what is natural experiment psychology

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Whilst oftentimes people tend to think of experiments occurring in laboratories and controlled settings, psychologists also consider real-world environments as opportunities to investigate phenomena. Behaviour changes depending on the setting, and investigating research areas in their natural settings can amplify the validity of the findings. Natural experiments offer researchers the opportunity to investigate human behaviour in everyday life. 

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Which of the following experiments does not involve the researcher manipulating the independent variable? 

True or false: Similar to lab experiments, natural experiments are conducted in controlled settings.

True or false: Confounding/ extraneous variables can be an issue in natural experiments. 

After Hurricane Katrina, researchers wanted to investigate how the natural disaster affected mental health. What type of experiment is likely to be conducted? 

Sampling bias can be an issue in natural experiments; this can influence the research's...

True or false: Ethical issues can be a potential concern for natural experiments. 

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Jump to a key chapter

• We are going to explore natural experiments used in psychological research.
• We will start by highlighting the natural experiment definition.
• We will then explore how natural experiments are used in psychology and cover natural experiment examples of research to demonstrate to help illustrate our points.
• Moving on, we will cover natural and field experiments to highlight the differences between the two types of investigations.
• And to finish, we will explore the natural experiment's advantages and disadvantages.

Natural Experiment Defintion

Natural experiments are essentially experiments that investigate naturally occurring phenomena. The natural experiment definition is a research procedure that occurs in the participant's natural setting that requires no manipulation by the researcher.

In experiments, changes in the independent variable (IV) are observed to identify if these changes affect the dependent variable (DV). However, in natural experiments, the researcher does not manipulate the IV. Instead, they observe the natural changes that occur.

Some examples of naturally occurring IVs are sex at birth, whether people have experienced a natural disaster, experienced a traumatic experience, or been diagnosed with a specific illness.

These examples show that it's next to impossible for the researcher to manipulate these.

Natural Experiment: Psychology

Why may researchers choose to use a natural experiment? As we have just discussed, sometimes researchers can't manipulate the IV. But, they may still wish to see how changes in the IV affect the DV, so use a natural experiment.

Sometimes a researcher can manipulate the IV, but it may be unethical or impractical to do so, so they conduct a natural experiment.

In natural experiments, the researcher can see how changes in the IV affect a DV, but unlike in lab experiments, the researcher has to identify how the IV is changing. In contrast, lab experiments pre-determine how the IV will be manipulated.

Natural Experiment: Examples

Natural experiments often take place in real-world settings. An example can be seen in examining the effect of female and male performance in an office environment and if gender plays a role in the retention of customers. Other examples include examining behaviours in schools, and the effect age has on behaviour.

Let's look at a hypothetical study that uses a natural experiment research method.

A research team was interested in investigating attitudes towards the community after experiencing a natural disaster.

The study collected data using interviews. The IV was naturally occurring as the researcher did not manipulate the IV; instead, they recruited participants who had recently experienced a natural disaster.

Natural Experiment vs Field Experiment

The table below summarises the key similarities and differences between natural experiments vs field experiments.

Natural Experiment: Advantages and Disadvantages

In the following section will present the natural experiment's advantages and disadvantages. We will discuss the new research possibilities, causal conclusions, rare opportunities, pre-existing sampling bias and ethical issues.

New Research Opportunities

Natural experiments provide opportunities for research that can't be done for ethical and practical reasons.

For example, it is impossible to manipulate a natural disaster or maternal deprivation on participants.

So, natural experiments are the only ethical way for researchers to investigate the causal relationship of the above topics. Thus, natural experiments open up practical research opportunities to study conditions that cannot be manipulated.

High Ecological Validity

Natural experiments have high ecological validity because natural experiments study real-world problems that occur naturally in real-life settings.

When research is found to use and apply real-life settings and techniques, it is considered to have high mundane realism.

And the advantage of this is that the results are more likely applicable and generalisable to real-life situations.

Rare Opportunities

There are scarce opportunities for researchers to conduct a natural experiment. Most natural events are ‘one-off’ situations. Because natural events are unique, the results have limited generalisability to similar situations.

In addition, it is next to impossible for researchers to replicate natural experiments; therefore, it is difficult to establish the reliability of findings.

Pre-Existing Sampling Bias

In natural experiments, pre-existing sampling bias can be a problem. In natural experiments, researchers cannot randomly assign participants to different conditions because naturally occurring events create them. Therefore, in natural experiments, participant differences may act as confounding variables .

As a result, sample bias in natural experiments can lead to low internal validity and generalisability of the research.

Ethical Issues

Although natural experiments are considered the only ethically acceptable method for studying conditions that can't be manipulated, ethical issues may still arise. Because natural experiments are often conducted after traumatic events, interviewing or observing people after the event could cause psychological harm to participants.

Researchers should prepare for potential ethical issues, such as psychological harm, usually dealt with by offering therapy. However, this can be pretty costly. And the ethical issue may lead participants to drop out of the research, which can also affect the quality of the research.

Natural Experiment - Key takeaways

The natural experiment definition is a research procedure that occurs in the participant's natural setting that requires no manipulation of the researcher.

The advantages of natural experiments are that they provide opportunities for research that researchers cannot do for ethical or practical reasons and have high ecological validity.

The disadvantages of natural experiments are reliability issues, pre-existing sample bias, and ethical issues, such as conducting a study after traumatic events may cause psychological distress.

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Frequently Asked Questions about Natural Experiment

What is a natural experiment?

The natural experiment definition is a research procedure that occurs in the participant's natural setting that requires no manipulation of the researcher. 

What is an example of natural experiment?

Beckett (2006) investigated the effects of deprivation on children’s IQ at age 11. They compared 128 Romanian children who UK families had adopted at various ages and 50 UK children who had been adopted before six months. They found that Romanian children who had been adopted before six months of age had similar IQs to the UK children; however, Romanian children adopted after six months of age had much worse scores. 

What are the characteristics of a natural experiment?

The characteristics of natural experiments are that they are carried out in a natural setting and the IV is not manipulated in this type of experiment. 

What are the advantages and disadvantages of natural experiments?

And the disadvantages of natural experiments are reliability issues, pre-existing sample bias, and ethical issues, such as conducting a study after traumatic events may cause psychological distress.

What are natural experiments in research?

Natural experiments in psychology research are often used when manipulating a variable is unethical or impractical.

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Naturalistic Observation: Definition, Examples, and Advantages

Naturalistic observation is a psychological research method that involves observing and recording behavior in the natural environment. Unlike experiments, researchers do not manipulate variables. This research method is frequently used in psychology to help researchers investigate human behavior. This article explores how naturalistic observation is used in psychology. It offers examples and the potential advantages…

In this article

Naturalistic observation is a psychological research method that involves observing and recording behavior in the natural environment. Unlike experiments, researchers do not manipulate variables. This research method is frequently used in psychology to help researchers investigate human behavior.

This article explores how naturalistic observation is used in psychology. It offers examples and the potential advantages and disadvantages of this type of research. 

What Is Naturalistic Observation?

In naturalistic observation, the researcher observes the participants’ behavior in their natural setting, taking notes on their behavior and interactions. The researcher may use various tools, such as video or audio recordings, to help capture the behavior accurately. The researcher may also use coding systems or other quantitative measures to systematically record observed behavior.

Naturalistic observation can be used to investigate a wide range of psychological phenomena, such as social interaction patterns, parental behavior, or animal behavior. 

Types of Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation can be:

Unstructured or Structured

The observer can either watch and record everything that happens, or they can have a checklist or form to guide their observations.

Participant or Non-Participant

The observer can be an active participant, or they can remain separate from the subject and view from the sidelines.

Overt or Covert

The observer can either openly watch and record the subjects’ behaviors, or they can keep their presence hidden from the individual or group.

The specific type of naturalistic observation that researchers use depends on the situation, what they are researching, and the resources available. No matter the type, the observation must occur in a natural setting rather than in an experimental lab.

How to Collect Data in Naturalistic Observation

There are a number of methods that researchers might utilize to record data about the behaviors and events they observe. Some of these include:

• Note-taking : Research may opt to take notes about what they witness. This approach tends to be unstructured, allowing the observers to determine what they think is relevant and to include insights that may be helpful.
• Tally counts : In other cases, research may take a more structured approach where they count the frequency of a behavior.
• Audiovisual recordings : In other cases, research may want recordings of participant behavior. This not only allows researchers to refer to the recordings later, it can also be useful for sharing with others.

How Data Is Sampled in Naturalistic Observation

While naturalistic observation is not an experimental design, researchers still want to ensure that the data they collect represents what is happening in the group. To do this, researchers must collect a representative sample. When a sample is representative, it means that it accurately reflects what is happening in a given population.

To do this, researchers may utilize three primary sampling approaches:

Event Sampling

Event sampling involves the researcher creating a set of predefined categories and behaviors they will observe. This method is useful when the researcher wants to collect data on specific behaviors or events, allowing for more precise data collection.

Using this approach, the research would note every occurrence of a specific behavior.

Situation Sampling

Situation sampling involves observing participants in more than one situation. This approach can give researchers more insight and allow them to determine if certain behaviors only occur in specific contexts or settings. 

Time Sampling

Time sampling is a type of systematic observation that involves the researcher observing and recording the subjects’ behavior at predetermined intervals. This method is useful when the researcher wants to collect data on the frequency and duration of specific behaviors.

Each method of data collection has its strengths and weaknesses, and the choice of method depends on the research question and the nature of the subjects being observed.

Examples of Naturalistic Observation

It can be helpful to look at a few different examples to learn more about how naturalistic observation can be used:

• Researchers might observe children in a classroom to learn more about their social interaction patterns. 
• Naturalistic observation can also be used to study animal behavior in their natural habitat, such as observing chimpanzees in the wild to understand their social behavior.

Researchers use this research method in various fields, including animal researchers and anthropologists. 

The work of zoologist Konrad Lorenz, for example, relied on the use of naturalistic observation. Lorenz observed the behavior of ducklings after they hatched and noted that they became attached to the first possible parent figure they saw, a phenomenon known as imprinting. Once imprinted on a parent figure, the duckling would follow and learn from their parent.

From his naturalistic observations, Lorenz hypothesized that there was a critical period immediately after hatching where ducklings needed to imprint on a parent. Based on his observations, Lorenz conducted further experiments that confirmed his hypothesis.

More Examples of Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used in various areas of psychology. 

Social Psychology

Naturalistic observation can provide valuable insights into people’s behavior in different social situations. By observing people’s behavior in a crowded public place like a shopping mall or train station, researchers can better understand how social norms are established and maintained and how people interact in various social groups.

Consumer Research

Consumer research is another area where naturalistic observation can be used effectively. By observing shoppers in a grocery store or shopping mall, researchers can study how people make purchasing decisions in real-life situations.

Researchers can gain valuable insights into consumer behavior by analyzing what catches their attention, how they interact with different products, and how they decide what to buy.

Developmental Psychology

Observing children playing in a playground or a classroom can help researchers understand how children develop and learn new skills in natural settings.

Researchers can gain insights into the developmental process by observing children as they interact with each other and learn social skills or as they learn new concepts and skills in a classroom.

Cognitive Psychology

Naturalistic observation can be used to study how people think and process information in real-life situations. For example, observing people using a computer program can help researchers understand how people navigate through it and solve problems.

Similarly, observing people in a conversation can provide insights into how they process and respond to information in real time.

Advantages of Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation offers a number of benefits that can make it a good choice for research. 

Ecological Validity

One of the strengths of naturalistic observation is its ability to capture behavior in a natural setting, providing a more accurate and comprehensive picture of how people or animals behave in their everyday environment.

It is often more realistic than lab research, so it can give insight into how people behave authentically in everyday settings and situations.

Inspiration for Additional Research

Naturalistic observation can also generate new hypotheses and insights that may not be captured in other research methods. 

Research That Can’t Be Done in a Lab

Naturalistic observation allows the study of behaviors that cannot be replicated in a lab. Naturalistic observation is sometimes the only approach for studying behaviors that cannot be reproduced in a lab due to ethical reasons.

For example, researchers might use this approach to research prison behavior or the social impact of domestic violence on emotional health. Those are not situations they can manipulate in a lab, but they can observe the impact on people who have had those experiences.

Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation

While naturalistic can be a valuable tool, it is not appropriate for every situation. Some potential downsides include: 

Bias and Lack of Control

Naturalistic observation is limited by its lack of environmental control and the potential for observer bias. Researchers must be careful to minimize the influence of their presence on the behavior being observed and to use systematic and objective methods for recording and analyzing the data. 

Inability to Infer Cause and Effect

Naturalistic observation is also limited by its inability to establish causality between variables.

Naturalistic Observation vs. Case Study

Naturalistic observation and case studies are both research methods used in psychology but differ in their approach and purpose. Naturalistic observation involves observing and recording the behavior of individuals or groups in their natural environment without any intervention or manipulation by the researcher.

On the other hand, a case study is an in-depth analysis of a single individual or a small group of individuals, often conducted through interviews, surveys, and other forms of data collection.

The key difference between naturalistic observation and a case study is that the former focuses more on observing and recording behaviors and interactions as they occur naturally, while the latter focuses on gathering detailed information about a specific individual or group.

Naturalistic observation is often used to study social interactions, group dynamics, and other natural behaviors in real-world settings. In contrast, case studies often explore complex psychological phenomena such as mental illness, personality disorders, or unusual behaviors.

Both naturalistic observation and case studies have their strengths and limitations. The choice of method depends on the research question, the level of detail needed, and the feasibility of conducting the study in a particular setting.

Naturalistic Observation Ideas

There are many potential ideas for studies that involve naturalistic observation. A few ideas include:

• Observe the behavior of animals in their natural habitats, studying their patterns of movement, foraging, and communication
• Observe human behavior in public spaces, such as parks or coffee shops, documenting patterns of social interaction and communication
• Focus on the behavior of individuals within specific social groups or communities, studying their interactions and relationships over time
• Watch the behavior of children in a classroom setting could provide insights into their learning and socialization processes

Frequently Asked Questions

Why do we use naturalistic observation.

Naturalistic observation is important because it allows researchers to better understand how individuals behave in their everyday lives. By observing behavior in a natural setting, researchers can obtain a more accurate representation of how people act and interact with each other in their normal environment. 

This method is particularly useful when studying social behavior, as it allows researchers to capture the complexity and nuances of social interactions that might not be apparent in a laboratory setting.

Naturalistic observation can also offer valuable insights into the development of certain behaviors, such as those related to child development or the formation of social groups.

What is the most famous example of naturalistic observation?

The most famous example of naturalistic observation is probably Jane Goodall’s study of chimpanzees in the wild. Goodall spent years observing the behavior of chimpanzees in Tanzania, documenting their social interactions, tool use, and other aspects of their lives. Her work helped to revolutionize our understanding of these animals and their place in the natural world.

In conclusion, naturalistic observation is a powerful research method that can be used effectively in various areas within psychology. Researchers can gain valuable insights into human behavior and cognition by observing people’s behavior in natural settings.

Bornstein MH, Cheah CSL. Audiovisual records, encoding of . In: Encyclopedia of Social Measurement . Elsevier; 2005:103-110. doi:10.1016/B0-12-369398-5/00400-X

Erdley CA, Jankowski MS. Assessing youth . In: Social Skills Across the Life Span . Elsevier; 2020:69-90. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-817752-5.00004-4

Helmchen H. Ethical issues in naturalistic versus controlled trials . Dialogues Clin Neurosci . 2011;13(2):173-182. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2011.13.2/hhelmchen

Mehl MR, Robbins ML, Deters FG. Naturalistic observation of health-relevant social processes: the electronically activated recorder methodology in psychosomatics . Psychosom Med . 2012;74(4):410-417. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e3182545470

Morrison C, Lee JP, Gruenewald PJ, Mair C. The reliability of naturalistic observations of social, physical and economic environments of bars . Addict Res Theory . 2016;24(4):330-340. doi:10.3109/16066359.2016.1145674

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The observation method in psychology involves directly and systematically witnessing and recording measurable behaviors, actions, and responses in natural or contrived settings without attempting to intervene or manipulate what is being observed.

Used to describe phenomena, generate hypotheses, or validate self-reports, psychological observation can be either controlled or naturalistic with varying degrees of structure imposed by the researcher.

There are different types of observational methods, and distinctions need to be made between:

1. Controlled Observations 2. Naturalistic Observations 3. Participant Observations

In addition to the above categories, observations can also be either overt/disclosed (the participants know they are being studied) or covert/undisclosed (the researcher keeps their real identity a secret from the research subjects, acting as a genuine member of the group).

In general, conducting observational research is relatively inexpensive, but it remains highly time-consuming and resource-intensive in data processing and analysis.

The considerable investments needed in terms of coder time commitments for training, maintaining reliability, preventing drift, and coding complex dynamic interactions place practical barriers on observers with limited resources.

Controlled Observation

Controlled observation is a research method for studying behavior in a carefully controlled and structured environment.

The researcher sets specific conditions, variables, and procedures to systematically observe and measure behavior, allowing for greater control and comparison of different conditions or groups.

The researcher decides where the observation will occur, at what time, with which participants, and in what circumstances, and uses a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each independent variable group.

Rather than writing a detailed description of all behavior observed, it is often easier to code behavior according to a previously agreed scale using a behavior schedule (i.e., conducting a structured observation).

The researcher systematically classifies the behavior they observe into distinct categories. Coding might involve numbers or letters to describe a characteristic or the use of a scale to measure behavior intensity.

The categories on the schedule are coded so that the data collected can be easily counted and turned into statistics.

For example, Mary Ainsworth used a behavior schedule to study how infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers. During the Strange Situation procedure, the infant’s interaction behaviors directed toward the mother were measured, e.g.,

• Proximity and contact-seeking
• Contact maintaining
• Avoidance of proximity and contact
• Resistance to contact and comforting

The observer noted down the behavior displayed during 15-second intervals and scored the behavior for intensity on a scale of 1 to 7.

Sometimes participants’ behavior is observed through a two-way mirror, or they are secretly filmed. Albert Bandura used this method to study aggression in children (the Bobo doll studies ).

A lot of research has been carried out in sleep laboratories as well. Here, electrodes are attached to the scalp of participants. What is observed are the changes in electrical activity in the brain during sleep ( the machine is called an EEG ).

Controlled observations are usually overt as the researcher explains the research aim to the group so the participants know they are being observed.

Controlled observations are also usually non-participant as the researcher avoids direct contact with the group and keeps a distance (e.g., observing behind a two-way mirror).

• Controlled observations can be easily replicated by other researchers by using the same observation schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability .
• The data obtained from structured observations is easier and quicker to analyze as it is quantitative (i.e., numerical) – making this a less time-consuming method compared to naturalistic observations.
• Controlled observations are fairly quick to conduct which means that many observations can take place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained, resulting in the findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.

Limitations

• Controlled observations can lack validity due to the Hawthorne effect /demand characteristics. When participants know they are being watched, they may act differently.

Naturalistic Observation

Naturalistic observation is a research method in which the researcher studies behavior in its natural setting without intervention or manipulation.

It involves observing and recording behavior as it naturally occurs, providing insights into real-life behaviors and interactions in their natural context.

Naturalistic observation is a research method commonly used by psychologists and other social scientists.

This technique involves observing and studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they can.

In unstructured observations, the researcher records all relevant behavior with a coding system. There may be too much to record, and the behaviors recorded may not necessarily be the most important, so the approach is usually used as a pilot study to see what type of behaviors would be recorded.

Compared with controlled observations, it is like the difference between studying wild animals in a zoo and studying them in their natural habitat.

With regard to human subjects, Margaret Mead used this method to research the way of life of different tribes living on islands in the South Pacific. Kathy Sylva used it to study children at play by observing their behavior in a playgroup in Oxfordshire.

Collecting Naturalistic Behavioral Data

Technological advances are enabling new, unobtrusive ways of collecting naturalistic behavioral data.

The Electronically Activated Recorder (EAR) is a digital recording device participants can wear to periodically sample ambient sounds, allowing representative sampling of daily experiences (Mehl et al., 2012).

Studies program EARs to record 30-50 second sound snippets multiple times per hour. Although coding the recordings requires extensive resources, EARs can capture spontaneous behaviors like arguments or laughter.

EARs minimize participant reactivity since sampling occurs outside of awareness. This reduces the Hawthorne effect, where people change behavior when observed.

The SenseCam is another wearable device that passively captures images documenting daily activities. Though primarily used in memory research currently (Smith et al., 2014), systematic sampling of environments and behaviors via the SenseCam could enable innovative psychological studies in the future.

• By being able to observe the flow of behavior in its own setting, studies have greater ecological validity.
• Like case studies , naturalistic observation is often used to generate new ideas. Because it gives the researcher the opportunity to study the total situation, it often suggests avenues of inquiry not thought of before.
• The ability to capture actual behaviors as they unfold in real-time, analyze sequential patterns of interactions, measure base rates of behaviors, and examine socially undesirable or complex behaviors that people may not self-report accurately.
• These observations are often conducted on a micro (small) scale and may lack a representative sample (biased in relation to age, gender, social class, or ethnicity). This may result in the findings lacking the ability to generalize to wider society.
• Natural observations are less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled. This makes it difficult for another researcher to repeat the study in exactly the same way.
• Highly time-consuming and resource-intensive during the data coding phase (e.g., training coders, maintaining inter-rater reliability, preventing judgment drift).
• With observations, we do not have manipulations of variables (or control over extraneous variables), meaning cause-and-effect relationships cannot be established.

Participant Observation

Participant observation is a variant of the above (natural observations) but here, the researcher joins in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their lives.

If it were research on animals , we would now not only be studying them in their natural habitat but be living alongside them as well!

Leon Festinger used this approach in a famous study into a religious cult that believed that the end of the world was about to occur. He joined the cult and studied how they reacted when the prophecy did not come true.

Participant observations can be either covert or overt. Covert is where the study is carried out “undercover.” The researcher’s real identity and purpose are kept concealed from the group being studied.

The researcher takes a false identity and role, usually posing as a genuine member of the group.

On the other hand, overt is where the researcher reveals his or her true identity and purpose to the group and asks permission to observe.

• It can be difficult to get time/privacy for recording. For example, researchers can’t take notes openly with covert observations as this would blow their cover. This means they must wait until they are alone and rely on their memory. This is a problem as they may forget details and are unlikely to remember direct quotations.
• If the researcher becomes too involved, they may lose objectivity and become biased. There is always the danger that we will “see” what we expect (or want) to see. This problem is because they could selectively report information instead of noting everything they observe. Thus reducing the validity of their data.

Recording of Data

With controlled/structured observation studies, an important decision the researcher has to make is how to classify and record the data. Usually, this will involve a method of sampling.

In most coding systems, codes or ratings are made either per behavioral event or per specified time interval (Bakeman & Quera, 2011).

The three main sampling methods are:

Event-based coding involves identifying and segmenting interactions into meaningful events rather than timed units.

For example, parent-child interactions may be segmented into control or teaching events to code. Interval recording involves dividing interactions into fixed time intervals (e.g., 6-15 seconds) and coding behaviors within each interval (Bakeman & Quera, 2011).

Event recording allows counting event frequency and sequencing while also potentially capturing event duration through timed-event recording. This provides information on time spent on behaviors.

• Interval recording is common in microanalytic coding to sample discrete behaviors in brief time samples across an interaction. The time unit can range from seconds to minutes to whole interactions. Interval recording requires segmenting interactions based on timing rather than events (Bakeman & Quera, 2011).
• Instantaneous sampling provides snapshot coding at certain moments rather than summarizing behavior within full intervals. This allows quicker coding but may miss behaviors in between target times.

Coding Systems

The coding system should focus on behaviors, patterns, individual characteristics, or relationship qualities that are relevant to the theory guiding the study (Wampler & Harper, 2014).

Codes vary in how much inference is required, from concrete observable behaviors like frequency of eye contact to more abstract concepts like degree of rapport between a therapist and client (Hill & Lambert, 2004). More inference may reduce reliability.

Coding schemes can vary in their level of detail or granularity. Micro-level schemes capture fine-grained behaviors, such as specific facial movements, while macro-level schemes might code broader behavioral states or interactions. The appropriate level of granularity depends on the research questions and the practical constraints of the study.

Another important consideration is the concreteness of the codes. Some schemes use physically based codes that are directly observable (e.g., “eyes closed”), while others use more socially based codes that require some level of inference (e.g., “showing empathy”). While physically based codes may be easier to apply consistently, socially based codes often capture more meaningful behavioral constructs.

Most coding schemes strive to create sets of codes that are mutually exclusive and exhaustive (ME&E). This means that for any given set of codes, only one code can apply at a time (mutual exclusivity), and there is always an applicable code (exhaustiveness). This property simplifies both the coding process and subsequent data analysis.

For example, a simple ME&E set for coding infant state might include: 1) Quiet alert, 2) Crying, 3) Fussy, 4) REM sleep, and 5) Deep sleep. At any given moment, an infant would be in one and only one of these states.

Macroanalytic coding systems

Macroanalytic coding systems involve rating or summarizing behaviors using larger coding units and broader categories that reflect patterns across longer periods of interaction rather than coding small or discrete behavioral acts. 

Macroanalytic coding systems focus on capturing overarching themes, global qualities, or general patterns of behavior rather than specific, discrete actions.

For example, a macroanalytic coding system may rate the overall degree of therapist warmth or level of client engagement globally for an entire therapy session, requiring the coders to summarize and infer these constructs across the interaction rather than coding smaller behavioral units.

These systems require observers to make more inferences (more time-consuming) but can better capture contextual factors, stability over time, and the interdependent nature of behaviors (Carlson & Grotevant, 1987).

Examples of Macroanalytic Coding Systems:

• Emotional Availability Scales (EAS) : This system assesses the quality of emotional connection between caregivers and children across dimensions like sensitivity, structuring, non-intrusiveness, and non-hostility.
• Classroom Assessment Scoring System (CLASS) : Evaluates the quality of teacher-student interactions in classrooms across domains like emotional support, classroom organization, and instructional support.

Microanalytic coding systems

Microanalytic coding systems involve rating behaviors using smaller, more discrete coding units and categories.

These systems focus on capturing specific, discrete behaviors or events as they occur moment-to-moment. Behaviors are often coded second-by-second or in very short time intervals.

For example, a microanalytic system may code each instance of eye contact or head nodding during a therapy session. These systems code specific, molecular behaviors as they occur moment-to-moment rather than summarizing actions over longer periods.

Microanalytic systems require less inference from coders and allow for analysis of behavioral contingencies and sequential interactions between therapist and client. However, they are more time-consuming and expensive to implement than macroanalytic approaches.

Examples of Microanalytic Coding Systems:

• Facial Action Coding System (FACS) : Codes minute facial muscle movements to analyze emotional expressions.
• Specific Affect Coding System (SPAFF) : Used in marital interaction research to code specific emotional behaviors.
• Noldus Observer XT : A software system that allows for detailed coding of behaviors in real-time or from video recordings.

Mesoanalytic coding systems

Mesoanalytic coding systems attempt to balance macro- and micro-analytic approaches.

In contrast to macroanalytic systems that summarize behaviors in larger chunks, mesoanalytic systems use medium-sized coding units that target more specific behaviors or interaction sequences (Bakeman & Quera, 2017).

For example, a mesoanalytic system may code each instance of a particular type of therapist statement or client emotional expression. However, mesoanalytic systems still use larger units than microanalytic approaches coding every speech onset/offset.

The goal of balancing specificity and feasibility makes mesoanalytic systems well-suited for many research questions (Morris et al., 2014). Mesoanalytic codes can preserve some sequential information while remaining efficient enough for studies with adequate but limited resources.

For instance, a mesoanalytic couple interaction coding system could target key behavior patterns like validation sequences without coding turn-by-turn speech.

In this way, mesoanalytic coding allows reasonable reliability and specificity without requiring extensive training or observation. The mid-level focus offers a pragmatic compromise between depth and breadth in analyzing interactions.

Examples of Mesoanalytic Coding Systems:

• Feeding Scale for Mother-Infant Interaction : Assesses feeding interactions in 5-minute episodes, coding specific behaviors and overall qualities.
• Couples Interaction Rating System (CIRS): Codes specific behaviors and rates overall qualities in segments of couple interactions.
• Teaching Styles Rating Scale : Combines frequency counts of specific teacher behaviors with global ratings of teaching style in classroom segments.

Preventing Coder Drift

Coder drift results in a measurement error caused by gradual shifts in how observations get rated according to operational definitions, especially when behavioral codes are not clearly specified.

This type of error creeps in when coders fail to regularly review what precise observations constitute or do not constitute the behaviors being measured.

Preventing drift refers to taking active steps to maintain consistency and minimize changes or deviations in how coders rate or evaluate behaviors over time. Specifically, some key ways to prevent coder drift include:

• Operationalize codes : It is essential that code definitions unambiguously distinguish what interactions represent instances of each coded behavior. 
• Ongoing training : Returning to those operational definitions through ongoing training serves to recalibrate coder interpretations and reinforce accurate recognition. Having regular “check-in” sessions where coders practice coding the same interactions allows monitoring that they continue applying codes reliably without gradual shifts in interpretation.
• Using reference videos : Coders periodically coding the same “gold standard” reference videos anchors their judgments and calibrate against original training. Without periodic anchoring to original specifications, coder decisions tend to drift from initial measurement reliability.
• Assessing inter-rater reliability : Statistical tracking that coders maintain high levels of agreement over the course of a study, not just at the start, flags any declines indicating drift. Sustaining inter-rater agreement requires mitigating this common tendency for observer judgment change during intensive, long-term coding tasks.
• Recalibrating through discussion : Having meetings for coders to discuss disagreements openly explores reasons judgment shifts may be occurring over time. Consensus on the application of codes is restored.
• Adjusting unclear codes : If reliability issues persist, revisiting and refining ambiguous code definitions or anchors can eliminate inconsistencies arising from coder confusion.

Essentially, the goal of preventing coder drift is maintaining standardization and minimizing unintentional biases that may slowly alter how observational data gets rated over periods of extensive coding.

Through the upkeep of skills, continuing calibration to benchmarks, and monitoring consistency, researchers can notice and correct for any creeping changes in coder decision-making over time.

Reducing Observer Bias

Observational research is prone to observer biases resulting from coders’ subjective perspectives shaping the interpretation of complex interactions (Burghardt et al., 2012). When coding, personal expectations may unconsciously influence judgments. However, rigorous methods exist to reduce such bias.

Coding Manual

A detailed coding manual minimizes subjectivity by clearly defining what behaviors and interaction dynamics observers should code (Bakeman & Quera, 2011).

High-quality manuals have strong theoretical and empirical grounding, laying out explicit coding procedures and providing rich behavioral examples to anchor code definitions (Lindahl, 2001).

Clear delineation of the frequency, intensity, duration, and type of behaviors constituting each code facilitates reliable judgments and reduces ambiguity for coders. Application risks inconsistency across raters without clarity on how codes translate to observable interaction.

Coder Training

Competent coders require both interpersonal perceptiveness and scientific rigor (Wampler & Harper, 2014). Training thoroughly reviews the theoretical basis for coded constructs and teaches the coding system itself.

Multiple “gold standard” criterion videos demonstrate code ranges that trainees independently apply. Coders then meet weekly to establish reliability of 80% or higher agreement both among themselves and with master criterion coding (Hill & Lambert, 2004).

Ongoing training manages coder drift over time. Revisions to unclear codes may also improve reliability. Both careful selection and investment in rigorous training increase quality control.

Blind Methods

To prevent bias, coders should remain unaware of specific study predictions or participant details (Burghardt et al., 2012). Separate data gathering versus coding teams helps maintain blinding.

Coders should be unaware of study details or participant identities that could bias coding (Burghardt et al., 2012).

Separate teams collecting data versus coding data can reduce bias.

In addition, scheduling procedures can prevent coders from rating data collected directly from participants with whom they have had personal contact. Maintaining coder independence and blinding enhances objectivity.

Data Analysis Approaches

Data analysis in behavioral observation aims to transform raw observational data into quantifiable measures that can be statistically analyzed.

It’s important to note that the choice of analysis approach is not arbitrary but should be guided by the research questions, study design, and nature of the data collected.

Interval data (where behavior is recorded at fixed time points), event data (where the occurrence of behaviors is noted as they happen), and timed-event data (where both the occurrence and duration of behaviors are recorded) may require different analytical approaches.

Similarly, the level of measurement (categorical, ordinal, or continuous) will influence the choice of statistical tests.

Researchers typically start with simple descriptive statistics to get a feel for their data before moving on to more complex analyses. This stepwise approach allows for a thorough understanding of the data and can often reveal unexpected patterns or relationships that merit further investigation.

simple descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics give an overall picture of behavior patterns and are often the first step in analysis.

• Frequency counts tell us how often a particular behavior occurs, while rates express this frequency in relation to time (e.g., occurrences per minute).
• Duration measures how long behaviors last, offering insight into their persistence or intensity.
• Probability calculations indicate the likelihood of a behavior occurring under certain conditions, and relative frequency or duration statistics show the proportional occurrence of different behaviors within a session or across the study.

These simple statistics form the foundation of behavioral analysis, providing researchers with a broad picture of behavioral patterns. 

They can reveal which behaviors are most common, how long they typically last, and how they might vary across different conditions or subjects.

For instance, in a study of classroom behavior, these statistics might show how often students raise their hands, how long they typically stay focused on a task, or what proportion of time is spent on different activities.

contingency analyses

Contingency analyses help identify if certain behaviors tend to occur together or in sequence.

• Contingency tables , also known as cross-tabulations, display the co-occurrence of two or more behaviors, allowing researchers to see if certain behaviors tend to happen together.
• Odds ratios provide a measure of the strength of association between behaviors, indicating how much more likely one behavior is to occur in the presence of another.
• Adjusted residuals in these tables can reveal whether the observed co-occurrences are significantly different from what would be expected by chance.

For example, in a study of parent-child interactions, contingency analyses might reveal whether a parent’s praise is more likely to follow a child’s successful completion of a task, or whether a child’s tantrum is more likely to occur after a parent’s refusal of a request.

These analyses can uncover important patterns in social interactions, learning processes, or behavioral chains.

sequential analyses

Sequential analyses are crucial for understanding processes and temporal relationships between behaviors.

• Lag sequential analysis looks at the likelihood of one behavior following another within a specified number of events or time units.
• Time-window sequential analysis examines whether a target behavior occurs within a defined time frame after a given behavior.

These methods are particularly valuable for understanding processes that unfold over time, such as conversation patterns, problem-solving strategies, or the development of social skills.

observer agreement

Since human observers often code behaviors, it’s important to check reliability . This is typically done through measures of observer agreement.

• Cohen’s kappa is commonly used for categorical data, providing a measure of agreement between observers that accounts for chance agreement.
• Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) : Used for continuous data or ratings.

Good observer agreement is crucial for the validity of the study, as it demonstrates that the observed behaviors are consistently identified and coded across different observers or time points.

advanced statistical approaches

As researchers delve deeper into their data, they often employ more advanced statistical techniques.

• For instance, an ANOVA might reveal differences in the frequency of aggressive behaviors between children from different socioeconomic backgrounds or in different school settings.
• This approach allows researchers to account for dependencies in the data and to examine how behaviors might be influenced by factors at different levels (e.g., individual characteristics, group dynamics, and situational factors).
• This method can reveal trends, cycles, or patterns in behavior over time, which might not be apparent from simpler analyses. For instance, in a study of animal behavior, time series analysis might uncover daily or seasonal patterns in feeding, mating, or territorial behaviors.

representation techniques

Representation techniques help organize and visualize data:

• Many researchers use a code-unit grid, which represents the data as a matrix with behaviors as rows and time units as columns.
• This format facilitates many types of analyses and allows for easy visualization of behavioral patterns.
• Standardized formats like the Sequential Data Interchange Standard (SDIS) help ensure consistency in data representation across studies and facilitate the use of specialized analysis software.
• Indeed, the complexity of behavioral observation data often necessitates the use of specialized software tools. Programs like GSEQ, Observer, and INTERACT are designed specifically for the analysis of observational data and can perform many of the analyses described above efficiently and accurately.

Bakeman, R., & Quera, V. (2017). Sequential analysis and observational methods for the behavioral sciences. Cambridge University Press.

Burghardt, G. M., Bartmess-LeVasseur, J. N., Browning, S. A., Morrison, K. E., Stec, C. L., Zachau, C. E., & Freeberg, T. M. (2012). Minimizing observer bias in behavioral studies: A review and recommendations. Ethology, 118 (6), 511-517.

Hill, C. E., & Lambert, M. J. (2004). Methodological issues in studying psychotherapy processes and outcomes. In M. J. Lambert (Ed.), Bergin and Garfield’s handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (5th ed., pp. 84–135). Wiley.

Lindahl, K. M. (2001). Methodological issues in family observational research. In P. K. Kerig & K. M. Lindahl (Eds.), Family observational coding systems: Resources for systemic research (pp. 23–32). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Mehl, M. R., Robbins, M. L., & Deters, F. G. (2012). Naturalistic observation of health-relevant social processes: The electronically activated recorder methodology in psychosomatics. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74 (4), 410–417.

Morris, A. S., Robinson, L. R., & Eisenberg, N. (2014). Applying a multimethod perspective to the study of developmental psychology. In H. T. Reis & C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (2nd ed., pp. 103–123). Cambridge University Press.

Smith, J. A., Maxwell, S. D., & Johnson, G. (2014). The microstructure of everyday life: Analyzing the complex choreography of daily routines through the automatic capture and processing of wearable sensor data. In B. K. Wiederhold & G. Riva (Eds.), Annual Review of Cybertherapy and Telemedicine 2014: Positive Change with Technology (Vol. 199, pp. 62-64). IOS Press.

Traniello, J. F., & Bakker, T. C. (2015). The integrative study of behavioral interactions across the sciences. In T. K. Shackelford & R. D. Hansen (Eds.), The evolution of sexuality (pp. 119-147). Springer.

Wampler, K. S., & Harper, A. (2014). Observational methods in couple and family assessment. In H. T. Reis & C. M. Judd (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in social and personality psychology (2nd ed., pp. 490–502). Cambridge University Press.

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How the Experimental Method Works in Psychology

Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

Amanda Tust is an editor, fact-checker, and writer with a Master of Science in Journalism from Northwestern University's Medill School of Journalism.

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The Experimental Process

Types of experiments, potential pitfalls of the experimental method.

The experimental method is a type of research procedure that involves manipulating variables to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship. The results obtained through the experimental method are useful but do not prove with 100% certainty that a singular cause always creates a specific effect. Instead, they show the probability that a cause will or will not lead to a particular effect.

At a Glance

While there are many different research techniques available, the experimental method allows researchers to look at cause-and-effect relationships. Using the experimental method, researchers randomly assign participants to a control or experimental group and manipulate levels of an independent variable. If changes in the independent variable lead to changes in the dependent variable, it indicates there is likely a causal relationship between them.

What Is the Experimental Method in Psychology?

The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled research methods and random assignment of study subjects to test a hypothesis.

For example, researchers may want to learn how different visual patterns may impact our perception. Or they might wonder whether certain actions can improve memory . Experiments are conducted on many behavioral topics, including:

The scientific method forms the basis of the experimental method. This is a process used to determine the relationship between two variables—in this case, to explain human behavior .

Positivism is also important in the experimental method. It refers to factual knowledge that is obtained through observation, which is considered to be trustworthy.

When using the experimental method, researchers first identify and define key variables. Then they formulate a hypothesis, manipulate the variables, and collect data on the results. Unrelated or irrelevant variables are carefully controlled to minimize the potential impact on the experiment outcome.

History of the Experimental Method

The idea of using experiments to better understand human psychology began toward the end of the nineteenth century. Wilhelm Wundt established the first formal laboratory in 1879.

Wundt is often called the father of experimental psychology. He believed that experiments could help explain how psychology works, and used this approach to study consciousness .

Wundt coined the term "physiological psychology." This is a hybrid of physiology and psychology, or how the body affects the brain.

Other early contributors to the development and evolution of experimental psychology as we know it today include:

• Gustav Fechner (1801-1887), who helped develop procedures for measuring sensations according to the size of the stimulus
• Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894), who analyzed philosophical assumptions through research in an attempt to arrive at scientific conclusions
• Franz Brentano (1838-1917), who called for a combination of first-person and third-person research methods when studying psychology
• Georg Elias Müller (1850-1934), who performed an early experiment on attitude which involved the sensory discrimination of weights and revealed how anticipation can affect this discrimination

Key Terms to Know

To understand how the experimental method works, it is important to know some key terms.

Dependent Variable

The dependent variable is the effect that the experimenter is measuring. If a researcher was investigating how sleep influences test scores, for example, the test scores would be the dependent variable.

Independent Variable

The independent variable is the variable that the experimenter manipulates. In the previous example, the amount of sleep an individual gets would be the independent variable.

A hypothesis is a tentative statement or a guess about the possible relationship between two or more variables. In looking at how sleep influences test scores, the researcher might hypothesize that people who get more sleep will perform better on a math test the following day. The purpose of the experiment, then, is to either support or reject this hypothesis.

Operational definitions are necessary when performing an experiment. When we say that something is an independent or dependent variable, we must have a very clear and specific definition of the meaning and scope of that variable.

Extraneous Variables

Extraneous variables are other variables that may also affect the outcome of an experiment. Types of extraneous variables include participant variables, situational variables, demand characteristics, and experimenter effects. In some cases, researchers can take steps to control for extraneous variables.

Demand Characteristics

Demand characteristics are subtle hints that indicate what an experimenter is hoping to find in a psychology experiment. This can sometimes cause participants to alter their behavior, which can affect the results of the experiment.

Intervening Variables

Intervening variables are factors that can affect the relationship between two other variables. 

Confounding Variables

Confounding variables are variables that can affect the dependent variable, but that experimenters cannot control for. Confounding variables can make it difficult to determine if the effect was due to changes in the independent variable or if the confounding variable may have played a role.

Psychologists, like other scientists, use the scientific method when conducting an experiment. The scientific method is a set of procedures and principles that guide how scientists develop research questions, collect data, and come to conclusions.

The five basic steps of the experimental process are:

• Identifying a problem to study
• Devising the research protocol
• Conducting the experiment
• Analyzing the data collected
• Sharing the findings (usually in writing or via presentation)

Most psychology students are expected to use the experimental method at some point in their academic careers. Learning how to conduct an experiment is important to understanding how psychologists prove and disprove theories in this field.

There are a few different types of experiments that researchers might use when studying psychology. Each has pros and cons depending on the participants being studied, the hypothesis, and the resources available to conduct the research.

Lab Experiments

Lab experiments are common in psychology because they allow experimenters more control over the variables. These experiments can also be easier for other researchers to replicate. The drawback of this research type is that what takes place in a lab is not always what takes place in the real world.

Field Experiments

Sometimes researchers opt to conduct their experiments in the field. For example, a social psychologist interested in researching prosocial behavior might have a person pretend to faint and observe how long it takes onlookers to respond.

This type of experiment can be a great way to see behavioral responses in realistic settings. But it is more difficult for researchers to control the many variables existing in these settings that could potentially influence the experiment's results.

Quasi-Experiments

While lab experiments are known as true experiments, researchers can also utilize a quasi-experiment. Quasi-experiments are often referred to as natural experiments because the researchers do not have true control over the independent variable.

A researcher looking at personality differences and birth order, for example, is not able to manipulate the independent variable in the situation (personality traits). Participants also cannot be randomly assigned because they naturally fall into pre-existing groups based on their birth order.

So why would a researcher use a quasi-experiment? This is a good choice in situations where scientists are interested in studying phenomena in natural, real-world settings. It's also beneficial if there are limits on research funds or time.

Field experiments can be either quasi-experiments or true experiments.

Examples of the Experimental Method in Use

The experimental method can provide insight into human thoughts and behaviors, Researchers use experiments to study many aspects of psychology.

A 2019 study investigated whether splitting attention between electronic devices and classroom lectures had an effect on college students' learning abilities. It found that dividing attention between these two mediums did not affect lecture comprehension. However, it did impact long-term retention of the lecture information, which affected students' exam performance.

An experiment used participants' eye movements and electroencephalogram (EEG) data to better understand cognitive processing differences between experts and novices. It found that experts had higher power in their theta brain waves than novices, suggesting that they also had a higher cognitive load.

A study looked at whether chatting online with a computer via a chatbot changed the positive effects of emotional disclosure often received when talking with an actual human. It found that the effects were the same in both cases.

One experimental study evaluated whether exercise timing impacts information recall. It found that engaging in exercise prior to performing a memory task helped improve participants' short-term memory abilities.

Sometimes researchers use the experimental method to get a bigger-picture view of psychological behaviors and impacts. For example, one 2018 study examined several lab experiments to learn more about the impact of various environmental factors on building occupant perceptions.

A 2020 study set out to determine the role that sensation-seeking plays in political violence. This research found that sensation-seeking individuals have a higher propensity for engaging in political violence. It also found that providing access to a more peaceful, yet still exciting political group helps reduce this effect.

While the experimental method can be a valuable tool for learning more about psychology and its impacts, it also comes with a few pitfalls.

Experiments may produce artificial results, which are difficult to apply to real-world situations. Similarly, researcher bias can impact the data collected. Results may not be able to be reproduced, meaning the results have low reliability .

Since humans are unpredictable and their behavior can be subjective, it can be hard to measure responses in an experiment. In addition, political pressure may alter the results. The subjects may not be a good representation of the population, or groups used may not be comparable.

And finally, since researchers are human too, results may be degraded due to human error.

What This Means For You

Every psychological research method has its pros and cons. The experimental method can help establish cause and effect, and it's also beneficial when research funds are limited or time is of the essence.

At the same time, it's essential to be aware of this method's pitfalls, such as how biases can affect the results or the potential for low reliability. Keeping these in mind can help you review and assess research studies more accurately, giving you a better idea of whether the results can be trusted or have limitations.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."

21 Naturalistic Observation Examples

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Naturalistic observation is a data collection method that involves observing behavior as it occurs in a natural environment. It is a common methodology in psychology and anthropology .

The main idea is to see how people or animals act in their natural habitat, as opposed to a research laboratory. This will give researchers insights into a particular phenomenon under study that could not be obtained in the artificial setting of a lab. Sometimes, we also call this observational research .

Naturalistic Observation Examples

• Observing chimpanzees in the wild and recording their social interactions – Jane Goodall
• Observing children playing at different ages and examining their stages of cognitive development – Jean Piaget
• Observing how students interact in the workplace to get insights into classroom layout and teaching styles – This Study
• Observing an indigenous group of cattle herders in East Africa to see how they educate their youth – George J. Klima
• Observing how working-class high school students are taught differently to middle-class students – Paul Willis, Learning to Labour
• Observing a left-wing cooperative attempting to run their business collaboratively and democratically – Avi Lewis, The Take
• Observing the relationship between mothers and their children in their home to determine a taxonomy of attachment styles – Mary Ainsworth
• Following emergency room staff to see how their professional culture is developed and operates under pressure – Person et al.
• Placing cameras in wombat burrows to observe how they live, mate, and survive – Swinbourne et al.
• Observing a busy intersection to see how traffic jams begin and explore how changing the traffic light cadence can decrease congestion
• An experienced teacher sitting-in on a trainee teacher to observe them teaching

Famous Examples

1. jane goodall’s research.

Dr. Valerie Jane Morris-Goodall is one of the most famous scientists in history. Her research on chimpanzees in Kenya and work in conservation are well-known throughout the world.

Her primary research method was naturalistic observation. She entered the natural habitat of the subject of her study, sat down with pen and paper, and began taking detailed notes of her observations. Those notes were later transcribed into numerous research papers for other scientists to learn from.

Her research produced many groundbreaking insights into animal behavior, including the fact that chimpanzees use tools, such as twigs and straw to “fish” for termites. This was an incredible discover, which led to the now famous quote by Louis Leakey, “we must now redefine tool, redefine man, or accept chimps as humans.”

To learn about other fascinating uses of naturalistic observation, including links to numerous research tools like live cams at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology, check-out this amazing resource page from National Geographic .

2. Linguistic Development of Children

Language development is a fascinating phenomenon. Human beings go from not being able to utter a single word, to having a vocabulary existing of thousands of words by the age of 5.

A typical study involves researchers training their research team on how to conduct objective observations of parental interactions with their children. The observers will then go to a family’s home, sit quietly in a corner of a room, and take detailed notes.

The data can include recording the number of interactions, number of words directed at the child, and types of words (e.g., expressive or factual). After all the data is collected, it is analyzed using statistical software and patterns of parental behavior that are linked to language development can be discovered.

Although naturalistic observation can give us valuable insights into the role of parental interactions in child development, this type of research is quite difficult to carry-out.

3. Observing Workplaces to Study Ergonomics  

Ergonomics is the study of how human beings function in the environment, such as a work setting, or how they interact with various products or machine interfaces. This branch of study is sometimes referred to as “human factors.”

The goal is to improve people’s experience with the object of study to make it more efficient, effective, or pleasant.

The basic procedure is for a trained professional to observe people using the equipment, or product, while taking detailed notes on the user’s experience. This is often followed-up with a one-on-one interview, a survey, or focus group .

This type of naturalistic observation is so widely used today that there probably is not a single electronic gadget on the market that has not gone through some version of ergonomic analysis.

4. Satellite Images of Walmart

As reported by NPR , some stock market analysts use naturalistic observation of Walmart parking lots to earn huge profits. With the purchase of satellite images of selected Walmart parking lots, an analyst can count the number of cars and estimate how well business is going.

From other sources, the analyst knows the average amount of money spent by customers, broken down by time of day and geographic location. When combining that information with the satellite images, they start to build a detailed picture of the company’s sales.

Later, they can compare their estimates with the actual numbers released by the company during their quarterly reports. That will give the analyst an opportunity to refine how they collect their data and lead to more accurate estimates in the future.

This is a type of naturalistic observation that results in huge profits for companies that know how to use the data. For other examples, click here .

5. Spying on Farms

Although naturalistic observation is usually used when studying human or animal behavior, it can also be used to observe plant growth.

Believe it or not, big money can be made in the futures markets by predicting the price of various agricultural commodities.

Some companies use infrared imaging software to observe how well various crops are developing all over the world, such as corn and wheat. The images not only track the number of acres being planted, but can also assess how well they are growing by measuring the amount of chlorophyll in the plants.

By tracking growth over time, analysts can identify any changes that may significantly affect supply and demand in the future. Having that edge can lead to massive profits.

6. Observing Group Dynamics During Office Meetings

Understanding the dynamics of how work teams make decisions is a well-researched area in Industrial Psychology. This involves naturalistic observations of team interactions at work.

Bad decisions can lead to disastrous results. On the other hand, making wise decisions regarding strategic planning or product selection can generate tremendous profits.

One insight revealed through naturalistic observation research is that various members of a work-team play different roles.

For example, some play the role of task-master. They like to keep the team focused on objectives and meeting deadlines. While others serve to help the team get along. They’re called harmonizers and they try to defuse conflicts.

The research typically involves trained observers sitting to the side or watching the team conduct their meetings through CCTV. The observers take notes on who says what to whom, and the nature of those comments.

By examining the observations later, it is possible to identify weaknesses in how decisions are made and suggest ways to improve the decision-making process .

7. Observing Screentime vs Quality of Romantic Relationships

Social scientists have expressed concern that screentime, or social media use, may impact the quality of romantic relationships ( Quiroz & Mickelson, 2021). But one researcher took this to a new level by watching romantic couples’ phone usage!

Unfortunately, a lot of research in this area relies on surveys. One survey will assess frequency of social media use and another survey will assess quality of the current romantic relationship.

Naturalist observation could provide more realistic information. For example, two trained observers could be placed at various public places, such as a farmer’s market.

One observer tracks the touching behavior of couples, an acceptable indicator of romantic involvement (Gulledge et al., 2003), while the other tracks screentime.

Once all the data is collected, a simple analysis comparing the rate of touching to screentime could reveal if there is an association, or not.  

Of course, to fully answer any question requires multiple studies using different methods. Combined, a clearer understanding of the phenomenon under study gradually (i.e., years) emerges.

8. Naturalistic Observation of Infant Attachment

Mary Ainsworth is well-known for her strange situations test to assess attachment quality. However, before developing this test, she conducted naturalistic observations of infant/caregiver behavior in Uganda for 2 years starting in 1954, after a 4-year collaboration with John Bowlby.

She visited the homes of 26 families with babies during bi-monthly, 2-hour visits. She wrote detailed notes on the infants’ interactions with their mothers and in the presence of others, in addition to mothers’ responses to her questions about infant care.

The notes were then expanded and summarized into reports and checked for accuracy by an interpreter that accompanied her during the visits.

As reported by Bretherton (2013), “… secure-attached infants cried little and engaged in exploration when their mother was present, while insecure-attached infants were frequently fussy even with mother in the same room” (p. 461).

9. Observing Subliminal Messaging and Popcorn Sales Correlation

The idea that messages presented below the threshold of conscious awareness could affect behavior has been around for decades. It all began with a 1957 study that claimed subliminal messages in a movie increased popcorn sales by nearly 60%.

As it turns out, the research was never conducted.

However, if a person wanted to actually conduct this kind of research it could be done. First, messages that suggested eating popcorn would have to be spliced into a film; another version f the film would not contain the messages.

Both films would be shown simultaneously at the same theatre. As customers purchased tickets, they would be randomly assigned to watch one of the two versions. A trained observer would sit nearby the concession stand and keep track of how many customers viewing each version purchased popcorn during and after the film finished. This is the naturalistic observation component.

A simple comparison of popcorn sales between each film would test the hypothesis and settle the issue forever.  

10. Time and Motion Studies to Increase Productivity

A time and motion study is a method for making work processes more efficient. Being more efficient means higher profits.

First, workers are observed and recorded. Then, some steps to complete a task may be eliminated while ways to shorten the time it takes to complete other steps are identified.

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were early pioneers in this type of naturalistic observation study.  

Frank owned a construction company and Lilian was a psychologist. They observed Frank’s bricklayers and reduced the number of movements needed to carry out their work from 18 to 4.

From there they started a consulting business, helping manufacturers improve efficiency during the industrial revolution. After Frank’s early passing at the age of 54, Lillian went on to become the first female member of the Society for Industrial Engineers and the only psychologist to appear on a postage stamp (in 1884).

Types of Naturalistic Observation

There are many versions of naturalistic observation. Below are two common onese:

• Participant/Non-participant refers to whether the person collecting the data is also participating in the activity being studied or is solely observing from the sidelines.

Understanding the customs of an exotic culture by participating in some of the rituals may provide some very valuable insights from a personal perspective. Or, the researcher may prefer to observe the cultural practices from a distance, which can also provide a lot of valuable information.

• Covert/Overt observation refers to whether the people being observed are aware that they are under study.  Since people may change their behavior if they know they are being watched, a researcher may choose to not inform the people that they are under study. Overt observation means that the people under study are fully aware of the researcher’s presence.

As with all scientific studies in the social sciences conducted by university scientists, each study must be evaluated by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) before it can begin. The IRB scrutinizes the methods for ethical issues and may require researchers to make adjustments to the procedures before being approved.

Benefits of Naturalistic Observation

Sometimes people will act differently in a laboratory setting because they know they are being observed. They may try to act more polite or portray themselves in a favorable light.

In a naturalistic observation study, participants are often unaware they are being observed, so they do not try to alter their behavior.

In animal studies, conducting research in the field may be the only way to study the phenomenon of interest, as one cannot construct a rainforest or similar habitat in the lab.

Naturalistic observation is a great way to collect data on a phenomenon as it exists in its natural environment. If studying people, there are aspects of behavior that cannot be observed in a laboratory setting, and people often change their behavior if they know a social scientist is watching them.

If studying animals, it is just simply not possible to recreate an entire habitat in a research lab. So, scientists must venture into the wild and observe animals on their own turf. This will provide insights into their behavior that cannot be obtained in a laboratory.

We can even use naturalistic observation to track consumer behavior and make predictions regarding corporate sales or agricultural futures. That information can lead to huge profits.

Naturalistic observation is an incredibly valuable research tool that has application in science and business.

Ainsworth, M. D. S. (1967). Infancy in Uganda . Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Bretherton, I. (2013). Revisiting Mary Ainsworth’s conceptualization and assessments of maternal sensitivity-insensitivity. Attachment & Human Development, 15 (5–6), 460–484. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2013.835128

d’Apice, K., Latham, R., & Stumm, S. (2019). A naturalistic home observational approach to children’s language, cognition, and behavior. Developmental Psychology, 55 (7),1414-1427. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000733

Gulledge, A. K., Gulledge, M. H., & Stahmannn, R. F. (2003). Romantic physical affection types and relationship satisfaction.  The American Journal of Family Therapy ,  31 (4), 233-242.

Lenhart, A., & Duggan, M. (2014). Couples, the internet, and social media: How American couples use digital technology to manage life, logistics, and emotional intimacy within their relationships. Pew Research Center. Retrieved from https://www.pewinternet.org/2014/02/11/couples-the-internet-and-social-media/

Quiroz, S., Mickelson, K. (2021). Are online behaviors damaging our in-person connections? Passive versus active social media use on romantic relationships. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 15 (1). https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2021-1-1

Ulvi, O., Karamehic-Muratovic, A., Baghbanzadeh, M., Bashir, A., Smith, J., & Haque, U. (2022). Social Media Use and Mental Health: A Global Analysis. https://doi.org/10.3390/epidemiologia3010002

Wagner, S. A., Mattson, R. E., Davila, J., Johnson, M. D., & Cameron, N. M. (2020). Touch me just enough: The intersection of adult attachment, intimate touch, and marital satisfaction.  Journal of Social and Personal Relationships , 37(6), 1945-1967. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407520910791

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Psychology Sorted

Psychology for all, experimental methods explained.

The easiest one to define is the true experiment.  

Often called a ‘laboratory/lab’ experiment, this does not have to take place in a lab, but can be conducted in a classroom, office, waiting room, or even outside, providing it meets the criteria.  These are that allocation of participants to the two or more experimental (or experimental and control) groups or conditions is random and that the independent variable (IV) is manipulated by the researcher in order to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV).  Other variables are carefully controlled, such as location, temperature, time of day, time taken for experiment, materials used, etc. This should result in a cause and effect relationship between the IV and the DV. Examples are randomised controlled drug trials or many of the cognitive experiments into memory, such as Glanzer and Cunitz_1966.

A field experiment is similar, in that individuals are usually randomly assigned to groups, where this is possible, and the IV is manipulated by the researcher. However, as this takes place in the participants’ natural surroundings, the extraneous variables that could confound the findings of the research are somewhat more difficult to control.  The implications for causation depend on how well these variables are controlled, and on the random allocation of participants.   Examples are bystander effect studies, and also research into the effect of digital technology on learning, such as that conducted by Hembrooke and Gay_2003 .

A quasi-experiment  is similar to either or both of the above, but the participants are not randomly allocated to groups.  Instead they are allocated on the basis of self-selection as male/female; left or right-handed; preference for coffee or tea; young/old, etc.  or researcher selection as scoring above or below and certain level on a pre-test; measured socio-economic status; psychology student or biology student, etc.  These are therefore, non-equivalent groups.  The IV is often manipulated and the DV measured as before, but the nature of the groups is a potential confounding variable.  If testing the effect of a new reading scheme on the reading ages of 11 year olds, a quasi-experimental design would allocate one class of 11 year olds to read using the scheme, and another to continue with the old scheme (control group), and then measure reading ages after a set period of time.  But there may have been other differences between the groups that mean a cause and effect relationship cannot be reliably established: those in the first class may also have already been better readers, or several months older, than those in the control group. Baseline pre-testing is one way around this, in which the students’ improvement is measured against their own earlier reading age, in a pre-test/post-test design.  In some quasi-experiments, the allocation to groups by certain criteria itself forms the IV, and the effects of gender, age or handedness on memory, for example, are measured. Examples are research into the efficacy of anti-depressants, when some participants are taking one anti-depressant and some another, or Caspi et al._2003 , who investigated whether a polymorphism on the serotonin transporter gene is linked to a higher or lower risk of individual depression in the face of different levels of perceived stress.

Finally, natural experiments are those in which there is no manipulation of the IV, because it is a naturally-occurring variable.  It may be an earthquake (IV) and measurement of people’s fear levels (DV) at living on a fault line before and after the event, or an increase in unemployment as a large factory closes (IV) and measurement of depression levels amongst adults of working age before and after the factory closure (DV). As with field experiments, many of the extraneous variables are difficult to control as the research takes place in people’s natural environment. A good example of a natural experiment is Charlton (1975) research into the effect of the introduction of television to the remote island of St. Helena.

The differences between quasi experiments and correlational research, and between natural experiments and case studies are sometimes hard to determine, so I would always encourage students to explain exactly why they are designating something as one or the other. We can’t always trust the original article either – Bartlett was happy to describe his studies as experiments, which they were not! Here’s hoping these examples have helped.  The following texts are super-useful, and were referred to while writing  this post.:

Campbell, D.T. & Stanley J.C . (1963). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Boston: Houghton Mifflin (ISBN 9780528614002)

Coolican, H. (2009, 5th ed.). Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology. UK: Hodder (ISBN 9780340983447)

Shadish, W.R., Cook, T.D. & Campbell, D.T. (2001, 2nd ed.).  Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference. UK: Wadsworth (ISBN 9780395615560)

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Experimental Methods In Psychology

March 7, 2021 - paper 2 psychology in context | research methods.

• Back to Paper 2 - Research Methods

There are three experimental methods in the field of psychology; Laboratory, Field and Natural Experiments. Each of the experimental methods holds different characteristics in relation to; the manipulation of the IV, the control of the EVs and the ability to accurately replicate the study in exactly the same way.

When conducting research, it is important to create an aim and a hypothesis,  click here  to learn more about the formation of aims and hypotheses.

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NATURAL EXPERIMENT

is an experimental design where a natural event which is typically a natural disaster is classed as an experimental condition and then this is compared to a control condition.

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Natural Experiment

Natural experiments are carried out in natural conditions, however the research is unable to manipulate the IV and therefore examines the effect of a naturally occurring variable on the dependent variable (DV).

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Natural Experiments

Example answers for research methods: a level psychology, paper 2, june 2019 (aqa).

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