conclusion of meter bridge experiment

• CBSE Class 12
• CBSE Class 12 Physics Practical
• To Find Resistance Of Given Wire Using Metre Bridge And Hence Determine The Resistivity Of Its Material Experiment

To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge and to determine the resistivity of its material

A metre bridge, also known as a slide wire bridge, is an instrument that works on the principle of Wheatstone bridge. It is used to determine the unknown resistance of a conductor. Below is an experiment on how to find the resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and to determine the resistivity of its material.

To find resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the resistivity (specific resistance) of its material.

Materials Required

• A metre bridge
• A Leclanche cell (battery eliminator)
• A galvanometer
• A resistance box
• A one-way key
• A resistance wire
• A screw gauge
• A metre scale
• A set square
• Connecting wires
• A piece of sandpaper

Metre bridge apparatus is also known as a slide wire bridge. It is fixed on the wooden block and consists of a long wire with a uniform cross-sectional area. It has two gaps formed using thick metal strips to make the Wheatstone’s bridge.

Then according to Wheatstone’s principle, we have:

The unknown resistance can be calculated as:

Then the specific resistance of the material of the is calculated as:

• L is the length of the wire
• r is the radius of the wire

Read More: Wheatstone’s Bridge

Circuit Diagram

• The arrangement of the apparatus should be as shown in the circuit diagram.
• The wire whose resistance is to be determined should be connected in the right gap between C and B without any formation of loops.
• The resistance box should be connected in the left gap between A and B.
• All the other connections should be as shown in the circuit diagram.
• Plug the key K in place of 2-ohm resistance in the resistance box.
• The jockey should be first touched gently to the left end and then to the right end of the bridge.
• The deflections in the galvanometer should be in opposite directions and if it is in one direction then the circuit connections are not correct. Note the galvanometer deflection.
• Let D be the null point where the jockey is touching the wire. The movement of the jokey should be gentle from left to the right of the galvanometer.
• Take a 12 value from the resistance box should be taken such that when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire, there shouldn’t be any deflection.
• Note the position of D to know the length of AD = l.
• Four sets of observations should be taken by changing the value of 12.
• Record the observations in a tabular form.
• Stretch the resistance wire to find its length using a metre scale.
• Using screw gauge measure the diameter of the wire at four different places keeping it in a mutually perpendicular direction.
• Record the observations in the table.

Observations

Length of given wire L =…….cm

Table for unknown resistance (X)

Least count of the screw gauge

Pitch of screw gauge = …….mm

Total no.of divisions on the circular scale = ………..

∴ L.C of the given screw gauge = \(\begin{array}{l}\frac{pitch}{no.\,of\,divisions\,on\,the\,circular\,scale}\end{array} \) = ……mm

Zero error e = ……mm

Zero correction c = -e = ……mm

Radius of the resistance wire

Calculations

Calculation for X

The value of l is determined from the position of D and recorded in column 3 of Table 1.

Find length (100 – l) cm and write in column 4.

Calculate X and write in column 5,

Calculation for D

Calculation for specific resistance

Specific resistance of the material of the given wire,

Standard value of the specific resistance of the material of the given wire,

ρ 0 = …..ohm.m

Percentage error = \(\begin{array}{l}\frac{\rho -\rho _{0}}{\rho _{0}}×100\end{array} \) = ………%

• The value of unknown resistance X = …….
• The specific resistance of the material of the given wire = ………
• Percentage error = …….

Precautions

• The connections should be neat, tight and clean.
• Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.
• The movement of the jockey should be gentle and it shouldn’t be rubbed.
• The key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken.
• The null point should be between 45cm and 55cm.
• To avoid the error of parallax, the set square should be used to note the null point.
• There shouldn’t be any loops in the wire.
• The diameter of the wire should be measured in two perpendicular directions that are mutual.

Sources Of Error

• The screws of the instrument might be loose.
• The wire might be of non-uniform diameter.
• There might be a backlash error in the screw gauge.

Viva Questions

Q1. Why is the metre bridge called so?

Ans: It is called a metre bridge because the bridges use one-meter long wire.

Q2. What is the null point?

Ans: Null point is defined as the point at which a galvanometer reads 0 deflections.

Q3. Why is the bridge method better than the Ohms law of measurement?

Ans: Bridge method is better than the Ohms law of measurement because of the null method.

Q4. What is the range of measurement of resistance using a Wheatstone bridge?

Ans: The resistance measurement range using a Wheatstone bridge is between 1Ω to a few megaohms.

Q5. How can a Wheatstone bridge be used for the measurement of physical parameters?

Ans: Wheatstone bridge is used to measure the physical parameters like temperature, light, etc, using an operational amplifier and rectifiers are used for the conversion of A.C to D.C.

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To find resistance of a given wire using Whetstone’s bridge (meter bridge)

To find resistance of a given wire using Whetstone’s bridge (meter bridge) & hence determine the specific resistance of the material.

A meter bridge (slide Wire Bridge), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a laclanche cell, a jockey, a one- way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, meter scale, set square, connecting wires and sandpaper.

Formulae Used:

(i) the unknown resistance x is given by:.

X= (100-ι)/ιx R where

R = known resistance placed in left gap.

X = Unknown resistance in right gap of meter bridge.

ι=length of meter bridge wire from zero and upto balance point (in cm)

(ii) Specific resistance (ρ) of the material of given wire is given ρ = XπD 2 /4L

D: Diameter of given wire L: Length of given wire.

Observation Table for length (ι) & unknown resistance, X:

Table for diameter (d) of the wire:, circular scale reading, observations:.

• Least count of screw gauge: 0.001 cms
• Pitch of screw gauge: 0.1 cm
• Total no. of divisions on circular scale: 100
• Least Count =Pitch/No. of divisions on circular scale; LC = 0.001 cm
• Length of given wire, L = 25cm

Calculation:

For unknown resistance, X:

Mean X = X 1 X 2 + X 3 + X 4 / 4 = 2.68Ω

Mean diameter, D= D 1 D 2 + D 3 + D 4 / 4 =0.035cm

Specific Resistance, ρ= X.πD 2 /4L=1.03 x 10 -4 Ωcm

Value of unknown resistance = 2.68Ω

Specific resistance of material of given wire = 1.03 x 10 -4 Ωcm

Precautions:

All plugs in resistance box should be tight. Plug in key, K should be inserted only while taking observations.

Sources of Error:

• Plugs may not be clean.
• Instrument screws maybe loose.

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Class 12 Physics Lab Experiment list

• 1 To find resistance of a given wire using Whetstone’s bridge (meter bridge)
• 2 To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens
• 3 To find the value of ‘v’ for different values of ‘u’ in case of a concave mirror & to find its focal length
• 4 To draw the characteristics curves of a zener diode vs to determine its reverse breakdown voltage
• 5 To determine the internal resistance of a primary cell using a potentiometer
• 6 To compare the EMF of two given primary cells using a potentiometer
• 7 To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens

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Determination of the specific resistance of a wire using a metre bridge

Introduction

Experimental Data

Reading of the balance point, calculation.

Percentage of error

• The wire used may not be uniform area of cross-section. So, it is essential to choose a suitable wire.
• Effect of end resistance due to copper strips, connecting screws, may affect the measurement. So, it is essential for taking proper measurement.
• All the connections and plugs must be tight.
• Jockey must be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
• Null point may be far away from the middle.
• It is essential to take determine the diameter of the wire accurately.
• E.M.F of the cell must check before starting the experiment. The E.M.F of cell must be constant.
• The length measurements l and l΄ may have error if the metre bridge wire taut and along the scale in the metre bridge. So, it must be ensure to taut the metre bridge along the scale.
• The resistance of end pieces/metal strips may not be negligible. The error introduced by it can be reduced by interchanging the known and unknown resistance in gaps.[6]
• The percentage of error increases if the resistance box or other materials may not be clean. So, all the materials must be clean.
• The reading of screw gauge might be accurate.

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• Wheatstone Bridge, Meter Bridge and Potentiometer

Every other day, science presents us with one or more ways to feel amazed. There are a host of experiments that show both how we can use things and make newer things out of them. Experiments related to Wheatstone Bridge and the potentiometer are among few such things in science that invoke a curious sense of amazement. Let us study more about the concept of Wheatstone bridge and meter bridge, along with potentiometer.

Suggested Videos

The concept of wheatstone bridge.

Defined simply, a Wheatstone Bridge is an electric circuit that is used to measure the electrical resistance of a circuit. The circuit is set out by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit. Out of the two, one of the legs is an unknown component which was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in the year 1833 and later, it improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in the year 1843.

Nowadays, technological progress has allowed us to make various measurements through sophisticated tools and machines. However, even today, the wheat bridge remains an authentic way to measure electric resistance, down to the closest milliohms as well.

Browse more Topics under Current Electricity

• Electric Current
• Electrical Energy and Power
• Resistivity of Various Materials
• Temperature Dependence of Resistivity
• Drift of Electrons and the Origin of Resistivity
• Combination of Resistors – Series and Parallel
• Atmospheric Electricity and Kirchhoff’s Law
• Cells, EMF, Internal Resistance
• Cells in Series and Parallel

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The Principle behind the Wheatstone Bridge

The usual arrangement of the Wheat stone bridge circuit has four arms. The bridge circuit where the arms are situated consist of electrical resistance. Out of these resistances, P and Q are the fixed electrical resistances and these two arms are the ratio arms. Next, A Galvanometer connects between the terminals B and D through a switch K 2 . The source of voltage of this arrangement is connected to the terminals A and C through a switch, K 1 .

A variable resistor S is connected between point C and D. The potential at point D is altered by adjusting the value of a variable resistor. If a variation in the electrical resistance value of arm CD is brought, the value of current I2 will also vary as the voltage across both A and C is fixed.

If we continue to adjust the variable resistance, a situation may come when the voltage drops across the resistor S that is I2. Here, S becomes exactly equal to the voltage drop across resistor Q that is I1. Q. So, the potential at point B becomes equal to the potential at point D hence the potential difference between these two points is zero hence current through galvanometer is nil. The deflection in the galvanometer is nil when the switch K2 is closed.

Applying Kirchoff’Law, in this condition,

How is the meter bridge experiment carried out using the wheatstone principle.

The meter bridge experiment uses the wheat bridge experiment to demonstrate the resistance of an unknown conductor or to make a comparison between two unknown resistors. Through the above-stated equation, one can easily decipher the specific resistance of a given material

Conclusions of the wheat stone bridge principle are:

According to the Wheatstone-bridge principle, the resistance of length AB/resistance of length BC = R / X

Let l be the length of wire between A and B and then (100 – l) is the length of wire between B and C. Here, P = ρl / A. Since the wire has a uniform cross-section and ρ is constant. Its resistance is proportional to the length. That is P ∝ l, and Q ∝ (100–l). So,

L / (100–l) = R / X

This is how to draw the values of X for different values of R and the mean value gives the value of unknown resistance X.

The Concept of Potentiometer

A potentiometer is an electric device which is used to regulate EMF and internal resistance of a given cell . This helps in providing a variable resistance and therefore, a variable potential difference arising between two points in an electric circuit. It is basically a three-terminal resistor device with an adjustable arm that increases or reduces the resistance in the loop.

Potentiometer (Source: Wikipedia)

Solved Examples for You

Question: Describe how a potentiometer works in an arrangement.

Answer: A potentiometer consists of a uniform wire AB of manganin or constantan that has a length of usually 10 m. it is kept stretched between copper stripes that are fixed on a wooden board by the side of a metre scale. The wire is then divided into ten segments each of 1 m length.

These segments join in series through metal strips between points A and B. A steady current is maintained in the wire AB by a constant source of EMF Eo, called driver cell, that connects between A and B through a rheostat. A jockey slides over the potentiometer wire which makes contact with the wire and cell.

Potentiometer (Source: Wikimedia)

Thus we can say that the potential difference across any portion of the potential of the potentiometer wire is directly proportional to the length of that portion provided the current is uniform.

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Meter Bridge – Explanation, Construction, Working, Sample Problems

An electric flow is a flood of charged particles, like electrons or particles, traveling through an electrical conveyor or space. It is estimated as the net pace of stream of electric charge through a surface or into a control volume. The moving particles are called charge transporters, which might be one of a few sorts of particles, contingent upon the conductor. In electric circuits, the charge transporters are regularly electrons traveling through a wire. 

In semiconductors, they can be electrons or openings. In an electrolyte, the charge transporters are particles, while in plasma, an ionized gas, they are particles and electrons. The SI unit of electric flow is the ampere, or amp, which is the progression of electric charge across a surface at the pace of one coulomb each second. The ampere is a SI base unit Electric flow is estimated utilizing a gadget called an ammeter.  

Electric flows make attractive fields, which are utilized in engines, generators, inductors, and transformers. In normal conductors, they cause Joule warming, which makes light in radiant lights. Time-shifting flows emanate electromagnetic waves, which are utilized in media communications to communicate data.

Meter Bridge

A meter connect is an electrical contraption utilizing which we can quantify the worth of obscure obstruction. It is made utilizing a meter long wire of uniform cross-area. This wire is either nichrome or manganin or constantan since they offer high opposition and low-temperature coefficient of obstruction. A meter scaffold or Slide wire connect is planned from a Wheatstone connect. It is the most fundamental and useful utilization of a Wheatstone connect.

Principle of a Meter Bridge:

The rule of working of a meter connect is equivalent to the rule of a Wheatstone connect. A Wheatstone connect depends on the rule of invalid avoidance, for example at the point when the proportion of protections in the two arms is equivalent, no current will move through the centre arm of the circuit. 

Think about the outline of the Wheatstone connect as displayed underneath. It comprises four obstructions P, Q, R and S with a battery of emf E.

In the reasonable condition, no current moves through the galvanometer and terminals, B and D are at a similar potential. 

This condition emerges when, 

Construction of a Meter Bridge:

• A meter connect has a 1m long wire of uniform cross-segment region, which is extended tight.  
• Between two metal strips which are twisted at right points, this wire is then painstakingly clasped,  
• Inside the hole between the metal stripes, protections are associated. In the principal hole, R, an obstruction confine and the subsequent hole, little resistor wire S is associated.  
• The endpoints inside which the wire is clipped are associated with a key through the cell.  
• A galvanometer is associated with the metallic directly in the centre of the two holes.  
• A rider is associated at the opposite finish of the galvanometer (Here, a rider is a metal bar with a blade-like edge toward one side, slides over the potentiometer wire to make an electrical association). The rider is slid over the meter connect wire till the galvanometer shows zero diversion.

Construction of Meter Bridge

Working of a Meter Bridge:

• In any case, move the rider to the endpoints of the wire, i.e. A and C. The diversion of the galvanometer ought to be inverse on the two finishes.
• From side A, begin sliding the rider gradually over the wire and cautiously see where the redirection of the galvanometer comes out to be zero.  
• In the event that such a point isn’t acquired, take a stab at different obstructions across the extension by changing the opposition on the variable opposition.  
• Slide the rider over the wire and cautiously notice the point on the wire where the redirection of the galvanometer comes out to be zero. This is the invalid point as addressed by point ‘B’ in the graph.  
• Get the length of the invalid point utilizing the meter scale appended along the wire. This is the ‘adjusting length’ of the meter connected.  
• Leave the distance between focuses A n and B alone ‘l 1 ‘.  
• Leave the distance between focuses B and C alone ‘l 2 ‘, where l 2 =100–l 1 .  
• At the point when the galvanometer shows invalid diversion, the meter connects acts like a Wheatstone connects and can be addressed as:

Calculation of an Unknown Resistance Using Meter Bridge: In case S is the obscure opposition in the above circuit, we can ascertain it’s worth utilizing the meter connect. In reasonable condition, R / Resistance across length AB = S / Resistance across length BC We realize that the obstruction r of a wire of length l, space of cross-area An and resistivity ρ is given as,   r= ρ l / A Utilizing this connection, in case of ρ be the resistivity and A be the space of cross-part of the given meter connect wire, then, at that point the obstruction across the length,  AB=ρ l 1 / A The resistance across the length,  BC=ρ l 2 / A Subbing these qualities in the above connection, we get:  R / ρ l 1 / A = S / ρ l 2 / A  or  R / l 1 = S / l 2   R / l 1 = S / 100-l 1 Thus, the unknown resistance,  S= (100–l 1 ) R / l 1   We can ascertain the particular resistivity of the obscure obstruction by utilizing the equation,  ρ = πd 2 S / 4L  where d is the width of the wire, S is the obscure opposition (of the wire), and L is the length of the wire.

Sample Questions

Question 1: What is the end blunder in a meter connect?

End mistake happens when the no sizes of the meter scale don’t agree with the beginning of the wire. It is caused because of the moving of zero scale or the wanderer obstruction in the wire.

Question 2: What is a meter bridge, and what is it utilized for?

A meter bridge is an electrical apparatus that is used to measuring the unknown resistance of a conductor. It consists of a wire of length one meter. Hence it is called a meter bridge.

Question 3: In a meter bridge, there are two unknown resistance R and S. Find the ratio of R and S if the galvanometer shows a null deflection at 20cm from one end?

Answer: 

The null deflection in the galvanometer is obtained at 20cm from one end. Let, L1=20cm So, L2=100–20=80cm Thus, the ratio of unknown resistance will be: R / L1=S / L2 Thus, R / S=1 / 4

Question 4:  A 20Ω resistor is connected in the left gap, and an unknown resistance is joined in the right gap of the meter bridge. Also, the null deflection point is shifted by 40cm when the resistors are interchanged. Find the value of unknown resistance?

 In the first case, let the deflection point is taken as L. Let the balance point gets shifted to l by 40cm when the resistors are interchanged. Thus, L– l=40cm Also, L+ l=100cm Solving the above equations, we get: l=30cm L=70cm Let R=20Ω And unknown resistance be S, thus, R / S=L / l R / S=70 / 30 20 / S=7 / 3 ∴S=8.57Ω

Question 5: For what reason do we utilize constantan or manganin wire in a meter connect?

Constantan, manganin or nichrome wires give a low-temperature coefficient of obstruction, so they are utilized in a meter bridge.

Question 6: Give the equation to gauge the obscure obstruction for a meter connect

The unknown resistance, S=(100–l1) R / l1, where R is known resistance and l1 is the balancing length of the wire.

Question 7: In a meter bridge with a standard resistance of 15 Ω in the right gap, the ratio of balancing length is 3:2. Find the value of the other resistance.

Q=15 Ω , l1:l2 = 3:2 l1/l2 = 3/2 P/Q = l1/l2 P = Q x l1/l2 P= 22.5 Ω

Question 8: In a meter bridge, the value of resistance in the resistance box is 10 Ω. The balancing length is l1 = 55 cm. Find the value of unknown resistance.

Q= 10 Ω P/Q =l1/100-l1 P=Q x l1/100-l1 P= 10×55/100-55 P=12.2 Ω

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• Energy stored in a Capacitor Capacitors are used in almost every electronic device around us. From a fan to a chip, there are lots of capacitors of different sizes around us. Theoretically, the basic function of the capacitor is to store energy. Its common usage includes energy storage, voltage spike protection, and signal filt 6 min read

Chapter 3: Current Electricity

• Electric Current in Conductors Electric current in conductors is the movement of electric charge through a substance, usually a metallic wire or other conductor. Electric current is the rate at which an electric charge flows past a certain point in a conductor, and it is measured in amperes. When a potential difference (voltage) 8 min read
• Ohm's Law Ohm's Law was given by German physicist Georg Simon Ohm. It states the relationship between current, resistance, and voltage across an electrical circuit. This relationship between current I, voltage V, and resistance R was given by famous German scientist Georg Simon Ohm in 1827. He found conductin 12 min read
• Drift Velocity Drift Velocity as the name suggests refers to the slow movement of electrons in the conductor when an Electromotive force(emf) is introduced. Electrons do not move in a straight line in the conductor, but they move randomly in the conductor colliding with the other electrons and atoms exchanging ene 13 min read
• Ohm's Law - Definition, Formula, Applications, Limitations According to Ohm's law, the voltage or potential difference between two locations is proportional to the current of electricity flowing through the resistance, and the resistance of the circuit is proportional to the current or electricity travelling through the resistance. V=IR is the formula for O 5 min read
• Temperature Dependence of Resistance Devices such as batteries, cells, etc. are essential for maintaining a potential difference across the circuit and are referred to as voltage sources. When a voltage source is connected across a conductor, it creates an electric field which causes the charges to move and this causes current. The val 5 min read
• Electrical Energy and Power Electric energy is the most important form of energy and is widely used in almost all the electrical devices around us. These devices have a rating written on them. That rating is expressed in Watts and intuitively explains the amount of electricity the device will consume. Bigger devices like AC, r 9 min read
• Resistors in Series and Parallel Combinations Resistors are devices that obstruct the flow of electric current in the circuit. They provide the hindrance to the path of the current which flows in the circuit. Resistors consume the current in any circuit and convert them to other forms of energy as required. Various resistors can be added to the 9 min read
• Electromotive Force Electromotive Force or EMF is the work done by the per unit charge while moving from the positive end to the negative end of the battery. It can also be defined as the energy gain per unit charge while moving from the positive end to the negative end of the battery. The battery or the electric gener 10 min read
• Combination of Cells in Series and Parallel There are many resistances in complex electrical circuits. There are methods to calculate the equivalent resistances in case multiple resistances are connected in series or parallel or sometimes in a combination of series and parallel. In many situations, batteries or different types of voltage sour 6 min read
• Meter Bridge - Explanation, Construction, Working, Sample Problems An electric flow is a flood of charged particles, like electrons or particles, traveling through an electrical conveyor or space. It is estimated as the net pace of stream of electric charge through a surface or into a control volume. The moving particles are called charge transporters, which might 7 min read
• Potentiometer - Definition, Working Principle, Types An electric flow is a surge of charged particles, like electrons or particles, travelling through an electrical channel or space. It is estimated as the net pace of stream of electric charge through a surface or into a control volume. The moving particles are called charge transporters, which might 15 min read

Chapter 4: Moving Charges and Magnetism

• Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field This has been already learned about the interaction of electric and magnetic fields, as well as the motion of charged particles in the presence of both electric and magnetic fields. We have also deduced the relationship of the force acting on the charged particle, which is given by the Lorentz force 8 min read
• Biot-Savart Law The Biot-Savart equation expresses the magnetic field created by a current-carrying wire. This conductor or wire is represented as a vector quantity called the current element. Lets take a look at the law and formula of biot-savart law in detail, Biot-Savart Law The magnitude of magnetic induction a 7 min read
• Ampere's Circuital Law and Problems on It André-Marie Ampere, a French physicist, proposed Ampere's Circuital Law. Ampere was born in Lyon, France, on January 20, 1775. His father educated him at home, and he showed an affinity for mathematics at a young age. Ampere was a mathematician and physicist best known for his work on electrodynamic 5 min read
• Magnetic Field Due to Solenoid and Toroid A charge is surrounded by an electric field when it is sufficiently sluggish and sits idle. This would make sense to you because it is an electric charge. However, when that charge becomes excited and starts racing about, it generates a magnetic field. Doesn't this strike you as strange? You aren't 8 min read
• Force between Two Parallel Current Carrying Conductors Moving charges produce an electric field and the rate of flow of charge is known as current. This is the basic concept in Electrostatics. The magnetic effect of electric current is the other important phenomenon related to moving electric charges. Magnetism is generated due to the flow of current. M 8 min read
• Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole When a charge move it generates an electric field and the rate of flow of charge is the current in the electric field. This is the basic concept in Electrostatics. The magnetic effect of electric current is the other important concept related to moving electric charges. Magnetism is generated due to 11 min read
• Moving Coil Galvanometer Hans Christian Oersted discovered in 1820 that a current-carrying conducting wire produces a magnetic field around it. His findings from his experiments are as follows: The magnetic compass needle is aligned tangent to an imaginary circle centered on the current-carrying cable.When the current is re 10 min read

Chapter 5: Magnetism and Matter

• Magnetism Magnetism in Physics is defined as the property of the material that is responsible for the magnetic behaviour of the magnets. Magnetism is defined as the force that is produced by the moving charge and it attracts or repels other magnets and moving charge. Initially, magnetism is defined as the pro 11 min read
• Earth's Magnetic Field - Definition, Causes, Components If you've ever used a compass (either a classic mechanical one or one incorporated into your smartphone), you'll know that it always points north. If you hang a refrigerator magnet from the ceiling, it will also point north. This implies that the ground beneath your feet generates a magnetic field a 7 min read
• Magnetization and Magnetic Intensity We've all had fun with magnets as kids. Some of us are now even playing with them! What makes them magnetic though? Why aren't there magnetic fields in all materials and substances? Have you ever given it any thought? The subjects of magnetization and magnetic intensity will be covered in this chapt 6 min read
• Diamagnetic Materials - Definition, Properties, Applications The genesis of magnetism is due to the spin motion of electrons and their interactions with one another. Describing how materials respond to magnetism is the greatest approach to present different sorts of magnetic materials. You might be surprised to learn that all matter is magnetic. The main dist 6 min read
• Permanent Magnets and Electromagnets The magnetic field and strength are the main differences between permanent magnets and electromagnets. A wire-wound coil creates the magnetic field in an Electromagnet, whereas the magnetic field of a Permanent (Bar) Magnet cannot be altered. The strength of a Permanent Magnet is determined by the m 7 min read

Chapter 6: Electromagnetic Induction

• Experiments of Faraday and Henry For a long time, electricity and magnetism were thought to be separate and unrelated phenomena. Experiments on electric current by Oersted, Ampere and a few others in the early decades of the nineteenth century established the fact that electricity and magnetism are inter-related. They discovered th 5 min read
• Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction is the basic law of electromagnetism that is used to explain the working of various equipment that includes an electric motor, electric generator, etc. Faraday's law was given by an English scientist Michael Faraday in 1831. According to Faraday's Law of El 10 min read
• Lenz's Law Lenz law was given by the German scientist Emil Lenz in 1834 this law is based on the principle of conservation of energy and is in accordance with Newton's third law. Lenz law is used to give the direction of induced current in the circuit. In this article, let's learn about Lenz law its formula, e 7 min read
• Motional Electromotive Force The process of induction occurs when a change in magnetic flux causes an emf to oppose that change. One of the main reasons for the induction process in motion. We can say, for example, that a magnet moving toward a coil generates an emf, and that a coil moving toward a magnet creates a comparable e 14 min read
• Energy Consideration In terms of energy considerations, electromagnetic induction can be used to transfer energy from one system to another. For example, a transformer is a device that uses electromagnetic induction to transfer electrical energy from one circuit to another at a different voltage level. In a transformer, 10 min read
• What are Eddy Currents? Eddy currents are whirling currents produced in a conductor by a changing magnetic field. They are a fundamental phenomenon in electromagnetism, resulting from Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which states that a changing magnetic field generates an electromotive force (EMF) and, eventual 9 min read
• Inductance - Definition, Derivation, Types, Examples Magnetism has a mystical quality about it. Its capacity to change metals like iron, cobalt, and nickel when touched piques children's interest. Repulsion and attraction between the magnetic poles by observing the shape of the magnetic field created by the iron filling surrounding the bar magnet will 14 min read
• AC Generator - Principle, Construction, Working, Applications A changing magnetic flux produces a voltage or current in a conductor, which is known as electromagnetic induction. It can happen when a solenoid's magnetic flux is changed by moving a magnet. There will be no generated voltage (electrostatic potential difference) across an electrical wire if the ma 7 min read

Chapter 7: Alternating Current

• AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor Alternating Currents are used almost as a standard by electricity distribution companies. In India, 50 Hz Alternating Current is used for domestic and industrial power supply. Many of our devices are in fact nothing but resistances. These resistances cause some voltage drop but since the voltage thi 5 min read
• Phasors | Definition, Examples & Diagram Phasor analysis is used to determine the steady-state response to a linear circuit functioning on sinusoidal sources with frequency (f). It is very common. For example, one can use phasor analysis to differentiate the frequency response of a circuit by performing phasor analysis over a range of freq 10 min read
• AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor Alternating Currents and Voltages vary and change their directions with time. They are widely used in modern-day devices and electrical systems because of their numerous advantages. Circuits in everyday life consist of resistances, capacitors, and inductances. Inductors are devices that store energy 5 min read
• AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor Alternating Currents and Voltages vary and change their directions with time. They are widely used in modern-day devices and electrical systems because of their numerous advantages. Circuits in everyday life consist of resistances, capacitors, and inductance. Capacitors are the devices that accumula 6 min read
• Series LCR Circuits In contrast to direct current (DC), which travels solely in one direction, Alternating Current (AC) is an electric current that occasionally reverses direction and alters its magnitude constantly over time. Alternating current is the type of electricity that is delivered to companies and homes, and 8 min read
• Power in AC Circuit Alternating Current and Voltages change their magnitude and direction with time. This changes the way calculations for power and other quantities are done in circuits. Furthermore, with the introduction of capacitors and inductances, many other effects come into play which alters the power calculati 6 min read
• LC Oscillations The Difference between the Direct and Alternating current is that the direct current (DC), travels only in one direction while the alternating current (AC) is an electric current that alternates direction on occasion and alters its amplitude continuously over time. Alternating current is the type of 9 min read
• Transformer Transformer is the simplest device that is used to transfer electrical energy from one alternating-current circuit to another circuit or multiple circuits, through the process of electromagnetic induction. A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction to step up or step down volt 15+ min read

Chapter 8: Electromagnetic Waves

• Displacement Current Displacement current is the current that is produced by the rate of change of the electric displacement field. It differs from the normal current that is produced by the motion of the electric charge. Displacement current is the quantity explained in Maxwell's Equation. It is measured in Ampere. Dis 12 min read
• Electromagnetic Waves A wave is a propagating dynamic disturbance (change from equilibrium) of one or more quantities that is commonly described by a wave equation in physics, mathematics, and related subjects. Electromagnetic waves are a mix of electric and magnetic field waves produced by moving charges. The origin of 11 min read
• Electromagnetic Spectrum Electromagnetic Spectrum: The sun is our planet's principal source of energy, and its energy travels in the form of electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic energy moves across space at the speed of light in the form of waves of electric and magnetic fields with a range of frequencies or wavelengt 12 min read

Chapter 9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

• Spherical Mirrors Spherical mirrors are generally constructed from glass. A spherical surface is a part cut from a hollow sphere. This curved surface of the glass has a silver coating on one side and a polished surface on the other, where the reflection of light takes place. The term "convex mirror" refers to a mirro 11 min read
• Refraction of Light Refraction is an important term used in the Ray Optics branch of Physics. Refraction of light is defined as the change in direction or the bending of a wave passing from one medium to another due to the change in speed of the wave. Some natural phenomena occurring in nature where refraction of light 11 min read
• Total Internal Reflection In Physics, total internal reflection is the complete reflection of a light ray within the medium (air, water glass, etc). For example, the total internal reflection of rays of light takes place in a Diamond. Since Dimond has multiple reflecting surfaces through which the Total internal reflection t 8 min read
• Image formation by Spherical Lenses You might have used a microscope in the science lab for magnifying the micro-size object. It basically magnifies tiny objects and we can see the enlarged image of that object. Telescopes are used by scientists to the planets and stars which are far- far away from the earth. You might see the spectac 7 min read

Chapter 10: Wave Optics

• Huygen's Wave Theory Christiaan Huygens proposed the Huygens principle. In 1678, he changed the way we think about light and its properties. You've probably heard of the rectilinear theory of light, which states that light travels in straight lines. One of the most important ways for examining various optical phenomena 8 min read
• Superposition and Interference Up until the 18th century, the light was considered to be a ray that traveled in a straight line. Descartes gave the corpuscular model of light which was further developed by Isaac Newton to include the laws of reflection and refraction. Later, a Dutch physicist introduced a new model of light which 6 min read
• Young's Double Slit Experiment Optics is the part of material science that concentrates on the conduct and properties of light, incorporating its connections with issues and the development of instruments that utilise or recognize it. Optics as a rule depicts the conduct of apparent, bright, and infrared light. Since light is an 11 min read
• Diffraction of light Diffraction is a phenomenon shown by light. When the wave of light interacts with the particle in the atmosphere it bends at the corners and scatters in the area to illuminate the whole area, this phenomenon is called the Diffraction of light. It is a property of light which is used to explain vario 8 min read
• Polarization of Light Polarization of Light: If you were to leave your house on a hot, sunny day, you would undoubtedly wear sunglasses. This is because the light emitted by the sun is unpolarized light and the sunglasses we wear transform the unpolarized light. Polarized light is light in which the electric field vector 10 min read

Chapter 11: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

• Photoelectric Effect Photoelectric effect refers to the phenomenon in which electrons are emitted from a material when it is exposed to light (electromagnetic radiation) of sufficient energy. Photoelectric effect provided evidence for the quantized nature of light and supported the wave-particle duality of electromagnet 10 min read
• Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect Heinrich Hertz discovered the phenomena of photoelectric emission in 1887. He noticed that when the spark gap is open, it conducts electricity more easily. The ultraviolet light from the arc lamp illuminates the emitter.  During the years 1886-1902, Hallwachs and Lenard studied photoelectric emissio 9 min read
• Einstein's Photoelectric Equation Albert Einstein published an equation to explain this effect in 1905, the annus mirabilis (wonder year) of Physics. Light, according to Einstein, is a wave that interacts with matter as a packet of energy or a quantum of energy. The photon was the quantum of radiation, and the equation was known as 9 min read
• Wave Nature of Matter and De Broglie’s Equation One of physics' most perplexing ideas is the wave nature of matter. A particle is constrained to a certain location, but a wave is dispersed over space. It has been demonstrated that light can have a particle or wave nature. As with a billiard ball, electrons and photons display particle characteris 7 min read
• Davisson-Germer Experiment Davisson Germer Experiment established the wave nature of electrons and validated the de Broglie equation for the first time. De Broglie proposed the dual nature of the matter in 1924, but it wasn't until later that Davisson and Germer's experiment confirmed the findings. The findings provided the f 8 min read

Chapter 12: Atoms

• Rutherford's Alpha Scattering Experiment Rutherford's Alpha Scattering Experiment is the fundamental experiment done by Earnest Rutherford's Alpha Scattering Experiment that gives the fundamental about the structure of the atom. Rutherford in his experiment directed high-energy streams of α-particles from a radioactive source at a thin she 6 min read
• Atomic Spectra Atomic Spectra is the spectrum of radiation of electromagnetic waves produced due to the transition of an electron from one energy level to another level within an atom. Atoms have an equal number of negative and positive charges. Atoms were described as spherical clouds of positive charges with emb 9 min read
• Bohr's Model of the Hydrogen Atom The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom was the first atomic model to successfully explain the atomic hydrogen radiation spectra. Niels Bohr proposed the atomic Hydrogen model in 1913. The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom attempts to fill in some of the gaps left by Rutherford's model. It has a special p 9 min read
• Spectrum of the Hydrogen Atom Electrons in a hydrogen atom circle around a nucleus. Because of the electromagnetic force between the proton and electron, electrons go through numerous quantum states. Neil Bohr's model helps in visualizing these quantum states as electrons orbit the nucleus in different directions. When Electrons 7 min read

Chapter 13: Nuclei

• Structure of Nucleus The nucleus of an atom consists of two types of particles, positively charged particles called protons and neutrally charged particles called neutrons. Protons + Neutrons in an atom represent the nucleus of an atom. The nucleus of an atom is represented by ZXA, where X is the nucleus of an atom, Z i 7 min read
• Size of The Nucleus - Rutherford Gold Foil Experiment Physics requires an understanding of matter's underlying structure. Without the Rutherford gold foil experiment, it would be impossible to determine the size of the nucleus, which is the subject of this article. The Rutherford atom model was the first proper interpretation of the atom, and it served 7 min read
• Mass Energy Equivalence The mass-energy equation is one of the critical underpinnings of Physics. German Physicist Albert Einstein set forth this popular regulation. This regulation expresses that mass and energy are comparative with one another. The mass-energy equation clarifies how energy can be changed over into mass a 5 min read
• Nuclear Binding Energy - Definition, Formula, Examples During the twentieth century, Albert Einstein, a well-known scientist, developed the revolutionary theory known as "the theory of relativity." Mass and energy are interchangeable, according to the theory; mass can be turned into energy and vice versa. This additional dimension to physics benefited i 5 min read
• Nuclear Force Nuclear forces, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force are two of the four fundamental forces of nature other than electromagnetic and gravitational forces. Unlike Coulomb's Law or Newton's Law of Gravitation, there is no simple mathematical way to describe nuclear forces. Nuclear forces are o 7 min read
• Radioactivity - Definition, Laws, Occurrence, Applications A nucleus is the positively charged centre of an atom made up of protons and neutrons in chemistry. The "atomic nucleus" is another name for it. The word "nucleus" is derived from the Latin nucleus, which is a derivative of the word Linux, which signifies nut or kernel. What is Radioactivity?The abi 6 min read
• Nuclear Energy - Definition, Types, Applications Nuclear energy, also known as atomic energy, is the energy released in large quantities by operations that influence atomic nuclei, the dense centres of atoms. It differs from the energy of other atomic phenomena like typical chemical reactions, which solely involve atoms' orbital electrons. Control 8 min read

Chapter 14: Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices, and Simple Circuits

• Intrinsic Semiconductors and Extrinsic Semiconductors A semiconductor substance has an electrical property that sits between an insulator and a conductor. Si and Ge are the greatest examples of semiconductors. There are two types of semiconductors: intrinsic semiconductors and extrinsic semiconductors (p-type and n-type). The intrinsic kind of semicond 8 min read
• PN Junction Diode The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor material is between that of a conductor, such as metallic copper, and that of an insulator, such as glass. Its resistivity decreases as the temperature rises, whereas metals have the reverse effect. By adding impurities (doping) into the crystal structu 11 min read
• Diode A diode is an electronic device that conducts electricity only in one direction. It is a device which is widely used in modern-day electronics. In this article, we will learn about diodes, their properties, symbols, types and others in detail. What is a Diode?A diode is made up of two words i.e., “D 8 min read
• Logic Gates - Definition, Types, Uses Logic Gates are the fundamental building blocks in digital electronics. There are basically seven main types of logic gates which are used to perform various logical operations in digital systems. By combining different logic gates complex operations are performed and circuits like flip-flop, counte 9 min read
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