how to write an essay with footnotes

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Using Footnotes: The Dos And Don’ts

(Last updated: 29 August 2018)

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In university, your ability to reference sources correctly will have a considerable impact on the mark you receive. The rules you must follow can be tricky to grasp initially, but if you do ever need a quick recap then Oxbridge Essays are always happy to help and give your work a going over to pick up any tiny errors.

The difference between a footnote and a bibliography

Mistakes with footnotes are common . Some students choose to use footnotes without having a firm grasp of how they should be used, or what they should be used for. As a general rule, if you’re not 100 percent sure how a footnote should be used, it’s best not to use one at all.

Footnotes should be included to provide the reader with additional information about the content. The footnote is found at the bottom of the page, and is referenced through a superscript number within the main body of your copy.

The bibliography page is the last section of your essay or dissertation and includes the full citation information for any source cited or referenced through the course of your work. The information contained within a bibliography will provide the reader with full details of the work, including when and where the source was published. A footnote might only include the title of the source.

How to use footnotes correctly

Write your footnotes last – A footnote is commonly, but not always, a shortened version of a citation contained in your bibliography. Whatever content you choose to include, it’s usually best to leave your footnotes until the essay is finished and your bibliography is complete. Place a short reminder in the form of a comment or even a brief footnote to prompt you to fill these in later.

You still need a bibliography – With the occasional exception found in the Oxford referencing system, the use of footnotes does not replace the need for a bibliography at the end of your essay, despite the fact that extensive footnotes can make them seem superfluous. Remember that your bibliography should include all of your reading, and everything that has informed your essay, even if they are not directly referenced. Doing so will prove you’ve done your research too.

Double-check footnotes can be used – Different universities and referencing styles all have their own take on footnotes, so before you start listing footnote citations, check they are actually allowed. Typically, British universities prefer the use of in-text citations.

Footnotes and different referencing styles

Using the Harvard system , which is the predominant form of referencing at universities in the UK, sources are cited in short, parenthetical notes within the text. Footnotes are not allowed. Citations within the text should include the name of the author, the date of the source, and, if necessary, the page numbers you used. The rest of the information, such as the title and publication details, should be included in the bibliography.

Using the Oxford system , citations in the text usually consist of a superscript number which relates to a footnote at the bottom of the page. If you write full bibliographic information in the footnote, you may not have to include a bibliography. However, it’s well worth checking with your tutor beforehand.

When you reference a source in a footnote for the first time using the Oxford system, you must provide full bibliographic information, which includes:

• Author’s initials and surname, title of the article, book or journal, editor (if applicable), publisher name, location and year published

The Chicago citation style , established by the University of Chicago Press, is probably the most commonly used footnote format. Guidelines to help you avoid mistakes with footnotes include: always include a full citation the first time you reference a source; cite author’s names as they appear with texts; don’t replace names with initials; and if no author is listed, organise the entry by title.

A Chicago style footnote citation will take the following form:

• Author’s first name and last name, title in italics, city of publication, publisher and year, page number if relevant.

Don’t forget footnotes

It’s easy to get caught up in the act of writing your essay, but it’s imperative that you include full footnotes and proper referencing whenever possible , as that is what separates academic writing from opinion. At Oxbridge Essays, we know a thing or two about how to use footnotes. And if you have an essay you need a little help with, we can provide full referencing in your chosen style, so get in touch for help.

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How to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

4-minute read

• 5th June 2019

Footnotes and endnotes both let you add extra information in an essay or college paper . But what should you include in these notes? And when should you use them? In this post, we run through everything you need to know about using footnotes and endnotes in academic writing.

What Are Footnotes and Endnotes?

Footnotes appear at the bottom or “foot” of the page. You can therefore put extra information in a footnote, such as source details for a citation, without interrupting the flow of the main text.

To indicate a footnote, you can add a superscript number to the text, such as at the end of this sentence. 1 These numbers then correspond to numbered notes at the bottom of the page.

Endnotes are like footnotes, but they appear together at the end of the document rather than at the bottom of each page. Endnotes are thus less immediately accessible for the reader than footnotes, but they can help ensure that pages with multiple notes don’t become cluttered.

If you are not sure which to use, check your style guide for advice.

Footnotes and Endnotes in Microsoft Word

To insert a footnote or endnote in a Microsoft Word document, you need to:

• Go to References > Footnotes on the main ribbon
• Select either Insert Footnote or Insert Endnote as required
• Type your note in the newly created footnote/endnote

You can also customize the style of footnotes and endnotes by clicking on the arrow in the bottom right of the Footnotes section of the References tab (or by going to Insert > Footnotes in Word for Mac ). This will open a new window where you can select your preferred formatting options.

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When to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

The main uses of footnotes and endnotes are as follows:

• To add a footnote citation in referencing systems such as MHRA and Chicago , with full source information also given in a bibliography at the end of the document. Endnotes are also used for citations in some systems, such as in IEEE or Vancouver referencing, where numbers in the text point to an entry in a reference list at the end of the document.
• To add non-essential commentary on something in the main text of your document. For example, if your research has raised an interesting question that is not directly relevant to your current work, you could mention it in a footnote or endnote. This lets you acknowledge the question – showing the reader that you haven’t simply ignored or failed to notice it – but without interrupting the flow of prose in the main document.

Keep in mind, too, that some referencing systems use in-text parenthetical citations . As such, you should only reference a source in a footnote or endnote if your school has asked you to do it this way.

Do Notes Count Towards the Word Limit?

We’re often asked whether to include footnotes and endnotes in the word count for papers. Different schools have different rules about this, so you will have to check your style guide . However, you should never use these supplementary notes to cheat the word count.

The key here is that essential information should never go in a footnote or endnote. If you do move vital evidence or analysis to a note, the person marking your work may ignore it. And reducing the word count is never more important than putting forward a full, coherent argument.

If you do need to reduce the word count in an essay, you have other options, such as rewriting wordy sentences or cutting repetition. Having your work proofread is a great way to ensure that your writing is always clear and concise, too, so let us know if you’d like any help.

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What Are Footnotes and How Do You Use Them?

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Written by  Scribendi

While reading a book or article, have you ever noticed little numbers placed at the ends of some sentences?

These numbers usually appear as superscripts and correspond with numbers placed at the bottom of the page, next to which appears further information that is both necessary and supplementary. Sometimes this information will come in the form of citations, but sometimes it will simply present additional notes about the topic at hand.

These citations and explanations are called "footnotes" (because they appear in the footer of the page). Take a look at the example below to see where footnotes appear on a page:

We've outlined how to use footnotes below. Check it out!

1. What Are Footnotes?

2. footnotes vs. endnotes, 2.1 should i use footnotes or endnotes, 3. how to do footnote citations, 3.1 in-text citations, 3.2 footnotes, 4. how to use footnotes in essays, 4.1 style guides, 4.1.1 modern language association (mla), 4.1.2  american psychological association (apa), 4.1.3  chicago manual of style (cms), 5. technical guide to using footnotes, 5.1 how to add footnotes in microsoft word, 5.2 how to add footnotes in google docs, 6. final tips and tricks .

Footnotes are notes that are placed at the end of a page and used to reference parts of the text (generally using superscript numbers). Writers use footnotes for several purposes, including  citations , parenthetical information, outside sources, copyright permissions, background information, and more.

Now that you understand what footnotes are, you might be wondering: why use them? The truth is, long explanatory notes can be difficult for readers to trudge through (especially when they occur in the middle of a paper). Providing this information is necessary, but doing so in the main text can disrupt the flow of the writing.

Imagine if every time an author wanted to provide a citation, the entire citation had to be written out at the end of the sentence, like this (Anthony Grafton, The Footnote: A Curious History [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999] 221). Books would become much longer and reading would be much more tedious. That's why footnotes are so useful: they let authors provide the required information without disrupting the flow of ideas.

While footnotes are a great resource for sharing information without clogging up the writing, it's important to note that certain style guides restrict when footnotes can be used. We'll get into that soon!

Unsure how to edit your paper? Contact the Scribendi team for professional proofreading .

Authors can also use endnotes to avoid disrupting their writing with extraneous information. Both serve similar purposes; the main difference lies in their location in your text. Here's a closer look at how both footnotes and endnotes work.

• Identified in the main text with a small superscript number
• Used for citations, parenthetical information, outside sources, copyright permissions, background information, and more
• Provide the correlating notes at the bottom of the same page
• Identified in the main text with a small superscript number (like footnotes)
• Used for citations, parenthetical information, outside sources, copyright permissions, background information, and more (like footnotes)
• Found collectively at the end of an article, chapter, or document (unlike footnotes)

When deciding  whether to use footnotes or endnotes , authors must consider three main factors:

• The style guide being used (as some require either footnotes or endnotes)
• The number of notes being included (as having too many footnotes on each page can be distracting)
• Which option will be more convenient for the reader

To make a footnote citation, label the area of your text that you need to reference with a number (if it's your first footnote, start with "1."). At the bottom of the page, include this number with the citation. When readers see the number in the text, they know they can find the source by looking for the corresponding footnote.

Here's an example of a quoted piece of text using in-text citations vs. footnotes.

"Like the high whine of the dentist's drill, the low rumble of the footnote on the historian's page reassures" ( The Footnote: A Curious History [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press], 1999. pg. 1).

"Like the high whine of the dentist's drill, the low rumble of the footnote on the historian's page reassures." 1

[Text continues]

Bottom of the page:

1. The Footnote: A Curious History [Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press], 1999. pg. 1

The exact format of your footnote depends on   the style guide  you're following. Here are some of the most common style guides for writing papers, as well as the footnote rules for each one.

Of the major style guides, The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) uses footnotes most often. However, footnotes are occasionally employed in other style guides as well. The main difference is that, while CMS uses footnotes for citation purposes, the Modern Language Association (MLA) and the American Psychological Association (APA) generally rely on them for the provision of additional information.

While MLA style discourages the use of long footnotes or endnotes, the style guide does permit their use for directing readers to other pertinent information on a relevant subject.

The guide recommends that superscript numbers within the text are placed outside any punctuation that might be present (i.e., after a period if the note is at the end of a sentence and after a comma if the note is at the end of a clause). The exception to this is that the superscript numbers should be placed before dashes.

• When a footnote must be placed at the end of a clause, 1 add the number after the comma.
• When a footnote must be placed at the end of a sentence, add the number after the period. 2
• Numbers denoting footnotes should always appear after punctuation, with the exception of one piece of punctuation 3 —the dash.

4.1.2 American Psychological Association (APA)

Like MLA, APA discourages the use of footnotes unless absolutely necessary. Even then, the guide recommends that footnotes only be used to provide content notes (such as providing brief, supplemental information about the text or directing readers to additional information) and to denote copyright permissions. The rules regarding placement of the in-text numbers is the same in APA as in MLA.

4.1.3 The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS)

Of the three main style guides described here, CMS relies on footnotes the most. While CMS does allow the author–date system of in-text referencing (i.e., providing the author's name and the date of publication in parentheses at the end of the phrase, clause, or sentence that references the work), it also offers a citation style in which footnotes or endnotes are employed. In both cases, bibliographies are also required. Whether an author should use the author–date system or footnotes is often decided by the author's professor, journal, or publisher.

As an example, if footnotes are used, the following format should be adhered to when referencing a book in CMS:

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To use footnotes in your own book, essay, or article, you must first decide on the most appropriate and logical placement of your footnotes in the text. Add numbers according to your chosen style guide, and be sure to add the numbers directly after the phrase, clause, or sentence to which the corresponding footnote refers.

Most online writing programs (such as Microsoft Word and Google Docs) come with easy-to-use tools for inserting footnotes. Here are step-by-step guides to using footnotes in both these programs.

5.2 How to Add Footnotes in Microsoft Word

Here's how to use footnotes in Microsoft Word 2021:

• Click on the place in the text where you want the first footnote to appear.
• Under the References tab, you'll see the following symbol: AB.1. Beneath this symbol is a button with the words, "Insert Footnote." Click it to create your first footnote.
• After you click that button, two numbers should appear: one number should appear in the main text, and the corresponding number should appear at the bottom of the page.
• Write your citation or additional information next to the number that appears in the footer. Format the information according to the rules of your style guide.
• You can easily return to your place in the text by clicking the number at the beginning of the footnote.

Congrats! You've created your first footnote. You can also adjust the footnote settings (like the numbering) by clicking the arrow beside the Footnotes group. It's really that easy!

Here's how to use footnotes on Google Docs:

• Under the Insert tab, click on "Footnotes."

All you really have to do to create footnotes is click a button—it couldn't be easier!

6. Final Tips and Tricks

To  improve your writing  and avoid cluttering the page, you should use footnotes sparingly and only to provide helpful additions or citations. As previously noted, this information may be considered supplementary, which is why it's best to place it away from the main portion of your writing.

When creating your footnotes, always keep reader convenience in mind, and remember that the footnotes are there to convey helpful information. If your footnotes are excessive or unnecessary, readers are likely to become annoyed—they may even be distracted from the main points of your writing.

Now that you're no longer asking "What are footnotes?" and you know how to use them according to various style guides, footnotes can become a great asset to you as a writer. Be sure to follow the recommendations above, as well as those of your preferred style guide, to ensure that you're using footnotes to their best effect. Don't forget—if you ever need help with writing, our academic articles are here for you!

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How to write a character analysis essay, how to do footnotes.

Footnotes are a reference tool for writers and researchers, allowing them to provide additional information, clarify sources, or share related insights without disrupting the flow of the main text. Footnotes are positioned at the bottom of the page and indicated within the text by a superscript number or symbol. Various academic and professional fields rely on footnotes to maintain the credibility of written work. They are prevalent in citation styles such as Chicago, often used in history and the humanities, and MLA, preferred in literature and some social sciences. Footnotes help maintain the integrity of the narrative while providing the reader with access to the source material for verification or deeper exploration.

What Is a Footnote?

A footnote, as the name suggests, is a special note or a comment placed at the bottom of a page within a document that provides additional information, clarification, or citation of sources related to the text referenced by a superscript number or symbol appearing in the main body of the document. The purpose of these messages is to explain, elaborate on, or complement the material without cluttering the main content. It helps readers stay on track of the story and just glance at the bottom of the page at a footnote to get more information, if necessary. Therefore, footnotes allow for a cleaner and more readable narrative.

Footnotes come in various forms, primarily categorized based on their purpose: content footnotes and citation footnotes. 

Content footnotes give further details for better understanding or provide context to a statement made in the main text but are not directly linked to a citation. Informational footnotes are valuable in technical documents, encyclopedias, and detailed analytical works where extra information might be helpful for readers who seek deeper understanding or background knowledge about the discussed topic.

Citation footnotes , on the other hand, are implied when the referencing style of the document prefers footnotes for citation instead of in-text citations or endnotes. Bibliographic footnotes make all the citation details accessible without overcrowding the main text. This is particularly useful in disciplines like history and classical studies, where original sources may be extensively analyzed or critiqued. 

Typically, footnotes appear at the bottom of the same page where their corresponding superscript is noted. This placement is very convenient as readers can easily find and refer to the additional information without having to flip through the pages. It maintains a smooth reading experience while providing depth and evidence where needed.

How to Use Footnotes

To use footnotes in your writing effectively, start by determining when a footnote is necessary or when you believe it may be helpful for readers. Generally, any supporting information that is too detailed for the main text but required for deeper understanding or source verification should be noted in a footnote. This includes direct citations, clarifications, and supplemental data.

Once you decide to add a footnote, insert a superscript number at the end of the sentence or clause related to the additional information. This number should follow any punctuation (except a dash) and be placed directly after the last word of the sentence. In your document’s footer, corresponding to each superscript, you’ll detail the footnote. Each footnote should be concise and directly relevant to the referenced text.

For example, consider a statement in an academic paper:

You might use a footnote to cite the sources of this claim or to provide a brief list of historians who support this viewpoint. The footnote might look like this:

Always start the footnote content flush left at the bottom of the page. If a footnote extends beyond one line, indent the subsequent lines. This formatting helps maintain clarity and improves readability.

Additionally, if you reference the same source multiple times throughout your document, you may use shortened forms of the citation after the first full one, or use “Ibid.” if it’s the immediately preceding citation. This keeps your footnotes focused.

How To Write A Footnote

Writing correct footnotes is a valuable skill and an important part of academic writing. Footnotes allow authors to make their writing more credible by providing additional context, source citations, and relevant commentary. There are several aspects to consider in creating informative and accurate footnotes, including clarity of expression, compliance with a consistent formatting style, and attention to detail in citing sources. 

• Clarity : Each footnote should be concise. It’s important to provide thorough information, but it’s equally vital to be brief and to the point. Avoid overly complex sentences and focus on the essential details.
• Consistent Formatting : Stick to a consistent formatting style for your footnotes. This includes the font size, indentations, and the spacing of lines. Consistency in formatting helps maintain professionalism and readability.
• Use of Signals : Employ standard scholarly signals such as “see,” “cf.,” “compare,” and others to guide the reader on the nature of the citation or comment. For instance, “cf.” (confer) suggests a comparison, while “see” directs the reader to a source that supports your argument.
• Language Style : Maintain an academic tone that matches the rest of your document. Avoid colloquial language. Your footnotes should enhance the scholarly quality of your paper.
• Reference Accuracy : Double-check your references for accuracy. A footnote with a citation must include all necessary details, such as page numbers, authors’ names, and publication details, formatted according to the appropriate style guide.
• Integration with Text : Each footnote should correlate directly with a specific part of the text. This connection should be clear without the reader having to make assumptions about the relevance of the footnote.

All styles use a similar method for creating footnotes based on their purposes and functionalities that we already mentioned. But there are subtle variations and quirks everywhere, as is typically the case with citation issues.

The Modern Language Association style typically uses parenthetical in-text citations rather than footnotes. However, footnotes can still be used in MLA for supplementary comments, additional references, or explanatory notes that might be too wordy for the main text.

When you do need to use a footnote in MLA style, you would insert a superscript number at the end of the sentence containing the information that requires a footnote. This number corresponds to a footnote at the bottom of the page where you provide the additional information or citation. Footnotes in MLA are mainly used to provide readers with further explanations or to cite sources for quotations and factual statements where in-text citations would disrupt the flow of reading.

Consider a sentence from an academic paper:

Corresponding Footnote : At the bottom of the page, you would add:

3. While the treaty’s initial reception was lukewarm, historians like Thompson argue that its long-term impact was profound (Thompson 157).

Here, the superscript “1” directs the reader to the footnote at the bottom of the page, where further details and a source are provided. This helps keep the main text clean, while still offering a way to access extra information and detailed citations.

Similar to MLA, the American Psychological Association (APA) style includes in-text citations. However, footnotes may be used for additional material or private correspondence not included in the reference list. APA footnotes are also used for additional comments that expand on a point made in the text, define advanced terminology or present data. 

For example, you might find a statement in a paper such as:

Corresponding Footnote : A corresponding footnote might include:

4. See Smith (2020) for a detailed analysis of the data and trends from the past decade. The study outlines the variables influencing the outcomes.

In this case, the footnote provides additional source information that supports the statement. Unlike a reference list entry, a footnote in APA can provide direct commentary or specific page numbers, contributing to a more detailed or specific discussion.

Chicago Style

This style is the king of footnotes! The Chicago Manual of Style is widely used in the humanities and historical journals and is distinctive for its extensive use of footnotes for citation purposes. Chicago-style footnotes provide a comprehensive method for citing sources, enabling detailed commentary and source information directly accessible at the bottom of the page. Footnotes here are used for citing sources and providing additional comments or clarifications related to the text. This style is favored for its precision in citation and the ease with which readers can access source details.

Example in text: Consider a statement in a historical analysis:

Corresponding Footnote : At the bottom of the page, the footnote would appear as:

Abraham Lincoln, Speeches and Writings , 1859-1865 (New York: Library of America, 1989), 234.

How should footnotes be written?

Footnotes should be written clearly and concisely. They should provide the necessary information or citation without disrupting the flow of the main text. When writing a footnote, include a superscript number in the text that corresponds to a note at the bottom of the page. The content of the footnote should be directly relevant to the superscript reference, and it should be formatted according to the specific citation style being used (e.g., MLA, APA, Chicago).

How do you format a footnote?

Footnotes are formatted slightly differently depending on the citation style:

• MLA : Use footnotes for supplementary information or personal commentary, not typically for citations.
• APA : Similar to MLA, use footnotes for extra information or personal communications.
• Chicago : Use footnotes extensively for citations, formatting them with full citation details and a period at the end.

Generally, footnotes should start with the corresponding superscript number followed by the text of the footnote. This text should be single-spaced, with a first-line indent, and the same font size as the main text or slightly smaller.

What should a footnote look like?

A typical footnote contains the superscript number that corresponds to the reference in the text, followed by the detailed note or citation. The footnote itself should be at the bottom of the page, separated from the main body of text by a short line or space. It should be short and directly relevant to the reference number.

How do you write the first footnote?

• Insert a superscript number at the end of the sentence that requires additional information, clarification, or source citation. This number should ideally follow any punctuation (except dashes).
• Create the corresponding footnote at the bottom of the page. The footnote itself begins with the same superscript number, followed by the content of the note. Ensure it’s clearly separated from the main text, typically by a horizontal line across the column.
• Format the footnote content according to the guidelines of the citation style you are using. Generally, this includes the source’s author, title, and publication details for citations, or explanatory text for additional information.

What is the easiest footnote format?

The easiest footnote format involves the use of a simple numeric system, as seen in the Chicago Manual of Style. This system is straightforward:

• Numeric indicators : Use consecutive superscript numbers in the text to indicate footnotes.
• Footnote details : At the bottom of the page, the same number appears in superscript followed by the footnote content. This content could be as simple as a full citation or a brief explanatory note.

Chicago’s numeric system is straightforward because it consistently uses numbers for footnotes (as opposed to letters or symbols), which makes it easy to track and manage, especially in documents with many references.

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How and When to Use Footnotes

If a professor asks you to write a term paper with footnotes, you’ll need a few more pieces of information in order to complete the assignment. Footnotes have a role within most English-language style guides; however, depending on the guidebook, the exact role of the notation system differs. Before you write your paper, you’ll probably want to ask the professor whether he or she has a particular stylebook in mind. 

Luckily, no matter which style guide you choose, formatting footnotes should be simple. Most word processors offer tools that properly format footnotes, ensuring that the notes automatically appear in order at the bottom of the page. For example, within Microsoft Word, move the cursor to where you want to place the footnote, then select References > Insert Footnote . In a Google document, select Insert > Footnote . 

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Modern Language Association (MLA) Style

Papers written in MLA style include parenthetical citations rather than footnotes or endnotes. When using this style guide, there are only a few instances where it’s appropriate to insert footnotes. In the first instance, you may need to include a footnote to clarify a complex bibliographical note. For instance, you could use a footnote to specify a particular book edition or list a long string of different sources. Beyond that, you might use a footnote to add additional information to a section of text. For example, you could insert a footnote next to the name of a scientific study to explain that the study has faced scrutiny. To include information that is not essential to the main text, many authors would prefer to make content notes at the bottom of the page in a footnote. 

In most cases, MLA footnotes appear as a superscript number placed after the punctuation at the end of the sentence. In some cases, such as making a content note about a word choice, it’s appropriate to place the footnote at the end of a word or after a comma rather than at the end of a sentence. 

American Psychological Association (APA) Style

As with MLA style, APA style encourages writers to include in-text citations inside parentheses. When footnotes do appear in an APA-style research paper, they signal a content note or a copyright permission. Content notes in APA style appear as superscript numbers that come before dashes and parentheses but after all other forms of punctuation. If the content note discusses a particular word, the footnote number should appear at the end of the word. 

Footnotes signifying copyright permissions normally appear underneath an image, graph, or chart. If the copyrighted material appears within the text, you should place the superscript number directly after the quoted text. 

The Chicago Manual of Style

Many papers within the humanities use the Notes and Bibliography (NB) citation system described in The Chicago Manual of Style . Any time an author cites a source document, whether through a quotation, paraphrase, or summary, he or she must include a corresponding footnote and endnote. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the page, and endnotes appear in a bibliography section at the end of the paper, article, or chapter. The first time that you reference a particular work requires a full citation in the footnote. For books, you must include the full note the first time a source appears within each chapter. 

Here are some examples of formatting for different types of source material: 

Author’s Name, Book Title (City of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication), page number.

Chapter in an Anthology

Author’s Name, “Chapter Title,” in Anthology Title , ed. Editor’s Name (City of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication), page number.

Entire Anthology

Editor’s Name, ed., Anthology Title (City of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication), page number.

Translated Book

Author’s Name, Book Title , trans. Translator’s Name (City of Publication: Publisher, Year of Publication), page number.

Journal Article

Author’s Name, “Article Title,” Journal Title #, no. #, (Month Year): page number.

Subsequent references only need to include the shortened form of the footnote:

• Author’s Last Name, Book Title , page number.
• Author’s Last Name, “Chapter or Article Title,” page number.

If the title contains more than four words, you may shorten the title in the shortened form of the footnote. For example, Their Eyes Were Watching God could be shortened to Their Eyes.  

When referencing the same source multiple times consecutively, include the shortened footnote without the title. If the page number does not change, you may omit the page number as well. You may also use the word Ibid. under these conditions (or Ibid. followed by a new page number). The most recent edition of the style guide favors the title-less, shortened form of the footnote over the Latin abbreviation. 

• Author’s Last Name, page number.  
• Author’s Last Name.
• Ibid., page number. 

With Chicago NB style, the footnote at the bottom of the page should be written with the full-size numeral rather than a superscript number.

The Chicago Manual of Style Author-Date style uses parenthetical citations. Footnotes and endnotes do not appear in journal articles, papers, or books that use Author-Date formatting.  

Turabian Style

The use of footnotes in Turabian style is similar to Chicago style. Mostly, the difference has to do with the formatting of the footnotes. Turabian allows authors to use superscript numbers for both the in-text notes and the notes at the bottom of the page. This corresponds with the default setting on most word processors.

Associated Press Style

The Associated Press issues a style guide intended for news publications. In this citation style, the writer gives attributions for quotations and paraphrases within the body of the text. Accordingly, footnotes do not appear in most news publications or other documents written within AP style guidelines. In news articles, you also won’t see parenthetical explanations, asides, or other content notes printed as a footnote. Instead, any extraneous information either fits into the prose or gets edited out of the article entirely. 

• https://www.bibliography.com/how-to/how-to-write-footnotes/
• https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/chicago_manual_17th_edition/cmos_formatting_and_style_guide/chicago_manual_of_style_17th_edition.html
• https://penandthepad.com/do-using-associated-press-style-8718370.html
• https://library.guilford.edu/citation/chicago#:~:text=The%20most%20important%20difference%20between,paper%20and%20in%20the%20footnotes.

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MLA Endnotes and Footnotes

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Because long explanatory notes can be distracting to readers, most academic style guidelines (including MLA and APA, the American Psychological Association) recommend limited use of endnotes/footnotes. However, certain publishers encourage or require note references in lieu of parenthetical references.

Bibliographic Notes

MLA discourages extensive use of explanatory or digressive notes. MLA style does, however, allow you to use endnotes or footnotes for bibliographic notes , which refer to other publications your readers may consult. The following are some examples:

To cite a lengthy string of sources.

¹See Said, Culture and Imperialism and Orientalism ; Serres, The Natural Contract ; Foucault, The Foucault Reader , esp. Part II.

²For more material related to Postcolonial Studies and Technology, see McClintock, Imperial Leather ; De Landa, War in the Age of Intelligent Machines.

To explain an unusual documentation practice.

³Italicised words denote translations for which there are no clear equivalents in the original Chinese.

To flag editions and translations used. Editions and translations usually require a note only when more than one edition or translation is cited. This can be done by placing a note in the text where the work is first referenced. Alternatively, an initial and unnumbered note may be created.

⁴Citations of The Odyssey refer to Emily Wilson’s translated version unless otherwise noted.

⁵Translations are provided by Emily Wilson unless otherwise noted.

Content Notes

You can also use endnotes/footnotes for occasional explanatory notes (also known as content notes), which refer to brief additional information that might be too digressive for the main text:

To amplify.  Writers may feel that amplifying certain sections of their content will allow readers to better understand the context which affected/affects the following circumstances. 

¹Kujou and Yanagi are often confused by their misinterpretation of each other’s words, actions, and interactions with others.

²Beach considers Readicide to be a necessary read for all incoming Student Teachers, including it in recommended words for all his students.

³Culler makes it clear that “Literature” is “an institutional label that gives us reason to expect that the results of our reading efforts will be ‘worth it’” (28).

To explain word choice.

⁴She refers here to a branch of physiological research.

⁵He chose to translate the verb (first translated by Yang as “to feel”) as “to understand” to point to the character development.

To justify the scope of your study. Justifying the scope of your study can help readers better understand what to expect from reading your work by specifically pointing to what will or will not be explored, and why.

⁶Whether or not Beowulf as a character is justified in his actions is not relevant to my point.

⁷The efforts of decolonization are beyond the extent of my essay, but I point readers to Garvey’s work.

To provide more examples.

⁸Readers can think about Atwood’s inclusion of insects in her literary work

⁹This same idea applies to queer youth, as Chelsea Monheim’s “Percieved social norms and acceptance of transgender students in gendered restrooms” addresses.

To provide counterexamples.

¹⁰Bankfeld (99-102) calls for an alternative call to action.

To identity of comment on allusions.

¹¹The reference to ‘Westword’ in Iron Man 3 recalls the 1973 movie Westworld, starring Yul Brynner as a killing cyborg.

To point to an area of future research.

¹²More extensive research remains to be done on this subject. 

To identify authors whose names appear as et al. in documentation.

¹³The contributing authors of Teaching Literature to Adolescents are Deborah Appleman, Bob Fecho, and Rob Simon.

To acknowledge.

¹⁴Anna Turner, from a local veterinary clinic, brought distinctions between small and large animal care to my attention.

Numbering endnotes and footnotes in the document body

MLA notes may be styled either as footnotes or endnotes. Endnotes and footnotes in MLA format are indicated in-text by superscript Arabic numbers after the punctuation of the phrase or clause to which the note refers:

Note that when a long dash appears in the text, the footnote/endnote number appears before the dash:

Do not use asterisks (*), angle brackets (>), or other symbols for note references. The list of endnotes and footnotes (either of which, for papers submitted for publication, should be listed on a separate page, as indicated below) should correspond to the note references in the text.   Do not use the abbreviation ibid. in a note to refer readers to the information provided in the note right above it.

Placement of Notes in the Text

Use parentheses around page numbers when page numbers interrupt a sentence or are given at the end of a sentence. Similar to parenthetical citations within text, citations in notes are usually placed at the end of a sentence. Alternatively, parenthetical citations may be placed mid-sentence.

¹As Danes (45) and Gilmore (151) argue, caffeinated beverages play a vital role in American business environments.

²Gilmore considers the relationship between caffeine, productivity, and success (151).

Do not place parentheses around page numbers if the note is utilized to direct readers to the location of information. For example:

³See Gilmore 151.

Notes in MLA format are typically indicated in-text by superscript Arabic numbers (1, 2, 3, …) after the punctuation mark of the phrase or clause to which the note refers. Whenever possible, place the superscript numbers at the end of sentences. Keep in mind that word processing programs will likely style note numbers in the text and notes section as superscript by default .

Audience members generally responded positively to the racial representation in the musical.¹

Marquis de Lafayette uses a stereotypical White American accent to say the word “anarchy.”²

Aaron Burr advises a young Alexander Hamilton to “talk less, smile more” (16).³ 

Note that when a dash appears in the text, the note number appears before the dash.

After finding out about her daughter’s passion for music, Cho⁴—surprised, impressed, and a little confused—purchased a piano and allowed her daughter to take lessons.

If a note number must be placed somewhere other than at the end of a sentence or a sentence requires more than one note, the note number should be placed in the least distracting unambiguous spot. For instance: 

Placement of a note mid-sentence, for clarity of citations.

Despite the awareness from her past mistakes,⁵   Britney “did it again” and thus continued to face the consequences of her actions (203).

Placement of more than one note in a sentence.

Crystal’s love of farmers markets—especially those located in their hometown (which they support by “getting up at 7am every Saturday to go to” [Webb 21]⁶)—has become apparent even on social media platforms.⁷  

Formatting endnotes and footnotes

Endnotes Page

MLA recommends that all notes be listed on a separate page entitled Notes (centered). Title the page Note if there is only one note. The Notes page should appear before the Works Cited page. This is especially important for papers being submitted for publication.

The notes themselves should be double-spaced and listed by consecutive Arabic numbers that correspond to the notation in the text. The first line of each endnote is indented five spaces, and subsequent lines are flush with the left margin. Place a period and a space after each endnote number, and then provide the appropriate note after the space.

Footnotes (below the text body)

The ninth edition of the MLA Handbook states that notes may be styled either as footnotes or endnotes. See the  MLA Style Center   for additional guidance on this topic and follow your instructor's or editor's preferences.

• Peterborough

Footnotes and Endnotes

How to create footnotes or endnotes in chicago style.

• How do I create a footnote or endnote?
• How is a footnote different from an endnote?
• What do I include in the footnote or endnote?

How do I Create a Footnote or Endnote?

Using footnotes or endnotes involves placing a superscript number at the end of a sentence with information (paraphrase, quotation or data) that you wish to cite. The superscript numbers should generally be placed at the end of the sentence to which they refer. They should be placed after any punctuation marks except for the dash.

Footnotes/endnotes begin with 1 and are numbered consecutively throughout the entire essay. You can use MS Word or other software to create footnotes and endnotes.

How is a Footnote different from an Endnote?

 A superscript number refers to a footnote or endnote which contains all of the publishing information and the page number for the information referenced.

• Footnotes appear on the bottom of the page that contains the sentence to which it refers.
• Endnotes are listed at the end of the paper on separate pages. On the top of the first page, the title “Notes” is centered one inch from the top of the page. Endnote pages are placed before the bibliography.

Many professors prefer footnotes to endnotes. Check with your professors to see which style they prefer.

What do I Include in the Footnote or Endnote?

The format for a footnote or endnote varies depending on whether it refers to a book, article, or online source. There are some key characteristics common to all footnotes and endnotes:

• The footnote/endnote begins with the same superscript number as the one that appears in the paper and is followed by a period.
• Footnotes/endnotes always include a specific page number or numbers where the cited information can be found.
• The first footnote/endnote to a source provides the full publishing information.

For example:

1. Carolyn Kay,  Art and the German Bourgeoisie:  Alfred Lichtwark and Modern Painting in Hamburg, 1886-1914  (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2002), 100.

Subsequent footnote/endnotes for the same source are shortened to provide only the author’s last name, short title, and page number. For example:

2. Kay,  Art and the German Bourgeoisie , 51.

3. Kay, Art and the German Bourgeoisie, 87.

Note that The Chicago Manual of Style (17th ed.) no longer recommends the use of "ibid." for footnote/endnotes that cite the same source as the note immediately preceding it. The shortened citation shown above (author surname, shortened title, page number) is preferred.

Citing different types of sources

The information you include in a footnote varies based on the type of source you cite; navigate to the following pages to learn more:

• Periodicals
• Sections of Books
• Digital Media
• Other Sources
• Primary Sources
• Citing a source (that you have not read) that is Cited in Another Source

Key Elements to Notice

• In footnotes, information is separated by commas, while in the bibliography, it is separated by periods.
• In footnotes, the author's first name is listed first, while in the bibliography, the author's last name is listed first.
• The titles of books and journals are put in italics.
• The titles of articles are put in quotation marks.
• All key words in titles are capitalized.

Home / Guides / Citation Guides / MLA Format / How to use footnotes in MLA

How to use footnotes in MLA

Sometimes when writing a paper, you have additional information that you want to include, but it won’t work well in the main text of your paper. This additional information also may not work as a parenthetical citation. In those cases, you can use footnotes in MLA Style. (Note that this article is for MLA. If you are curious about footnotes in APA style, see APA footnotes .)

What is a footnote?

A footnote is additional information that is added at the bottom of the page and indicated with a superscript number. Writers choose to add a footnote when the information would be distracting if it appeared in the main text. You may choose to add a footnote when you want to clarify a point or justify a point of view. Footnotes can also be used if you want to show another line of argument on the topic, or you want to show the differences between your work and others.

While MLA format does allow for footnotes, writers are encouraged to use footnotes sparingly.

How to use footnotes

There are two types of footnotes: bibliographical and content.

Bibliographical notes

Bibliographical notes add additional sources relevant to your thesis. Use these types of notes when your references are too long and citing all of them would interrupt your text. In the note you can cite a long string of sources. You can also use bibliographical notes to make comments on your sources and to identify areas of further research. Keep in mind, however, that references to a few authors’ names can also be put into a parenthetical citation in the text.

MLA style recommends that you use bibliographic notes sparingly.

Content footnotes

Content footnotes offer information or commentary that doesn’t fit in your main text or offer a further explanation of the topic. Content footnotes also allow you to add background information that may be interesting to your readers or refer to other sources with more detail than in bibliographic notes.

Like bibliographic notes, MLA recommends that content notes should be used sparingly.

Endnotes vs. footnotes

The difference between a footnote and an endnote is its placement in the paper. Footnotes appear at the bottom of the same page where they are referenced.  Endnotes appear all together at the end of the paper in a list labeled Note(s) or Endnote(s). Endnotes are listed before the Works Cited page. You should ask your professors what style of notes are required in their classes.

Footnote format

Footnotes are formatted with superscript numbers that usually appear at the end of the sentence after the punctuation. You can also use a footnote in the middle of the sentence by placing the number directly after a punctuation mark. If you use a footnote in a sentence that has a dash, make sure the footnote number is placed before the dash. Footnotes should be numbered sequentially throughout the paper. Do not start over again at number 1 on each page.

The footnote citation at the bottom of the page should have the number, and it should also be in superscript. For the note itself, use the same font as the rest of your paper but in a smaller size. For example, if your paper is written in 12 pt. font, then your footnote should be in 10 pt. font. If you use a source in a footnote, you also need to include it in the Works Cited list at the end of your paper.

• Works Cited

Magyarody, Katherine. “‘Sacred Ties of Brotherhood’: The Social Mediation of Imperial Ideology in  The Last of the Mohicans and  Canadian Crusoes .”  Nineteenth-Century Literature , vol. 71, no. 3, 2016, pp. 315–342.  JSTOR , www.jstor.org/stable/26377183.

MLA Handbook . 9th ed., Modern Language Association of America, 2021.

Published October 27, 2020. Updated July 18, 2021.

By Catherine Sigler. Catherine has a Ph.D. in English Education and has taught college-level writing for 15 years.

MLA Formatting Guide

MLA Formatting

• Annotated Bibliography
• Bibliography
• Block Quotes
• et al Usage
• In-text Citations
• Paraphrasing
• Page Numbers
• Sample Paper
• MLA 8 Updates
• MLA 9 Updates
• View MLA Guide

Citation Examples

• Book Chapter
• Journal Article
• Magazine Article
• Newspaper Article
• Website (no author)
• View all MLA Examples

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To use endnotes in your paper, you need to follow the guidelines provided below:

General points

Use superscript Arabic numerals to number the endnote citations in the text. You can use your word processor’s notes feature so that the numbering is generated automatically.

Do not use the ibid abbreviation in endnotes.

The title of the endnote page at the end of your paper can be “Notes” or “Endnotes.”

If you want to add any citations within the note, include the page numbers in parentheses at the end of the sentence or at a natural breaking point.

Endnotes in the text

Place endnote indicators after any punctuation marks as in the examples below:

The work was compared with the literature study. 1

As Vivekananda said, “Education is the manifestation of divinity already in man.” 2

However, if you have a dash, place endnote indicator before the dash.

Drawing to the point mentioned by Shakespeare 3 —a dramatist, poet, and actor—we conclude that true love persists till the end of the doom’s day.

Other points

Multiple endnotes within a sentence are allowed. However, place them wisely to ensure clarity.

An endnote citation can appear in the middle of a sentence if the sentence warrants that placement for clarity, but insert the endnote in the least distracting (but unambiguous) place.

While MLA only uses endnotes in its publications, notes may be styled as footnotes or as endnotes.

MLA Citation Examples

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Footnotes made easy

Why footnotes, where to start, where to get more help, automate the process with reference managers.

• Secondary sources
• Primary sources
• Frequently-asked questions
• Using Zotero at Princeton This link opens in a new window

Librarian for History and African American Studies

The footnotes and bibliography in any scholarly work have two purposes:

• to acknowledge the author's debt to the work of others
• to enable the reader to locate the sources consulted by the author

To do that, your footnotes and bibliography need to include complete and accurate information about your sources, arranged in a consistent way that does not confuse your reader. At this point in your research, you will all have encountered unhelpful footnotes with mysterious abbreviations, incorrect information, or other problems. 

There are many ways to arrange the information. This is called "style" and there are several common styles in use. Historians generally prefer the style defined by The Chicago Manual of Style , now in its 16th edition. You may have been asked to use other styles for courses in other departments, for example MLA or APA. Always check with your reader to find out if he/she cares about which style you use. When you write for publication, the publisher or journal editor will tell you which style they want you to use.

Why does it matter? Correct style will make things easier for your reader. And you want the reader to think about your ideas, not the messy punctuation at the bottom of the page.

History department guidelines:

• JP Guidelines  
• Thesis Guidelines

The Chicago Manual of Style Online

Chicago Manual of Style (print edition)

• Marquand Library - Reference: Z253 .U69 2017
• Stokes Library (SPIA): Writing Shelf. Z253 .U69 2017
• retrieve print copy from ReCAP

An overview and summary of Chicago style is found at Purdue OWL Research and Citation Resources

• Chicago Manual of Style citations PowerPoint PowerPoint that explains citations according to Chicago Manual of Style
• Citation Generator For certain sources, this website can help formulate citations
• Using Zotero at Princeton Zotero is software that can help organize your references and prepare citations and bibliographies

Need more help? Ask!

• Writing Center
• History Writing Group, led by the undergraduate writing advisor
• your advisor

These products allow you to store your references in a database, then automatically generate citations and bibliographies.

Zotero  (see the library's Guide to using Zotero )

And there are others as well

• Next: Secondary sources >>
• Last Updated: Dec 19, 2023 1:33 PM
• URL: https://libguides.princeton.edu/history/footnotes

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• Writing Tips

How to Use Footnotes and Endnotes in Essays

• 4-minute read
• 23rd February 2019

Footnotes and endnotes both offer a way to add extra information to an essay . But what should you include in footnotes and endnotes? And when should you use them? In this post, we run through everything you need to know about using footnotes and endnotes in essays.

What Are Footnotes and Endnotes?

Footnotes appear at the bottom or ‘foot’ of the page. This lets you add information to an essay without interrupting the flow of the main text. Usually, this will be a citation or non-essential commentary.

To indicate a footnote, you will need to add a superscript number to the text, such as at the end of this sentence. 1 These numbers then correspond to numbered notes at the bottom of the page.

Endnotes are like footnotes, but they appear together at the end of the document rather than at the bottom of individual pages. This means endnotes are less immediately accessible for the reader than footnotes, but it helps ensure that pages with multiple notes don’t become cluttered. If you are not sure which to use, check your university style guide for advice.

Footnotes and Endnotes in Microsoft Word

To insert a footnote or endnote in a Microsoft Word document, you need to:

• Go to References > Footnotes on the main ribbon
• Select either Insert Footnote or Insert Endnote as required
• Type your note in the newly created footnote/endnote

You can also customise the style of footnotes and endnotes by clicking on the little arrow in the bottom right of the Footnotes section of the References tab (or by going to Insert > Footnotes in Word for Mac ). This will open a new window where you can select your preferred formatting options.

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When to Use Footnotes and Endnotes

The main uses of footnotes and endnotes are as follows:

• To add a footnote citation in referencing systems such as MHRA and Chicago , with full source information also given in a bibliography at the end of the document. Endnotes are also used for citations in some systems, such as in IEEE or Vancouver referencing, where numbers in the text point to an entry in a reference list at the end of the document.
• To add non-essential commentary on something in the main text of your document. For example, if your research has raised a question that is not directly relevant to your essay, you may want to mention it in a footnote or endnote instead. This lets you acknowledge it in your work – showing the reader that you haven’t simply ignored it or failed to notice something – but without interrupting the flow of the main document.

Keep in mind, too, that some referencing systems use in-text parenthetical citations . As such, you should only give references in footnotes or endnotes if your university has asked you to do this.

Do They Count Towards the Word Limit?

We’re often asked whether to include footnotes and endnotes in the word count for an essay. Different universities have different rules about this, so you will have to check your style guide . However, you should never use footnotes or endnotes to try and cheat the word count.

The key here is that only non-essential information should go in footnotes or endnotes. As such, if you move vital evidence or analysis to a footnote, the person marking your work may ignore it. And reducing the word count is never more important than putting forward a full, coherent argument.

If you do need to reduce the word count in an essay, you have other options, such as rewriting wordy sentences or cutting repetition. Having your work proofread is a great way to ensure that your writing is always clear and concise, too, so let us know if you’d like any help.

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How to Format Footnotes

Last Updated: February 9, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Noah Taxis and by wikiHow staff writer, Jennifer Mueller, JD . Noah Taxis is an English Teacher based in San Francisco, California. He has taught as a credentialed teacher for over four years: first at Mountain View High School as a 9th- and 11th-grade English Teacher, then at UISA (Ukiah Independent Study Academy) as a Middle School Independent Study Teacher. He is now a high school English teacher at St. Ignatius College Preparatory School in San Francisco. He received an MA in Secondary Education and Teaching from Stanford University’s Graduate School of Education. He also received an MA in Comparative and World Literature from the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign and a BA in International Literary & Visual Studies and English from Tufts University. There are 9 references cited in this article, which can be found at the bottom of the page. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 101,523 times.

If you are writing a paper or report using the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS), you'll need footnotes to the text of your paper. These footnotes appear on each page, and may cite a research source, provide additional contextual information, or both. While the specific information in your footnotes will vary depending on the type of source you're citing, all of your footnotes will follow the same general format.

Sample Footnotes

Setting Up Footnotes in Your Paper

• The default text sizes for your word processing app typically will be acceptable. If you're writing a paper for a class and the instructor provides you with specific font sizes, use those.
• If you change the font for your main text, check the footnotes – they may still be in the default font.

• When you insert a footnote, your word processing app should automatically format them correctly for you. Check the footnote formatting if it isn't working properly and adjust as necessary.
• Example: "Preliminary research suggests that this matter could be of crucial significance within the field. 1 "

• Example: "Studies regarding this matter could be difficult to perform, 2 but the effort may well be worth it." In this example, the footnote is placed after the comma in the first clause to demonstrate that the source does not indicate the effort to perform the studies would be worth it.
• Generally, superscript numbers should follow punctuation. There is an exception for a dash. For example: "The research is important 3 —whether these efforts are for personal or public gain has yet to be determined, though."
• If you have a parenthetical phrase in a sentence, place the superscript number after the period as usual if the footnote applies to the sentence as a whole. If the footnote relates only to the material in parentheses, place it inside the closing parentheses. For example: "(Contradictory reports made in the past have already been proven inaccurate, as noted in the chart below. 4 )"

• Even if your paper has several sections, you generally will not restart numbering for each section. You may restart numbers if you are writing a lengthier work and have separate chapters. Discuss this with your editor or advisor.

Creating Referential Footnotes

• If there is are 2 or 3 authors, list their names separated by commas, with an "and" before the last author's name. Use the order in which the authors are listed on the title page of the work. For example: John Doe and Bob Smith, Interesting Book
• If there are more than 4 authors, list the name of the first author followed by the abbreviation "et al." For example: Rebecca Johnson, et al., Another Great Book
• Generally, italicize book titles and place article titles in quotation marks. For articles, follow the title of the article with the name of the publication in which the article is found. Italicize the name of the publication.

• Example: John Doe and Bob Smith, Interesting Book (New York: Wonderful Publisher, 2010)

• When citing a book, place a comma after the publication information (or title, if you didn't include publication information), then the page number. For example: John Doe and Bob Smith, Interesting Book (New York: Wonderful Publisher, 2010), 32.
• When citing an article in a journal or other publication, place a colon after the last element of your citation, followed by the page number. For example: Sue Rogers, "Clever Article," Very Important Journal 14, no. 3 (2011): 62.

• Example: Sally J. Sunshine, "The Pursuit of Happiness," Missives of Mindfulness , http://mindfulmissives.com/happiness_pursuit

• Book example: Johnson, et al., Another Great Book , 117.
• Article example: Rogers, "Clever Article," 84.
• It may be helpful to make a list of all of your sources before you begin writing. That way you can mark them off when you've used them once, so you use shortened citations in future references.

• Example: John Doe and Bob Smith, Interesting Book (New York: Wonderful Publisher, 2010), 32; Sue Rogers, "Clever Article," Very Important Journal 14, no. 3 (2011): 62.
• Signal phrases can be used if you want to indicate that one source disagrees with or contradicts another. For example: Sally J. Sunshine, "The Pursuit of Happiness," Missives of Mindfulness , http://mindfulmissives.com/happiness_pursuit; but see Annie A. Warbucks, Only a Day Away (New York: Big Apple Publishers, 2014), 44-48.

• You still need to include the page number, if it differs from the previous mention. For example: Ibid., 24.

Including Contextual Footnotes

• Example: Peter Parker, Interviewing Interns, 24. Parker’s list of questions is somewhat abbreviated, but it serves as a starting point for future discussion.

• Example: For a more in-depth discussion of whether interns should be paid, see Jane Doe, I Can't Pay Rent with Experience (Chicago: Windy City Publishing, 2018).

• Example: When used here and throughout this work, the word "intern" refers to college students and recent graduates working in temporary internship programs, either for pay or for credit.

• Example: Sally J. Sunshine, "The Pursuit of Happiness," Missives of Mindfulness , http://mindfulmissives.com/happiness_pursuit; but see Annie A. Warbucks, Only a Day Away (New York: Big Apple Publishers, 2014), 44-48 (noting the power of belief in finding happiness).

• Example: Sally J. Sunshine, "The Pursuit of Happiness," Missives of Mindfulness , http://mindfulmissives.com/happiness_pursuit ("The idea of pursuing happiness is an exercise in futility. Happiness only exists where you exist, which is in the here and now.")

• Example: Actor and writer Wil Wheaton has noted that "people die from exposure."
• Use these types of footnotes sparingly, depending on your audience. For example, if you're writing a paper for a class and you know your instructor has a healthy sense of humor, such a footnote might be appreciated.

Community Q&A

• Typing out your citations (a full citation and a shortened citation) without page numbers can keep the footnotes from distracting the flow of your writing. Instead of creating a new footnote from scratch, simply copy and paste, then add the page number. This also helps you reduce errors. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

• Footnotes are most commonly seen in papers or reports that use the Chicago Manual of Style to format citations. If you use a different style guide, consult your instructor or a research librarian about the proper guidelines for formatting footnotes. Thanks Helpful 0 Not Helpful 0

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Expert Interview

Thanks for reading our article! If you’d like to learn more about academic writing, check out our in-depth interview with Noah Taxis .

• ↑ https://research.wou.edu/c.php?g=551307&p=3784272
• ↑ http://pryan2.kingsfaculty.ca/pryan/assets/File/chicago_footnotes_16th_ed_copy1.pdf
• ↑ https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/qanda/data/faq/topics/Punctuation/faq0020.html
• ↑ https://research.wou.edu/c.php?g=551307&p=3785233
• ↑ https://libguides.library.usyd.edu.au/c.php?g=508212&p=5426978
• ↑ https://research.wou.edu/c.php?g=551307&p=3785493
• ↑ https://research.wou.edu/c.php?g=551307&p=3785494
• ↑ https://www.umkc.edu/asm/docs/chicago-turabian.pdf
• ↑ https://jle.aals.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1243&context=home

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What are Footnotes: a Practical Guide with Illustrative Examples

Updated 30 Aug 2024

If you've ever wondered what footnotes are and how they are used in academic writing, you're in the right place. Footnotes are an essential element of academic writing that can help you incorporate important information in your paper. Understanding what footnotes are and how to use them properly can enhance the quality of your academic work, and if you need assistance, a service that can do my homework can be incredibly helpful. This blog post will delve into the intricacies of using this citation type, providing practical examples and tips to help you navigate it effectively.

Footnotes explained 

Footnotes are a form of citation or additional information ─ you can find them at the very bottom of the page, separated from the main text by a horizontal line. 

Students use them in academic writing, to give extra explanations, comments, or references to sources. You may also benefit from them when giving a personal opinion on some content ─ just ensure it adds value to your paper. 

The purpose of footnotes lies in clarifying information, providing additional details, or offering commentary relevant to the content of the main text. They should not be used for citing sources or including references, as this requires in-text citations and a separate reference list.

Footnotes VS endnotes: what is the difference? 

Both citation forms seem so alike, and it may confuse you where you should use each. Yet, their key difference is their placement within the document, while the purpose remains the same ─ to give supplementary details or insights. 

A footnote is placed right where you cite the reference, at the bottom of the same page, while an endnote is collected at the end of the paper, usually in a separate section. 

Applying footnotes in your text

When writing footnotes, follow these guidelines:

• Placement : When writing footnotes, separate them from the main text by a horizontal line. Use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) to number the footnotes consecutively throughout the document. Add footnote numbers at the end of sentence and after punctuation. The only exception of when the clause ends in an em dash, in this case, add a number before it. No space should be placed before the number.
• Formatting : Put them in a smaller font size to contrast the main text. Typically, they use a font size of 10 or 11 points. Use Times New Roman or similar Serif font. 
• Citation format : If a footnote references a source, follow the same citation format as in the main text. The footnote should be written clearly and concisely if it includes additional information, such as explanations or commentary.

How to properly use footnotes in Word and Google Docs?

You can easily insert notes into your documents using the following steps:

In Microsoft Word:

• Place your cursor at the end of the word or phrase in the main text;
• Go to the "References" tab in the top menu, click "Insert Footnote" button;
• Once words and a superscript number will move to the appropriate section (it happens automatically), type your content in the footnote area.

As for Google Docs , the steps are mostly identical; only the second step differs. When you place your cursor at the end of the word or phrase you need, go to the " Insert " tab in the top menu and select " Footnote ." Once you place your text, all you need is to double-check that the formatting of the footnotes follows the specific guidelines of your desired citation style.

Guide to footnotes in APA style 

The explanation of how to write a footnote differs depending on the citation style, so we will cover the most common ones. In APA format, footnotes are typically discouraged in favor of in-text citations. Yet, you may run across two instances when they may be used:

• Content footnotes: These are used to provide additional information or clarification about a specific point in the text. They should be numbered consecutively throughout the paper, using superscript Arabic numerals. The footnote itself should be placed at the bottom of the page on which the reference is made.
• Copyright attribution: You may also want to give credit to sources that require copyright attribution, such as figures, tables, or long quotations. In such cases, the footnote should include the copyright information and the permission statement. 

Despite the reason you want to place footnotes in your paper, here is a general guide:

• Place them at the bottom of the same page where the superscript number appears in the main text.
• Use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) sequentially to mark footnotes in the order they appear in the main text.
• Format with a left-aligned, plain-text style, without bullets or special formatting.
• Begin writing with the corresponding superscript number followed by a space.

Guide to footnotes in Chicago style

The Chicago Manual of Style relies heavily on footnotes, particularly in its notes-bibliography system, which is commonly used in the humanities. The notes-bibliography system allows authors to choose between footnotes or endnotes, with footnotes being the more common choice.

When we are talking about the notes-bibliography system, there are two types of footnotes: short form and long form. The short form is used when a full bibliography is present and only the basic details of the source are included in the footnote. The long form is used when there is not a full bibliography and the first reference to a source must contain a full citation. 

 Check out the key rules:

• Insert a superscript number in the main text where you want the footnote to appear. You can do this by selecting the number and the superscript formatting option or using the "Insert" menu in your word processing software.
• Move to the bottom of the same page (or the end of the document, depending on your citation style), add the corresponding number to reference used in the main text followed by a period, and enter the complete citation information for the source. For subsequent citations of the same source, you can use "Ibid." (short for ibidem, meaning "in the same place") followed by the page number(s) for consecutive footnotes. The rules regarding the use of footnotes can differ depending on the field and institution; if unsure, it's better to consult with your instructor.

Guide to footnotes in MLA style 

In MLA (Modern Language Association) style, footnotes are not commonly used ─ they use a parenthetical citation instead. Yet, if you encounter a situation where you need to use footnotes in MLA style, here is a guide: 

• Place the text at the bottom of the same page where the superscript number appears in the main text.
• Use Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, etc.) sequentially to mark footnotes in the order they appear in the text.
• Begin with the corresponding superscript number followed by a period.

4 tips for writing footnotes 

• Be selective.  The overuse can distract readers from the main content of the paper ─ use footnotes only when necessary.
• Keep footnotes concise.  They should be brief and to the point. Avoid lengthy explanations or digressions there, as it can disrupt the main text flow.
• Experiment.  Footnotes can be a great place to include interesting or intriguing information not directly related to your main argument but adding value to your paper. It could be a fun fact, a relevant anecdote, or a historical context to enhance the reader's understanding.
• Engage the reader.  Engage your readers by asking thought-provoking questions, providing prompts for further discussion, or inviting them to explore related topics. This can add an interactive and participatory element to your paper.

Footnotes or endnotes: which one to choose? 

It depends on the citation style and personal preference ─ just ensure you place them correctly within the paper or a section. 

What is the purpose of a footnote?

It can add value to your paper by offering supplementary information, clarification, or citations in a document. 

What does a footnote consist of? 

In the case of citations, footnotes must include a relevant information source, such as the author’s last name, title of the work, and page number related to the passage.

Should I place footnotes after the period?

In almost every case, footnotes go after the period at the end of a sentence. The sequence will look next: sentence period, superscript footnote number. The only exception is when you use an em dash; in this case add a footnote before it.

Was this helpful?

Thanks for your feedback.

Written by Elizabeth Miller

Seasoned academic writer, nurturing students' writing skills. Expert in citation and plagiarism. Contributing to EduBirdie since 2019. Aspiring author and dedicated volunteer. You will never have to worry about plagiarism as I write essays 100% from scratch. Vast experience in English, History, Ethics, and more.

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How to Create Footnotes

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What Are They

Footnotes are short numbered notes that are placed at the bottom of the page in an essay or article. They are used for a variety of reasons including, citing materials, providing notes on a source or topic, and to acknowledge copyright status. 

Although you will find footnotes in many journal articles, they are not typically required in APA or MLA formatted essays. They are most heavily used when applying the CMOS style. 

For information on footnotes in the  Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association  see section 2.13 "Footnotes.". For information on using footnotes with MLA see the " Using Notes in MLA Style " article from the MLA Style Center .  For information on footnotes in  The Chicago Manual of Style  see Chapter 14 "Notes and Bibliography."

Using Google Docs:

• Cómo incorporar notas al calce en Google Docs Vea éste video en español.

Using Microsoft Word:

• Cómo incorporar notas al calce en Microsoft Word Vea éste video en español.
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• URL: https://necc.mass.libguides.com/formatting

To cite this LibGuide use the following templates:

APA : Northern Essex Community College Library. (Date updated). Title of page . Title of LibGuide. URL

MLA : Northern Essex Community College Library. "Title of Page." Title of LibGuide, Date updated, URL.

How to Write an Essay Outline: Examples, FAQs & Tips

An essay outline is a structured plan that organizes the main points and supporting details of an essay before writing. It guides the flow of ideas and ensures that each section of the essay is logically connected and coherent.

In this article, we'll walk you through the steps to build a strong essay outline. You'll discover how to define your thesis, arrange your main points, and structure your outline for clarity and effectiveness. If you're still having trouble putting your outline together after reading this, EssayService can provide expert help to make sure your essay is well-structured and persuasive!

Basic Elements of an Essay

An essay begins with an introduction, which is followed by one or more body paragraphs that expand on the points introduced. It ends with a conclusion that restates the thesis and summarizes the main ideas from the body paragraphs.

Introduction

The introduction of an essay introduces the topic and engages the reader from the start. It usually starts with a hook—a statement or question that grabs attention. After the hook, some background information is given to provide context for the topic.

The introduction ends with a thesis statement, which clearly presents the main argument or purpose of the essay. This section not only introduces the topic but also outlines what the essay will cover, setting the tone for what follows.

Avoid these pitfalls:

• Don't try to cover too much ground in your introduction.
• Avoid vagueness. Be specific and precise in your language.

Body Paragraphs

The body of the essay is where your main ideas and arguments take shape. Each paragraph should open with a topic sentence that clearly states the main point. This is followed by supporting details like evidence, examples, and analysis that back up the topic sentence.

Smooth transitions between paragraphs are key to maintaining a logical flow throughout the essay. Together, the body paragraphs build and support the thesis by adding depth and detail to your argument.

Remember these tips for effective body paragraphs:

• Begin each paragraph with a clear and concise topic sentence.
• Use specific examples, facts, or quotes to support your point.
• Explain why the evidence is important and how it relates to your argument.

The conclusion of an essay wraps up the argument and reinforces the thesis. It usually starts by restating the thesis and reflecting on the discussion and evidence presented in the body paragraphs. A brief summary of the main points follows, highlighting the key arguments made throughout the essay.

The conclusion should close with a final thought or call to action, leaving the reader with something to think about or a sense of closure. The aim is to make a lasting impression that emphasizes the importance of the essay's conclusions.

Remember these tips:

• Briefly recap the key arguments you've made.
• Leave the reader with a thought-provoking final sentence or a call to action.
• Don't introduce any new ideas or arguments in your conclusion.

How to Write an Essay Outline?

Now, let's dive into the heart of this article and show you how to write an essay outline in just four smart steps:

• Determining your thesis and key arguments
• Organizing points into sections
• Adding supporting details
• Drafting a rough outline

Determine Your Thesis and Key Arguments

Your thesis should present a specific point of view or a central idea that your essay will support or explore. Here's how to identify your thesis:

• Ask a question: What is the main point you want to convey?
• Brainstorm: Jot down ideas related to your topic.
• Refine your ideas: Narrow down your focus and develop a clear argument.

Once you have your thesis, identify the main points that support it. These points should be logical, relevant, and comprehensive.

• Divide your thesis: Break down your thesis into its key components.
• Create a mind map: Visually organize your ideas.
• Ask yourself questions: What are the main reasons for your argument? What evidence supports your claims?

Group Main Ideas into Sections

The best way to organize your main points when writing an essay outline depends on the specific topic and purpose of your essay. Experiment with different arrangements to find the one that works best for you. Here are some strategies for organizing your main points:

Add Details to Each Main Idea

When working on your essay outline, remember to choose supporting details that are relevant, specific, and convincing. The more evidence you can provide, the stronger your arguments will be. Consider these tips for developing supporting details for each one.

• Provide examples: "For example, the Great Depression led to a significant increase in homelessness and poverty."
• Cite expert opinions: "As the renowned historian, Eric Hobsbawm, once said, 'The French Revolution was a watershed moment in European history.'"
• Make comparisons and contrasts: "While both cats and dogs make excellent pets, cats are generally more independent, while dogs are more social."
• Offer definitions: "A democracy is a form of government in which the people have the power to elect their leaders."

Make a Rough Outline

Once you've developed supporting details for each main point, you're ready to create a draft outline. This outline will serve as a roadmap for your essay, guiding you through the writing process.

Here's a basic outline template:

• Background information
• Thesis statement

Body Paragraph 1

• Topic sentence
• Supporting detail 1
• Supporting detail 2
• Supporting detail 3

Body Paragraph 2

Body Paragraph 3

• Restate thesis
• Summarize key points
• Final thought

Remember to:

• Use consistent formatting: Indent supporting details.
• Label sections clearly: Use Roman numerals for main points and letters for supporting details.
• Be flexible: Adjust your outline as needed to accommodate new ideas or changes in your argument.

Essay Outline Examples

Now that you have an understanding of the basic structure of an essay outline let's explore some specific examples tailored to different essay genres. Remember, these are just templates, and you should feel free to adapt each essay outline example to fit your unique needs and writing style.

Argumentative Essay Outline

I. Introduction

• Hook: A captivating opening sentence to grab the reader's attention.
• Background information: Relevant context to the topic.
• Thesis statement: A clear and concise statement of your argument.

II. Body Paragraph 1

• Topic sentence: The main point of this paragraph.
• Supporting evidence: Facts, statistics, examples, or expert opinions to support your argument.
• Explanation: Analysis of the evidence and its relevance to your thesis.

III. Body Paragraph 2

• Topic sentence: The second main point of your argument.
• Supporting evidence: Facts, statistics, examples, or expert opinions.

IV. Body Paragraph 3

• Topic sentence: The third main point of your argument.

V. Counterargument

• Acknowledge opposing viewpoint: Briefly mention a counterargument.
• Refute counterargument: Provide evidence or reasoning to disprove the opposing viewpoint.

VI. Conclusion

• Restate thesis: Reiterate your main argument.
• Summarize key points: Briefly recap the main supporting points.
• Final thought: Leave the reader with a memorable and impactful statement.

Expository Essay Outline

• A. Hook: Start with an engaging statement or fact to grab the reader's attention.
• B. Background Information: Provide context or background information necessary for understanding the topic.
• C. Thesis Statement: Clearly state the main point or purpose of the essay.
• A. Topic Sentence: Introduce the main idea of the paragraph.
• B. Explanation/Detail: Provide a detailed explanation or description of the first point.
• C. Evidence/Example: Include evidence or examples to support the explanation.
• D. Analysis: Explain how the evidence or example supports the topic sentence.
• B. Explanation/Detail: Provide a detailed explanation or description of the second point.
• B. Explanation/Detail: Provide a detailed explanation or description of the third point.

V. Conclusion

• A. Restate Thesis: Restate the thesis in a new way, summarizing the main points of the essay.
• B. Summary of Main Points: Briefly summarize the key points discussed in the body paragraphs.
• C. Final Thought: End with a concluding statement that reinforces the significance of the topic or provides a closing thought.

Persuasive Essays Outline

• Background information: Provide context or history related to your topic.
• Thesis statement: Clearly state your argument or position.
• Main argument: Present your strongest argument in support of your thesis.
• Supporting evidence: Use facts, statistics, examples, or expert opinions to back up your argument.
• Counterargument: Briefly acknowledge an opposing viewpoint.
• Rebuttal: Refute the counterargument with evidence or reasoning.
• Main argument: Present your second strongest argument in support of your thesis.
• Main argument: Present your third strongest argument in support of your thesis.
• Restate thesis: Briefly rephrase your argument.
• Summarize key points: Recap the main supporting arguments.
• Call to action: Encourage the reader to take a specific action or adopt a particular viewpoint.

Final Words

As we sum up this article, let's recap the main steps for writing an outline:

• Determine the main argument or purpose of your essay.
• Break down your thesis into key ideas or arguments.
• Group related ideas together under clear headings.
• Include evidence, examples, and explanations for each main point.
• Arrange everything in a logical order, ensuring a smooth flow from one section to the next.

To ensure your writing is well-structured and effective, rely on EssayService, which is here to help with any type of essay.

Frequently asked questions

• Linford, J. (2014). Essay Planning: Outlining with a Purpose What Is an Outline? How Do I Develop an Outline? https://www.sjsu.edu/writingcenter/docs/handouts/Essay%20Planning%20-%20Outlining.pdf
• ‌ Writing an Outline for your essay | MacOdrum Library . (n.d.). Library.carleton.ca . https://library.carleton.ca/guides/help/writing-outline-your-essay

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Generate accurate Chicago citations for free

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• Chicago Style Format for Papers | Requirements & Examples

Chicago Style Format for Papers | Requirements & Examples

Published on September 25, 2019 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on April 9, 2024.

The information in this article is largely drawn from Turabian style —a version of Chicago style aimed at students and researchers. When writing a paper in Chicago style, these are the guidelines to follow; for the sake of simplicity, the term “Chicago” is used here.

Chicago Citation Generator

To apply Chicago format:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt. Times New Roman.
• Double-space the text.
• Use 1 inch margins or larger.
• Indent new paragraphs by ½ inch.
• Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center.

Note that any specific formatting advice from your instructor or faculty overrules these guidelines. Template documents set up in Chicago style are available to download below. Just select the one with the citation style you’re following.

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Table of contents

General formatting, block quotes, numbers and acronyms, in-text citations and notes, bibliography or reference list, frequently asked questions about chicago format.

Chicago doesn’t require a specific font or font size, but recommends using something simple and readable (e.g., 12 pt. Times New Roman). Use margins of at least 1 inch on all sides of the page.

The main text should be double-spaced, and each new paragraph should begin with a ½ inch indent. Text should be left-aligned and not “justified” (meaning that the right margin should look ragged).

Page numbers can be placed either in the top right or the bottom center of the page—one or the other, not both.

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A Chicago title page isn’t required—often it’s sufficient to just include your title at the top of the first page—but if you’re asked to include one, Turabian provides guidelines for how to present it.

All text on the title page should be center-aligned and double-spaced, and written in the same font as the rest of your text. The title should appear about ⅓ of the way down the page, in headline capitalization and in bold.

If you have a subtitle, the main title ends with a colon and the subtitle appears on the following line, also in bold and the same size as the main title.

About ⅔ of the way down the page, add any information your instructor requests you to include—your name, student code, the course name and code, the date, etc. Each new piece of information appears on a new line.

The title page should not have a page number, but should be included in the page count—in other words, the page numbering starts on page 2.

Headings should use headline capitalization:

• Summary of results
• Summary of Results

If you use different levels of heading (e.g., chapters, sections, subheadings), make sure your presentation makes clear which type of heading each one is.

All headings of one level should be presented the same way, and higher-level headings should stand out more from the text. For example, you might use a larger font for chapter headings, bold for section headings, and italics for subheadings:

Prose quotations of five or more lines (or more than 100 words), as well as poetry quotations of two or more lines, are presented as block quotes .

Block quotes do not use quotation marks . Instead, a blank line separates them from the surrounding text on both sides and they are indented by an additional ½ inch. Unlike the rest of the text, they are not double-spaced.

Chicago recommends using words, not numerals, for numbers lower than 100. For example, you would write “ninety-five,” not “95.” But numerals should still be used when you’re referring to a specific measurement (e.g., “15 cm”) and when using decimals (e.g., “1.5”).

Acronyms should be introduced the first time you refer to the thing they stand for:

After this point, you can use the acronym alone.

Neither numerals nor acronyms should be used at the beginning of a sentence. Either rewrite the sentence so that the numeral or acronym appears elsewhere, or write out the full phrase or number:

• 100 people responded to the survey.
• One hundred people responded to the survey.
• The survey received 100 responses.

Chicago provides guidelines for not one but two citation styles : author-date and notes and bibliography.

In author-date style , citations are placed directly in the text in parentheses . In this style, you have some flexibility about how exactly to integrate the citation:

In notes and bibliography style, citations appear in Chicago footnotes or endnotes (the format is identical either way), and the reader is referred to them by superscript numbers in the text.

Footnote and endnote numbers appear at the end of the relevant clause or sentence, after any punctuation except a dash .

Endnotes appear on their own page just before the bibliography ; footnotes appear at the bottom of each page. Footnotes should be separated from the text by a short rule and be presented in the same font size as the main text, or smaller. Word’s footnote function automatically creates footnotes like this:

At the end of your paper, you’ll likely include a bibliography (for notes and bibliography style) or a reference list (for author-date).

Bibliographies and reference lists are not double-spaced, but leave a blank line between entries.

If an entry extends onto a second line, a ½ inch indent should be applied to all but the first line of the entry.

If you have to create a Chicago style annotated bibliography , follow the same format as a normal bibliography, but indent and double-space the annotations under each source reference.

Turabian style is a version of Chicago style designed specifically for students and researchers. It follows most Chicago conventions, but also adds extra guidelines for formatting research papers , theses and dissertations .

More information can be found in A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations by Kate L. Turabian, now in its ninth edition.

• A reference list is used with Chicago author-date citations .
• A bibliography is used with Chicago footnote citations .

Both present the exact same information; the only difference is the placement of the year in source citations:

• In a reference list entry, the publication year appears directly after the author’s name.
• In a bibliography entry, the year appears near the end of the entry (the exact placement depends on the source type).

There are also other types of bibliography that work as stand-alone texts, such as a Chicago annotated bibliography .

In Chicago author-date style , your text must include a reference list . It appears at the end of your paper and gives full details of every source you cited.

In notes and bibliography style, you use Chicago style footnotes to cite sources; a bibliography is optional but recommended. If you don’t include one, be sure to use a full note for the first citation of each source.

Footnotes appear at the bottom of the relevant page.  Endnotes appear in a list at the end of the text, just before the reference list or bibliography. Don’t mix footnotes and endnotes in the same document: choose one or the other and use them consistently.

In Chicago notes and bibliography style , you can use either footnotes or endnotes, and citations follow the same format in either case.

In APA and MLA style , footnotes or endnotes are not used for citations, but they can be used to provide additional information.

Chicago format doesn’t require you to use any specific font, as long as you choose something readable. A good standard choice is 12 pt Times New Roman.

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