process, Smith-Stoner and Molle [ 37 ] sought to develop a systematic way of implementing cooperative learning in the nursing classroom using action research to evaluate their efforts. They wanted to determine if cooperative learning could improve learning outcomes. The authors cite several theoretical and action research definition sources and note that classroom action research was used. Their research progressed through four cycles of action followed by reflection, with student feedback serving as the data collected each step of the way. Meeting every two weeks, faculty reflected on their successes, challenges, and student reactions to the variation in instruction format. Limited dilemmas were reported and the action portion of the research involved changes in classes that was articulated and instituted. The reflection and discussion among the “actors” or coresearchers also encouraged learning about teaching. Implications for using cooperative learning with nursing students are identified.

3.5. Clinical

For the articles related to the clinical experience, the purpose of the action research design varied greatly. Research that included patients or the community allowed students to partner with parents who have children with disabilities [ 42 ] and to help a community prepare for a disaster [ 43 ]. Other articles involved working to improve communication between students and nurses in the clinical setting [ 44 ]; developing a new teaching strategy to improve therapeutic communication in nursing students [ 45 ]; designing a new clinical role to improve the theory/practice gap [ 46 ]; exposing students to working in long-term care [ 47 ]; developing interprofessional collaboration during simulation-based learning [ 48 ]; and applying new strategies for student evaluation. Some student evaluation strategies included a portfolio approach [ 49 ] and patient involvement in student evaluation [ 50 ]. Such a variety of situations and problems addressed by action research in the reviewed literature demonstrates how action research was used to increase nursing outcome knowledge in clinical aspects of nursing education.

Research on efforts to attract nursing students to aged care [ 47 ] provides an example of applying action research in a clinical setting. In order to overcome nursing students' perception of caring for the elderly as unattractive at best, researchers and nurse preceptors collaborated to create a more welcoming and supportive orientation for student nurses. Applying Kemmis' [ 51 ] definition of action research, Robinson and colleagues facilitated critical self-reflections and critique among the preceptors in order to “develop and implement strategies to address problem issues” (p. 356). The research processes are clearly described and demonstrate change over time. Data is collected and analyzed at each stage and presented in table form as quotes, combined with a set of recommendations. Dilemmas in conducting the research are not described, but the actions on the part of the researchers and nurse preceptors demonstrated a difference in student perceptions of aged care.

3.6. Curricular

Twenty-three articles in this review focused on the curricular aspects of nursing education. While resulting changes varied greatly, five general themes emerged in the use of an action research approach. First, concepts infused throughout the curriculum were often explored, including professional identity [ 52 ], caring [ 53 ], and cultural safety [ 54 ]. A second theme was action research that required collaboration and partnerships among hospitals and universities to advance the curricula [ 55 – 60 ]. Third, action research was used to initiate curricula change related to degree requirements [ 61 , 62 ] and assessment [ 49 , 63 , 64 ]. Fourth, a number of articles focused on making innovative curricular changes to address student or faculty concerns [ 65 – 70 ]. Action research was also used to focus on student selection [ 71 ] and retention [ 72 , 73 ] as well as encouraging student involvement in faculty research [ 74 ]. The large volume of articles in the literature suggests that the method is fluid enough to work with complicated problems that stretch beyond one course.

One research example that demonstrates change over time described a several year action research process that encouraged dialogue and identified outcomes related to involving practice partners in the educational process [ 56 ]. The study focused on perceived needs of practice partners to continue collaboration within the university despite no payment for clinical teaching and other services. Participatory action research was cited as the tradition or definition used in the research process. The many political and contextual variables related to payment and volunteer involvement by practitioners were identified through the process. The identification of these variables involved making frequent decisions about how to include the information from the many data sources such as meeting notes, discussions, interviews, reflective diaries and formal reports. The researchers also discussed continued attention to the “participatory” nature of the action research process used. The action aspect of the study identified the complex dialogue, the participatory process involved, and the possible strategies for university leaders to adopt in regard to continued collaboration with service partners.

3.7. Graduate

A majority of the curricular articles reviewed focus on undergraduate and certificate-level programs. The investigations into changes at the graduate level involved evaluation and development of graduate curricula with practice partners, students, and educators. Articles that focused on advanced-practice clinical or community health included using portfolios to prompt student self-evaluation of learning [ 63 ], developing a framework for organizational partnerships in midwifery education [ 55 ] and sharing qualitative data from meetings and focus groups in evaluating unpaid clinical supervision in a university setting [ 56 ]. Other graduate-related research included creating an alternative yet sustainable model of online learning through flexible curriculum design [ 75 ], critically examining the implementation of a specialist in nursing education postgraduate degree offered by 5 universities over 2.5 years [ 62 ]; integrating the humanities into graduate-level nursing education [ 39 ]; involving advanced-practice nursing students in faculty research [ 74 ]; incorporating research, evaluation, and reflection into daily teaching practice [ 38 ]; facilitating effective online student interactions [ 66 ]; mentoring young, emerging nursing leaders as a part of succession-planning [ 69 ]. These publications offer concrete examples of how an action research approach could enhance and enrich the graduate education experience.

A community health example of action research in nursing education outlines a very significant but difficult area to study using more traditional research approaches [ 67 ]. The authors describe a collaborative approach to developing course materials with community teaching partners and students while incorporating collaborative decision making and the various contexts involved with student experiences. The authors describe the research tradition of cooperative inquiry used and articulate the collaborative process between faculty, providers and students. Outcomes for the project include specific modules such as “Specialist Nursing in the Home” that was developed through dialogue between students and clinical teaching partners to assist students in learning about making clinical decisions together while employing knowledge of the home and neighborhood context. The outcomes of this project provides impetus for action for others interested in a similar topic and also provides examples of course modules. In action research methodology, both the process of the research and the product of the research provide knowledge and contribute to the “actionability” of the project. The process of this research provided many dilemmas, such as choosing the research tradition, concern about identifying outcomes, and time necessary for self-reflection among the researchers. Initially the group sought to include students and community practice partners in the self-reflective process, but due to the outside demands of time for these groups, the self-reflection component of the project included only nurse lecturers.

4. Conclusions

This review provides an overview of the use of action research in nursing higher education literature. Because a previous review of practice articles included no definition of action research for this field [ 33 ], a clear and actionable definition was conceived by the authors of this paper. The definition was based on both a review of action research definitions and a review of action research articles in nursing education. Many components of the definition were then used to critically evaluate the body of literature on action research in higher education. Many articles found in this search had a limited or nonexistent description of action research methodology or lacked a systematic data collection process and were therefore excluded.

Even though Newman [ 30 ] advocated early on for use of action research in nursing due to the direct connection to practice, limited use is evident in nursing education. Clear and reproducible examples guided by an action research definition are needed to spotlight the research potential in the types of instruction and critical evaluation projects nurse educators complete. And while many of the articles provide evidence of outcomes for nursing education, summarizing the existing literature was made more difficult by the myriad and diverse ways action research has been applied to nursing higher education. The following recommendations were formulated to facilitate the development of more outcome knowledge for nursing higher education:

• Use the clear and actionable definition provided in this review for applying criteria for research development.
• Use the definition to provide publishers and reviewers criteria for reviewing potential action research publications.
• Develop and refine a method for efficiently and effectively sharing action research summaries for use in nursing education.

New knowledge to improve nursing higher education is needed and use of action research can help fill this gap. Through action research, variables such as context, collaboration with others, and change over time can be incorporated into the research. Enhancement of nursing education should include further development of effective knowledge transfer to clinical practice, process and outcome for interdisciplinary learning, best practices for learning about teaching for nursing professors, and skills for enabling use of research evidence for future clinicians. Some examples of possible action research projects that include current trends in healthcare include the following:

• Nursing faculty and interdisciplinary community healthcare teams collaborating to identify student roles in health promotion for obesity
• Within dedicated units in hospitals, nursing faculty and students, together with hospital staff develop clinical experiences across time that improve student learning while giving back to the unit
• Community partners joining with nursing students and faculty to promote the needs of young children in lieu of an acute care pediatric experience.

A review of publications in nursing education literature on this topic resulted in narrative reporting in four topic areas: theory, clinical, curricular, and graduate. A nursing-education-centric definition of action research was created based on the nursing literature review and review of action research in many disciplines and then used to evaluate nursing literature. The definition can also be used for assessing potential action research publications. Many of the articles initially reviewed lacked either a clear methodology or systematic data collection. This article summarizes the literature reviewed and provides topics, processes, and outcomes related to several areas in nursing higher education. The descriptions and discussions of the four examples from each topic area can assist researchers in learning more about the complexity of both the action research process and the varied outcomes. Although guidelines for developing action research and criteria for publication are suggested through the definition, the continuing development of methods for synthesizing the research is also essential for knowledge development.

Competing Interests

The authors declare no competing interests.