history of indian music essay

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The Oxford Encyclopaedia of the Music of India  

Saṅgīt mahābhāratī.

Comprehensive, authoritative, and up-to-date, the Oxford Encyclopedia of the Music of India depicts the story of Indian music through 2,000 years of history. Entries cover forms of music from classical to film-originated, as well as dance styles, technical terms, instruments, and biographies of vocalists, musicologists, saints, poets, gurus, composers, and instrumentalists. The range and breadth of the Encyclopedia is immense. With 5,000 entries by approximately 100 acclaimed contributors, the work spans not only all regions of India, but also covers the music of the Subcontinent, including Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.

A vast collaborative effort spanning 12 years and supported by an extended group of around 250 musicians, scholars, and teachers of music from India and the world, the Encyclopedia is unprecedented in its vast coverage of a musical tradition renowned for its beauty and spirituality.

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Saṅgīt Mahābhāratī stands out in the world of serious music education and research as one of India's premier academies. It was established in 1956 in Mumbai by the internationally renowned tabla maestro, music educationist, and author, the late Padma Bhushan Pandit Nikhil Ghosh (Chief Editor).

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Ābā-sāheb Muzumdār ( b. ?, 1 Feb. 1886)

Abanīndra mōhan gangopādhyāy, abban khan (1922), abbāsuddin ahmed, abdul aziz khan, abdul aziz khan (1940) (vocal), abdul gafur, abdul gani bayati (1909), abdul ghani khan (1938), abdul halim jaffer khan (18 feb. 1929), abdul hassan qaisar, abdul kādar khan (1910), abdul karim khan (11 nov. 1872), abdul latif (1930), abdul latif khan (22 mar. 1934), abdul majid khan, abdul rahim khan (1860), abdul salām, abdul sattār, front matter, publishing information, the saṅgīt mahābhāratī team, publisher's note, key to initials, contributors and scrutinizers, resource persons, artistes involved in saṅgīt mahābhāratī's fund-raising concerts, credits for illustrations, bibliography.

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Evolution of Indian Music, History and Division

The evolution of Indian music is a rich and complex journey that spans centuries, reflecting the diverse cultural, social, and historical influences of the Indian subcontinent.

Table of Contents

  The evolution of Indian music is a rich and complex journey that spans centuries, reflecting the diverse cultural, social, and historical influences of the Indian subcontinent. Indian music can be broadly classified into two main traditions: classical and folk. Each tradition has its own unique characteristics and has evolved over time.

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Evolution of Indian Music

Hindustani classical music, rooted in ancient Vedic texts and the Natya Shastra, evolved with contributions from diverse regions and cultures, including Persian and Central Asian influences. The medieval period brought forth classical forms like Dhrupad and Khayal. Carnatic music, directly linked to ancient Indian traditions, developed in the southern regions, with the trinity of Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri shaping its repertoire. Both traditions are anchored in melodic ragas and rhythmic talas. India’s folk music, reflecting regional diversity, is influenced by the Bhakti and Sufi movements. Modern times witness the fusion of Western styles and Bollywood’s role in popularizing music, showcasing the dynamic evolution while preserving cultural heritage.

Major Periods in the History of Indian Music

Ancient period.

Origin in Vedic Age:

• The Sama Veda is considered the originator of music among the four Vedas.
• Vedic music began with a single note, gradually evolving to three notes and eventually stabilizing with seven basic notes.
• Vedic hymns were sung and danced during yagas and yagnas, accompanied by string and percussion instruments.
• The concept of Raga had not yet emerged, and group instrument playing was known as ‘kutapa,’ an early form of orchestra.

Development in South India:

• Ilango Adigal, a scholar in the court of Chera Kings, mentioned the development of basic musical ideas by ancient Tamils in the 1st century AD.
• Mahendra Verma (7th century) contributed to Carnatic music by documenting contemporary musical facts in Kudumiyamalai inscriptions.
• Ancient Tamil music represented Ragas with several ‘pans,’ and they were familiar with Sthayi (octave) and well-versed in srutis and the 12 swara sthanas.

Medieval Period

Unified Musical System:

• Until the 13th century, India had a unified musical system based on fundamentals like saptaswaras, octave, and sruti.
• Haripala introduced the terms Hindustani and Karnatak (Carnatic) music for the first time.
• With Muslim rule in the north, Indian music interacted with Arabian and Persian systems, leading to new dimensions.

Bhakti Movement Influence:

• The Bhakti movement from the 7th century produced saint singers and religious teachers, contributing to the development of devotional songs.
• Purandara Dasa, known as ‘Karnataka Sangita Pitamaha,’ reduced the ancient Talas to a system of 35 Talas, influencing the structure of Carnatic music.
• Raga classifications became clearer during this period, laying the foundation for the soul of Indian music.

Modern India – The Golden Period (18th Century)

Musical Development:

• Significant development and activity in musical forms, Ragas, Talas, and musical instruments.
• Scholarly forms like Kritis, Swarajatis, Varna, Pada, Tillana, and Ragamalikas were composed, refining musical and lyrical aspects.
• Notation systems preserved compositions, providing access to invaluable works from the past.

Hindustani Music Systematization:

• Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande systematized Hindustani Ragas under the ‘Thaat’ system in the 18th and 19th centuries.
• Composition forms like Khayal, Thumri, and Tarana were introduced.
• Renowned musicians such as Ustad Alladia Khan, Pt. Omkarnath Thakur, and Ustad Bade Gulam Alikhan became legends of the 20th century.

Western Classical Influence:

• Western classical music flourished, with figures like Bach, Hayden, and Beethoven emerging as the “Trinity of Western Music.”

 Indian Classical Music

Indian classical music is a rich and intricate tradition with a history that spans centuries. As you mentioned, there are two major schools of Indian classical music: Hindustani and Carnatic.

Hindustani Classical Music

• Geographical Influence: Primarily practiced in the northern parts of India, including states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and others.
• Ragas and Talas: Hindustani music is based on the concept of “ragas” (melodic scales) and “talas” (rhythmic cycles). Ragas form the melodic framework, while talas provide the rhythmic structure.
• Instruments: Common instruments used in Hindustani classical music include the sitar, tabla, sarod, santoor, flute, and various percussion instruments.

Carnatic Classical Music

• Geographical Influence: Mainly practiced in the southern parts of India, particularly in states like Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.
• Ragas and Talas: Similar to Hindustani music, Carnatic music is also based on ragas and talas. However, there are some differences in the way ragas and talas are approached and interpreted.
• Instruments: Key instruments in Carnatic music include the veena, violin, mridangam (a two-headed drum), ghatam (clay pot), and others.

Common Elements

• Ragas and Talas: Both traditions share a common foundation in the use of ragas and talas, but the interpretation and emphasis on certain aspects can vary between the two.
• Improvisation: One of the key features of both Hindustani and Carnatic music is improvisation. Musicians often engage in intricate and spontaneous improvisational elements during performances.
• Spiritual and Cultural Significance: Indian classical music has deep ties to spirituality and cultural traditions. It is often associated with devotion and has been an integral part of various religious practices.

Notable Figures

• Hindustani Music: Ustad Zakir Hussain (tabla), Pandit Ravi Shankar (sitar), Ustad Amjad Ali Khan (sarod).
• Carnatic Music: S. Subbulakshmi (vocal), L. Subramaniam (violin), Palghat Mani Iyer (mridangam).

Both traditions have a vast repertoire of compositions, ranging from slow and meditative to fast-paced and energetic. The learning process involves a close teacher-student relationship, with the oral tradition playing a crucial role in passing down the intricacies of the music from generation to generation.

Indian Folk Music

Indian folk music is a diverse and vibrant form of music that reflects the cultural richness and diversity of different regions in India. Unlike classical music, folk music is often passed down through generations orally and is deeply rooted in the traditions, rituals, and daily lives of various communities. There are numerous folk music traditions across India, each with its unique style, instruments, and themes. Here are some prominent forms of Indian folk music:

• Bihu (Assam): Bihu music is associated with the Bihu festival celebrated in Assam. It includes both dance and music, featuring instruments like dhol, pepa (horn), and gogona (mouth harp). Bihu songs often depict themes of love and nature.
• Baul (West Bengal): The Baul tradition involves itinerant minstrels who sing devotional songs, often expressing the philosophy of seeking the divine within oneself. Baul music is characterized by simplicity and mysticism.
• Rajasthani Folk Music: Rajasthan has a rich tradition of folk music, including forms like Ghoomar, Manganiar, and Kalbelia. Instruments such as the dholak, sarangi, and khartal are commonly used. The songs often narrate tales of valor, love, and daily life.
• Lavani (Maharashtra): Lavani is a traditional dance form from Maharashtra, often accompanied by energetic and rhythmic music. The songs are usually performed in a fast tempo and express a wide range of emotions.
• Bhavageet (Karnataka): Bhavageet is a form of folk music in Karnataka that expresses deep emotions and feelings. The lyrics are often poetic and touch upon themes like love, nature, and the human condition.
• Bhajan (All Over India): While bhajans (devotional songs) are an integral part of various religious traditions across India, they also form a significant part of folk music. Bhajans are often sung in praise of deities and are accompanied by simple instrumentation.
• Pahari (Himachal Pradesh): Pahari folk music from the Himalayan region includes songs related to agricultural activities, seasons, and local festivals. The musical instruments commonly used include the flute, algoza, and damaru.
• Sufi Folk Music: Sufi music, blending elements of mysticism and devotion, is found in various regions of India. Qawwali, a form of Sufi devotional music, is particularly famous, with artists like the Nizami Brothers and Abida Parveen.
• Ghazal (Uttar Pradesh): While ghazal has its roots in Persian poetry, it has become an integral part of North Indian folk music, especially in Uttar Pradesh. Ghazals often express themes of love, loss, and separation.

Indian folk music, with its diversity and regional variations, continues to play a crucial role in preserving cultural heritage and providing a platform for storytelling, celebration, and expression of local identity. It often reflects the daily lives, traditions, and aspirations of the communities that practice and cherish these musical traditions.

Evolution of Indian Music UPSC

The evolution of Indian music spans centuries, encompassing classical and folk traditions. Rooted in Vedic texts, ancient Indian music gradually developed into distinct classical forms like Dhrupad and Khayal in the medieval period. Carnatic music flourished in the south, shaped by Tyagaraja and others. The Bhakti and Sufi movements influenced diverse folk traditions across regions. In the modern era, Western influences and Bollywood fusion showcase dynamic evolution. Hindustani and Carnatic classical music, with their unique ragas and talas, share a spiritual and cultural significance. Indian folk music, diverse and vibrant, reflects local identities, preserving cultural heritage through storytelling and celebration.

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Evolution of Indian Music FAQs

What are the two main traditions of indian music.

The two main traditions of Indian music are classical and folk.

How did Hindustani classical music evolve?

Hindustani classical music evolved from ancient Vedic texts and the Natya Shastra, with contributions from diverse regions and cultures, including Persian and Central Asian influences.

Who are the trinity figures in Carnatic music?

The trinity figures in Carnatic music are Tyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, and Syama Sastri.

What influences shaped Indian folk music?

Indian folk music is influenced by the Bhakti and Sufi movements, reflecting regional diversity and cultural traditions.

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Ravi Shankar

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Ravi Shankar (born April 7, 1920, Benares [now Varanasi], India—died December 11, 2012, San Diego , California , U.S.) was an Indian musician, player of the sitar , composer, and founder of the National Orchestra of India, who was influential in stimulating Western appreciation of Indian music .

Born into a Bengali Brahman (highest social class in Hindu tradition) family, Shankar spent most of his youth studying music and dance and touring extensively in India and Europe with his brother Uday’s dance troupe. At age 18 Shankar gave up dancing, and for the next seven years he studied the sitar (a long-necked stringed instrument of the lute family) under the noted musician Ustad Allauddin Khan. After serving as music director of All-India Radio from 1948 until 1956, he began a series of European and American tours.

In the course of his long career, Shankar became the world’s best-known exponent of Hindustani (North Indian) classical music, performing with India’s most-distinguished percussionists and making dozens of successful recordings. Shankar composed the film scores for the Indian director Satyajit Ray ’s famous Apu trilogy (1955–59). In 1962 he founded the Kinnara School of Music in Bombay (now Mumbai ) and then established a second Kinnara School in Los Angeles in 1967; he closed both schools some years later, however, having become disenchanted with institutional teaching.

Beginning in the 1960s, his concert performances with the American violinist Yehudi Menuhin and his association with George Harrison , lead guitarist of the then wildly popular British musical group the Beatles , helped bring Indian music to the attention of the West. Among the diverse musicians influenced by Shankar’s compositional style were the jazz saxophonist John Coltrane and the composer Philip Glass , with whom Shankar collaborated on the album Passages (1990). Indeed, especially remarkable among Shankar’s accomplishments is his equally expert participation in traditional Indian music and in Indian-influenced Western music . Most characteristic of the latter activity are his concerti for sitar and orchestra, particularly Raga-Mala (“Garland of Ragas”), first performed in 1981.

During his lifetime he won Grammy Awards for the albums West Meets East (1966), a collaboration with Menuhin; The Concert for Bangladesh (1971), a compilation of performances by Shankar, Harrison, Bob Dylan , and others from the benefit concert Shankar inspired Harrison to organize; and Full Circle (2001), a live recording of a performance at Carnegie Hall with his daughter Anoushka Shankar. In 1997 he received the Japan Art Association’s Praemium Imperiale prize for music. Shankar continued giving concerts into his 90s, frequently accompanied by Anoushka, who, like her father, specialized in blending Indian and Western traditions. Also a daughter of Shankar is multiple-Grammy-winning singer-songwriter Norah Jones , who found her niche in an eclectic blend of jazz, pop, and country music .

Two months after his death, Shankar won a fourth Grammy Award, for an intimate collection of ragas titled The Living Room Sessions Part 1 . Also at that time he was honoured with the Recording Academy’s lifetime achievement award. In addition to his strictly musical undertakings, Shankar wrote two autobiographies, published 30 years apart: My Life, My Music (1969) and Raga Mala (1999).

The Music of India: And Its Role in Indian Dance

by NARAYANA MENON

INDIAN music is a very ancient art and has a three-thousand-year-old tradition behind it. This represents perhaps the longest unbroken record of any cultural tradition we know. Countries like China and Egypt have longer records of history and culture. The Catalogue Général des Antiquités Égyptiennes du Musée du Caire published recently by the Egyptian Government gives accurate descriptions and pictures of musical instruments 4000 years old, and indications of a musical notation which point to an art at a high stage of development. But somewhere in the history of Egypt, the link with this historic past is lost, and contemporary Egyptian music cannot be related to its past.

It is this continuity of growth that is the most remarkable thing about Indian music. Long before the Christian era it had developed not only definite laws of theory and practice, but even comprehensive theories of appreciation. The ancient pandits studied carefully the physical stimulants to aesthetic enjoyment. They analyzed the nature of emotion (Bhava); the conditions and the themes which produce the emotions (Vibhava); the visible signs and results of such emotion (Anubhava); and even the nature of the subconscious mind, the involuntary emotions (Satvabhava). Their methods were rational and, what is more, they put their conclusions to good practical use. The Greeks did this on a small scale. They realized, for instance, that the Doric mode was dignified and manly, and taught the Spartan boys nothing else. They were careful of the use of the Lydian mode which they thought voluptuous, licentious, and orgiastic. Strabo, the Greek philosopher, may have been thinking of this when he acknowledged the debt of Greek music to India.

The beginnings of Indian music are shrouded in mythology. We are told in the old legends that the seven notes of the scale and the primary rhythms were revealed by the god Vishnu himself, and it was believed that singing, playing, and dancing exemplified his various forms. Thus it was only natural that music should have grown and developed as an adjunct of religious worship and that India’s temples should have been her great conservatories. To this day the orthodox Hindu musician thinks of his music as devotional.

From the study of ancient treatises on music which have come down to us, such as Bharata’s fourth-century Natya Sastra and Sarangadeva’s thirteenth-century Sangita-Ratnakara, we know how little Indian classical music has changed since early times. To be sure, when the Muslims came down into India about the twelfth century they brought with them the subtle and highly developed melodic scales of the Persians, but this influence never became more than a superstructure on the robust body of Hindu music, and in South India, where the penetration of Islam was least, the traditional Dravidian forms retained their purity almost untouched.

Perhaps the most distinctive characteristic of Indian music — the quality that makes it at first sound so strange to the Western ear — is that it is purely melodic. By pure melody I mean melody that neither needs nor implies harmony. Harmony affects the structure of melody itself, and it has become almost impossible for the Westerner to conceive of melody without the implications, tacit or explicit, of a harmonic system.

In Western music, a melodic line is really the top or surface line of a carefully constructed harmonic structure. Thus in the building up of melody, the harmonic implications of substantive and passing notes, and the relationship of these, play an important part. Beyond this, Western melody has a tendency to develop round notes which are harmonically related to the tonic.

Indian melody, on the other hand, is made up of notes which are related purely by their continuity. If melody of this kind sounds exotic to the Western ear, it is probably because the West has lost the sense of pure melody and cannot take in melody neat, as it were. The Indian use of quarter tones is also relevant here. There is no such thing in Indian music as an exact quarter tone, such as those used by Alois Haba or Bloch. But Indian musicians do use in certain ragas sharps which are sharper than those of the diatonic scale and flats which are flatter. It is not the number of notes we use that is important. The important thing is how small an interval we can successfully employ.

The bases of Indian music are raga and tala. Perhaps the nearest English equivalent for raga is the term “ mode.” The Persian maqam is much the same thing. But our raga is a far more definite concept. In a raga not only are the notes used within the octave important but even the sequence in which they arc used. The result is great strictness within great variety. According to a classification which dates from the seventeenth century there are seventy-two fully septatonic ragas. In all these the fifth is constant. Thirty-six have true fourths, thirty-six augmented fourths.

Then there are a number of derivative ragas, some pentatonic, some hexatonic. Some of these use five notes going up, but six or seven coming down the scale and vice versa. Consider now that this music is seldom written. Indian musicians, handing down the tradition from generation to generation, have developed such extraordinary powers of memory that they carry several hundreds of these ragas in their heads.

Tala is the rhythm of Indian music. And like the raga it obeys strict laws of pattern. Tala is asymmetric as well as symmetric. Often a bar is made up of 4-2-2, as in the southern Adi Tala. Variations of talas can be in either geometric or arithmetic progression. A variation of the tala given above might be 5—2-2 or 3-2—2. There are accented and unaccented parts of a bar. Thus in the Adi Tala, the first, the fifth, and the seventh beats are strongly accented. All this is possible in Indian music because it is not forced to accept symmetries of rhythm which harmonic planning necessitates.

Within this well-defined framework, this fitting together of pitch and beat according to rigid laws, the Indian musician improvises. And it is the brilliance of his improvisation — what he can do by sheer virtuosity in spite of the restricting rules of the game — which is the glory of our great artists.

Is not the highest art extemporaneous? The art of improvising was current in Western music until recently and all the great masters such as Bach, Handel, and Beethoven, up to and including Liszt, were famous for their improvisations. The only corresponding musical activity in the West today is the improvisation of jazz. But here the improvisation develops along certain chord sequences, while in Indian music it is confined to the melodic line. Variations in rhythm, of course, are common to both.

Another of the key elements in Indian music is the dominant role of the voice. Indian music is sung music, even when played by instruments, because the music is basically vocal in conception. It is not that we lack instruments — in variety India probably has more than the West, and the best of them are capable of subtleties of intention and nuance beyond any I have heard anywhere in the world — but simply that the human voice is still the finest instrument there is for the kind of music we have.

IN THE pattern of Indian culture, music and the dance, the visual arts and poetry are all governed by the same attitudes. Indian music bears the same relationship to Western music as Indian dancing does to Western ballet, and for that matter much the same sort of relationship as Indian literature does to that of Europe or traditional Indian art to European art. In all these, the insistence, in India, is on emotional sincerity as against intellectual sincerity in the West; on the lyrical impulse rather than on the dramatic impulse; on intuition rather than on reason; on contemplation more than on action. The result is a subjectivism which is opposed to Western objectivism.

Many factors are at the root of such a development and it is perhaps beyond the scope of a short essay such as this to go into any detailed analysis of the reasons. But let me illustrate it from the dance. The fundamental difference between Indian dancing and Western ballet consists in the way in which a given idea is realized. In Indian dancing, the dancer (like the musician in Indian music) is the center, the figurehead of the idea, and the dance emanates from him. In European ballet the idea of the dance is projected on the dancers. It is an objective realization of the idea by the creator of the dance, the choreographer, who uses the dancers as a vehicle for the expression of his ideas.

This makes the Indian dancer, within a strictly traditional code, a creative artist in the fullest sense of the word; whereas in European ballet the dancer’s role is an interpretive one, to infuse and bring life to the choreographer’s conception. This also makes Indian dancing essentially a solo affair. Even when there is a group of dancers, as in the more dramatic forms of Indian dancing, like the Kathakali of Malabar, the dancing takes the form of a series of solo performances. Groupings are unimportant. There is no plastic relationship in the lines, which are related purely by their continuity. The wide, sweeping lines of the ballet are absent. Minute gestural effects become important.

Kathakali, the traditional dance-drama of South India, goes back two thousand years to the great religious epics which are the basis of Hindu culture. Dancers mime the stories of the ancient myths while singers chant the tale in verse, accompanied by gongs, bells, and drums.

Here a “good man” (perhaps one of the Pandava brothers, heroes in the Mahabharata) is conversing with his wife. Kathakali actors never speak, but use mudras, a sign language of the hands with a gesture for every Sanskrit word. Female roles are taken by boys.

On the left is Hanuman, the heroic “monkey god ” of the Ramayana epic, making obeisance to a Brahmin priest who is giving his benediction. The dancers’ startling make-ups of green, yellow, black, and browns take many hours to put on.

The sister of Ravana, the mythological demon-king of Ceylon, is shown here in all her grotesque horror. Kathakali is usually performed at night, often in the open with flaming torchlamps for illumination. Sometimes the performances go on until dawn.

Kathakali is at once sophisticated and barbaric, poetic yet violent. Here an evil mother drives herself to kill her own child. As the stories unfold the emotions of the audience rise to fever pitch.

These gestures, or mudras as they are called, are the essence of Indian dancing. They are a very comprehensive language and any story or incident or any shade of emotion can be satisfactorily expressed through them. Two well-trained dancers can carry on a conversation on any topic in everyday life by using these gestures. The eloquence of the mudras is the eloquence of poetry, not the realistic eloquence of prose. They suggest, but never imitate. They evoke a mood, but never state it.

In Western ballet conventional movements such as an arabesque or entrechat or pirouette are freely used by a choreographer to express certain ideas or types, not to mention the clever and dramatic use of the mime. Bnt does not convention often become an embarrassment, even an impediment ? Even in such a poetic ballet as Les Sylphides the male dancer looks slightly ridiculous. It is this hidebound convention which has led to new growths in the dance styles of the West—movements led by such dancers as Mary Wigman, Martha Graham, Kurt Jooss, who go completely outside the conventions of classical ballet to revitalize the new dance.

Since India is not simply one country but a whole subcontinent, it is only natural that her main tradition of the dance should have developed unevenly and become divided into distinct schools of varying individuality in different regions. The most important schools are: the Bharata-natyam of South India, the Kathak dances of Upper India, and the Kathakali of Malabar. Less famous perhaps, but significant, are the Manipuri school of the Northeast, of which Mr. Bowers writes in these pages, and the masked dances of Siraikela and the States of Orissa.

Bharata-natyam probably represents the purest and oldest form of the Indian tradition. It descends, of course, from temple dancing, but nowadays it is presented as a recital, with a program usually lasting about three hours. Bharata-natyam is always executed by one single dancer, usually a woman, and there is hardly any décor or change of costume. The music for it consists of a singer, or singers, and a group of drummers. The sung music functions like a commentary on the dance except when the nattuvanar, who directs the performance, calls out the bols of the rhythm which the dancer’s feet execute.

If the intricacies of rhythm in Indian music escape the uninitiated, the rhythms of Indian dance are even more subtle and difficult. In the Kathak school the role of the percussion is especially important. The drummer anticipates every step of the dancer and the result is like two musicians playing in unison, the bells on the dancer’s feet synchronizing with the beat of the drums. Facial expression — abhinaya — is also a highly developed element in the dance. The Kathak school shows strong Muslim influences. Its elegance and its sophistry were derived from the Mogul Court, but its complicated rhythms are of indigenous origin.

Kathakali, which literally means “story-play,” is the most dramatic form of Indian dancing. Here the gestures and technique of Bharata-natyam have taken on a more masculine vitality. Kathakali employs many dancers and many types, acting out themes drawn from the old Sanskrit epics. It is usually performed out of doors and the dancing is likely to last the whole night through. Kathakali is as violent and exciting as Bharata-natyam is subtle and lyrical.

THE relationship between music and dancing is nowhere closer than in the Indian tradition. This tradition must be understood in the context of Indian life and thought. Its present theory and practice are the logical development of a consistent process, a process which has been distinctive and which is an integral part of Indian history and culture. To listen to Indian music and judge it in terms of Western music or some other system will mean missing the point and reaching absurd conclusions. It will be like judging Beethoven or Brahms in terms of raga and tala. Questions of style, of interpretation, of finer and subtler points of execution cannot be discussed in any recognizable international terms. Aesthetics and attitudes can. Music is not an international language. All this talk of music being an international language is a myth. Of course it may be true of limited areas such as Europe or Southern India or the Middle East — areas which have a common musical system but different spoken languages. But I have heard too much of Egyptian, Javanese, and Chinese music — not to mention the various national styles of Europe — to believe that cosmopolitanism in music is possible.

And values differ so widely. Take the voice for instance. Most Europeans think that Indian voices sound artificial, harsh, strained, and nasal. Yet that is precisely what most Indians think of Western voices — artificially produced, strained, and nasal. What either of them will think of a Chinese operatic singer, I dare not say. Of course there are voices which can be appreciated the world over — Paul Robeson’s, for instance, or the late Ustad Faiyaz Khan’s. But the attributes of a voice will be determined by what the voice is expected to do. Only a fully trained Western soprano can sing the aria of the Queen of the Night from The Magic Flute and only an Indian musician can do the Viriboni Varna. Stress on particular values, too, is important.

The quality of the voice as such is comparatively unimportant in Indian music. In India the voice is no more an asset to a singer than, say, good handwriting is to a poet. What a musician sings is far more important than how he sings it. Every singer is a creative artist in the fullest sense of the word. In the West, a singer is a vehicle for the expression of the composer’s ideas, and very often — as in many operas — a voice is used just like any other instrument. In the course of a BBC discussion with Sir Steuart Wilson I said: “In Europe a young man decides to become a singer if he has a good voice; in India a young man decides to become a singer if he is musical.” Sir Steuart admitted it was perhaps an exaggeration, but only the exaggeration of a vital truth. How can one apply the same tests for such widely differing conceptions?

Music is the most abstract of all the arts. And it has the least verisimilitude to nature. Poetry has words which can be understood or translated, at least partly. Painting and sculpture (except in the most abstract modern works) have recognizable forms which approximate our visual experiences. But in music we have no such aid to apprehension. The knowledge of (or at least an awareness of) the system of which the music is a part is the only guide. One can come to grips with it only through constant hearing. One must listen and listen a great deal — with discrimination and with intelligence. Only then will subtleties of nuance and style begin to take shape in one’s mind.

If I lay stress on the necessity for what amounts to a total immersion in our music it is certainly not in an attempt to discourage Western music lovers from approaching it. There is much in our ragas which can give pleasure at first hearing, especially when the hearer is prepared to listen with his emotions — even to listen from his subconscious, if he must, forgetting for the moment all that he has been conditioned by Western music to expect. I have an American friend who could not hear enough of our music when he visited India and who told me that a Kathakali performance on the Malabar Coast moved him as profoundly as any dance he had experienced in the West. No, if I urge long listening, it is only because I know that the time will be well spent and the effort rewarded. Within its limits, Indian music is limitless. It offers riches to the ear, the mind, and the heart which are no less fabulous than the other storied treasures of the East.

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Essay on “Indian Music is as Diverse as Its Culture ” Complete Essay for Class 10, Class 12 and Graduation and other classes.

Indian Music is as Diverse as Its Culture 

Just as there is no such language as Indian, but instead many hundreds of languages, with over a dozen considered major, so there is no single entity as Indian music. The range of musical styles and traditions in the subcontinent of South Asia, which comprises modern India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and Sri – Lanka, is in proportion to the vastness of the geographical area and the density of population. This is most obviously the case with folk and tribal music. Given that India is predominantly rural, it could be claimed that such categories of music are those of the majority. The music of India is one of the oldest unspoken musical traditions in the world. The basis of Indian music is “sangeet.

Sangeet is a combination of two art forms: vocal music, instrumental music (Indian music). Indian music is based on the seven letter’s Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni. These seven letters are mathematically improvised to make thousands of tunes named Rages and cyclic rhythmic patterns known as Tales. The vocal tradition is especially strong in Indian music. It is understood that the song is probably the most ancient form of music. Vocal music occupies a considerable part of Natya Shastra (Indian music). The Sama veda is the oldest musical text in India. Most of the classical songs of north India are devotional in nature, but there are few genres, which are especially oriented toward religion. Most notable is the bhajan, dhun or kirtan for Hindus, the qawali for Muslims, and the shabad for Sikhs (Indian music). Not all the music is serious for, there are also many popular genres. The gazal is one style, which is known for it rich poetic, and romantic content. The Hindi gees which is basically just a song and undoubtedly the most popular is the film song (Indian music). Over the years they have become formalised into four major instrumental styles known as: alap, jor, gat and jhala (India, dance and music). The alap is a slow rhythm less elaboration upon the rag. The jor is a section that has rhythm but no developed rhythmic cycle (i.e., tal). The gat is the fully developed piece, while the jhala is a fast rhythmic interplay between the drone strings and the main playing strings (Indian music). The rag is the most important concept that any student of Indian music should understand. The Hindi/Urdu word “rag” is derived from the Sanskrit “raga” which means “colour or passion” (Indian music). It is linked to the Sanskrit word “ranj” which means, “to colour” (Indian music). There is also the jati. Jati is the number of notes used in the rag. There must also be the ascending and descending structure. This is called arohana/avarohana. Another characteristic is that the various notes do not have the same level of significance. Some are important and others less so. The important notes are called vadi and Sama vadi (Indian music). There are often characteristic movements to the rag. This is called either pakad (Indian music).

The Indian rhythm is known as tal. Tal means “clap”. The tabla (Indian drum instrument) has replaced the clap in the performance, but the term still reflects the origin. The basic concepts of tal are tali, khali, vibhag, matra, bol, theka, lay, sam, and avartan. There are many instruments in India. There is a traditional system for the classification of instruments. This system is based upon; non-membranous percussion (ghan), membranous percussion(avandhah), wind blow(sushir), plucked string (tat), blowed string (vitat) (Indian music). Some of the most famous Indian instruments are sitar and tabla. Sitar is perhaps the most well known of the Indian instruments. Artists such as Ravi Shankar have popularized this instrument around the world. Sitar is a long necked instrument with an interesting construction. Undoubtedly the most striking characteristic of the tabla is the large black spot on each of the playing surfaces. These black spots are a mixture of gum, soot, and iron filings. Their function is to create the bell-like timbre that is characteristic of the instrument.

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IndianphilosophyOfmusic.pdf

This is a draft of an essay which explores the history of philosophical thinking about music in India, from ancient times to more recent eras. It touches on many of the thinkers and practitioners of music in India over the centuries.

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Publication Division, India

Pranshu Samdarshi

Philosophical Nature of Indian Music: This article is about the diversity and the interconnectivity between various forms of classical music spread across the Indian subcontinent. It has been published in the August 2020 issue of Yojana , a monthly journal devoted to the socio-economic issues of India, published by Publication Division, India.

Katherine Butler Schofield

2013. Unreferenced spoken-word draft of position paper given at the Cultural Musicology Conference, Amsterdam, 2014. "In my view, a truly ethnomusicological approach to the cultural history of music still has not yet emerged in the discipline. Firstly, I make a distinction here between the long established concerns of historical ethnomusicology, which are primarily musicological (admirably and crucially so), and the chrysalid cultural histories of those same art-music systems. The difference, as I see it, is that between a piece of carved jade and a clear glass prism – the study of music as a beautiful and important cultural object in and of itself, versus the study of music predominantly as a lens to illuminate the rest of the world. Both modes of historical study are critically important and frequently complementary, and there has not been anywhere near enough of the former in most cases to even start on the latter. But I do consider them to be substantively different kinds of enterprise. Secondly, the curious thing for me about the concerns of the new cultural histories of [Indian] music is how presentist they are. This is generally fair enough, I think, of history in ethnomusicology: a) because ethnomusicologists have rarely ventured earlier than the twentieth century in any case; and b) precisely because of the overwhelming concerns of the bulk of the discipline with the present and the impact on the present of the immediate past. With respect to India, much of the recent historical work I’ve noted has at its heart a valid and necessary desire to expose anti-colonial nationalists’ deliberate construction of North and South India’s contemporary classical traditions as “ancient, Hindu arts”, and to reposition them as colonial products to a lesser or greater degree. But historians of earlier soundworlds [and I include myself here] do not have such an excuse. Surely, as cultural historians seeking to illuminate the very different life-worlds of the past, we should at least recognise presentist concerns for what they are, and try to resist them where they are not relevant to our primary sources? Should we not approach the archives of the past as we do the living fields of the present: alive to difference, and its scholarly pleasures and dangers?"

's latest book is an invaluable addition to the few on Indian music. The book is not only an evidence of her scholarship and intensive research in a subject that many do not know about, but is also a riveting page turner. Her evocative bring alive the world of music in that era. Confining herself to the period between 1748 and 1848, "one of the most significant periods of change for Hindustani music", Katherine rues that the period has not been "properly mapped". The reason, "a pervasive belief" that the musicians were illiterate. The 2000-year-old tradition of writing sangita shastras stopped during this period, and Musicians from the Mughal era who shaped Hindustani music Katherine Butler Schofield's Music and Musicians in Late Mughal India presents a well-researched slice of music history.

Daniel Neuman

It has been almost 50 years since Harold Powers published his important article on Indian music in the English language. Since that time there has been a vastly increased number of scholarly books and articles in English on various aspects of Indian music and its socio-cultural traditions, including more recently, many studies on non-classical forms. In this paper I begin with the issue of ethnomusicology in India, and following this with an overview of some of the important works published in North America and Europe. I organize these studies in terms of their major themes of history, ethnography, gender, regional and popular music traditions and some of the theoretical streams that now characterize them.

British Journal of Ethnomusicology

Martin Clayton

Allan Davaid

International Inventive Multidisciplinary Journal

Keshavchaitanya Kunte

This paper takes a review of traditional avenues in the Indian Music research and further, enlists the possible avenues open for Music research in Indian perspective in the contemporary scenario.

Garrett Field

Music – Politics – Identity (Universitätsverlag Göttingen)

Ludwig Pesch

The “classical” music of South India is an amalgam of regional traditions and practices. Increasingly codified in the past five centuries, it is now known as Carnatic or Karnatak music. Like the Sanskrit term Karnâtaka Sangîtam, these Anglicisms denote “traditional” music besides distinguishing South Indian music from its northern (Hindustani) counterpart. Progressive scholars have long espoused the common goal of making teaching more effective for both idioms while safeguarding “authentity”. It may therefore seem odd that detailed notation has not been embraced by practitioners. This paper probes the resilience of oral transmission in the face of modernity. It looks into the concerns shared by musicians who, while belonging to different cultures and periods, have much in common as far as performing practice is concerned: close integration of vocal and instrumental music. The role of manuscripts in Minnesang, as described by McMahon, also applies to Carnatic music: “songs were handed down in an oral tradition [and] the manuscripts were not intended to be used by performers.” (The Music of Early Minnesang Columbia SC, 1990.) It will be argued that this fact is not just a question of some musicians’ conservatism, ignorance or irrationality; nor would it put the continuity of a living tradition at risk. On the contrary, Carnatic music reaches global audiences today while “ancient” roots are claimed even by those who cherish its association with musicians from other cultures throughout the 20th century.

Samidha Vedabala

Any music origins in the society and develops with the changing realities of it. It accepts new and modified the existing in different periods of time. This process of acceptance and rejection makes any form of art exist for long. Similarly in various phases of transition Indian Classical music has embraced the elements which question its traits, especially in this highly technical world. The paper tries to point out those changes and analyse them in a legitimate manner.

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Indian Folk Music

Music has always been an important aspect in the lives of Indian people. India’s rich cultural diversity has greatly contributed to various forms of folk music. Almost every region in India has its own folk music, which reflects the way of life. From the peppy bhangra of Punjab to Garba of Gujarat to Bhavageete of Karnataka, the tradition of folk music in India is indeed great. Folk music is closely associated with farming and other such professions and evolved to alleviate the hardship and break the monotony of the routine life. Even though folk music lost its popularity with the advent of contemporary music like pop and rap, but no traditional festival or celebration is complete without folk music. 

Earliest records of Indian folk music are found in the Vedic literature, which dates back to 1500 BC. Some scholars and experts even suggest that the Indian folk music could be as old as the country itself. For instance, Pandavani, a folk music popular in most parts of Central India, is believed to be as old as the Hindu epic Mahabharata. This incredible claim is backed by the fact that the subject matter of Pandavani deals with the heroics of Bhima, a prominent character from Mahabharata. Since Pandavani’s subject matter has remained the same over centuries, this age-old folk music could be as old as the Mahabharata itself! Later on, folk songs were extensively used for recreational purposes and to celebrate special events including weddings, birth of a child, festivals, etc. Folk songs were also used to pass on prominent information from one generation to another. This suggests that these songs could’ve played a major role before the arrival of paper in India. Since people did not have a solid material to preserve ancient information, passing down important information in the form of songs became utmost important. Hence folk songs were revered by aboriginal people as it not only provided entertainment, but also imparted critical information that could be used in one’s day-to-day life.

Diversification of Indian Folk Music  

Like many other aspects of India, folk music too is diverse because of the cultural diversity. While the reason behind its origin and the method of usage remains more or less the same throughout India, the style in which it is sung and the way in which it is perceived differs depending upon the culture of different Indian states. Many of these folk songs were composed by great poets and writers belonging to different parts of the country. For instance, the Rabindra Sangeet or Tagore songs of Bengal are a collection of songs that were originally written by eminent poet Rabindranath Tagore. Folk songs also played a crucial role in socio-religious reforms in many parts of South India. Religious leaders like Adi Shankaracharya used many such songs to spread his message throughout the country. Similarly, folk songs sung by other religious leaders gave identity to the villages they originally came from and gradually, these songs were cherished and celebrated by the people of their respective areas as their own. Also, many folk songs are associated with a dance form, which is usually performed while singing these songs. Today, almost every Indian state/region has a folk song of its own and some of them are associated with a dance form as well. Mentioned below are folk music of various Indian states.

This folk music is performed in Assam during the famous Bihu festival. The music is usually accompanied by a dance performance; it is performed thrice a year. Bihugeet is one of the most famous folk songs of Assam and is also popular across some parts of north-eastern India. The song is usually performed by young boys and girls and represents the joyous nature of the Assamese. Many stories are conveyed through Bihugeet and the themes often include nature, love, relationships, social messages and humorous stories. 

Uttarakhandi Music   

Uttarakhandi music is often performed during festivals and religious gatherings in the state of Uttarakhand. The songs usually convey the importance of nature, bravery of historical characters, stories and important cultural practices of the state. Musical instruments used include Masak Baja, Daur, Thali, Ransingha, Damoun, Dholki, Dhol, Bhankora, Harmonium and Tabla.

Lavani is a popular folk music of Maharashtra and was originally performed to entertain the soldiers. The song is usually performed by womenfolk and it conveys information pertaining to society and politics. Lavani is further divided into two types – Nirguni Lavani and Shringari Lavani. While Nirguni Lavani is usually philosophical in nature, Shringari Lavani is sensual and often deals with erotic subject matter that often induces laughter among its listeners. This musical form is also classified based on its listeners. If Lavani is performed in close quarters by a young girl for a set of dignitaries, it is called Baithakichi Lavani. If it is performed in public in front of a large audience, it is called Phadachi Lavani.

As mentioned earlier, Pandavani is a folk song which narrates the heroics of characters from the Mahabharata. This folk music is popular in Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. Though this age-old musical form is largely neglected by young music lovers of today, it is still being kept alive by performers like Teejan Bai, Jhaduram Devangan, Ritu Verma, Usha Barle and Shantibai Chelak. While Tambura is largely used as an accompanying musical instrument, it is also used as a prop to explain different characters from the Mahabharata. For instance, the performer often places the Tambura on their shoulder while narrating the bravery of Bhima. While doing so, the Tambura represents Bhima’s mace. Other musical instruments used are Manjira, Harmonium, Dholak and Tabla.

Rabindra Sangeet

Also known as Tagore Songs, Rabindra Sangeet is a set of folk songs, written and composed by eminent poet Rabindranath Tagore. Tagore wrote over 2,230 songs during his lifetime, all of which are sung during festivals and other rituals in West Bengal. The topics dealt in these songs include modernism, humanism, structuralism, reflection, romance, introspection, psychology, nostalgia, yearning, etc. Tagore’s songs are well-preserved in the form of a book titled ‘Gitabitan’. The book is divided into seven major parts – worship, seasons, love, occasion-specific, patriotism, lyrical plays and other subjects.  Some of the renowned singers of Rabindra Sangeet are Kamal Ahmed, Amiya Tagore, Hemanta Kumar Mukhopadhyay, Shayan Chowdhury Arnob, Mohan Singh Khangura, Malati Ghosal, K. L. Saigal and Kabir Suman. 

Bhatiali was sung by the fishermen of ancient Bengal. It is said that this musical form was used by the oarsmen and fishermen of Bengal to keep themselves entertained when they didn’t have to row their boats with all their might. Nirmalendu Chowdhury is one of the best exponents of this ancient musical form.

Music of the Bauls

During the 18th and 19th century, a set of musicians from Bengal came to be known as the Bauls. The music employed by them was often religious in nature and some were influenced by the tantric sect of the Kartabhajas. Bauls travelled throughout the country in search of the eternal truth. During their extensive travel, they sang many folk songs which later on came to be known as the music of the Bauls. Instruments used while singing these songs are Ektara, Khamak and Dotara.

Bhavageete    

Bhavageete is one of the most important folk music of Karnataka. Bhavageete literally means music of expression and hence, the singer’s expressions constitute the most important aspect of this form of music. The subject matter of this musical form deals with nature, love, philosophy, etc. Though Bhavageete is an ancient musical form, contemporary musicians and singers have revived it by incorporating the poems written by eminent Kannada writers and poets. Present day Bhavageete draws its lyrics from the poems written by poets like Kuvempu, K.S. Narasimhaswamy, Gopalakrishna Adiga, D.R. Bendre, G.S. Shivarudrappa, N S Lakshminarayana Bhatta, K. S. Nissar Ahmed, etc. This age-old musical form is still kept alive, thanks to performers like Raju Ananthaswamy, Mysore Ananthaswamy, Shimoga Subbanna, C. Aswath, P. Kalinga Rao and Archana Udupa.  

Naatupura Paadalgal

Naatupura Paadalgal is an ancient musical form of Tamil Nadu. Though folk music is fast disappearing in the state of Tamil Nadu due to the prominence given to Carnatic music, Naatupura Paadalgal remains quite important in the state. Like many folk songs of India, this folk music too was used by the aboriginal people during the farming and harvesting season. Hence Naatupura Paadalgal eventually became a way of life to many living in the state. Even today, this musical form can be heard in every nook and corner of Tamil Nadu. The importance of Naatupura Paadalgal was stated by eminent musician maestro Ilaiyaraaja. He went on to say that Naatupura Paadalgal was the inspiration behind his musical journey as he grew up listening to this very folk music, sung to him by his mother.

Kummi Paatu  

Kummi Paatu is yet another folk music form from Tamil Nadu. These folk songs are usually accompanied by a folk dance form known as Kummi or Kummi Aattam. It is often performed throughout Tamil Nadu during festivals and rituals.  

Indian Folk Music at a Glance:

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A historical study of indian music.

Author: Swami Prajnanananda

Publisher: Anandadhara Prakashan, Calcutta

Source: Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi

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The history and evolution of Bollywood music

Hindi film music, commonly referred to as ‘Bollywood music,’ is one of the most popular forms of music in the world today.

The Indian film industry produces up to 2,000 movies each year—more than double that of Hollywood. Bollywood is the Hindi-language film industry in Mumbai (formerly Bombay), India.

Bollywood music is derived from song-and-dance routines in Hindi films. Due to their enduring popular appeal and cultural impact, Bollywood songs and dances are a characteristic motif of Hindi cinema.

One of the reasons for the popularity of Bollywood songs has been the willingness of composers to adopt and be influenced by various musical forms including Western pop, jazz, rock, and classical music. These songs are generally composed in Hindi, though often the vocabulary and language usage deviate from that of standard Hindi and can include the use of Urdu, Persian, and English words, along with compositions in various Hindi dialects.

The beginnings of Bollywood music (1930s – 1950s)

Bollywood music was born in 1931 with the advent of India’s first sound motion film, Alam Ara by Ardeshir Irani, which featured seven songs. It was during this time that the seeds of the new musical genre were sown. The film was closely followed by Jamshedji Framji Madan’s Shirheen Farhad (1931), which featured 42 song sequences strung together in the manner of an opera.

Between 1931 and 1940, India produced around 930 feature films with an average of ten songs per film. During this period, many of the original actors and actresses sang the songs, similar to Hollywood.

However, during the ’40s and ’50s, the business began to shift away from big motion picture studios to independent producers. Since most actors who could sing would end up working for big motion pictures that paid more than independent producers, this period resulted in the introduction of a new concept called playback singing.

A playback singer, also known as a ghost singer, is a singer whose voice is pre-recorded for use in films, and actors or actresses lip-sync the songs for the camera. Many notable playback singers and major music directors came to prominence during this period, such as Lata Mangeshkar, Hemant Kumar, Asha Bhosle, C. Ramchandra, and S. D. Burman (known as the “Nightingale of India,” Mangeshkar, who recently passed away in February 2022, had a career spanning eight decades as a playback singer).

The film equipment used in this period was not high quality, making playback singing a necessity. In fact, the noise from the film equipment was so loud that all the dialogue had to be dubbed again as well. It was only in 2001, with Lagaan, that the first synchronous sound movie was produced.

Unlike the United States or United Kingdom’s music industries, the Indian music industry has not been a separate industry with a traditional growth pattern. Rather, it has emerged as a byproduct of Bollywood and has always been a subsidiary of the Indian film industry.

Two different eras

From 1935 to 1950, like Hollywood, Bollywood was run by film studios. Prabhat Studio was the first Hindi film studio established in 1929, followed by B N Sircar’s New Studio in 1931, Rajkamal Kalamandir in 1942, Mehboob Studio in 1943, RK Studios by Raj Kapoor in 1948, and Navketan Films by Dev Anand in 1949. This period is also referred to as the “Golden Era of Bollywood” because it gave rise to some of the most iconic movies, actors, and musicians of all time. And studios provided a platform for their film directors, actors, and musicians to be famous.

Eventually, film stars’ salaries were skyrocketing to the point where they became too expensive, and most studios ultimately went out of business.

2. Music Directors

As Bollywood moved away from studios running the industry, independent movie directors began to gain prominence. From 1950 – 1998, famous film directors produced their own films and paved the way for independent music directors, who became crucial to the success of a film in terms of name attachment.

In Bollywood films, a music director often has a much broader role encompassing both composing music specifically for the film and securing additional licensed music. Hence, a Bollywood music director is usually also the composer and the music producer of the film.

One of the most famous music directors of this era was R. D. Burman—also known as the “King of Bollywood Music”—who worked extensively on and scored approximately 331 films from the ’60s to the ’90s.

The intertwined history of Bollywood movies and music

As a result of not being a separate industry, the Indian music industry has not been given the required attention by the Indian government. In fact, “India’s recorded music industry generated just U.S. $0.09 per capita in trade revenues in 2016, making it the most poorly monetized music market currently being tracked,” according to Ed Peto’s article “Interim Economy: An Introduction to India’s Digital Music Industry.” This is because the government has yet to build proper systems around licensing, copyright, publishing, etc. that cater to artists, music composers, songwriters, and music producers outside of the film industry.

Major record labels like Sony Music Entertainment and Universal Music Group do have an Indian division. However, the relationship between an artist and a record label is almost always a work-for-hire contract, with a lack of differentiation between labels and publishers. Most musicians are hired by film productions and the label mainly caters to the film industry (because that’s where the money comes from).

A history of complicated copyright practices

In the ’70s, ’80s, and most of the ’90s, musicians and artists were heavily dependent on movies, music labels, and production houses for opportunities in the Indian music industry. In most cases, it was the producer or the production house that benefitted most from the success of the film music. While due credits were given to the music composer, lyricists, and singers, few financial benefits were extended to them.

There have been years of mystery surrounding this situation—however, it has recently come to the forefront. Royalty checks for music creators are “often accompanied just by a covering letter, with no indication of how they have been calculated, and from which sources,” according to “India music trends: Transparency, independent artists, and more.” Therefore, the relationship between the government and private corporations in the Indian music industry has been extremely complicated.

For a more in-depth analysis of the copyright laws in India including recent developments, check out this article.

The rise of music streaming services in India

The broad consumption of music in India has also been notably different from the music industries in other parts of the world. With a population of 1.38 billion, India has been the sleeping giant of the global music industry. The music streaming market has been rapidly growing in recent years, mainly because of the implementation of 4G, lower data costs, and an increasing number of smartphone users. The top digital music service providers that have emerged in the past four years are  JioSaavn, Gaana, Wynk Music, Spotify, and Google Play Music.

Due to the pandemic, in the first half of 2020, streaming services saw an increase in listeners by 40%. This resulted in music streaming services owning 85.1% of the Indian music business market share over that year.

Even though the majority of Hindi music consumed on streaming services is Bollywood music, they have provided the opportunity for non-film music to break the shackles of cinema.

Looking ahead

The Indian music market is undeniably exciting and has a fantastic potential for a bright future. In the coming years, it’s likely that we’ll see significant growth in the Indian music industry as its own business, both within India and on a global scale.

Incorporate Bollywood-inspired sounds into your own productions:

November 15, 2023

Learn about the history, anatomy, and sounds of South Asian percussion instruments spanning the mridangam, ghatam, chenda, and more.

Join us as we take an in-depth look at the origin, structure, function, and more of five instruments from South India.

We explore the various factors you may want to consider when it comes to determining which streaming service is your best fit as an artist.

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