analytical (academic problem solving) intelligence

• Published on August 30, 2022
• August 30, 2022

Analytical Intelligence: What It Is & 10 Habits to Improve It

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“Book smarts” is the street name for those with analytical intelligence. They’re often known to look at things from an intellectual point of view. But there’s more to it than meets the eye.

Whether you’re analytically inclined or if you want to level up this aspect of yourself, explore how you can truly appreciate the importance of analytical intelligence.

Understanding Sternberg’s 3 Types of Intelligence

Psychologist Robert Sternberg created the triarchic theory of intelligence in the 1980s to pursue a new way of examining human intelligence. It breaks it down into three distinct types: analytical, experiential, and practical.

What is analytical intelligence?

Those with analytical intelligence (also known as componential intelligence) are expert problem solvers. They’re able to recognize patterns, apply logic, and use deductive reasoning.

This category of intellect, according to Sternberg, is the ability to:

• Process and apply logical reasoning
• Identify patterns
• Make accurate predictions about the outcome of complex events

It’s closely aligned with academics, science, and computations. And as someone who’s “book smart,” you’re able to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast in those fields.

For instance, let’s say you’re reading Margaret Atwood’s The Handmaid’s Tale . As an analytical thinker, you could easily compare the main characters’ motives or analyze the story’s context.

In psychology, analytical intelligence relates to the “ mental mechanisms individuals utilize to plan and undertake academic and problem-solving tasks ,” as defined by the Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development . It’s closest to what’s measured on the traditional IQ test. 

And as opposed to experiential and contextual intelligence, which uses learned knowledge or experience to solve novel problems, analytical intelligence instead relies on internal mental knowledge.

What is experiential intelligence?

People with experiential intelligence (also known as creative intelligence ) have a flexible mindset and can quickly adapt to their environment. They are risk takers, problem solvers, willing to be different, and think outside the box — traits that enable them to invent or imagine a novel solution to a problem or situation.

For example, let’s say something gets broken and you don’t have the right tools to fix it. If you’re able to McGuyver it, you’re using creative intelligence to solve the problem.

What is practical intelligence?

“Street smarts” is the laymen’s term for practical intelligence (also known as contextual intelligence). People with this intellect, according to Sternberg, are able to adapt quickly to unfavorable conditions and confidently navigate their surroundings.

For example, how would you react if you got lost in a new city, and what would be your plan to find your way back home? As a practical thinker, you’re able to use knowledge based on your experiences to find solutions to this particular problem. 

Analytical Intelligence vs. Experiential Intelligence vs. Practical Intelligence

We all possess all three types of intelligence. However, we tend to lean on one rather than the rest. Here’s a side-by-side comparison of all three.

It is possible to level up and expand beyond your intelligence comfort zone, should you wish to. So let’s dive in.

How to Use Analytical Intelligence?

Analytical thinkers are able to get to the bottom of things. They question rather than make assumptions, following the motto (most likely), “ When you assume, you make an ass out of you and me. “

Here are the abilities of those with analytical intelligence:

• Analyze. Like detectives, analytical thinkers will dig for every bit of information on any particular issue. They go in-depth to better understand it.
• Evaluate. Before making a conclusive decision on any given matter, they’ll go through the process of elimination.
• Judge. Rarely will emotion sway an analytical thinker. Instead, they’ll use linear thinking to come to a sound, sensical, well-thought-out conclusion.
• Compare and contrast. They have the ability to easily note the similarities and differences between or among ideas. This allows them to highlight important details, make abstract ideas more concrete, and reduce any confusion between related concepts.

People with analytical skills often search for information and evidence, have a logical and systematic approach to things, prefer routines, have the innate ability to concentrate, and have exceptional memory.

Examples of Analytical People

So you’re considered ‘book smart.’ What can you do with this ability?

Here are five career paths that you can get into and examples of people in that field.

#1: Mathematician

It takes critical thinking, quantitative reasoning, problem-solving, time management, and analysis to be a mathematician. Think John Nash, who won the Nobel Prize in economics for his work in game theory. His work inspired the movie, The Beautiful Mind .

Many industries now rely on data, so people who’re great with numbers and analyzing complex problems definitely have a bright future ahead of them. So much so that for math occupations, the Bureau of Labor Statistics projects a 27% job growth rate between 2019 and 2029.

#2: Analyst

It’s all about gathering, interpreting, and using complex data for an analyst. They take information, analyze it, and identify trends or areas of improvement.

Remember the movie Moneyball ? It’s probably one of the most definitive movies that use analytics, where the general manager of Oakland Athletics and a Yale graduate use numerical analysis and predictive modeling techniques to reinvent the team.

#3: Code breaker

A code breaker is a person who performs cryptanalysis, which is the process of deciphering coded messages without a key. They use logic and intuition to uncover or decode information.

Their abilities are important in warfare, as depicted in many combat movies, like The Imitation Game . The film highlights the life of a cryptanalyst who, with a team of code breakers, tries to decipher the code of the German enigma machine.

#4: Academic

While this occupation isn’t as demanding as solving complex mathematical problems, academics do use elements of analytical intelligence. Putting together a well-structured essay or publication involves thorough research, analyzing information, evaluating opposing arguments, and comparing and contrasting points of view.

A great example of an academic analytical thinker is Robert Langdon from Dan Brown’s series, starting with Angels & Demons . The fictional Harvard University professor uses his brilliant problem-solving mind and knowledge of religious iconology and symbology to help solve mysteries surrounding that particular subject.

#5: Director

This type of analytical occupation blends in with experiential and practical intelligence. However, a director possesses many analytical abilities, including assessing the scenes, comparing and contrasting the script’s dialogue with how the actor presents it, and seeing the film’s overall vision.

The filmmaker, Alfred Hitchcock, is a great example. He became known for thrillers, having directed cinematic masterpieces like Psycho and The Birds.

Jim Kwik’s 10 Habits to Improve Your Analytical Brain

If you want to level up, your morning routine is a great place to start. As Jim Kwik, world-renowned brain coach and trainer of Mindvalley’s Superbrain Quest, says, “ First you make your habits, and then, your habits make you .”

Here are 10 habits, as suggested by Jim, to implement into your morning routine.

• Remember your dreams. As you solve problems during your waking state, your mind continues to work on them as you sleep. So try dream journaling to recall what happens in your unconscious mind.
• Make your bed. Not only does it promote good hygiene, but a clean environment helps your anxiety levels, sleep quality, and ability to focus.
• Hydrate. While sleeping, you lose about one liter of water each night. So it’s important to drink 12-16 oz of water when you wake up.
• Brush your teeth with the opposite hand. Using your non-dominant arm creates more neural connections inside your brain.
• Deep breathing exercises. Oxygen is good for your brain and these exercises signal the brain to wind down and relax.
• Brain tea. Like ginkgo and lion’s mane, drink teas that help boost your focus and memory.
• Journaling. Many benefits come with the art of journaling, like improving cognition and boosting memory function.
• High-intensity interval training (HIIT). “ Whatever is good for your heart is usually good for your head ,” says Jim. Get your heart going with three to four minutes of high-intensity exercises. 
• Brainpower smoothie. Put brain foods, like blueberries and avocados, into a blender and make a smoothie.
• Read. Jim suggests putting aside 20-30 minutes a day to read.

You might want to implement all these habits straight away, but take it slow . Routines take time to establish and research shows that adding too many changes to your current one might result in a behavior relapse. 

Supercharge Your Superbrain

Intelligence isn’t a one-size-fits-all affair. To achieve the level of success you strive for, it’s important to continue working on your growth.

As Jim says, “ None of it works unless YOU work. We have to do our part. If knowing is half the battle, action is the second half of the battle. ”

If you need a nudge to take action, you can find that support at Mindvalley. As a member, you have full access to personal growth programs like the Superbrain Quest with Jim Kwik. 

And it’s well known that you learn better in a group. So as you go through your journey, you can share your ongoing breakthroughs and insights with the tribe, Mindvalley’s community of transformational learners. 

Great change starts with you. Welcome in.

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7.4 What Are Intelligence and Creativity?

Learning objectives.

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Define intelligence
• Explain the triarchic theory of intelligence
• Identify the difference between intelligence theories
• Explain emotional intelligence
• Define creativity

A four-and-a-half-year-old boy sits at the kitchen table with his father, who is reading a new story aloud to him. He turns the page to continue reading, but before he can begin, the boy says, “Wait, Daddy!” He points to the words on the new page and reads aloud, “Go, Pig! Go!” The father stops and looks at his son. “Can you read that?” he asks. “Yes, Daddy!” And he points to the words and reads again, “Go, Pig! Go!”

This father was not actively teaching his son to read, even though the child constantly asked questions about letters, words, and symbols that they saw everywhere: in the car, in the store, on the television. The dad wondered about what else his son might understand and decided to try an experiment. Grabbing a sheet of blank paper, he wrote several simple words in a list: mom, dad, dog, bird, bed, truck, car, tree. He put the list down in front of the boy and asked him to read the words. “Dad, dog, bird, bed, truck, car, tree,” he read, slowing down to carefully pronounce bird and truck. Then, “Did I do it, Daddy?” “You sure did! That is very good.” The father gave his little boy a warm hug and continued reading the story about the pig, all the while wondering if his son’s abilities were an indication of exceptional intelligence or simply a normal pattern of linguistic development. Like the father in this example, psychologists have wondered what constitutes intelligence and how it can be measured.

Classifying Intelligence

What exactly is intelligence? The way that researchers have defined the concept of intelligence has been modified many times since the birth of psychology. British psychologist Charles Spearman believed intelligence consisted of one general factor, called g , which could be measured and compared among individuals. Spearman focused on the commonalities among various intellectual abilities and de-emphasized what made each unique. Long before modern psychology developed, however, ancient philosophers, such as Aristotle, held a similar view (Cianciolo & Sternberg, 2004).

Other psychologists believe that instead of a single factor, intelligence is a collection of distinct abilities. In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of intelligence that divided general intelligence into two components: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence (Cattell, 1963). Crystallized intelligence is characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and recall information, you are using crystallized intelligence. You use crystallized intelligence all the time in your coursework by demonstrating that you have mastered the information covered in the course. Fluid intelligence encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems. Navigating your way home after being detoured onto an unfamiliar route because of road construction would draw upon your fluid intelligence. Fluid intelligence helps you tackle complex, abstract challenges in your daily life, whereas crystallized intelligence helps you overcome concrete, straightforward problems (Cattell, 1963).

Other theorists and psychologists believe that intelligence should be defined in more practical terms. For example, what types of behaviors help you get ahead in life? Which skills promote success? Think about this for a moment. Being able to recite all of the presidents of the United States in order is an excellent party trick, but will knowing this make you a better person?

Robert Sternberg developed another theory of intelligence, which he titled the triarchic theory of intelligence because it sees intelligence as comprised of three parts (Sternberg, 1988): practical, creative, and analytical intelligence ( Figure 7.12 ).

Practical intelligence , as proposed by Sternberg, is sometimes compared to “street smarts.” Being practical means you find solutions that work in your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your experiences. This type of intelligence appears to be separate from traditional understanding of IQ; individuals who score high in practical intelligence may or may not have comparable scores in creative and analytical intelligence (Sternberg, 1988).

Analytical intelligence is closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations. Sternberg says that analytical intelligence is demonstrated by an ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast. When reading a classic novel for literature class, for example, it is usually necessary to compare the motives of the main characters of the book or analyze the historical context of the story. In a science course such as anatomy, you must study the processes by which the body uses various minerals in different human systems. In developing an understanding of this topic, you are using analytical intelligence. When solving a challenging math problem, you would apply analytical intelligence to analyze different aspects of the problem and then solve it section by section.

Creative intelligence is marked by inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or situation. Creativity in this realm can include finding a novel solution to an unexpected problem or producing a beautiful work of art or a well-developed short story. Imagine for a moment that you are camping in the woods with some friends and realize that you’ve forgotten your camp coffee pot. The person in your group who figures out a way to successfully brew coffee for everyone would be credited as having higher creative intelligence.

Multiple Intelligences Theory was developed by Howard Gardner, a Harvard psychologist and former student of Erik Erikson. In Gardner’s theory, each person possesses at least eight intelligences. The eight intelligences are linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, musical intelligence, bodily kinesthetic intelligence, spatial intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, intrapersonal intelligence, and naturalistic intelligence. Among cognitive psychologists, Gardner’s theory has been heavily criticized for lacking empirical evidence. However, educators continue to study and use Gardner’s theory, with some colleges even discussing how they integrate Gardner’s theory into their classrooms. Gottfredson describes one possible reason for the continued use of Gardner’s theory: “ . . . that there are multiple independent intelligences, suggesting that everyone can be smart in some way. This is, understandably, a very attractive idea in democratic societies” (2004).

Gardner’s inter- and intrapersonal intelligences are often combined into a single type: emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence encompasses the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways (Parker, Saklofske, & Stough, 2009). People with high emotional intelligence typically have well-developed social skills. Some researchers, including Daniel Goleman, the author of Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ , argue that emotional intelligence is a better predictor of success than traditional intelligence (Goleman, 1995). However, emotional intelligence has been widely debated, with researchers pointing out inconsistencies in how it is defined and described, as well as questioning results of studies on a subject that is difficult to measure and study empirically (Locke, 2005; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004).

The most comprehensive theory of intelligence to date is the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities (Schneider & McGrew, 2018). In this theory, abilities are related and arranged in a hierarchy with general abilities at the top, broad abilities in the middle, and narrow (specific) abilities at the bottom. The narrow abilities are the only ones that can be directly measured; however, they are integrated within the other abilities. At the general level is general intelligence. Next, the broad level consists of general abilities such as fluid reasoning, short-term memory, and processing speed. Finally, as the hierarchy continues, the narrow level includes specific forms of cognitive abilities. For example, short-term memory would further break down into memory span and working memory capacity.

Intelligence can also have different meanings and values in different cultures. If you live on a small island, where most people get their food by fishing from boats, it would be important to know how to fish and how to repair a boat. If you were an exceptional angler, your peers would probably consider you intelligent. If you were also skilled at repairing boats, your intelligence might be known across the whole island. Think about your own family’s culture. What values are important for Latinx families? Italian families? In Irish families, hospitality and telling an entertaining story are marks of the culture. If you are a skilled storyteller, other members of Irish culture are likely to consider you intelligent.

Some cultures place a high value on working together as a collective. In these cultures, the importance of the group supersedes the importance of individual achievement. When you visit such a culture, how well you relate to the values of that culture exemplifies your cultural intelligence , sometimes referred to as cultural competence.

Link to Learning

Watch this video that compares different theories of intelligence to learn more.

Creativity is the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities. Very creative people often have intense knowledge about something, work on it for years, look at novel solutions, seek out the advice and help of other experts, and take risks. Although creativity is often associated with the arts, it is actually a vital form of intelligence that drives people in many disciplines to discover something new. Creativity can be found in every area of life, from the way you decorate your residence to a new way of understanding how a cell works.

Creativity is often connected to a person’s ability to engage in divergent thinking . Divergent thinking can be described as thinking “outside the box;” it allows an individual to arrive at unique, multiple solutions to a given problem. In contrast, convergent thinking describes the ability to provide a correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem (Cropley, 2006; Gilford, 1967)

Everyday Connection

Dr. Tom Steitz, former Sterling Professor of Biochemistry and Biophysics at Yale University, spent his career looking at the structure and specific aspects of RNA molecules and how their interactions could help produce antibiotics and ward off diseases. As a result of his lifetime of work, he won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2009. He wrote, “Looking back over the development and progress of my career in science, I am reminded how vitally important good mentorship is in the early stages of one's career development and constant face-to-face conversations, debate and discussions with colleagues at all stages of research. Outstanding discoveries, insights and developments do not happen in a vacuum” (Steitz, 2010, para. 39). Based on Steitz’s comment, it becomes clear that someone’s creativity, although an individual strength, benefits from interactions with others. Think of a time when your creativity was sparked by a conversation with a friend or classmate. How did that person influence you and what problem did you solve using creativity?

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Understanding Analytical Intelligence in Psychology

Have you ever wondered what sets analytical intelligence apart from other types of intelligence? In the field of psychology, analytical intelligence plays a crucial role in problem-solving, critical thinking, and decision-making.

This article will explore the components of analytical intelligence, how it differs from practical and creative intelligence, and how it can be measured. We will discuss the benefits of having high analytical intelligence and strategies for developing this essential cognitive skill.

So, let’s dive in and unravel the mysteries of analytical intelligence together!

• Analytical intelligence is the ability to analyze and make sense of complex information, solve problems, and think critically.
• Unlike practical and creative intelligence, analytical intelligence focuses on abstract reasoning, logical reasoning, critical thinking, and problem solving.
• Developing analytical intelligence can lead to better decision making, improved problem solving skills, and higher academic achievement through practice, engagement in activities, and learning from mistakes and feedback.
• 1 What is Analytical Intelligence?
• 2.1 Practical Intelligence
• 2.2 Creative Intelligence
• 3.1 Abstract Reasoning
• 3.2 Logical Reasoning
• 3.3 Critical Thinking
• 3.4 Problem Solving
• 4.1 Standardized Tests
• 4.2 Cognitive Assessments
• 5.1 Better Decision Making
• 5.2 Improved Problem Solving Skills
• 5.3 Higher Academic Achievement
• 6.1 Practice Critical Thinking Skills
• 6.2 Engage in Problem Solving Activities
• 6.3 Learn from Mistakes and Feedback
• 7.1 What is analytical intelligence in psychology?
• 7.2 How is analytical intelligence measured?
• 7.3 What is the relationship between analytical intelligence and academic success?
• 7.4 Can analytical intelligence be improved?
• 7.5 Is analytical intelligence the only type of intelligence that matters in psychology?
• 7.6 How can understanding analytical intelligence benefit us in everyday life?

What is Analytical Intelligence?

Analytical intelligence , as proposed by Robert Sternberg in his triarchic theory of intelligence, refers to the ability to analyze information, reason logically, and solve complex problems.

This type of intelligence is a vital component in understanding cognitive processes and problem-solving abilities. In Sternberg’s triarchic theory, analytical intelligence is one of three distinct forms of intelligence, along with creative and practical intelligence. Psychology researchers play a crucial role in further defining and researching analytical intelligence by conducting experiments, studies, and assessments to delve into its intricacies.

Analytical skills are fundamental in enhancing logical thinking, learning processes, and finding effective solutions to various challenges. Individuals with high analytical intelligence are adept at breaking down complex problems into manageable parts, applying logical reasoning, and arriving at well-thought-out solutions.

How is Analytical Intelligence Different from Other Types of Intelligence?

Analytical intelligence stands out from practical and creative intelligence by focusing on problem-solving through logical reasoning and the analysis of patterns and data.

Practical intelligence, on the other hand, involves applying knowledge and skills to real-world situations effectively. People with practical intelligence excel at tasks that require hands-on experience and the ability to adapt to changing circumstances swiftly. This type of intelligence is often seen in professions that demand practical know-how, such as skilled trades or emergency response roles.

Analytical intelligence emphasizes academic applications and critical thinking skills, delving deep into the process of problem-solving by breaking down complex issues into manageable components for systematic evaluation.

Practical Intelligence

Practical intelligence involves the application of skills and knowledge to real-world situations, enabling individuals to excel in various professions, roles, and fields.

This form of intelligence goes beyond theoretical understanding, emphasizing the ability to adapt, problem-solve, and make informed decisions in dynamic environments.

Practical intelligence plays a crucial role in the everyday functioning of individuals across diverse job sectors, from customer service to project management. For instance, a marketing manager with high practical intelligence can quickly assess market trends, devise innovative campaigns, and navigate unexpected challenges effectively. In today’s fast-paced job market, employers increasingly value candidates with strong practical intelligence as it directly impacts organizational efficiency and success.

Creative Intelligence

Creative intelligence involves the generation of innovative solutions to complex problems, making it essential in fields that require constant development and evaluation of new ideas.

In today’s rapidly evolving world, the ability to think creatively has become a prized skill in a wide range of professions, from marketing and design to engineering and healthcare. Creative intelligence enables individuals to approach challenges with out-of-the-box thinking, leading to unique and effective problem-solving strategies. Whether it’s coming up with a fresh marketing campaign, designing cutting-edge technology, or finding innovative medical treatments, creativity plays a crucial role in driving progress and success.

What are the Components of Analytical Intelligence?

The components of analytical intelligence include abstract reasoning , logical thinking , critical evaluation , and effective problem-solving abilities .

Abstract reasoning involves the capacity to understand complex concepts and ideas without relying on concrete examples. For example, individuals with strong abstract reasoning skills can grasp theoretical principles in mathematics or physics easily.

Logical thinking is the ability to recognize patterns, establish cause-effect relationships, and draw conclusions based on evidence and reasoning. It allows individuals to solve problems methodically and make informed decisions.

Critical evaluation plays a crucial role in decision-making by enabling individuals to assess information objectively, identify biases, and evaluate the credibility of sources. For instance, in business, critical thinkers can analyze different strategies and choose the most effective one.

Effective problem-solving abilities are essential for analytical thinkers to identify challenges, devise solutions, and implement strategies to overcome obstacles. An example of this component is when a scientist formulates hypotheses and conducts experiments to solve scientific mysteries.

Abstract Reasoning

Abstract reasoning involves the ability to identify and interpret patterns, data, and information to draw insightful conclusions and make informed assessments.

Researchers often rely on tests and assessments that measure a person’s capacity for abstract reasoning to evaluate their intelligence levels.

By engaging individuals in tasks requiring pattern recognition, logical reasoning, and problem-solving, researchers can gain valuable insights into their cognitive abilities. For example, in a pattern recognition task, participants may be presented with a series of shapes or symbols where they need to decipher the underlying rule governing the sequence. The ability to discern patterns and predict upcoming elements demonstrates a strong aptitude for abstract thinking.

Logical Reasoning

Logical reasoning entails the systematic approach to problem-solving within academic environments, where individuals evaluate data, apply reasoning, and derive solutions.

By utilizing logical reasoning , students can effectively dissect complex issues, identify patterns, and reach sound conclusions. It involves a methodical thought process where evidence is critically analyzed to draw valid inferences. For example, in mathematics, students use logical reasoning to prove theorems by following step-by-step logical deductions.

In scientific research, logical reasoning helps researchers formulate hypotheses, design experiments, and interpret results accurately. By employing logical thinking, students and researchers enhance their analytical intelligence and develop a structured approach to problem-solving, essential skills that extend beyond academia to various aspects of professional life.

Critical Thinking

Critical thinking involves the skill of evaluating information, assessing situations, and making informed decisions that have practical applications in various professions and roles.

Critical thinking plays a crucial role in a wide array of fields and professions. In healthcare, practitioners use critical thinking to diagnose illnesses by carefully analyzing symptoms and test results. In the business sector, leaders apply critical thinking to strategize and adapt to changing market conditions effectively. Educators utilize critical thinking to develop engaging lesson plans that promote intellectual growth in students.

• Engaging in debates and discussions to challenge viewpoints
• Reading diverse sources of information to broaden perspectives
• Practicing problem-solving exercises to sharpen analytical abilities

By actively honing critical thinking skills, individuals can enhance their capacity to make well-informed decisions and navigate complex situations with confidence.

Problem Solving

Problem-solving is a key aspect of analytical intelligence that involves finding solutions through creative thinking, logical reasoning, and skillful analysis.

Effective problem-solving requires the ability to approach challenges with a combination of imagination and strategic thinking. When faced with a complex issue, individuals with strong problem-solving skills can break down the problem into smaller, more manageable parts, allowing them to identify the root cause and develop innovative solutions.

For instance, in a professional setting, problem-solving skills are crucial for resolving conflicts between team members, optimizing workflow processes, and overcoming obstacles in project management. By leveraging both creative and logical reasoning, individuals can navigate through uncertainties and complexities to reach successful outcomes.

How is Analytical Intelligence Measured?

Analytical intelligence is often measured through standardized tests, cognitive assessments, and IQ tests that evaluate an individual’s problem-solving and reasoning abilities.

Standardized tests are widely used in educational settings to assess students’ cognitive abilities and compare them to their peers. These tests follow a predetermined format with a set of questions that are administered and scored consistently. On the other hand, cognitive assessments involve a more diverse range of tasks, such as puzzles, memory challenges, and logical reasoning exercises, providing a broader view of an individual’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses. IQ tests , specifically designed to quantify intellectual abilities, focus on measuring problem-solving skills, logical reasoning, and spatial awareness to determine an individual’s intelligence quotient.”

Standardized Tests

Standardized tests are commonly used to assess analytical intelligence by presenting individuals with structured questions that require logical reasoning and problem-solving skills.

These tests play a crucial role in various educational and professional settings, helping to gauge a person’s ability to think critically and solve complex problems. The development of standardized tests involves extensive research to ensure reliability and validity in measuring analytical intelligence. Researchers focus on creating questions that assess different aspects of logical reasoning, such as deductive and inductive reasoning, pattern recognition, and data interpretation. Question types may include multiple-choice , short answer , and critical thinking exercises, designed to challenge the test-taker’s analytical skills.

Data gathered from standardized tests is utilized by educators, employers, and researchers to compare individuals’ analytical abilities, identify strengths and weaknesses, and make informed decisions about academic placements or employment opportunities. It offers a quantitative measure of one’s cognitive functioning, aiding in the evaluation of problem-solving capabilities and intellectual potential.

Cognitive Assessments

Cognitive assessments delve into an individual’s ability to reason logically, learn effectively, and recognize patterns, offering insights into their analytical intelligence.

Reasoning is a fundamental component assessed in cognitive tests, measuring how well the individual can apply logic to solve problems. This often involves tasks such as identifying relationships between words or numbers, completing sequences, and deducing conclusions from provided information.

Pattern recognition, another crucial aspect, evaluates one’s ability to detect and understand patterns in visual stimuli, sequences, or logical structures. For instance, these assessments may include tasks like identifying symmetrical shapes, predicting the next element in a sequence, or deciphering abstract symbols.

What are the Benefits of Having High Analytical Intelligence?

Individuals with high analytical intelligence enjoy benefits such as improved decision-making, enhanced problem-solving skills, and higher academic achievement.

Enhanced analytical intelligence allows individuals to approach complex problems with a structured and logical mindset. They are adept at breaking down intricate issues into manageable parts, enabling them to devise innovative solutions efficiently. Such individuals are also skilled at recognizing patterns, making connections, and drawing insights from various sources of information.

The ability to think critically and analytically is highly valued in academic settings. Students with strong analytical intelligence excel in tasks requiring logical reasoning, data interpretation, and hypothesis testing.

The influence of analytical intelligence extends beyond the realms of academia. In professions such as business, research, and technology, individuals with advanced analytical skills hold a competitive edge due to their capacity to analyze data, anticipate outcomes, and make informed decisions.

Better Decision Making

High analytical intelligence leads to better decision-making capabilities as individuals can assess situations, apply problem-solving techniques, and critically evaluate options for optimal outcomes.

Analytical intelligence plays a crucial role in enhancing decision-making skills by enabling individuals to delve deep into complex scenarios, unraveling intricate details to make informed choices.

Problem-solving and critical thinking are integral components that come into play when utilizing analytical intelligence for decision-making.

When faced with challenges, individuals with high analytical intelligence can break down problems into manageable parts, identify root causes, and devise effective solutions.

For instance, in a business setting, a leader with strong analytical intelligence can analyze market trends, competitive landscapes, and financial data to make strategic decisions that drive growth and innovation.

Effective evaluation of different options is crucial in decision-making, requiring individuals to weigh pros and cons, assess risks, and anticipate potential outcomes.

Improved Problem Solving Skills

Individuals with high analytical intelligence exhibit improved problem-solving skills, enabling them to identify solutions, develop strategies, and evaluate outcomes with precision.

When faced with complex problems, those with elevated analytical intelligence have a knack for breaking down intricate issues into smaller, manageable parts. This ability allows them to approach problem-solving systematically, moving from analyzing the root cause to devising innovative solutions. By leveraging their sharp analytical skills, individuals can navigate obstacles efficiently, fostering a structured problem-solving approach.

High analytical intelligence enables individuals to think critically and logically, enhancing their capacity to assess various possibilities and choose the most effective course of action. This strategic thinking not only streamlines the problem-solving process but also ensures a higher success rate in achieving favorable outcomes.

Higher Academic Achievement

High analytical intelligence is associated with higher academic achievement as individuals can effectively evaluate information, excel in assessments, and demonstrate intellectual capabilities in academic tasks.

This ability to analyze and process complex information is crucial for success in school and beyond. Students with strong analytical skills can break down problems, see patterns, and draw connections, leading to better understanding and problem-solving skills. Regarding learning and assessments, individuals with high analytical intelligence are more adept at critical thinking, reasoning, and making informed decisions. Their capacity to think analytically not only aids in comprehension but also enhances their ability to apply knowledge effectively.

How Can Analytical Intelligence Be Developed?

Developing analytical intelligence involves practicing critical thinking skills, engaging in problem-solving activities, and learning from mistakes and feedback.

One of the key strategies for enhancing analytical intelligence is to continuously challenge oneself with complex problems that require a deep level of thinking. By seeking out puzzles, riddles, or brain teasers, individuals can stimulate their analytical skills and improve their ability to dissect information logically.

• Another effective way to boost analytical intelligence is through active reading and discussing diverse topics. Engaging in debates, book clubs, or online forums can expose individuals to different perspectives and encourage them to think critically about various issues.

Engaging in hands-on activities like coding, Sudoku, or strategic board games can help individuals enhance their problem-solving abilities and analytical thinking. These activities require individuals to think ahead, consider multiple factors simultaneously, and come up with creative solutions.

Practicing mindfulness and meditation techniques can also improve analytical intelligence by enhancing focus, attention to detail, and cognitive flexibility.

Seeking feedback from peers, mentors, or experts on one’s analytical reasoning process is crucial for continuous development. Constructive criticism and suggestions for improvement can help individuals identify blind spots, refine their analytical techniques, and approach problems from different angles.

Practice Critical Thinking Skills

Improving analytical intelligence requires regular practice of critical thinking skills, such as evaluating information , assessing perspectives, and reasoning effectively.

Enhancing critical thinking abilities involves engaging in activities that challenge your reasoning and problem-solving capabilities. For example, solving puzzles, debating various viewpoints on a topic, actively seeking out and analyzing differing opinions, and practicing mindfulness to foster clarity of thought. These exercises help develop your ability to think critically, make informed decisions, and approach complex issues with a strategic mindset.

When evaluating information, it is important to consider the source, credibility, bias, and relevance of the content. By questioning assumptions, recognizing patterns, and drawing logical conclusions, one can navigate through the abundance of information available in today’s world while forming well-founded opinions.

Continual improvement in critical thinking skills can be achieved through regular reflection, seeking feedback, engaging in debates, and expanding one’s knowledge base. By honing these abilities, one can effectively analyze situations, solve problems, and make informed choices in both personal and professional realms.

Engage in Problem Solving Activities

Enhancing analytical intelligence involves participating in problem-solving activities that challenge individuals to apply logical reasoning, find innovative solutions, and hone their analytical skills.

By engaging in activities like puzzles, riddles, brainteasers, and strategy games, individuals can stimulate their cognitive processes and enhance their problem-solving capabilities. These tasks not only boost analytical thinking but also foster creativity and critical thinking. For instance, tackling a Sudoku puzzle requires methodical reasoning and pattern recognition skills to come up with a correct solution. Similarly, playing chess involves strategic planning, evaluating potential moves, and predicting opponents’ actions, all of which are crucial for sharpening analytical intelligence.

Learn from Mistakes and Feedback

Continuous growth in analytical intelligence requires individuals to learn from mistakes and seek feedback to understand areas for improvement, refine their skills, and enhance their problem-solving capabilities.

Learning from mistakes plays a vital role in honing analytical intelligence. By reflecting on errors and understanding the reasons behind them, individuals can identify key learning points that contribute to their growth. Analyzing feedback from peers, mentors, or even self-assessment tools offers valuable insights for skill development. Strategies like setting specific goals, receiving constructive criticism, and practicing consistent self-reflection help in incorporating feedback effectively.

For instance, in the field of data analysis, errors in interpreting data can lead to valuable discoveries if one scrutinizes the process. By acknowledging and rectifying mistakes, one can strengthen their analytical abilities and gain a deeper insight into complex problems. Embracing a mindset that views mistakes as opportunities for improvement fosters a continuous cycle of learning and boosts analytical intelligence over time.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is analytical intelligence in psychology.

Analytical intelligence refers to the ability to analyze and synthesize information, reason logically, and solve complex problems.

How is analytical intelligence measured?

Analytical intelligence is typically measured through standardized IQ tests, which assess an individual’s ability to think critically, reason, and solve problems.

What is the relationship between analytical intelligence and academic success?

Research has shown that individuals with high levels of analytical intelligence tend to perform better academically, as they are able to think critically and solve complex problems more effectively.

Can analytical intelligence be improved?

While some individuals may have a natural predisposition towards analytical intelligence, it can also be developed and improved through practice and exposure to challenging tasks and problems.

Is analytical intelligence the only type of intelligence that matters in psychology?

No, analytical intelligence is just one aspect of intelligence. There are also other types of intelligence, such as emotional intelligence and creative intelligence, which are also important in psychology.

How can understanding analytical intelligence benefit us in everyday life?

Having a strong ability in analytical intelligence can help us make better decisions, solve problems more effectively, and think critically about our surroundings and experiences. It can also lead to increased success in academic and professional endeavors.

Marcus Wong, a cognitive neuroscientist, explores the mysteries of the human brain and behavior. His work in experimental psychology and brain imaging techniques has contributed to our understanding of memory, decision-making, and neural mechanisms underlying cognitive functions. Marcus is committed to making complex scientific concepts accessible to a broad audience, writing about the latest trends in neuroscience, cognitive enhancement, and the intersection of technology with brain health.

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Analytic Intelligence

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Academic problem-solving skills ; Componential knowledge ; Fluid intelligence ; Implicit knowledge

Analytic intelligence relates to the mental mechanisms individuals utilize to plan and undertake academic and problem-solving tasks, which are often measured in traditional intelligence tests. Analytic intelligence relies on applying internal mental knowledge to solving novel problems rather than on explicit or learned knowledge from prior experience and/or schooling.

Description

Analytic intelligence tasks typically require an individual to provide a single-correct response to well-defined questions involving new information without utilizing crystallized knowledge, or explicit, declarative knowledge from schooling or prior experience. In this manner, analytic intelligence is similar to Cattell’s (1963) notion of fluid intelligence . Like fluid intelligence, analytic intelligence challenges an individual to contend with novelty, and to adapt one’s problem-solving to a...

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Carpenter, P. A., Just, M. A., & Shell, P. (1990). What one intelligence test measures: A theoretical account of the processing in the Raven progressive matrices test. Psychological Review, 97 (3), 404–431.

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Coie, J. D., & Dorval, B. (1973). Sex differences in the intellectual structure of social interaction skills. Developmental Psychology, 8 (2), 261–267.

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Shu-Chen, L., Lindenberger, U., Hommel, B., Aschersleben, G., Prinz, W., & Baltes, P. B. (2004). Transformations in the couplings among intellectual abilities and constituent cognitive processes across the life span. Psychological Review, 15 (3), 155–163.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. (2008). Retrieved December 28, 2008, from http://wilderdom.com/personality/L2-2SternbergTriarchicTheory.html

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Silton, N.R. (2011). Analytic Intelligence. In: Goldstein, S., Naglieri, J.A. (eds) Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_129

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Analytical intelligence: definition and how to develop and use it correctly

7 min read · Updated on April 13, 2023

Unlock your analytical intelligence for future career growth

What do Albert Einstein, Marie Curie, and Abraham Lincoln have in common? They're all seen as highly developed analytical thinkers, due to being curious, detail-oriented, and thorough in their work. The process of decision-making by those with analytical intelligence is often guided by scientific, mathematical, and social principles. They also tend to thoroughly weigh up the pros and cons, and refer to detailed data, before taking any action.

The definition of analytical intelligence

Analytical intelligence is the ability to complete academic and problem solving tasks, such as those that are commonly used in standardised tests designed to assess human intelligence - often known as IQ (intelligence quotient) tests. These types of tasks usually present well-defined problems with a single correct answer.

When you analyse something, you, “examine in detail in order to discover meaning and essential features,” while intelligence is defined as, “the capacity for understanding; the ability to perceive and comprehend meaning”, according to the Collins English Dictionary.

So what does analytical intelligence mean?

It's all about analysing, evaluating, and thinking critically. A short and sweet explanation is the ability to complete academic tasks and  solve problems  - traits which are extremely sought after in today's crowded job market.

Its importance lies in the fact that analytical intelligence is needed to encode, store, process, remember, and use information correctly. That means analysing how you think and act, while constantly stretching those grey cells to their limit.

What are the 3 main types of intelligence?

According to the triarchic theory of intelligence, which was formulated by American Psychologist Robert Sternberg, in the 1980s, there are three forms of intelligence - analytical, practical, and creative. His theory dispels the view of intelligence from a psychometric approach, which only takes IQ tests and academic achievement into account. Sternberg cited two other types, that cover how smartly people adapt to, select, and shape real-world environments throughout their lives.

Practical intelligence is the ability to adapt to the every day by drawing upon existing knowledge and skills, enabling the individual to fully comprehend what needs to be done within a specific setting, and then going the right way to achieve that.

Creative intelligence , also known as synthetic intelligence, is when you can successfully deal with new and unusual situations by drawing on your existing skills and knowledge. Individuals with a high level of creative intelligence may give “wrong” answers during an IQ test because they see things in a different way.

Analytical intelligence , already discussed above, is what some see as the “normal” type of intelligence, and the one that's most easily graded and documented with tests.

Possessing a combination of all three is key to your success. But it's not enough to just have them; you need to be able to know when to use each one as well.

But what about emotional intelligence , I hear you cry? It's a buzz phrase at the moment, and the Collins English Dictionary defines it as being able to, “perceive, interpret, demonstrate, control, evaluate, and use emotions to communicate with and relate to others effectively and constructively.” While being incredibly important, it isn't part of the triarchic theory of intelligence.

There are other types of intelligence as well, such as  interpersonal intelligence , which are explored in some of our other articles.

Examples of analytical intelligence

Because most of the time we're simply not analysing how our brains work, we often don't realise how smart we really are. A lot of it, hopefully, comes naturally. Check out the bullet points below and see how many of these analytical intelligence examples you can tick…

You're outstanding at analysing from a theoretical perspective

You're able to seamlessly evaluate the pros and cons in any given situation

You explain theoretical and abstract ideas in an easy-to-understand way

You compare and contrast ideas easily

 You're excellent at critiquing ideas and judging various aspects of a certain subject matter

You're able to envisage long term solutions to complex problems

Analytical intelligence incorporates being able to compare and contrast the analysis of a subject or a viewpoint. While this can vary from appreciating a piece of art to resolving a complex problem, it's the exercising of analytical abilities that forms the crucial aspects.

How to develop your analytical intelligence

Good things come to those who wait… and work hard for it. If you want to strengthen and improve on your analytical skills, which are useful both in the workplace and in life generally, there are a few things you can do to help.

1. Exercise your brain

Improve analytical skills by engaging in “brain games.” These include logic puzzles such as Sudoku, crosswords, and riddles, strategic games like chess and draughts, and board games including Scrabble.

These might even have a double whammy effect by boosting your  cognitive ability as well.

2. Take on maths problems 

Channel your secondary school self by practising and solving complicated maths problems that involve algebra, calculus, and long division. It might take you back a few years, reminding you of the distinct smell of your old school classroom, but persevere and it'll be worth it. Maths is logical, and the problems are structured in such a way that you have all the information to hand to be able to reach the right solution.

3. Join a book group or debating club

These groups provide the opportunity to explore ideas, literature, and problems within a congenial atmosphere, with the chance to learn how to express yourself better. Debating is a great way to expand and hone your analytical skills, because your perspective and arguments will be challenged by others who have different opinions.

4. Create a wider knowledge base

The more we learn and know about the world, the more we have in our armoury to be able to understand and solve problems.

Consider reading widely, but not just focusing on narrow subjects or genres

Subscribe to magazines that inform you about the world around us

Attend academic talks and lectures

Enrol in college or take part in educational classes within the local community 

5. Take the time to think

Instead of reaching for your  phone  every time you're bored, take a moment to think, let your mind wander, and consider different scenarios. Instead of making rash decisions, think things through and note how other factors can help you to hone your analytical and problem solving abilities.

6. Expand your view of the world

This can be through travel, understanding different religions and cultures, or stepping outside your normal political views to consider the opposites. If you can, surround yourself with people from different backgrounds so that you can explore ideas that differ from your norm.

7. Look for connections 

That doesn't mean on  LinkedIn ! It's about searching for things that connect with each other, such as the seasons and migrating birds, as this gets your brain to think analytically.

8. Pay attention to the detail

Specifics are vital when developing analytical skills. When meeting someone for the first time, for example, commit their name to memory and take in those features that make them unique.

9. Question the way things are

Don't just take the easy way out; keep questioning and challenging. If a work colleague is being disruptive, take the time to figure out why and think about the possible reasons behind their behaviour.

Putting it all into action

Challenge yourself every day.

Using analytical intelligence on a daily basis will keep you sharp and ensure that you perform at your best, whether that's at work or at play. For example, if you need to tot up the shopping bill, do the maths in your head instead of reaching for a calculator.

Take on new responsibilities

With these improved analytical skills, you'll be firing on all cylinders to take on new responsibilities. Reach for that new promotion you've been after or go for that enticing job, even if it means venturing out of your comfort zone.

Now you need to let your analytical intelligence shine through on your CV. Not sure how to present this correctly? Find out the best ways by submitting your CV for a  free CV review and letting the experts guide you on the right path to success.

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6 Thinking and Intelligence

What is the best way to solve a problem? How does a person who has never seen or touched snow in real life develop an understanding of the concept of snow? How do young children acquire the ability to learn language with no formal instruction? Psychologists who study thinking explore questions like these and are called cognitive psychologists.

Cognitive psychologists also study intelligence. What is intelligence, and how does it vary from person to person? Are “street smarts” a kind of intelligence, and if so, how do they relate to other types of intelligence? What does an IQ test really measure? These questions and more will be explored in this chapter as you study thinking and intelligence.

In other chapters, we discussed the cognitive processes of perception, learning, and memory. In this chapter, we will focus on high-level cognitive processes. As a part of this discussion, we will consider thinking and briefly explore the development and use of language. We will also discuss problem solving and creativity before ending with a discussion of how intelligence is measured and how our biology and environments interact to affect intelligence. After finishing this chapter, you will have a greater appreciation of the higher-level cognitive processes that contribute to our distinctiveness as a species.

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Describe cognition
• Distinguish concepts and prototypes
• Explain the difference between natural and artificial concepts
• Describe how schemata are organized and constructed

Imagine all of your thoughts as if they were physical entities, swirling rapidly inside your mind. How is it possible that the brain is able to move from one thought to the next in an organized, orderly fashion? The brain is endlessly perceiving, processing, planning, organizing, and remembering—it is always active. Yet, you don’t notice most of your brain’s activity as you move throughout your daily routine. This is only one facet of the complex processes involved in cognition. Simply put,  cognition  is thinking, and it encompasses the processes associated with perception, knowledge, problem solving, judgment, language, and memory. Scientists who study cognition are searching for ways to understand how we integrate, organize, and utilize our conscious cognitive experiences without being aware of all of the unconscious work that our brains are doing (for example, Kahneman, 2011).

Upon waking each morning, you begin thinking—contemplating the tasks that you must complete that day. In what order should you run your errands? Should you go to the bank, the cleaners, or the grocery store first? Can you get these things done before you head to class or will they need to wait until school is done? These thoughts are one example of cognition at work. Exceptionally complex, cognition is an essential feature of human consciousness, yet not all aspects of cognition are consciously experienced.

Cognitive psychology  is the field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think. It attempts to explain how and why we think the way we do by studying the interactions among human thinking, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving, in addition to other cognitive processes. Cognitive psychologists strive to determine and measure different types of intelligence, why some people are better at problem solving than others, and how emotional intelligence affects success in the workplace, among countless other topics. They also sometimes focus on how we organize thoughts and information gathered from our environments into meaningful categories of thought, which will be discussed later.

Concepts and Prototypes

The human nervous system is capable of handling endless streams of information. The senses serve as the interface between the mind and the external environment, receiving stimuli and translating it into nerve impulses that are transmitted to the brain. The brain then processes this information and uses the relevant pieces to create thoughts, which can then be expressed through language or stored in memory for future use. To make this process more complex, the brain does not gather information from external environments only. When thoughts are formed, the mind synthesizes information from emotions and memories ( Figure 7.2 ). Emotion and memory are powerful influences on both our thoughts and behaviors.

In order to organize this staggering amount of information, the mind has developed a “file cabinet” of sorts in the mind. The different files stored in the file cabinet are called concepts.  Concepts  are categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences. Concepts are, in many ways, big ideas that are generated by observing details, and categorizing and combining these details into cognitive structures. You use concepts to see the relationships among the different elements of your experiences and to keep the information in your mind organized and accessible.

Concepts are informed by our semantic memory (you will learn more about semantic memory in a later chapter) and are present in every aspect of our lives; however, one of the easiest places to notice concepts is inside a classroom, where they are discussed explicitly. When you study United States history, for example, you learn about more than just individual events that have happened in America’s past. You absorb a large quantity of information by listening to and participating in discussions, examining maps, and reading first-hand accounts of people’s lives. Your brain analyzes these details and develops an overall understanding of American history. In the process, your brain gathers details that inform and refine your understanding of related concepts like democracy, power, and freedom.

Concepts can be complex and abstract, like justice, or more concrete, like types of birds. In psychology, for example, Piaget’s stages of development are abstract concepts. Some concepts, like tolerance, are agreed upon by many people because they have been used in various ways over many years. Other concepts, like the characteristics of your ideal friend or your family’s birthday traditions, are personal and individualized. In this way, concepts touch every aspect of our lives, from our many daily routines to the guiding principles behind the way governments function.

Another technique used by your brain to organize information is the identification of prototypes for the concepts you have developed. A  prototype  is the best example or representation of a concept. For example, what comes to your mind when you think of a dog? Most likely your early experiences with dogs will shape what you imagine. If your first pet was a Golden Retriever, there is a good chance that this would be your prototype for the category of dogs.

Natural and Artificial Concepts

In psychology, concepts can be divided into two categories, natural and artificial.  Natural concepts  are created “naturally” through your experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences. For example, if you live in Essex Junction, Vermont, you have probably had a lot of direct experience with snow. You’ve watched it fall from the sky, you’ve seen lightly falling snow that barely covers the windshield of your car, and you’ve shoveled out 18 inches of fluffy white snow as you’ve thought, “This is perfect for skiing.” You’ve thrown snowballs at your best friend and gone sledding down the steepest hill in town. In short, you know snow. You know what it looks like, smells like, tastes like, and feels like. If, however, you’ve lived your whole life on the island of Saint Vincent in the Caribbean, you may never have actually seen snow, much less tasted, smelled, or touched it. You know snow from the indirect experience of seeing pictures of falling snow—or from watching films that feature snow as part of the setting. Either way, snow is a natural concept because you can construct an understanding of it through direct observations, experiences with snow, or indirect knowledge (such as from films or books) ( Figure 7.3 ).

An  artificial concept , on the other hand, is a concept that is defined by a specific set of characteristics. Various properties of geometric shapes, like squares and triangles, serve as useful examples of artificial concepts. A triangle always has three angles and three sides. A square always has four equal sides and four right angles. Mathematical formulas, like the equation for area (length × width), are artificial concepts defined by specific sets of characteristics that are always the same. Artificial concepts can enhance the understanding of a topic by building on one another. For example, before learning the concept of “area of a square” (and the formula to find it), you must understand what a square is. Once the concept of “area of a square” is understood, an understanding of area for other geometric shapes can be built upon the original understanding of area. The use of artificial concepts to define an idea is crucial to communicating with others and engaging in complex thought. According to Goldstone and Kersten (2003), concepts act as building blocks and can be connected in countless combinations to create complex thoughts.

A  schema  is a mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts (Bartlett, 1932). There are many different types of schemata, and they all have one thing in common: schemata are a method of organizing information that allows the brain to work more efficiently. When a schema is activated, the brain makes immediate assumptions about the person or object being observed.

There are several types of schemata. A  role schema  makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave (Callero, 1994). For example, imagine you meet someone who introduces himself as a firefighter. When this happens, your brain automatically activates the “firefighter schema” and begins making assumptions that this person is brave, selfless, and community-oriented. Despite not knowing this person, already you have unknowingly made judgments about him. Schemata also help you fill in gaps in the information you receive from the world around you. While schemata allow for more efficient information processing, there can be problems with schemata, regardless of whether they are accurate: Perhaps this particular firefighter is not brave, he just works as a firefighter to pay the bills while studying to become a children’s librarian.

An  event schema , also known as a  cognitive script , is a set of behaviors that can feel like a routine. Think about what you do when you walk into an elevator ( Figure 7.4 ). First, the doors open and you wait to let exiting passengers leave the elevator car. Then, you step into the elevator and turn around to face the doors, looking for the correct button to push. You never face the back of the elevator, do you? And when you’re riding in a crowded elevator and you can’t face the front, it feels uncomfortable, doesn’t it? Interestingly, event schemata can vary widely among different cultures and countries. For example, while it is quite common for people to greet one another with a handshake in the United States, in Tibet, you greet someone by sticking your tongue out at them, and in Belize, you bump fists (Cairns Regional Council, n.d.)

Because event schemata are automatic, they can be difficult to change. Imagine that you are driving home from work or school. This event schema involves getting in the car, shutting the door, and buckling your seatbelt before putting the key in the ignition. You might perform this script two or three times each day. As you drive home, you hear your phone’s ring tone. Typically, the event schema that occurs when you hear your phone ringing involves locating the phone and answering it or responding to your latest text message. So without thinking, you reach for your phone, which could be in your pocket, in your bag, or on the passenger seat of the car. This powerful event schema is informed by your pattern of behavior and the pleasurable stimulation that a phone call or text message gives your brain. Because it is a schema, it is extremely challenging for us to stop reaching for the phone, even though we know that we endanger our own lives and the lives of others while we do it (Neyfakh, 2013) ( Figure 7.5 ).

Remember the elevator? It feels almost impossible to walk in and  not  face the door. Our powerful event schema dictates our behavior in the elevator, and it is no different with our phones. Current research suggests that it is the habit, or event schema, of checking our phones in many different situations that make refraining from checking them while driving especially difficult (Bayer & Campbell, 2012). Because texting and driving has become a dangerous epidemic in recent years, psychologists are looking at ways to help people interrupt the “phone schema” while driving. Event schemata like these are the reason why many habits are difficult to break once they have been acquired. As we continue to examine thinking, keep in mind how powerful the forces of concepts and schemata are to our understanding of the world.

• Define language and demonstrate familiarity with the components of language
• Understand the development of language
• Explain the relationship between language and thinking

Language  is a communication system that involves using words and systematic rules to organize those words to transmit information from one individual to another. While language is a form of communication, not all communication is language. Many species communicate with one another through their postures, movements, odors, or vocalizations. This communication is crucial for species that need to interact and develop social relationships with their conspecifics. However, many people have asserted that it is language that makes humans unique among all of the animal species (Corballis & Suddendorf, 2007; Tomasello & Rakoczy, 2003). This section will focus on what distinguishes language as a special form of communication, how the use of language develops, and how language affects the way we think.

Components of Language

Language, be it spoken, signed, or written, has specific components: a lexicon and grammar.  Lexicon  refers to the words of a given language. Thus, lexicon is a language’s vocabulary.  Grammar  refers to the set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of the lexicon (Fernández & Cairns, 2011). For instance, English grammar dictates that most verbs receive an “-ed” at the end to indicate past tense.

Words are formed by combining the various phonemes that make up the language. A  phoneme  (e.g., the sounds “ah” vs. “eh”) is a basic sound unit of a given language, and different languages have different sets of phonemes. Phonemes are combined to form  morphemes , which are the smallest units of language that convey some type of meaning (e.g., “I” is both a phoneme and a morpheme). We use semantics and syntax to construct language. Semantics and syntax are part of a language’s grammar.  Semantics  refers to the process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words.  Syntax  refers to the way words are organized into sentences (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011).

We apply the rules of grammar to organize the lexicon in novel and creative ways, which allow us to communicate information about both concrete and abstract concepts. We can talk about our immediate and observable surroundings as well as the surface of unseen planets. We can share our innermost thoughts, our plans for the future, and debate the value of a college education. We can provide detailed instructions for cooking a meal, fixing a car, or building a fire. Through our use of words and language, we are able to form, organize, and express ideas, schema, and artificial concepts.

Language Development

Given the remarkable complexity of a language, one might expect that mastering a language would be an especially arduous task; indeed, for those of us trying to learn a second language as adults, this might seem to be true. However, young children master language very quickly with relative ease. B. F.  Skinner  (1957) proposed that language is learned through reinforcement. Noam  Chomsky  (1965) criticized this behaviorist approach, asserting instead that the mechanisms underlying language acquisition are biologically determined. The use of language develops in the absence of formal instruction and appears to follow a very similar pattern in children from vastly different cultures and backgrounds. It would seem, therefore, that we are born with a biological predisposition to acquire a language (Chomsky, 1965; Fernández & Cairns, 2011). Moreover, it appears that there is a critical period for language acquisition, such that this proficiency at acquiring language is maximal early in life; generally, as people age, the ease with which they acquire and master new languages diminishes (Johnson & Newport, 1989; Lenneberg, 1967; Singleton, 1995).

Children begin to learn about language from a very early age ( Table 7.1 ). In fact, it appears that this is occurring even before we are born. Newborns show a preference for their mother’s voice and appear to be able to discriminate between the language spoken by their mother and other languages. Babies are also attuned to the languages being used around them and show preferences for videos of faces that are moving in synchrony with the audio of spoken language versus videos that do not synchronize with the audio (Blossom & Morgan, 2006; Pickens, 1994; Spelke & Cortelyou, 1981).

DIG DEEPER: The Case of Genie

In the fall of 1970, a social worker in the Los Angeles area found a 13-year-old girl who was being raised in extremely neglectful and abusive conditions. The girl, who came to be known as Genie, had lived most of her life tied to a potty chair or confined to a crib in a small room that was kept closed with the curtains drawn. For a little over a decade, Genie had virtually no social interaction and no access to the outside world. As a result of these conditions, Genie was unable to stand up, chew solid food, or speak (Fromkin, Krashen, Curtiss, Rigler, & Rigler, 1974; Rymer, 1993). The police took Genie into protective custody.

Genie’s abilities improved dramatically following her removal from her abusive environment, and early on, it appeared she was acquiring language—much later than would be predicted by critical period hypotheses that had been posited at the time (Fromkin et al., 1974). Genie managed to amass an impressive vocabulary in a relatively short amount of time. However, she never developed a mastery of the grammatical aspects of language (Curtiss, 1981). Perhaps being deprived of the opportunity to learn language during a critical period impeded Genie’s ability to fully acquire and use language.

You may recall that each language has its own set of phonemes that are used to generate morphemes, words, and so on. Babies can discriminate among the sounds that make up a language (for example, they can tell the difference between the “s” in vision and the “ss” in fission); early on, they can differentiate between the sounds of all human languages, even those that do not occur in the languages that are used in their environments. However, by the time that they are about 1 year old, they can only discriminate among those phonemes that are used in the language or languages in their environments (Jensen, 2011; Werker & Lalonde, 1988; Werker & Tees, 1984).

After the first few months of life, babies enter what is known as the babbling stage, during which time they tend to produce single syllables that are repeated over and over. As time passes, more variations appear in the syllables that they produce. During this time, it is unlikely that the babies are trying to communicate; they are just as likely to babble when they are alone as when they are with their caregivers (Fernández & Cairns, 2011). Interestingly, babies who are raised in environments in which sign language is used will also begin to show babbling in the gestures of their hands during this stage (Petitto, Holowka, Sergio, Levy, & Ostry, 2004).

Generally, a child’s first word is uttered sometime between the ages of 1 year to 18 months, and for the next few months, the child will remain in the “one word” stage of language development. During this time, children know a number of words, but they only produce one-word utterances. The child’s early vocabulary is limited to familiar objects or events, often nouns. Although children in this stage only make one-word utterances, these words often carry larger meaning (Fernández & Cairns, 2011). So, for example, a child saying “cookie” could be identifying a cookie or asking for a cookie.

As a child’s lexicon grows, she begins to utter simple sentences and to acquire new vocabulary at a very rapid pace. In addition, children begin to demonstrate a clear understanding of the specific rules that apply to their language(s). Even the mistakes that children sometimes make provide evidence of just how much they understand about those rules. This is sometimes seen in the form of  overgeneralization . In this context, overgeneralization refers to an extension of a language rule to an exception to the rule. For example, in English, it is usually the case that an “s” is added to the end of a word to indicate plurality. For example, we speak of one dog versus two dogs. Young children will overgeneralize this rule to cases that are exceptions to the “add an s to the end of the word” rule and say things like “those two gooses” or “three mouses.” Clearly, the rules of the language are understood, even if the exceptions to the rules are still being learned (Moskowitz, 1978).

Language and Thought

When we speak one language, we agree that words are representations of ideas, people, places, and events. The given language that children learn is connected to their culture and surroundings. But can words themselves shape the way we think about things? Psychologists have long investigated the question of whether language shapes thoughts and actions, or whether our thoughts and beliefs shape our language. Two researchers, Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf began this investigation in the 1940s. They wanted to understand how the language habits of a community encourage members of that community to interpret language in a particular manner (Sapir, 1941/1964). Sapir and Whorf proposed that language determines thought. For example, in some languages, there are many different words for love. However, in English, we use the word love for all types of love. Does this affect how we think about love depending on the language that we speak (Whorf, 1956)? Researchers have since identified this view as too absolute, pointing out a lack of empiricism behind what Sapir and Whorf proposed (Abler, 2013; Boroditsky, 2011; van Troyer, 1994). Today, psychologists continue to study and debate the relationship between language and thought.

• Describe problem solving strategies
• Define algorithm and heuristic
• Explain some common roadblocks to effective problem solving and decision making

People face problems every day—usually, multiple problems throughout the day. Sometimes these problems are straightforward: To double a recipe for pizza dough, for example, all that is required is that each ingredient in the recipe is doubled. Sometimes, however, the problems we encounter are more complex. For example, say you have a work deadline, and you must mail a printed copy of a report to your supervisor by the end of the business day. The report is time-sensitive and must be sent overnight. You finished the report last night, but your printer will not work today. What should you do? First, you need to identify the problem and then apply a strategy for solving the problem.

Problem-Solving Strategies

When you are presented with a problem—whether it is a complex mathematical problem or a broken printer, how do you solve it? Before finding a solution to the problem, the problem must first be clearly identified. After that, one of many problem solving strategies can be applied, hopefully resulting in a solution.

A  problem-solving strategy  is a plan of action used to find a solution. Different strategies have different action plans associated with them ( Table 7.2 ). For example, a well-known strategy is  trial and error . The old adage, “If at first, you don’t succeed, try, try again” describes trial and error. In terms of your broken printer, you could try checking the ink levels, and if that doesn’t work, you could check to make sure the paper tray isn’t jammed. Or maybe the printer isn’t actually connected to your laptop. When using trial and error, you would continue to try different solutions until you solved your problem. Although trial and error is not typically one of the most time-efficient strategies, it is a commonly used one.

Another type of strategy is an algorithm. An  algorithm  is a problem-solving formula that provides you with step-by-step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome (Kahneman, 2011). You can think of an algorithm as a recipe with highly detailed instructions that produce the same result every time they are performed. Algorithms are used frequently in our everyday lives, especially in computer science. When you run a search on the Internet, search engines like Google use algorithms to decide which entries will appear first in your list of results. Facebook also uses algorithms to decide which posts to display on your newsfeed. Can you identify other situations in which algorithms are used?

A heuristic is another type of problem solving strategy. While an algorithm must be followed exactly to produce a correct result, a  heuristic is a general problem-solving framework (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems. A “rule of thumb” is an example of a heuristic. Such a rule saves the person time and energy when making a decision, but despite its time-saving characteristics, it is not always the best method for making a rational decision. Different types of heuristics are used in different types of situations, but the impulse to use a heuristic occurs when one of the five conditions is met (Pratkanis, 1989):

• When one is faced with too much information
• When the time to make a decision is limited
• When the decision to be made is unimportant
• When there is access to very little information to use in making the decision
• When an appropriate heuristic happens to come to mind in the same moment

Working backward is a useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result. Consider this example: You live in Washington, D.C., and have been invited to a wedding at 4 PM on Saturday in Philadelphia. Knowing that Interstate 95 tends to back up any day of the week, you need to plan your route and time your departure accordingly. If you want to be at the wedding service by 3:30 PM, and it takes 2.5 hours to get to Philadelphia without traffic, what time should you leave your house? You use the working backward heuristic to plan the events of your day on a regular basis, probably without even thinking about it.

Another useful heuristic is the practice of accomplishing a large goal or task by breaking it into a series of smaller steps. Students often use this common method to complete a large research project or a long essay for school. For example, students typically brainstorm, develop a thesis or main topic, research the chosen topic, organize their information into an outline, write a rough draft, revise and edit the rough draft, develop a final draft, organize the references list, and proofread their work before turning in the project. The large task becomes less overwhelming when it is broken down into a series of small steps.

EVERYDAY CONNECTION: Solving Puzzles

Problem-solving abilities can improve with practice. Many people challenge themselves every day with puzzles and other mental exercises to sharpen their problem-solving skills. Sudoku puzzles appear daily in most newspapers. Typically, a sudoku puzzle is a 9×9 grid. The simple sudoku below ( Figure 7.7 ) is a 4×4 grid. To solve the puzzle, fill in the empty boxes with a single digit: 1, 2, 3, or 4. Here are the rules: The numbers must total 10 in each bolded box, each row, and each column; however, each digit can only appear once in a bolded box, row, and column. Time yourself as you solve this puzzle and compare your time with a classmate.

Here is another popular type of puzzle ( Figure 7.8 ) that challenges your spatial reasoning skills. Connect all nine dots with four connecting straight lines without lifting your pencil from the paper:

Take a look at the “Puzzling Scales” logic puzzle below ( Figure 7.9 ). Sam Loyd, a well-known puzzle master, created and refined countless puzzles throughout his lifetime (Cyclopedia of Puzzles, n.d.).

Not all problems are successfully solved, however. What challenges stop us from successfully solving a problem? Albert Einstein once said, “Insanity is doing the same thing over and over again and expecting a different result.” Imagine a person in a room that has four doorways. One doorway that has always been open in the past is now locked. The person, accustomed to exiting the room by that particular doorway, keeps trying to get out through the same doorway even though the other three doorways are open. The person is stuck—but she just needs to go to another doorway, instead of trying to get out through the locked doorway. A  mental set  is where you persist in approaching a problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now.

Functional fixedness  is a type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what it was designed for. Duncker (1945) conducted foundational research on functional fixedness. He created an experiment in which participants were given a candle, a book of matches, and a box of thumbtacks. They were instructed to use those items to attach the candle to the wall so that it did not drip wax onto the table below. Participants had to use functional fixedness to solve the problem ( Figure 7.10 ). During the  Apollo 13  mission to the moon, NASA engineers at Mission Control had to overcome functional fixedness to save the lives of the astronauts aboard the spacecraft. An explosion in a module of the spacecraft damaged multiple systems. The astronauts were in danger of being poisoned by rising levels of carbon dioxide because of problems with the carbon dioxide filters. The engineers found a way for the astronauts to use spare plastic bags, tape, and air hoses to create a makeshift air filter, which saved the lives of the astronauts.

Researchers have investigated whether functional fixedness is affected by culture. In one experiment, individuals from the Shuar group in Ecuador were asked to use an object for a purpose other than that for which the object was originally intended. For example, the participants were told a story about a bear and a rabbit that were separated by a river and asked to select among various objects, including a spoon, a cup, erasers, and so on, to help the animals. The spoon was the only object long enough to span the imaginary river, but if the spoon was presented in a way that reflected its normal usage, it took participants longer to choose the spoon to solve the problem. (German & Barrett, 2005). The researchers wanted to know if exposure to highly specialized tools, as occurs with individuals in industrialized nations, affects their ability to transcend functional fixedness. It was determined that functional fixedness is experienced in both industrialized and nonindustrialized cultures (German & Barrett, 2005).

In order to make good decisions, we use our knowledge and our reasoning. Often, this knowledge and reasoning is sound and solid. Sometimes, however, we are swayed by biases or by others manipulating a situation. For example, let’s say you and three friends wanted to rent a house and had a combined target budget of $1,600. The realtor shows you only very run-down houses for $1,600 and then shows you a very nice house for $2,000. Might you ask each person to pay more in rent to get the $2,000 home? Why would the realtor show you the run-down houses and the nice house? The realtor may be challenging your anchoring bias. An  anchoring bias  occurs when you focus on one piece of information when making a decision or solving a problem. In this case, you’re so focused on the amount of money you are willing to spend that you may not recognize what kinds of houses are available at that price point.

The  confirmation bias  is the tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs. For example, if you think that your professor is not very nice, you notice all of the instances of rude behavior exhibited by the professor while ignoring the countless pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis.  Hindsight bias  leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way they did.  Representative bias describes a faulty way of thinking, in which you unintentionally stereotype someone or something; for example, you may assume that your professors spend their free time reading books and engaging in intellectual conversation because the idea of them spending their time playing volleyball or visiting an amusement park does not fit in with your stereotypes of professors.

Finally, the  availability heuristic  is a heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is that readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision .  Biases tend to “preserve that which is already established—to maintain our preexisting knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and hypotheses” (Aronson, 1995; Kahneman, 2011). These biases are summarized in  Table 7.3 .

Were you able to determine how many marbles are needed to balance the scales in  Figure 7.9 ? You need nine. Were you able to solve the problems in  Figure 7.7  and  Figure 7.8 ? Here are the answers ( Figure 7.11 ).

• Define intelligence
• Explain the triarchic theory of intelligence
• Identify the difference between intelligence theories
• Explain emotional intelligence
• Define creativity

Classifying Intelligence

What exactly is intelligence? The way that researchers have defined the concept of intelligence has been modified many times since the birth of psychology. British psychologist Charles Spearman believed intelligence consisted of one general factor, called  g , which could be measured and compared among individuals. Spearman focused on the commonalities among various intellectual abilities and de-emphasized what made each unique. Long before modern psychology developed, however, ancient philosophers, such as Aristotle, held a similar view (Cianciolo & Sternberg, 2004).

Other psychologists believe that instead of a single factor, intelligence is a collection of distinct abilities. In the 1940s, Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of intelligence that divided general intelligence into two components: crystallized intelligence and fluid intelligence (Cattell, 1963). Crystallized intelligence  is characterized as acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it. When you learn, remember, and recall information, you are using crystallized intelligence. You use crystallized intelligence all the time in your coursework by demonstrating that you have mastered the information covered in the course.  Fluid intelligence  encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems. Navigating your way home after being detoured onto an unfamiliar route because of road construction would draw upon your fluid intelligence. Fluid intelligence helps you tackle complex, abstract challenges in your daily life, whereas crystallized intelligence helps you overcome concrete, straightforward problems (Cattell, 1963).

Other theorists and psychologists believe that intelligence should be defined in more practical terms. For example, what types of behaviors help you get ahead in life? Which skills promote success? Think about this for a moment. Being able to recite all 45 presidents of the United States in order is an excellent party trick, but will knowing this make you a better person?

Robert Sternberg developed another theory of intelligence, which he titled the  triarchic theory of intelligence  because it sees intelligence as comprised of three parts (Sternberg, 1988): practical, creative, and analytical intelligence ( Figure 7.12 ).

Practical intelligence , as proposed by Sternberg, is sometimes compared to “street smarts.” Being practical means you find solutions that work in your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your experiences. This type of intelligence appears to be separate from the traditional understanding of IQ; individuals who score high in practical intelligence may or may not have comparable scores in creative and analytical intelligence (Sternberg, 1988).

Analytical intelligence is closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations. Sternberg says that analytical intelligence is demonstrated by an ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast. When reading a classic novel for a literature class, for example, it is usually necessary to compare the motives of the main characters of the book or analyze the historical context of the story. In a science course such as anatomy, you must study the processes by which the body uses various minerals in different human systems. In developing an understanding of this topic, you are using analytical intelligence. When solving a challenging math problem, you would apply analytical intelligence to analyze different aspects of the problem and then solve it section by section.

Creative intelligence  is marked by inventing or imagining a solution to a problem or situation. Creativity in this realm can include finding a novel solution to an unexpected problem or producing a beautiful work of art or a well-developed short story. Imagine for a moment that you are camping in the woods with some friends and realize that you’ve forgotten your camp coffee pot. The person in your group who figures out a way to successfully brew coffee for everyone would be credited as having higher creative intelligence.

Multiple Intelligences Theory  was developed by Howard Gardner, a Harvard psychologist and former student of Erik Erikson. Gardner’s theory, which has been refined for more than 30 years, is a more recent development among theories of intelligence. In Gardner’s theory, each person possesses at least eight intelligences. Among these eight intelligences, a person typically excels in some and falters in others (Gardner, 1983).  Table 7.4  describes each type of intelligence.

Gardner’s theory is relatively new and needs additional research to better establish empirical support. At the same time, his ideas challenge the traditional idea of intelligence to include a wider variety of abilities, although it has been suggested that Gardner simply relabeled what other theorists called “cognitive styles” as “intelligences” (Morgan, 1996). Furthermore, developing traditional measures of Gardner’s intelligences is extremely difficult (Furnham, 2009; Gardner & Moran, 2006; Klein, 1997).

Gardner’s inter- and intrapersonal intelligences are often combined into a single type: emotional intelligence.  Emotional intelligence  encompasses the ability to understand the emotions of yourself and others, show empathy, understand social relationships and cues, and regulate your own emotions and respond in culturally appropriate ways (Parker, Saklofske, & Stough, 2009). People with high emotional intelligence typically have well-developed social skills. Some researchers, including Daniel Goleman, the author of  Emotional Intelligence: Why It Can Matter More than IQ , argue that emotional intelligence is a better predictor of success than traditional intelligence (Goleman, 1995). However, emotional intelligence has been widely debated, with researchers pointing out inconsistencies in how it is defined and described, as well as questioning results of studies on a subject that is difficult to measure and study empirically (Locke, 2005; Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2004)

The most comprehensive theory of intelligence to date is the Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory of cognitive abilities (Schneider & McGrew, 2018). In this theory, abilities are related and arranged in a hierarchy with general abilities at the top, broad abilities in the middle, and narrow (specific) abilities at the bottom. The narrow abilities are the only ones that can be directly measured; however, they are integrated within the other abilities. At the general level is general intelligence. Next, the broad level consists of general abilities such as fluid reasoning, short-term memory, and processing speed. Finally, as the hierarchy continues, the narrow level includes specific forms of cognitive abilities. For example, short-term memory would further break down into memory span and working memory capacity.

Intelligence can also have different meanings and values in different cultures. If you live on a small island, where most people get their food by fishing from boats, it would be important to know how to fish and how to repair a boat. If you were an exceptional angler, your peers would probably consider you intelligent. If you were also skilled at repairing boats, your intelligence might be known across the whole island. Think about your own family’s culture. What values are important for Latinx families? Italian families? In Irish families, hospitality and telling an entertaining story are marks of the culture. If you are a skilled storyteller, other members of Irish culture are likely to consider you intelligent.

Some cultures place a high value on working together as a collective. In these cultures, the importance of the group supersedes the importance of individual achievement. When you visit such a culture, how well you relate to the values of that culture exemplifies your  cultural intelligence , sometimes referred to as cultural competence.

Creativity  is the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities. Very creative people often have intense knowledge about something, work on it for years, look at novel solutions, seek out the advice and help of other experts, and take risks. Although creativity is often associated with the arts, it is actually a vital form of intelligence that drives people in many disciplines to discover something new. Creativity can be found in every area of life, from the way you decorate your residence to a new way of understanding how a cell works.

Creativity is often assessed as a function of one’s ability to engage in  divergent thinking . Divergent thinking can be described as thinking “outside the box;” it allows an individual to arrive at unique, multiple solutions to a given problem. In contrast,  convergent thinking describes the ability to provide a correct or well-established answer or solution to a problem (Cropley, 2006; Gilford, 1967)

• Explain how intelligence tests are developed
• Describe the history of the use of IQ tests
• Describe the purposes and benefits of intelligence testing

While you’re likely familiar with the term “IQ” and associate it with the idea of intelligence, what does IQ really mean? IQ stands for  intelligence quotient  and describes a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence. You’ve already learned that there are many ways psychologists describe intelligence (or more aptly, intelligences). Similarly, IQ tests—the tools designed to measure intelligence—have been the subject of debate throughout their development and use.

When might an IQ test be used? What do we learn from the results, and how might people use this information? While there are certainly many benefits to intelligence testing, it is important to also note the limitations and controversies surrounding these tests. For example, IQ tests have sometimes been used as arguments in support of insidious purposes, such as the eugenics movement (Severson, 2011). The infamous Supreme Court Case,  Buck v. Bell , legalized the forced sterilization of some people deemed “feeble-minded” through this type of testing, resulting in about 65,000 sterilizations ( Buck v. Bell , 274 U.S. 200; Ko, 2016). Today, only professionals trained in psychology can administer IQ tests, and the purchase of most tests requires an advanced degree in psychology. Other professionals in the field, such as social workers and psychiatrists, cannot administer IQ tests. In this section, we will explore what intelligence tests measure, how they are scored, and how they were developed.

Measuring Intelligence

It seems that the human understanding of intelligence is somewhat limited when we focus on traditional or academic-type intelligence. How then, can intelligence be measured? And when we measure intelligence, how do we ensure that we capture what we’re really trying to measure (in other words, that IQ tests function as valid measures of intelligence)? In the following paragraphs, we will explore the how intelligence tests were developed and the history of their use.

The IQ test has been synonymous with intelligence for over a century. In the late 1800s, Sir Francis Galton developed the first broad test of intelligence (Flanagan & Kaufman, 2004). Although he was not a psychologist, his contributions to the concepts of intelligence testing are still felt today (Gordon, 1995). Reliable intelligence testing (you may recall from earlier chapters that reliability refers to a test’s ability to produce consistent results) began in earnest during the early 1900s with a researcher named Alfred Binet ( Figure 7.13 ). Binet was asked by the French government to develop an intelligence test to use on children to determine which ones might have difficulty in school; it included many verbally based tasks. American researchers soon realized the value of such testing. Louis Terman, a Stanford professor, modified Binet’s work by standardizing the administration of the test and tested thousands of different-aged children to establish an average score for each age. As a result, the test was normed and standardized, which means that the test was administered consistently to a large enough representative sample of the population that the range of scores resulted in a bell curve (bell curves will be discussed later).  Standardization  means that the manner of administration, scoring, and interpretation of results is consistent.  Norming  involves giving a test to a large population so data can be collected comparing groups, such as age groups. The resulting data provide norms, or referential scores, by which to interpret future scores. Norms are not expectations of what a given group  should  know but a demonstration of what that group  does  know. Norming and standardizing the test ensures that new scores are reliable. This new version of the test was called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (Terman, 1916). Remarkably, an updated version of this test is still widely used today.

In 1939, David Wechsler, a psychologist who spent part of his career working with World War I veterans, developed a new IQ test in the United States. Wechsler combined several subtests from other intelligence tests used between 1880 and World War I. These subtests tapped into a variety of verbal and nonverbal skills because Wechsler believed that intelligence encompassed “the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment” (Wechsler, 1958, p. 7). He named the test the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (Wechsler, 1981). This combination of subtests became one of the most extensively used intelligence tests in the history of psychology. Although its name was later changed to the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and has been revised several times, the aims of the test remain virtually unchanged since its inception (Boake, 2002). Today, there are three intelligence tests credited to Wechsler, the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-fourth edition (WAIS-IV), the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-V), and the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—IV (WPPSI-IV) (Wechsler, 2012). These tests are used widely in schools and communities throughout the United States, and they are periodically normed and standardized as a means of recalibration. As a part of the recalibration process, the WISC-V was given to thousands of children across the country, and children taking the test today are compared with their same-age peers ( Figure 7.13 ).

The WISC-V is composed of 14 subtests, which comprise five indices, which then render an IQ score. The five indices are Verbal Comprehension, Visual Spatial, Fluid Reasoning, Working Memory, and Processing Speed. When the test is complete, individuals receive a score for each of the five indices and a Full Scale IQ score. The method of scoring reflects the understanding that intelligence is comprised of multiple abilities in several cognitive realms and focuses on the mental processes that the child used to arrive at his or her answers to each test item.

Interestingly, the periodic recalibrations have led to an interesting observation known as the Flynn effect. Named after James Flynn, who was among the first to describe this trend, the  Flynn effect  refers to the observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the last. Flynn himself argues, however, that increased IQ scores do not necessarily mean that younger generations are more intelligent per se (Flynn, Shaughnessy, & Fulgham, 2012).

Ultimately, we are still left with the question of how valid intelligence tests are. Certainly, the most modern versions of these tests tap into more than verbal competencies, yet the specific skills that should be assessed in IQ testing, the degree to which any test can truly measure an individual’s intelligence, and the use of the results of IQ tests are still issues of debate (Gresham & Witt, 1997; Flynn, Shaughnessy, & Fulgham, 2012; Richardson, 2002; Schlinger, 2003).

The Bell Curve

The results of intelligence tests follow the bell curve, a graph in the general shape of a bell. When the bell curve is used in psychological testing, the graph demonstrates a normal distribution of a trait, in this case, intelligence, in the human population. Many human traits naturally follow the bell curve. For example, if you lined up all your female schoolmates according to height, it is likely that a large cluster of them would be the average height for an American woman: 5’4”–5’6”. This cluster would fall in the center of the bell curve, representing the average height for American women ( Figure 7.14 ). There would be fewer women who stand closer to 4’11”. The same would be true for women of above-average height: those who stand closer to 5’11”. The trick to finding a bell curve in nature is to use a large sample size. Without a large sample size, it is less likely that the bell curve will represent the wider population. A  representative sample  is a subset of the population that accurately represents the general population. If, for example, you measured the height of the women in your classroom only, you might not actually have a representative sample. Perhaps the women’s basketball team wanted to take this course together, and they are all in your class. Because basketball players tend to be taller than average, the women in your class may not be a good representative sample of the population of American women. But if your sample included all the women at your school, it is likely that their heights would form a natural bell curve.

The same principles apply to intelligence test scores. Individuals earn a score called an intelligence quotient (IQ). Over the years, different types of IQ tests have evolved, but the way scores are interpreted remains the same. The average IQ score on an IQ test is 100. Standard deviations  describe how data are dispersed in a population and give context to large data sets. The bell curve uses the standard deviation to show how all scores are dispersed from the average score ( Figure 7.15 ). In modern IQ testing, one standard deviation is 15 points. So a score of 85 would be described as “one standard deviation below the mean.” How would you describe a score of 115 and a score of 70? Any IQ score that falls within one standard deviation above and below the mean (between 85 and 115) is considered average, and 68% of the population has IQ scores in this range. An IQ score of 130 or above is considered a superior level.

Only 2.2% of the population has an IQ score below 70 (American Psychological Association [APA], 2013). A score of 70 or below indicates significant cognitive delays. When these are combined with major deficits in adaptive functioning, a person is diagnosed with having an intellectual disability (American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 2013). Formerly known as mental retardation, the accepted term now is intellectual disability, and it has four subtypes: mild, moderate, severe, and profound ( Table 7.5 ).  The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychological Disorders  lists criteria for each subgroup (APA, 2013).

On the other end of the intelligence spectrum are those individuals whose IQs fall into the highest ranges. Consistent with the bell curve, about 2% of the population falls into this category. People are considered gifted if they have an IQ score of 130 or higher, or superior intelligence in a particular area. Long ago, popular belief suggested that people of high intelligence were maladjusted. This idea was disproven through a groundbreaking study of gifted children. In 1921, Lewis Terman began a longitudinal study of over 1500 children with IQs over 135 (Terman, 1925). His findings showed that these children became well-educated, successful adults who were, in fact, well-adjusted (Terman & Oden, 1947). Additionally, Terman’s study showed that the subjects were above average in physical build and attractiveness, dispelling an earlier popular notion that highly intelligent people were “weaklings.” Some people with very high IQs elect to join Mensa, an organization dedicated to identifying, researching, and fostering intelligence. Members must have an IQ score in the top 2% of the population, and they may be required to pass other exams in their application to join the group.

DIG DEEPER: What’s in a Name? 

In the past, individuals with IQ scores below 70 and significant adaptive and social functioning delays were diagnosed with mental retardation. When this diagnosis was first named, the title held no social stigma. In time, however, the degrading word “retard” sprang from this diagnostic term. “Retard” was frequently used as a taunt, especially among young people, until the words “mentally retarded” and “retard” became an insult. As such, the DSM-5 now labels this diagnosis as “intellectual disability.” Many states once had a Department of Mental Retardation to serve those diagnosed with such cognitive delays, but most have changed their name to the Department of Developmental Disabilities or something similar in language.

Erin Johnson’s younger brother Matthew has Down syndrome. She wrote this piece about what her brother taught her about the meaning of intelligence:

His whole life, learning has been hard. Entirely possible – just different. He has always excelled with technology – typing his thoughts was more effective than writing them or speaking them. Nothing says “leave me alone” quite like a text that reads, “Do Not Call Me Right Now.” He is fully capable of reading books up to about a third-grade level, but he didn’t love it and used to always ask others to read to him. That all changed when his nephew came along, because he willingly reads to him, and it is the most heart-swelling, smile-inducing experience I have ever had the pleasure of witnessing.

When it comes down to it, Matt can learn. He does learn. It just takes longer, and he has to work harder for it, which if we’re being honest, is not a lot of fun. He is extremely gifted in learning things he takes an interest in, and those things often seem a bit “strange” to others. But no matter. It just proves my point – he  can  learn. That does not mean he will learn at the same pace, or even to the same level. It also, unfortunately, does not mean he will be allotted the same opportunities to learn as many others.

Here’s the scoop. We are all wired with innate abilities to retain and apply our learning and natural curiosities and passions that fuel our desire to learn. But our abilities and curiosities may not be the same.

The world doesn’t work this way though, especially not for my brother and his counterparts. Have him read aloud a book about skunks, and you may not get a whole lot from him. But have him tell you about skunks straight out of his memory, and hold onto your hats. He can hack the school’s iPad system, but he can’t tell you how he did it. He can write out every direction for a drive to our grandparents’ home in Florida, but he can’t drive.

Society is quick to deem him disabled and use demeaning language like the r-word to describe him, but in reality, we haven’t necessarily given him opportunities to showcase the learning he can do. In my case, I can escape the need to memorize how to change the oil in my car without anyone assuming I can’t do it, or calling me names when they find out I can’t. But Matthew can’t get through a day at his job without someone assuming he needs help. He is bright. Brighter than most anyone would assume. Maybe we need to redefine what is smart.

My brother doesn’t fit in the narrow schema of intelligence that is accepted in our society. But intelligence is far more than being able to solve 525 x 62 or properly introduce yourself to another. Why can’t we assume the intelligence of someone who can recite all of a character’s lines in a movie or remember my birthday a year after I told him/her a single time? Why is it we allow a person’s diagnosis or appearance to make us not just wonder if, but entirely doubt that they are capable? Maybe we need to cut away the sides of the box we have created for people so everyone can fit.

My brother can learn. It may not be what you know. It may be knowledge you would deem unimportant. It may not follow a traditional learning trajectory. But the fact remains – he can learn. Everyone can learn. And even though it is harder for him and harder for others still, he is not a “retard.” Nobody is.

When you use the r-word, you are insinuating that an individual, whether someone with a disability or not, is unintelligent, foolish, and purposeless. This in turn tells a person with a disability that they too are unintelligent, foolish, and purposeless. Because the word was historically used to describe individuals with disabilities and twisted from its original meaning to fit a cruel new context, it is forevermore associated with people like my brother. No matter how a person looks or learns or behaves, the r-word is never a fitting term. It’s time we waved it goodbye.

Why Measure Intelligence?

The value of IQ testing is most evident in educational or clinical settings. Children who seem to be experiencing learning difficulties or severe behavioral problems can be tested to ascertain whether the child’s difficulties can be partly attributed to an IQ score that is significantly different from the mean for her age group. Without IQ testing—or another measure of intelligence—children and adults needing extra support might not be identified effectively. In addition, IQ testing is used in courts to determine whether a defendant has special or extenuating circumstances that preclude him from participating in some way in a trial. People also use IQ testing results to seek disability benefits from the Social Security Administration.

• Describe how genetics and environment affect intelligence
• Explain the relationship between IQ scores and socioeconomic status
• Describe the difference between a learning disability and a developmental disorder

High Intelligence: Nature or Nurture?

Where does high intelligence come from? Some researchers believe that intelligence is a trait inherited from a person’s parents. Scientists who research this topic typically use twin studies to determine the  heritability  of intelligence. The Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart is one of the most well-known twin studies. In this investigation, researchers found that identical twins raised together and identical twins raised apart exhibit a higher correlation between their IQ scores than siblings or fraternal twins raised together (Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal, & Tellegen, 1990). The findings from this study reveal a genetic component to intelligence ( Figure 7.15 ). At the same time, other psychologists believe that intelligence is shaped by a child’s developmental environment. If parents were to provide their children with intellectual stimuli from before they are born, it is likely that they would absorb the benefits of that stimulation, and it would be reflected in intelligence levels.

The reality is that aspects of each idea are probably correct. In fact, one study suggests that although genetics seem to be in control of the level of intelligence, the environmental influences provide both stability and change to trigger manifestation of cognitive abilities (Bartels, Rietveld, Van Baal, & Boomsma, 2002). Certainly, there are behaviors that support the development of intelligence, but the genetic component of high intelligence should not be ignored. As with all heritable traits, however, it is not always possible to isolate how and when high intelligence is passed on to the next generation.

Range of Reaction  is the theory that each person responds to the environment in a unique way based on his or her genetic makeup. According to this idea, your genetic potential is a fixed quantity, but whether you reach your full intellectual potential is dependent upon the environmental stimulation you experience, especially in childhood. Think about this scenario: A couple adopts a child who has average genetic intellectual potential. They raise her in an extremely stimulating environment. What will happen to the couple’s new daughter? It is likely that the stimulating environment will improve her intellectual outcomes over the course of her life. But what happens if this experiment is reversed? If a child with an extremely strong genetic background is placed in an environment that does not stimulate him: What happens? Interestingly, according to a longitudinal study of highly gifted individuals, it was found that “the two extremes of optimal and pathological experience are both represented disproportionately in the backgrounds of creative individuals”; however, those who experienced supportive family environments were more likely to report being happy (Csikszentmihalyi & Csikszentmihalyi, 1993, p. 187).

Another challenge to determining the origins of high intelligence is the confounding nature of our human social structures. It is troubling to note that some ethnic groups perform better on IQ tests than others—and it is likely that the results do not have much to do with the quality of each ethnic group’s intellect. The same is true for socioeconomic status. Children who live in poverty experience more pervasive, daily stress than children who do not worry about the basic needs of safety, shelter, and food. These worries can negatively affect how the brain functions and develops, causing a dip in IQ scores. Mark Kishiyama and his colleagues determined that children living in poverty demonstrated reduced prefrontal brain functioning comparable to children with damage to the lateral prefrontal cortex (Kishyama, Boyce, Jimenez, Perry, & Knight, 2009).

The debate around the foundations and influences on intelligence exploded in 1969 when an educational psychologist named Arthur Jensen published the article “How Much Can We Boost I.Q. and Achievement” in the Harvard Educational Review . Jensen had administered IQ tests to diverse groups of students, and his results led him to the conclusion that IQ is determined by genetics. He also posited that intelligence was made up of two types of abilities: Level I and Level II. In his theory, Level I is responsible for rote memorization, whereas Level II is responsible for conceptual and analytical abilities. According to his findings, Level I remained consistent among the human race. Level II, however, exhibited differences among ethnic groups (Modgil & Routledge, 1987). Jensen’s most controversial conclusion was that Level II intelligence is prevalent among Asians, then Caucasians, then African Americans. Robert Williams was among those who called out racial bias in Jensen’s results (Williams, 1970).

Obviously, Jensen’s interpretation of his own data caused an intense response in a nation that continued to grapple with the effects of racism (Fox, 2012). However, Jensen’s ideas were not solitary or unique; rather, they represented one of many examples of psychologists asserting racial differences in IQ and cognitive ability. In fact, Rushton and Jensen (2005) reviewed three decades worth of research on the relationship between race and cognitive ability. Jensen’s belief in the inherited nature of intelligence and the validity of the IQ test to be the truest measure of intelligence are at the core of his conclusions. If, however, you believe that intelligence is more than Levels I and II, or that IQ tests do not control for socioeconomic and cultural differences among people, then perhaps you can dismiss Jensen’s conclusions as a single window that looks out on the complicated and varied landscape of human intelligence.

In a related story, parents of African American students filed a case against the State of California in 1979, because they believed that the testing method used to identify students with learning disabilities was culturally unfair as the tests were normed and standardized using white children ( Larry P. v. Riles ). The testing method used by the state disproportionately identified African American children as mentally retarded. This resulted in many students being incorrectly classified as “mentally retarded.”

What are Learning Disabilities?

Learning disabilities are cognitive disorders that affect different areas of cognition, particularly language or reading. It should be pointed out that learning disabilities are not the same thing as intellectual disabilities. Learning disabilities are considered specific neurological impairments rather than global intellectual or developmental disabilities. A person with a language disability has difficulty understanding or using spoken language, whereas someone with a reading disability, such as dyslexia, has difficulty processing what he or she is reading.

Often, learning disabilities are not recognized until a child reaches school age. One confounding aspect of learning disabilities is that they most often affect children with average to above-average intelligence. In other words, the disability is specific to a particular area and not a measure of overall intellectual ability. At the same time, learning disabilities tend to exhibit comorbidity with other disorders, like attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Anywhere between 30–70% of individuals with diagnosed cases of ADHD also have some sort of learning disability (Riccio, Gonzales, & Hynd, 1994). Let’s take a look at three examples of common learning disabilities: dysgraphia, dyslexia, and dyscalculia.

Children with  dysgraphia  have a learning disability that results in a struggle to write legibly. The physical task of writing with a pen and paper is extremely challenging for the person. These children often have extreme difficulty putting their thoughts down on paper (Smits-Engelsman & Van Galen, 1997). This difficulty is inconsistent with a person’s IQ. That is, based on the child’s IQ and/or abilities in other areas, a child with dysgraphia should be able to write, but can’t. Children with dysgraphia may also have problems with spatial abilities.

Students with dysgraphia need academic accommodations to help them succeed in school. These accommodations can provide students with alternative assessment opportunities to demonstrate what they know (Barton, 2003). For example, a student with dysgraphia might be permitted to take an oral exam rather than a traditional paper-and-pencil test. Treatment is usually provided by an occupational therapist, although there is some question as to how effective such treatment is (Zwicker, 2005).

Dyslexia is the most common learning disability in children. An individual with  dyslexia  exhibits an inability to correctly process letters. The neurological mechanism for sound processing does not work properly in someone with dyslexia. As a result, dyslexic children may not understand sound-letter correspondence. A child with dyslexia may mix up letters within words and sentences—letter reversals, such as those shown in  Figure 7.17 , are a hallmark of this learning disability—or skip whole words while reading. A dyslexic child may have difficulty spelling words correctly while writing. Because of the disordered way that the brain processes letters and sounds, learning to read is a frustrating experience. Some dyslexic individuals cope by memorizing the shapes of most words, but they never actually learn to read (Berninger, 2008).

Dyscalculia

Dyscalculia  is difficulty in learning or comprehending arithmetic. This learning disability is often first evident when children exhibit difficulty discerning how many objects are in a small group without counting them. Other symptoms may include struggling to memorize math facts, organize numbers, or fully differentiate between numerals, math symbols, and written numbers (such as “3” and “three”).

Additional Supplemental Resources

• Use Google’s QuickDraw web app on your phone to quickly draw 5 things for Google’s artificially intelligent neural net. When you are done, the app will show you what it thought each of the drawings was. How does this relate to the psychological idea of concepts, prototypes, and schemas? Check out here.  Works best in Chrome if used in a web browser
• This article lists information about a variety of different topics relating to speech development, including how speech develops and what research is currently being done regarding speech development.
• The Human intelligence site includes biographical profiles of people who have influenced the development of intelligence theory and testing, in-depth articles exploring current controversies related to human intelligence, and resources for teachers.

• In 2000, psychologists Sheena Iyengar and Mark Lepper from Columbia and Stanford University published a study about the paradox of choice.  This is the original journal article.
• Mensa , the high IQ society, provides a forum for intellectual exchange among its members. There are members in more than 100 countries around the world.  Anyone with an IQ in the top 2% of the population can join.
• This test developed in the 1950s is used to refer to some kinds of behavioral tests for the presence of mind, or thought, or intelligence in putatively minded entities such as machines.
• Your central “Hub” of information and products created for the network of Parent Centers serving families of children with disabilities.
• How have average IQ levels changed over time? Hear James Flynn discuss the “Flynn Effect” in this Ted Talk. Closed captioning available.
• We all want customized experiences and products — but when faced with 700 options, consumers freeze up. With fascinating new research, Sheena Iyengar demonstrates how businesses (and others) can improve the experience of choosing. This is the same researcher that is featured in your midterm exam.
• What does an IQ Score distribution look like?  Where do most people fall on an IQ Score distribution?  Find out more in this video. Closed captioning available.
• How do we solve problems?  How can data help us to do this?  Follow Amy Webb’s story of how she used algorithms to help her find her way to true love. Closed captioning available.
• In this Ted-Ed video, explore some of the ways in which animals communicate, and determine whether or not this communication qualifies as language.  A variety of discussion and assessment questions are included with the video (free registration is required to access the questions). Closed captioning available.
• Watch this Ted-Ed video to learn more about the benefits of speaking multiple languages, including how bilingualism helps the brain to process information, strengthens the brain, and keeps the speaker more engaged in their world.  A variety of discussion and assessment questions are included with the video (free registration is required to access the questions). Closed captioning available.
• This video is on how your mind can amaze and betray you includes information on topics such as concepts, prototypes, problem-solving and mistakes in thinking. Closed captioning available.
• This video on language includes information on topics such as the development of language, language theories, and brain areas involved in language, as well as language disorders. Closed captioning available.
• This video on the controversy of intelligence includes information on topics such as theories of intelligence, emotional intelligence, and measuring intelligence. Closed captioning available.
• This video on the brains vs. bias includes information on topics such as intelligence testing, testing bias, and stereotype threat. Closed captioning available.

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Introduction to Psychology Copyright © 2020 by Julie Lazzara is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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