questions to ask on research papers

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Top 10 Questions to Ask About a Research Paper

When diving into a research paper, it's essential to ask the right questions to fully understand the scope, methodology, and implications of the study. This article outlines the top 10 questions you should consider to gain a comprehensive understanding of any research paper you encounter.

Key Takeaways

• Understand the main research question or hypothesis to grasp the study's primary focus.
• Familiarize yourself with the research methodology to evaluate the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Identify the key findings to determine the study's contributions to the field.
• Assess how the research contributes to existing literature to understand its significance.
• Recognize the limitations of the study to critically evaluate the scope and applicability of the research.

1. What is the main research question or hypothesis?

Formulating a main research question can be a challenging task. Your question should contribute to solving the problem defined in your problem statement. It should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about what you expect to happen in a study. It is a preliminary answer to your question that helps guide the research. A clear research question guides your research paper or thesis and states exactly what you want to find out, giving your work a focus and objective.

2. What methodology was used in the research?

Understanding the methodology of a research paper is crucial as it outlines the process and rigor of the study. The methodology section should clearly describe the research design, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques used. This includes specifying whether the study is quantitative, qualitative, or employs a mixed-methods approach. Additionally, it should detail the setting of the research, the subjects involved, and how they were selected. The methodology not only provides transparency but also allows for the replication of the study by other researchers.

3. What are the key findings of the study?

Understanding the key findings of a study is crucial for grasping its overall impact and relevance. Key findings often highlight the most significant results that answer the main research question or hypothesis. These findings should be clearly stated and supported by the data collected during the research. When reviewing the key findings, consider the following aspects:

• Statistical Significance : Are the results statistically significant? This indicates whether the findings are likely due to chance or if they reflect a true effect.
• Practical Implications : What do the results mean in a real-world context? This helps in understanding the practical applications of the research.
• Comparison with Previous Studies : How do these findings compare with those of similar studies? This can provide insights into the consistency and reliability of the results.

In summary, the key findings should provide a clear and concise answer to the research question, supported by robust data analysis. They form the foundation for interpreting results, understanding implications, and making recommendations for future research.

4. How does this research contribute to the existing literature?

Understanding how a research paper contributes to the existing literature is crucial for situating its significance within the broader academic context. This research fills a gap in the existing body of knowledge by addressing areas that have been previously overlooked or underexplored. By conducting a thorough literature review , the authors have identified inconsistencies and gaps in prior studies, which their research aims to address. This not only enhances the robustness of the current study but also provides a foundation for future research to build upon.

Moreover, the study's findings are compared with those of similar studies to highlight its unique contributions. This comparative analysis is essential for understanding how the new research aligns with or diverges from established theories and findings. By doing so, the research not only validates its own findings but also contributes to a more nuanced understanding of the topic.

In summary, the research contributes to the existing literature by:

• Identifying and addressing gaps in previous studies.
• Providing a comparative analysis with similar studies.
• Offering a foundation for future research to build upon.

5. What are the limitations of the study?

Understanding the limitations of a study is crucial for evaluating the validity and reliability of the research findings. Limitations are flaws and shortcomings that may affect the study's outcomes and interpretations. These limitations should be explicitly discussed in the discussion section of your research paper to provide a balanced view of the study's contributions and constraints.

6. What are the implications of the research findings?

Understanding the implications of research findings is crucial for grasping the broader impact of a study. Research implications can be categorized into several areas, each providing valuable insights into how the findings can be utilized and what future directions they might suggest.

Practical Applications

Consider how the research findings can be applied in real-world settings. For instance, if the study addresses a practical significance bias in laypeople's evaluation of scientific findings, it might suggest new ways to present data to the public to avoid misinterpretation.

Theoretical Contributions

Evaluate how the findings contribute to existing theories or frameworks. This involves assessing whether the study supports, refutes, or expands upon current theoretical understandings. For example, when data contradicts a hypothesis , it is essential to revisit assumptions and evaluate the research design.

Policy Implications

Research findings can inform policy decisions. Determine if the study provides evidence that could influence policy-making in relevant fields. This is particularly important in areas like public health, education, and environmental policy.

Future Research Directions

Identify gaps or new questions that arise from the study. Recommendations for future research often stem from the limitations and findings of the current study, guiding subsequent investigations to build on the existing knowledge base.

7. How was the data collected and analyzed?

Understanding how data was collected and analyzed is crucial for evaluating the validity and reliability of a research study. Data collection methods can vary widely depending on the research design and objectives. Common methods include observation, interviews, document analysis, focus groups, and multimedia such as photography and video. Each method has its own strengths and limitations, and the choice of method should align with the research question and objectives.

Once data is collected, the next step is data analysis. This involves organizing and interpreting the data to draw meaningful conclusions. Data analysis can be qualitative, quantitative, or a mix of both. Qualitative analysis often involves coding and identifying themes, while quantitative analysis may involve statistical tests and models. The tools and software used for analysis, such as SPSS or Excel, should also be noted, as they can impact the results.

In summary, creating an effective master thesis outline requires careful consideration of how data is collected and analyzed. Aligning research design with objectives, considering ethics and limitations, and choosing appropriate data collection and analysis methods are crucial for a successful thesis.

8. What are the ethical considerations of the research?

When evaluating a research paper, it is crucial to consider the ethical dimensions involved in the study. Ethical research practices are fundamental to ensuring the integrity and credibility of the research process. These practices include but extend far beyond formal legal requirements for studies with human subjects. Conducting ethical research requires careful attention to several key areas:

Informed Consent

Researchers must ensure that all participants are fully informed about the nature of the study, including any potential risks or benefits. Participants should voluntarily agree to take part in the research without any form of coercion.

Confidentiality

Maintaining the confidentiality of participants' data is paramount. Researchers must implement measures to protect sensitive information and ensure that data is anonymized where possible.

Avoiding Harm

Researchers have a responsibility to avoid causing physical, psychological, or emotional harm to participants. This includes considering the impact of the research on those being studied and taking steps to mitigate any potential negative effects.

Conflicts of Interest

It is important to identify and address any conflicts of interest that may arise during the research process. Researchers should disclose any financial or personal interests that could influence the study's outcomes.

Ethical Approval

Before commencing the study, researchers should seek approval from relevant ethical review boards or committees. This ensures that the research adheres to established ethical guidelines and standards.

By addressing these ethical considerations, researchers can promote ethical research practices and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in a responsible and respectful manner.

9. How can the research be applied in practice?

Understanding how research can be applied in practice is crucial for bridging the gap between theory and real-world application. Applied research is a type of examination looking to find practical solutions for existing problems. These can include challenges in the workplace, education, healthcare, and more. To effectively apply research findings, consider the following aspects:

Identify specific areas where the research findings can be implemented. This could involve developing new policies, improving existing practices, or creating innovative products. For instance, if the research addresses a healthcare issue, the findings could be used to develop new treatment protocols or preventive measures.

Stakeholder Engagement

Engage with stakeholders who can benefit from the research. This includes practitioners, policymakers, and the community at large. Effective communication of the research findings to these groups is essential for successful implementation. Consider organizing workshops, seminars, or webinars to disseminate the information.

Evaluation and Feedback

Implementing research findings is not a one-time event but an ongoing process. Regularly evaluate the effectiveness of the applied research and seek feedback from stakeholders. This will help in refining the application and ensuring that it meets the intended goals.

Ethical Considerations

Ensure that the application of research findings adheres to ethical standards. This includes obtaining necessary approvals, maintaining transparency, and respecting the rights and privacy of individuals involved. Ethical considerations are particularly important in fields like healthcare and education, where the impact on individuals can be significant.

Future Research

Identify gaps that remain even after applying the research findings. This can guide future research efforts and help in developing a more comprehensive understanding of the issue at hand. Recommendations for future research should be based on the limitations and findings of the current study.

10. What are the recommendations for future research?

When evaluating a research paper, it is crucial to consider the recommendations for future research. These recommendations often provide valuable insights into the potential directions and gaps that need to be addressed in subsequent studies. Understanding these recommendations can guide you in identifying a good research topic and formulating your own research questions.

Identifying Gaps in the Literature

Authors often highlight areas where the current study falls short or where further investigation is needed. This can include limitations in the study's design, sample size, or methodology. By focusing on these gaps, you can contribute to the field by addressing unresolved issues.

Proposing New Methodologies

Future research recommendations may suggest alternative methodologies that could yield more robust or comprehensive results. This can involve using different data collection techniques, analytical tools, or theoretical frameworks.

Expanding the Scope of Research

Researchers may recommend expanding the scope of the study to include different populations, settings, or variables. This can help in generalizing the findings and making them more applicable to a broader context.

Collaborating Across Disciplines

Interdisciplinary research is increasingly recognized for its potential to provide holistic insights. Recommendations may include collaborating with experts from other fields to enrich the study's perspective and applicability.

Utilizing Advanced Technologies

With the rapid advancement of technology, researchers often suggest incorporating new tools and techniques to enhance the quality and efficiency of future studies. This can range from advanced statistical software to innovative data collection methods.

Addressing Ethical Considerations

Ethical considerations are paramount in any research. Future research recommendations may highlight the need for more stringent ethical guidelines or the exploration of ethical dilemmas that were not fully addressed in the current study.

Engaging with Stakeholders

Finally, engaging with stakeholders such as policymakers, practitioners, and the community can provide practical insights and ensure that the research is relevant and impactful. Recommendations may include strategies for stakeholder engagement and knowledge dissemination.

Future research should focus on addressing the gaps identified in this study and exploring new methodologies to enhance the thesis writing process. We encourage researchers to delve deeper into innovative strategies that can alleviate the common challenges faced by students. For more insights and resources on effective thesis writing, visit our website and discover our step-by-step Thesis Action Plan.

In conclusion, asking the right questions about a research paper is crucial for a comprehensive understanding and critical evaluation of the study. By focusing on key aspects such as the research question, methodology, data analysis, and implications, readers can gain deeper insights and assess the validity and reliability of the research. These questions not only facilitate a thorough review but also enhance one's ability to engage with the research community and contribute to scholarly discourse. As you continue to explore and analyze research papers, let these questions guide your inquiry and foster a more nuanced appreciation of academic work.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the main research question or hypothesis.

The main research question or hypothesis is the central focus of the study that the researchers aim to answer or test through their investigation.

What methodology was used in the research?

The methodology refers to the systematic approach and techniques the researchers used to collect and analyze data in their study.

What are the key findings of the study?

The key findings are the most important results or outcomes that the researchers discovered through their investigation.

How does this research contribute to the existing literature?

This research contributes to the existing literature by providing new insights, evidence, or perspectives that enhance the current understanding of the topic.

What are the limitations of the study?

The limitations are the factors that may affect the validity or generalizability of the study's findings, such as sample size, methodology constraints, or potential biases.

What are the implications of the research findings?

The implications refer to the potential impact or significance of the research findings for theory, practice, policy, or future research.

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Examples of Good and Bad Research Questions

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Written by  Scribendi

So, you've got a research grant in your sights or you've been admitted to your school of choice, and you now have to write up a proposal for the work you want to perform. You know your topic, have done some reading, and you've got a nice quiet place where nobody will bother you while you try to decide where you'll go from here. The question looms:     

What Is a Research Question?

Your research question will be your focus, the sentence you refer to when you need to remember why you're researching. It will encapsulate what drives you and be something your field needs an answer for but doesn't have yet. 

Whether it seeks to describe a phenomenon, compare things, or show how one variable influences another, a research question always does the same thing: it guides research that will be judged based on how well it addresses the question.

So, what makes a research question good or bad? This article will provide examples of good and bad research questions and use them to illustrate both of their common characteristics so that you can evaluate your research question and improve it to suit your needs.

How to Choose a Research Question

At the start of your research paper, you might be wondering, "What is a good research question?"

A good research question focuses on one researchable problem relevant to your subject area.

To write a research paper , first make sure you have a strong, relevant topic. Then, conduct some preliminary research around that topic. It's important to complete these two initial steps because your research question will be formulated based on this research.

With this in mind, let's review the steps that help us write good research questions.

1. Select a Relevant Topic

When selecting a topic to form a good research question, it helps to start broad. What topics interest you most? It helps when you care about the topic you're researching!

Have you seen a movie recently that you enjoyed? How about a news story? If you can't think of anything, research different topics on Google to see which ones intrigue you the most and can apply to your assignment.

Also, before settling on a research topic, make sure it's relevant to your subject area or to society as a whole. This is an important aspect of developing your research question, because, in general, your research should add value to existing knowledge .

2. Thoroughly Research the Topic

Now that you've chosen a broad but relevant topic for your paper, research it thoroughly to see which avenues you might want to explore further.

For example, let's say you decide on the broad topic of search engines. During this research phase, try skimming through sources that are unbiased, current, and relevant, such as academic journals or sources in your university library.

Check out: 21 Legit Research Databases for Free Articles in 2022

Pay close attention to the subtopics that come up during research, such as the following: Which search engines are the most commonly used? Why do some search engines dominate specific regions? How do they really work or affect the research of scientists and scholars?

Be on the lookout for any gaps or limitations in the research. Identifying the groups or demographics that are most affected by your topic is also helpful, in case that's relevant to your work.

3. Narrow Your Topic to a Single Point

Now that you've spent some time researching your broad topic, it's time to narrow it down to one specific subject. A topic like search engines is much too broad to develop a research paper around. What specifically about search engines could you explore?

When refining your topic, be careful not to be either too narrow or too broad. You can ask yourself the following questions during this phase:

Can I cover this topic within the scope of my paper, or would it require longer, heavier research? (In this case, you'd need to be more specific.)

Conversely, is there not enough research about my topic to write a paper? (In this case, you'd need to be broader.)

Keep these things in mind as you narrow down your topic. You can always expand your topic later if you have the time and research materials.

4. Identify a Problem Related to Your Topic

When narrowing down your topic, it helps to identify a single issue or problem on which to base your research. Ask open-ended questions, such as why is this topic important to you or others? Essentially, have you identified the answer to "so what"?

For example, after asking these questions about our search engine topic, we might focus only on the issue of how search engines affect research in a specific field. Or, more specifically, how search engine algorithms manipulate search results and prevent us from finding the critical research we need.

Asking these "so what" questions will help us brainstorm examples of research questions we can ask in our field of study.

5. Turn Your Problem into a Question

Now that you have your main issue or problem, it's time to write your research question. Do this by reviewing your topic's big problem and formulating a question that your research will answer.

For example, ask, "so what?" about your search engine topic. You might realize that the bigger issue is that you, as a researcher, aren't getting the relevant information you need from search engines.

How can we use this information to develop a research question? We might phrase the research question as follows:

"What effect does the Google search engine algorithm have on online research conducted in the field of neuroscience?"

Note how specific we were with the type of search engine, the field of study, and the research method. It's also important to remember that your research question should not have an easy yes or no answer. It should be a question with a complex answer that can be discovered through research and analysis.

Perfect Your Paper

Hire an expert academic editor , or get a free sample, how to find good research topics for your research.

It can be fun to browse a myriad of research topics for your paper, but there are a few important things to keep in mind.

First, make sure you've understood your assignment. You don't want to pick a topic that's not relevant to the assignment goal. Your instructor can offer good topic suggestions as well, so if you get stuck, ask them!

Next, try to search for a broad topic that interests you. Starting broad gives you more options to work with. Some research topic examples include infectious diseases, European history, and smartphones .

Then, after some research, narrow your topic to something specific by extracting a single element from that subject. This could be a current issue on that topic, a major question circulating around that topic, or a specific region or group of people affected by that topic.

It's important that your research topic is focused. Focus lets you clearly demonstrate your understanding of the topic with enough details and examples to fit the scope of your project.

For example, if Jane Austen is your research topic, that might be too broad for a five-page paper! However, you could narrow it down to a single book by Austen or a specific perspective.

To keep your research topic focused, try creating a mind map. This is where you put your broad topic in a circle and create a few circles around it with similar ideas that you uncovered during your research. 

Mind maps can help you visualize the connections between topics and subtopics. This could help you simplify the process of eliminating broad or uninteresting topics or help you identify new relationships between topics that you didn't previously notice. 

Keeping your research topic focused will help you when it comes to writing your research question!

2. Researchable

A researchable question should have enough available sources to fill the scope of your project without being overwhelming. If you find that the research is never-ending, you're going to be very disappointed at the end of your paper—because you won't be able to fit everything in! If you are in this fix, your research question is still too broad.

Search for your research topic's keywords in trusted sources such as journals, research databases , or dissertations in your university library. Then, assess whether the research you're finding is feasible and realistic to use.

If there's too much material out there, narrow down your topic by industry, region, or demographic. Conversely, if you don't find enough research on your topic, you'll need to go broader. Try choosing two works by two different authors instead of one, or try choosing three poems by a single author instead of one.

3. Reasonable

Make sure that the topic for your research question is a reasonable one to pursue. This means it's something that can be completed within your timeframe and offers a new perspective on the research.

Research topics often end up being summaries of a topic, but that's not the goal. You're looking for a way to add something relevant and new to the topic you're exploring. To do so, here are two ways to uncover strong, reasonable research topics as you conduct your preliminary research:

Check the ends of journal articles for sections with questions for further discussion. These make great research topics because they haven't been explored!

Check the sources of articles in your research. What points are they bringing up? Is there anything new worth exploring? Sometimes, you can use sources to expand your research and more effectively narrow your topic.

4. Specific

For your research topic to stand on its own, it should be specific. This means that it shouldn't be easily mistaken for another topic that's already been written about.

If you are writing about a topic that has been written about, such as consumer trust, it should be distinct from everything that's been written about consumer trust so far.

There is already a lot of research done on consumer trust in specific products or services in the US. Your research topic could focus on consumer trust in products and services in a different region, such as a developing country.

If your research feels similar to existing articles, make sure to drive home the differences.

Whether it's developed for a thesis or another assignment, a good research topic question should be complex enough to let you expand on it within the scope of your paper.

For example, let's say you took our advice on researching a topic you were interested in, and that topic was a new Bridezilla reality show. But when you began to research it, you couldn't find enough information on it, or worse, you couldn't find anything scholarly.

In short, Bridezilla reality shows aren't complex enough to build your paper on. Instead of broadening the topic to all reality TV shows, which might be too overwhelming, you might consider choosing a topic about wedding reality TV shows specifically.

This would open you up to more research that could be complex enough to write a paper on without being too overwhelming or narrow.

6. Relevant

Because research papers aim to contribute to existing research that's already been explored, the relevance of your topic within your subject area can't be understated.

Your research topic should be relevant enough to advance understanding in a specific area of study and build on what's already been researched. It shouldn't duplicate research or try to add to it in an irrelevant way.

For example, you wouldn't choose a research topic like malaria transmission in Northern Siberia if the mosquito that transmits malaria lives in Africa. This research topic simply isn't relevant to the typical location where malaria is transmitted, and the research could be considered a waste of resources.

Do Research Questions Differ between the Humanities, Social Sciences, and Hard Sciences?

The art and science of asking questions is the source of all knowledge. 

–Thomas Berger

First, a bit of clarification: While there are constants among research questions, no matter what you're writing about, you will use different standards for the humanities and social sciences than for hard sciences, such as chemistry. The former depends on subjectivity and the perspective of the researcher, while the latter requires answers that must be empirically tested and replicable.

For instance, if you research Charles Dickens' writing influences, you will have to explain your stance and observations to the reader before supporting them with evidence. If you research improvements in superconductivity in room-temperature material, the reader will not only need to understand and believe you but also duplicate your work to confirm that you are correct.

Do Research Questions Differ between the Different Types of Research?

Research questions help you clarify the path your research will take. They are answered in your research paper and usually stated in the introduction.

There are two main types of research—qualitative and quantitative. 

If you're conducting quantitative research, it means you're collecting numerical, quantifiable data that can be measured, such as statistical information.

Qualitative research aims to understand experiences or phenomena, so you're collecting and analyzing non-numerical data, such as case studies or surveys.

The structure and content of your research question will change depending on the type of research you're doing. However, the definition and goal of a research question remains the same: a specific, relevant, and focused inquiry that your research answers.

Below, we'll explore research question examples for different types of research.

Comparative Research

Comparative research questions are designed to determine whether two or more groups differ based on a dependent variable. These questions allow researchers to uncover similarities and differences between the groups tested.

Because they compare two groups with a dependent variable, comparative research questions usually start with "What is the difference in…"

A strong comparative research question example might be the following:

"What is the difference in the daily caloric intake of American men and women?" ( Source .)

In the above example, the dependent variable is daily caloric intake and the two groups are American men and women.

A poor comparative research example might not aim to explore the differences between two groups or it could be too easily answered, as in the following example:

"Does daily caloric intake affect American men and women?"

Always ensure that your comparative research question is focused on a comparison between two groups based on a dependent variable.

Descriptive Research

Descriptive research questions help you gather data about measurable variables. Typically, researchers asking descriptive research questions aim to explain how, why, or what.

These research questions tend to start with the following:

What percentage?

How likely?

What proportion?

For example, a good descriptive research question might be as follows:

"What percentage of college students have felt depressed in the last year?" ( Source .)

A poor descriptive research question wouldn't be as precise. This might be something similar to the following:

"What percentage of teenagers felt sad in the last year?"

The above question is too vague, and the data would be overwhelming, given the number of teenagers in the world. Keep in mind that specificity is key when it comes to research questions!

Correlational Research

Correlational research measures the statistical relationship between two variables, with no influence from any other variable. The idea is to observe the way these variables interact with one another. If one changes, how is the other affected?

When it comes to writing a correlational research question, remember that it's all about relationships. Your research would encompass the relational effects of one variable on the other.

For example, having an education (variable one) might positively or negatively correlate with the rate of crime (variable two) in a specific city. An example research question for this might be written as follows:

"Is there a significant negative correlation between education level and crime rate in Los Angeles?"

A bad correlational research question might not use relationships at all. In fact, correlational research questions are often confused with causal research questions, which imply cause and effect. For example:

"How does the education level in Los Angeles influence the crime rate?"

The above question wouldn't be a good correlational research question because the relationship between Los Angeles and the crime rate is already inherent in the question—we are already assuming the education level in Los Angeles affects the crime rate in some way.

Be sure to use the right format if you're writing a correlational research question.

How to Avoid a Bad Question

Ask the right questions, and the answers will always reveal themselves. 

–Oprah Winfrey

If finding the right research question was easy, doing research would be much simpler. However, research does not provide useful information if the questions have easy answers (because the questions are too simple, narrow, or general) or answers that cannot be reached at all (because the questions have no possible answer, are too costly to answer, or are too broad in scope).

For a research question to meet scientific standards, its answer cannot consist solely of opinion (even if the opinion is popular or logically reasoned) and cannot simply be a description of known information.

However, an analysis of what currently exists can be valuable, provided that there is enough information to produce a useful analysis. If a scientific research question offers results that cannot be tested, measured, or duplicated, it is ineffective.

Bad Research Question Examples

Here are examples of bad research questions with brief explanations of what makes them ineffective for the purpose of research.

"What's red and bad for your teeth?"

This question has an easy, definitive answer (a brick), is too vague (What shade of red? How bad?), and isn't productive.

"Do violent video games cause players to act violently?"

This question also requires a definitive answer (yes or no), does not invite critical analysis, and allows opinion to influence or provide the answer.

"How many people were playing balalaikas while living in Moscow on July 8, 2019?"

This question cannot be answered without expending excessive amounts of time, money, and resources. It is also far too specific. Finally, it doesn't seek new insight or information, only a number that has no conceivable purpose.

How to Write a Research Question

The quality of a question is not judged by its complexity but by the complexity of thinking it provokes. 

–Joseph O'Connor

What makes a good research question? A good research question topic is clear and focused. If the reader has to waste time wondering what you mean, you haven't phrased it effectively.

It also needs to be interesting and relevant, encouraging the reader to come along with you as you explain how you reached an answer. 

Finally, once you explain your answer, there should be room for astute or interested readers to use your question as a basis to conduct their own research. If there is nothing for you to say in your conclusion beyond "that's the truth," then you're setting up your research to be challenged.

Good Research Question Examples

Here are some examples of good research questions. Take a look at the reasoning behind their effectiveness.

"What are the long-term effects of using activated charcoal in place of generic toothpaste for routine dental care?"

This question is specific enough to prevent digressions, invites measurable results, and concerns information that is both useful and interesting. Testing could be conducted in a reasonable time frame, without excessive cost, and would allow other researchers to follow up, regardless of the outcome.

"Why do North American parents feel that violent video game content has a negative influence on their children?"

While this does carry an assumption, backing up that assumption with observable proof will allow for analysis of the question, provide insight on a significant subject, and give readers something to build on in future research. 

It also discusses a topic that is recognizably relevant. (In 2022, at least. If you are reading this article in the future, there might already be an answer to this question that requires further analysis or testing!)

"To what extent has Alexey Arkhipovsky's 2013 album, Insomnia , influenced gender identification in Russian culture?"

While it's tightly focused, this question also presents an assumption (that the music influenced gender identification) and seeks to prove or disprove it. This allows for the possibilities that the music had no influence at all or had a demonstrable impact.

Answering the question will involve explaining the context and using many sources so that the reader can follow the logic and be convinced of the author's findings. The results (be they positive or negative) will also open the door to countless other studies.

How to Turn a Bad Research Question into a Good One

If something is wrong, fix it if you can. But train yourself not to worry. Worry never fixes anything.

–Ernest Hemingway

How do you turn something that won't help your research into something that will? Start by taking a step back and asking what you are expected to produce. While there are any number of fascinating subjects out there, a grant paying you to examine income disparity in Japan is not going to warrant an in-depth discussion of South American farming pollution. 

Use these expectations to frame your initial topic and the subject that your research should be about, and then conduct preliminary research into that subject. If you spot a knowledge gap while researching, make a note of it, and add it to your list of possible questions.

If you already have a question that is relevant to your topic but has flaws, identify the issues and see if they can be addressed. In addition, if your question is too broad, try to narrow it down enough to make your research feasible.

Especially in the sciences, if your research question will not produce results that can be replicated, determine how you can change it so a reader can look at what you've done and go about repeating your actions so they can see that you are right.

Moreover, if you would need 20 years to produce results, consider whether there is a way to tighten things up to produce more immediate results. This could justify future research that will eventually reach that lofty goal.

If all else fails, you can use the flawed question as a subtopic and try to find a better question that fits your goals and expectations.

Parting Advice

When you have your early work edited, don't be surprised if you are told that your research question requires revision. Quite often, results or the lack thereof can force a researcher to shift their focus and examine a less significant topic—or a different facet of a known issue—because testing did not produce the expected result. 

If that happens, take heart. You now have the tools to assess your question, find its flaws, and repair them so that you can complete your research with confidence and publish something you know your audience will read with fascination.

Of course, if you receive affirmation that your research question is strong or are polishing your work before submitting it to a publisher, you might just need a final proofread to ensure that your confidence is well placed. Then, you can start pursuing something new that the world does not yet know (but will know) once you have your research question down.

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Frequently asked questions

How do i write questions to ask for research.

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Frequently asked questions: Writing a research paper

A research project is an academic, scientific, or professional undertaking to answer a research question . Research projects can take many forms, such as qualitative or quantitative , descriptive , longitudinal , experimental , or correlational . What kind of research approach you choose will depend on your topic.

The best way to remember the difference between a research plan and a research proposal is that they have fundamentally different audiences. A research plan helps you, the researcher, organize your thoughts. On the other hand, a dissertation proposal or research proposal aims to convince others (e.g., a supervisor, a funding body, or a dissertation committee) that your research topic is relevant and worthy of being conducted.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them.

In general, they should be:

• Focused and researchable
• Answerable using credible sources
• Complex and arguable
• Feasible and specific
• Relevant and original

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in Chicago style are to:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Use 1 inch margins or larger
• Apply double line spacing
• Indent every new paragraph ½ inch
• Include a title page
• Place page numbers in the top right or bottom center
• Cite your sources with author-date citations or Chicago footnotes
• Include a bibliography or reference list

To automatically generate accurate Chicago references, you can use Scribbr’s free Chicago reference generator .

The main guidelines for formatting a paper in MLA style are as follows:

• Use an easily readable font like 12 pt Times New Roman
• Set 1 inch page margins
• Include a four-line MLA heading on the first page
• Center the paper’s title
• Use title case capitalization for headings
• Cite your sources with MLA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a Works Cited page at the end

To format a paper in APA Style , follow these guidelines:

• Use a standard font like 12 pt Times New Roman or 11 pt Arial
• If submitting for publication, insert a running head on every page
• Apply APA heading styles
• Cite your sources with APA in-text citations
• List all sources cited on a reference page at the end

No, it’s not appropriate to present new arguments or evidence in the conclusion . While you might be tempted to save a striking argument for last, research papers follow a more formal structure than this.

All your findings and arguments should be presented in the body of the text (more specifically in the results and discussion sections if you are following a scientific structure). The conclusion is meant to summarize and reflect on the evidence and arguments you have already presented, not introduce new ones.

The conclusion of a research paper has several key elements you should make sure to include:

• A restatement of the research problem
• A summary of your key arguments and/or findings
• A short discussion of the implications of your research

Don’t feel that you have to write the introduction first. The introduction is often one of the last parts of the research paper you’ll write, along with the conclusion.

This is because it can be easier to introduce your paper once you’ve already written the body ; you may not have the clearest idea of your arguments until you’ve written them, and things can change during the writing process .

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

The introduction of a research paper includes several key elements:

• A hook to catch the reader’s interest
• Relevant background on the topic
• Details of your research problem

and your problem statement

• A thesis statement or research question
• Sometimes an overview of the paper

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How to Write a Research Question: Types and Examples 

The first step in any research project is framing the research question. It can be considered the core of any systematic investigation as the research outcomes are tied to asking the right questions. Thus, this primary interrogation point sets the pace for your research as it helps collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work.   

Typically, the research question guides the stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. Depending on the use of quantifiable or quantitative data, research questions are broadly categorized into quantitative or qualitative research questions. Both types of research questions can be used independently or together, considering the overall focus and objectives of your research.  

What is a research question?

A research question is a clear, focused, concise, and arguable question on which your research and writing are centered. 1 It states various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the problem the study addresses. These questions also set the boundaries of the study, ensuring cohesion. 

Designing the research question is a dynamic process where the researcher can change or refine the research question as they review related literature and develop a framework for the study. Depending on the scale of your research, the study can include single or multiple research questions. 

A good research question has the following features: 

• It is relevant to the chosen field of study. 
• The question posed is arguable and open for debate, requiring synthesizing and analysis of ideas. 
• It is focused and concisely framed. 
• A feasible solution is possible within the given practical constraint and timeframe. 

A poorly formulated research question poses several risks. 1   

• Researchers can adopt an erroneous design. 
• It can create confusion and hinder the thought process, including developing a clear protocol.  
• It can jeopardize publication efforts.  
• It causes difficulty in determining the relevance of the study findings.  
• It causes difficulty in whether the study fulfils the inclusion criteria for systematic review and meta-analysis. This creates challenges in determining whether additional studies or data collection is needed to answer the question.  
• Readers may fail to understand the objective of the study. This reduces the likelihood of the study being cited by others. 

Now that you know “What is a research question?”, let’s look at the different types of research questions. 

Types of research questions

Depending on the type of research to be done, research questions can be classified broadly into quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods studies. Knowing the type of research helps determine the best type of research question that reflects the direction and epistemological underpinnings of your research. 

The structure and wording of quantitative 2 and qualitative research 3 questions differ significantly. The quantitative study looks at causal relationships, whereas the qualitative study aims at exploring a phenomenon. 

• Quantitative research questions:  
• Seeks to investigate social, familial, or educational experiences or processes in a particular context and/or location.  
• Answers ‘how,’ ‘what,’ or ‘why’ questions. 
• Investigates connections, relations, or comparisons between independent and dependent variables. 

Quantitative research questions can be further categorized into descriptive, comparative, and relationship, as explained in the Table below. 

• Qualitative research questions  

Qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional, and more flexible. It concerns broad areas of research or more specific areas of study to discover, explain, or explore a phenomenon. These are further classified as follows: 

• Mixed-methods studies  

Mixed-methods studies use both quantitative and qualitative research questions to answer your research question. Mixed methods provide a complete picture than standalone quantitative or qualitative research, as it integrates the benefits of both methods. Mixed methods research is often used in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal research, especially in the behavioral, health, and social science fields. 

What makes a good research question

A good research question should be clear and focused to guide your research. It should synthesize multiple sources to present your unique argument, and should ideally be something that you are interested in. But avoid questions that can be answered in a few factual statements. The following are the main attributes of a good research question. 

• Specific: The research question should not be a fishing expedition performed in the hopes that some new information will be found that will benefit the researcher. The central research question should work with your research problem to keep your work focused. If using multiple questions, they should all tie back to the central aim. 
• Measurable: The research question must be answerable using quantitative and/or qualitative data or from scholarly sources to develop your research question. If such data is impossible to access, it is better to rethink your question. 
• Attainable: Ensure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific. 
• You have the expertise 
• You have the equipment and resources 
• Realistic: Developing your research question should be based on initial reading about your topic. It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or discipline. 
• Based on some sort of rational physics 
• Can be done in a reasonable time frame 
• Timely: The research question should contribute to an existing and current debate in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can later build on. 
• Novel 
• Based on current technologies. 
• Important to answer current problems or concerns. 
• Lead to new directions. 
• Important: Your question should have some aspect of originality. Incremental research is as important as exploring disruptive technologies. For example, you can focus on a specific location or explore a new angle. 
• Meaningful whether the answer is “Yes” or “No.” Closed-ended, yes/no questions are too simple to work as good research questions. Such questions do not provide enough scope for robust investigation and discussion. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, and original interpretation and argumentation before providing an answer. 

Steps for developing a good research question

The importance of research questions cannot be understated. When drafting a research question, use the following frameworks to guide the components of your question to ease the process. 4  

• Determine the requirements: Before constructing a good research question, set your research requirements. What is the purpose? Is it descriptive, comparative, or explorative research? Determining the research aim will help you choose the most appropriate topic and word your question appropriately. 
• Select a broad research topic: Identify a broader subject area of interest that requires investigation. Techniques such as brainstorming or concept mapping can help identify relevant connections and themes within a broad research topic. For example, how to learn and help students learn. 
• Perform preliminary investigation: Preliminary research is needed to obtain up-to-date and relevant knowledge on your topic. It also helps identify issues currently being discussed from which information gaps can be identified. 
• Narrow your focus: Narrow the scope and focus of your research to a specific niche. This involves focusing on gaps in existing knowledge or recent literature or extending or complementing the findings of existing literature. Another approach involves constructing strong research questions that challenge your views or knowledge of the area of study (Example: Is learning consistent with the existing learning theory and research). 
• Identify the research problem: Once the research question has been framed, one should evaluate it. This is to realize the importance of the research questions and if there is a need for more revising (Example: How do your beliefs on learning theory and research impact your instructional practices). 

How to write a research question

Those struggling to understand how to write a research question, these simple steps can help you simplify the process of writing a research question. 

Sample Research Questions

The following are some bad and good research question examples 

• Example 1 

• Example 2 

References:  

• Thabane, L., Thomas, T., Ye, C., & Paul, J. (2009). Posing the research question: not so simple.  Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d’anesthésie ,  56 (1), 71-79. 
• Rutberg, S., & Bouikidis, C. D. (2018). Focusing on the fundamentals: A simplistic differentiation between qualitative and quantitative research.  Nephrology Nursing Journal ,  45 (2), 209-213. 
• Kyngäs, H. (2020). Qualitative research and content analysis.  The application of content analysis in nursing science research , 3-11. 
• Mattick, K., Johnston, J., & de la Croix, A. (2018). How to… write a good research question.  The clinical teacher ,  15 (2), 104-108. 
• Fandino, W. (2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls.  Indian Journal of Anaesthesia ,  63 (8), 611. 
• Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions.  ACP journal club ,  123 (3), A12-A13 

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Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

How to Craft a Strong Research Question (With Research Question Examples)

A sound and effective research question is a key element that must be identified and pinned down before researchers can even begin their research study or work. A strong research question lays the foundation for your entire study, guiding your investigation and shaping your findings. Hence, it is critical that researchers spend considerable time assessing and refining the research question based on in-depth reading and comprehensive literature review. In this article, we will discuss how to write a strong research question and provide you with some good examples of research questions across various disciplines.

Table of Contents

The importance of a research question

A research question plays a crucial role in driving scientific inquiry, setting the direction and purpose of your study, and guiding your entire research process. By formulating a clear and focused research question, you lay the foundation for your investigation, ensuring that your research remains on track and aligned with your objectives so you can make meaningful contribution to the existing body of knowledge. A well-crafted research question also helps you define the scope of your study and identify the appropriate methodologies and data collection techniques to employ.

Key components of a strong research question

A good research question possesses several key components that contribute to the quality and impact of your study. Apart from providing a clear framework to generate meaningful results, a well-defined research question allows other researchers to understand the purpose and significance of your work. So, when working on your research question, incorporate the following elements:

• Specificity : A strong research question should be specific about the main focus of your study, enabling you to gather precise data and draw accurate conclusions. It clearly defines the variables, participants, and context involved, leaving no room for ambiguity.
• Clarity : A good research question is clear and easily understood, so articulate the purpose and intent of your study concisely without being generic or vague. Ensuring clarity in your research question helps both you and your readers grasp the research objective.
• Feasibility : While crafting a research question, consider the practicality of conducting the research and availability of necessary data or access to participants. Think whether your study is realistic and achievable within the constraints of time, resources, and ethical considerations.

How to craft a well-defined research question

A first step that will help save time and effort is knowing what your aims are and thinking about a few problem statements on the area or aspect one wants to study or do research on. Contemplating these statements as one undertakes more progressive reading can help the researcher in reassessing and fine-tuning the research question. This can be done over time as they read and learn more about the research topic, along with a broad literature review and parallel discussions with peer researchers and supervisors. In some cases, a researcher can have more than one research question if the research being undertaken is a PhD thesis or dissertation, but try not to cover multiple concerns on a topic.

A strong research question must be researchable, original, complex, and relevant. Here are five simple steps that can make the entire process easier.

• Identify a broad topic from your areas of interest, something that is relevant, and you are passionate about since you’ll be spending a lot of time conducting your research.
• Do a thorough literature review to weed out potential gaps in research and stay updated on what’s currently being done in your chosen topic and subject area.
• Shortlist possible research questions based on the research gaps or see how you can build on or refute previously published ideas and concepts.
• Assess your chosen research question using the FINER criteria that helps you evaluate whether the research is Feasible, Interesting, Novel, Ethical, and Relevant. 1
• Formulate the final research question, while ensuring it is clear, well-written, and addresses all the key elements of a strong research question.

Examples of research questions

Remember to adapt your research question to suit your purpose, whether it’s exploratory, descriptive, comparative, experimental, qualitative, or quantitative. Embrace the iterative nature of the research process, continually evaluating and refining your question as you progress. Here are some good examples of research questions across various disciplines.

Exploratory research question examples

• How does social media impact interpersonal relationships among teenagers?
• What are the potential benefits of incorporating mindfulness practices in the workplace?

Descriptive research question examples

• What factors influence customer loyalty in the e-commerce industry?
• Is there a relationship between socioeconomic status and academic performance among elementary school students?

Comparative research question examples

• How does the effectiveness of traditional teaching methods compare to online learning platforms in mathematics education?
• What is the impact of different healthcare policies on patient outcomes in various countries?

Experimental research question examples

• What are the effects of a new drug on reducing symptoms of a specific medical condition?
• Does a dietary intervention have an impact on weight loss among individuals with obesity?

Qualitative research question examples

• What are the lived experiences of immigrants adapting to a new culture?
• What factors influence job satisfaction among healthcare professionals?

Quantitative research question examples

• Is there a relationship between sleep duration and academic performance among college students?
• How effective is a specific intervention in reducing anxiety levels among individuals with phobias?

With these simple guidelines and inspiring examples of research questions, you are equipped to embark on your research journey with confidence and purpose. Here’s wishing you all the best for your future endeavors!

References:

• How to write a research question: Steps and examples. Indeed Career Guide. Available online at https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-write-research-questions

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Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Research Questions

Definition:

Research questions are the specific questions that guide a research study or inquiry. These questions help to define the scope of the research and provide a clear focus for the study. Research questions are usually developed at the beginning of a research project and are designed to address a particular research problem or objective.

Types of Research Questions

Types of Research Questions are as follows:

Descriptive Research Questions

These aim to describe a particular phenomenon, group, or situation. For example:

• What are the characteristics of the target population?
• What is the prevalence of a particular disease in a specific region?

Exploratory Research Questions

These aim to explore a new area of research or generate new ideas or hypotheses. For example:

• What are the potential causes of a particular phenomenon?
• What are the possible outcomes of a specific intervention?

Explanatory Research Questions

These aim to understand the relationship between two or more variables or to explain why a particular phenomenon occurs. For example:

• What is the effect of a specific drug on the symptoms of a particular disease?
• What are the factors that contribute to employee turnover in a particular industry?

Predictive Research Questions

These aim to predict a future outcome or trend based on existing data or trends. For example :

• What will be the future demand for a particular product or service?
• What will be the future prevalence of a particular disease?

Evaluative Research Questions

These aim to evaluate the effectiveness of a particular intervention or program. For example:

• What is the impact of a specific educational program on student learning outcomes?
• What is the effectiveness of a particular policy or program in achieving its intended goals?

How to Choose Research Questions

Choosing research questions is an essential part of the research process and involves careful consideration of the research problem, objectives, and design. Here are some steps to consider when choosing research questions:

• Identify the research problem: Start by identifying the problem or issue that you want to study. This could be a gap in the literature, a social or economic issue, or a practical problem that needs to be addressed.
• Conduct a literature review: Conducting a literature review can help you identify existing research in your area of interest and can help you formulate research questions that address gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
• Define the research objectives : Clearly define the objectives of your research. What do you want to achieve with your study? What specific questions do you want to answer?
• Consider the research design : Consider the research design that you plan to use. This will help you determine the appropriate types of research questions to ask. For example, if you plan to use a qualitative approach, you may want to focus on exploratory or descriptive research questions.
• Ensure that the research questions are clear and answerable: Your research questions should be clear and specific, and should be answerable with the data that you plan to collect. Avoid asking questions that are too broad or vague.
• Get feedback : Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, feasible, and meaningful.

How to Write Research Questions

Guide for Writing Research Questions:

• Start with a clear statement of the research problem: Begin by stating the problem or issue that your research aims to address. This will help you to formulate focused research questions.
• Use clear language : Write your research questions in clear and concise language that is easy to understand. Avoid using jargon or technical terms that may be unfamiliar to your readers.
• Be specific: Your research questions should be specific and focused. Avoid broad questions that are difficult to answer. For example, instead of asking “What is the impact of climate change on the environment?” ask “What are the effects of rising sea levels on coastal ecosystems?”
• Use appropriate question types: Choose the appropriate question types based on the research design and objectives. For example, if you are conducting a qualitative study, you may want to use open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed responses.
• Consider the feasibility of your questions : Ensure that your research questions are feasible and can be answered with the resources available. Consider the data sources and methods of data collection when writing your questions.
• Seek feedback: Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful.

Examples of Research Questions

Some Examples of Research Questions with Research Titles:

Research Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health

• Research Question : What is the relationship between social media use and mental health, and how does this impact individuals’ well-being?

Research Title: Factors Influencing Academic Success in High School

• Research Question: What are the primary factors that influence academic success in high school, and how do they contribute to student achievement?

Research Title: The Effects of Exercise on Physical and Mental Health

• Research Question: What is the relationship between exercise and physical and mental health, and how can exercise be used as a tool to improve overall well-being?

Research Title: Understanding the Factors that Influence Consumer Purchasing Decisions

• Research Question : What are the key factors that influence consumer purchasing decisions, and how do these factors vary across different demographics and products?

Research Title: The Impact of Technology on Communication

• Research Question : How has technology impacted communication patterns, and what are the effects of these changes on interpersonal relationships and society as a whole?

Research Title: Investigating the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Child Development

• Research Question: What is the relationship between different parenting styles and child development outcomes, and how do these outcomes vary across different ages and developmental stages?

Research Title: The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Treating Anxiety Disorders

• Research Question: How effective is cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders, and what factors contribute to its success or failure in different patients?

Research Title: The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity

• Research Question : How is climate change affecting global biodiversity, and what can be done to mitigate the negative effects on natural ecosystems?

Research Title: Exploring the Relationship between Cultural Diversity and Workplace Productivity

• Research Question : How does cultural diversity impact workplace productivity, and what strategies can be employed to maximize the benefits of a diverse workforce?

Research Title: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare

• Research Question: How can artificial intelligence be leveraged to improve healthcare outcomes, and what are the potential risks and ethical concerns associated with its use?

Applications of Research Questions

Here are some of the key applications of research questions:

• Defining the scope of the study : Research questions help researchers to narrow down the scope of their study and identify the specific issues they want to investigate.
• Developing hypotheses: Research questions often lead to the development of hypotheses, which are testable predictions about the relationship between variables. Hypotheses provide a clear and focused direction for the study.
• Designing the study : Research questions guide the design of the study, including the selection of participants, the collection of data, and the analysis of results.
• Collecting data : Research questions inform the selection of appropriate methods for collecting data, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments.
• Analyzing data : Research questions guide the analysis of data, including the selection of appropriate statistical tests and the interpretation of results.
• Communicating results : Research questions help researchers to communicate the results of their study in a clear and concise manner. The research questions provide a framework for discussing the findings and drawing conclusions.

Characteristics of Research Questions

Characteristics of Research Questions are as follows:

• Clear and Specific : A good research question should be clear and specific. It should clearly state what the research is trying to investigate and what kind of data is required.
• Relevant : The research question should be relevant to the study and should address a current issue or problem in the field of research.
• Testable : The research question should be testable through empirical evidence. It should be possible to collect data to answer the research question.
• Concise : The research question should be concise and focused. It should not be too broad or too narrow.
• Feasible : The research question should be feasible to answer within the constraints of the research design, time frame, and available resources.
• Original : The research question should be original and should contribute to the existing knowledge in the field of research.
• Significant : The research question should have significance and importance to the field of research. It should have the potential to provide new insights and knowledge to the field.
• Ethical : The research question should be ethical and should not cause harm to any individuals or groups involved in the study.

Purpose of Research Questions

Research questions are the foundation of any research study as they guide the research process and provide a clear direction to the researcher. The purpose of research questions is to identify the scope and boundaries of the study, and to establish the goals and objectives of the research.

The main purpose of research questions is to help the researcher to focus on the specific area or problem that needs to be investigated. They enable the researcher to develop a research design, select the appropriate methods and tools for data collection and analysis, and to organize the results in a meaningful way.

Research questions also help to establish the relevance and significance of the study. They define the research problem, and determine the research methodology that will be used to address the problem. Research questions also help to determine the type of data that will be collected, and how it will be analyzed and interpreted.

Finally, research questions provide a framework for evaluating the results of the research. They help to establish the validity and reliability of the data, and provide a basis for drawing conclusions and making recommendations based on the findings of the study.

Advantages of Research Questions

There are several advantages of research questions in the research process, including:

• Focus : Research questions help to focus the research by providing a clear direction for the study. They define the specific area of investigation and provide a framework for the research design.
• Clarity : Research questions help to clarify the purpose and objectives of the study, which can make it easier for the researcher to communicate the research aims to others.
• Relevance : Research questions help to ensure that the study is relevant and meaningful. By asking relevant and important questions, the researcher can ensure that the study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge and address important issues.
• Consistency : Research questions help to ensure consistency in the research process by providing a framework for the development of the research design, data collection, and analysis.
• Measurability : Research questions help to ensure that the study is measurable by defining the specific variables and outcomes that will be measured.
• Replication : Research questions help to ensure that the study can be replicated by providing a clear and detailed description of the research aims, methods, and outcomes. This makes it easier for other researchers to replicate the study and verify the results.

Limitations of Research Questions

Limitations of Research Questions are as follows:

• Subjectivity : Research questions are often subjective and can be influenced by personal biases and perspectives of the researcher. This can lead to a limited understanding of the research problem and may affect the validity and reliability of the study.
• Inadequate scope : Research questions that are too narrow in scope may limit the breadth of the study, while questions that are too broad may make it difficult to focus on specific research objectives.
• Unanswerable questions : Some research questions may not be answerable due to the lack of available data or limitations in research methods. In such cases, the research question may need to be rephrased or modified to make it more answerable.
• Lack of clarity : Research questions that are poorly worded or ambiguous can lead to confusion and misinterpretation. This can result in incomplete or inaccurate data, which may compromise the validity of the study.
• Difficulty in measuring variables : Some research questions may involve variables that are difficult to measure or quantify, making it challenging to draw meaningful conclusions from the data.
• Lack of generalizability: Research questions that are too specific or limited in scope may not be generalizable to other contexts or populations. This can limit the applicability of the study’s findings and restrict its broader implications.

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Online Guide to Writing and Research

The research process, explore more of umgc.

• Online Guide to Writing

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Ask a Research Question

When we perform research, we enter the community of scholars who, before us, sought to answer questions for themselves and others. We set out on a journey of discovery that draws us into the ongoing conversation about that subject matter. This is also your opportunity to add your voice to the scholarly work that has already been written about your topic.    

BEGIN WITH A QUESTION

As you dive into the scholarly conversation about your topic, you need to begin with a question that you are going to answer in your paper.  To begin this process, you need to brainstorm some ideas that interest you. You can brainstorm with a classmate or coworker or even ask your professor for suggestions, but the question you generate is the one you will be invested in answering. 

KEEP THE SCOPE MANAGEABLE

As you explore the research question you want to answer, keep in mind that your question and research should be sized to fit the assignment you have been given. Keep the scope of your research manageable. Ask a question that will lead you into your research—a specific, concrete question that will help you devise a working thesis and give you direction for your information search. Generally, the answer to your question should take a stance. 

TEST YOUR RESEARCH QUERY

When you have tentatively decided on your research question and have a working thesis, answer these questions to test your research inquiry:

Is the scope of the question appropriate for the assignment?

Is my question specific enough so that I know what I'm looking for? Or is my question too broad or too narrow?

Can I find enough information on the subject?

• Will the answer to my question take a specific stance on the topic?
• Do I really care about finding the answers to my question?
• Does my answer result in more than a "yes" or "no" answer?

When the answers to these questions are yes, you are ready to research in more depth and manage your research resources.

Key Takeaways

• The answer to your research question will eventually be your thesis statement, which will take a stance. 
• Frame your research question so that it does not result in a "yes" or "no" answer, but an in-depth answer. 

Mailing Address: 3501 University Blvd. East, Adelphi, MD 20783 This work is licensed under a  Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License . © 2022 UMGC. All links to external sites were verified at the time of publication. UMGC is not responsible for the validity or integrity of information located at external sites.

Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Nature of Research

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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Research Aims, Objectives & Questions

The “Golden Thread” Explained Simply (+ Examples)

By: David Phair (PhD) and Alexandra Shaeffer (PhD) | June 2022

The research aims , objectives and research questions (collectively called the “golden thread”) are arguably the most important thing you need to get right when you’re crafting a research proposal , dissertation or thesis . We receive questions almost every day about this “holy trinity” of research and there’s certainly a lot of confusion out there, so we’ve crafted this post to help you navigate your way through the fog.

Overview: The Golden Thread

• What is the golden thread
• What are research aims ( examples )
• What are research objectives ( examples )
• What are research questions ( examples )
• The importance of alignment in the golden thread

What is the “golden thread”?  

The golden thread simply refers to the collective research aims , research objectives , and research questions for any given project (i.e., a dissertation, thesis, or research paper ). These three elements are bundled together because it’s extremely important that they align with each other, and that the entire research project aligns with them.

Importantly, the golden thread needs to weave its way through the entirety of any research project , from start to end. In other words, it needs to be very clearly defined right at the beginning of the project (the topic ideation and proposal stage) and it needs to inform almost every decision throughout the rest of the project. For example, your research design and methodology will be heavily influenced by the golden thread (we’ll explain this in more detail later), as well as your literature review.

The research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread) define the focus and scope ( the delimitations ) of your research project. In other words, they help ringfence your dissertation or thesis to a relatively narrow domain, so that you can “go deep” and really dig into a specific problem or opportunity. They also help keep you on track , as they act as a litmus test for relevance. In other words, if you’re ever unsure whether to include something in your document, simply ask yourself the question, “does this contribute toward my research aims, objectives or questions?”. If it doesn’t, chances are you can drop it.

Alright, enough of the fluffy, conceptual stuff. Let’s get down to business and look at what exactly the research aims, objectives and questions are and outline a few examples to bring these concepts to life.

Research Aims: What are they?

Simply put, the research aim(s) is a statement that reflects the broad overarching goal (s) of the research project. Research aims are fairly high-level (low resolution) as they outline the general direction of the research and what it’s trying to achieve .

Research Aims: Examples  

True to the name, research aims usually start with the wording “this research aims to…”, “this research seeks to…”, and so on. For example:

“This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail HR.”   “This study sets out to assess the interaction between student support and self-care on well-being in engineering graduate students”  

As you can see, these research aims provide a high-level description of what the study is about and what it seeks to achieve. They’re not hyper-specific or action-oriented, but they’re clear about what the study’s focus is and what is being investigated.

Need a helping hand?

Research Objectives: What are they?

The research objectives take the research aims and make them more practical and actionable . In other words, the research objectives showcase the steps that the researcher will take to achieve the research aims.

The research objectives need to be far more specific (higher resolution) and actionable than the research aims. In fact, it’s always a good idea to craft your research objectives using the “SMART” criteria. In other words, they should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound”.

Research Objectives: Examples  

Let’s look at two examples of research objectives. We’ll stick with the topic and research aims we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic:

To observe the retail HR employees throughout the digital transformation. To assess employee perceptions of digital transformation in retail HR. To identify the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR.

And for the student wellness topic:

To determine whether student self-care predicts the well-being score of engineering graduate students. To determine whether student support predicts the well-being score of engineering students. To assess the interaction between student self-care and student support when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students.

  As you can see, these research objectives clearly align with the previously mentioned research aims and effectively translate the low-resolution aims into (comparatively) higher-resolution objectives and action points . They give the research project a clear focus and present something that resembles a research-based “to-do” list.

Research Questions: What are they?

Finally, we arrive at the all-important research questions. The research questions are, as the name suggests, the key questions that your study will seek to answer . Simply put, they are the core purpose of your dissertation, thesis, or research project. You’ll present them at the beginning of your document (either in the introduction chapter or literature review chapter) and you’ll answer them at the end of your document (typically in the discussion and conclusion chapters).  

The research questions will be the driving force throughout the research process. For example, in the literature review chapter, you’ll assess the relevance of any given resource based on whether it helps you move towards answering your research questions. Similarly, your methodology and research design will be heavily influenced by the nature of your research questions. For instance, research questions that are exploratory in nature will usually make use of a qualitative approach, whereas questions that relate to measurement or relationship testing will make use of a quantitative approach.  

Let’s look at some examples of research questions to make this more tangible.

Research Questions: Examples  

Again, we’ll stick with the research aims and research objectives we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic (which would be qualitative in nature):

How do employees perceive digital transformation in retail HR? What are the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR?  

And for the student wellness topic (which would be quantitative in nature):

Does student self-care predict the well-being scores of engineering graduate students? Does student support predict the well-being scores of engineering students? Do student self-care and student support interact when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students?  

You’ll probably notice that there’s quite a formulaic approach to this. In other words, the research questions are basically the research objectives “converted” into question format. While that is true most of the time, it’s not always the case. For example, the first research objective for the digital transformation topic was more or less a step on the path toward the other objectives, and as such, it didn’t warrant its own research question.  

So, don’t rush your research questions and sloppily reword your objectives as questions. Carefully think about what exactly you’re trying to achieve (i.e. your research aim) and the objectives you’ve set out, then craft a set of well-aligned research questions . Also, keep in mind that this can be a somewhat iterative process , where you go back and tweak research objectives and aims to ensure tight alignment throughout the golden thread.

The importance of strong alignment 

Alignment is the keyword here and we have to stress its importance . Simply put, you need to make sure that there is a very tight alignment between all three pieces of the golden thread. If your research aims and research questions don’t align, for example, your project will be pulling in different directions and will lack focus . This is a common problem students face and can cause many headaches (and tears), so be warned.

Take the time to carefully craft your research aims, objectives and research questions before you run off down the research path. Ideally, get your research supervisor/advisor to review and comment on your golden thread before you invest significant time into your project, and certainly before you start collecting data .  

Recap: The golden thread

In this post, we unpacked the golden thread of research, consisting of the research aims , research objectives and research questions . You can jump back to any section using the links below.

As always, feel free to leave a comment below – we always love to hear from you. Also, if you’re interested in 1-on-1 support, take a look at our private coaching service here.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

40 Comments

Thank you very much for your great effort put. As an Undergraduate taking Demographic Research & Methodology, I’ve been trying so hard to understand clearly what is a Research Question, Research Aim and the Objectives in a research and the relationship between them etc. But as for now I’m thankful that you’ve solved my problem.

Well appreciated. This has helped me greatly in doing my dissertation.

An so delighted with this wonderful information thank you a lot.

so impressive i have benefited a lot looking forward to learn more on research.

I am very happy to have carefully gone through this well researched article.

Infact,I used to be phobia about anything research, because of my poor understanding of the concepts.

Now,I get to know that my research question is the same as my research objective(s) rephrased in question format.

I please I would need a follow up on the subject,as I intends to join the team of researchers. Thanks once again.

Thanks so much. This was really helpful.

I know you pepole have tried to break things into more understandable and easy format. And God bless you. Keep it up

i found this document so useful towards my study in research methods. thanks so much.

This is my 2nd read topic in your course and I should commend the simplified explanations of each part. I’m beginning to understand and absorb the use of each part of a dissertation/thesis. I’ll keep on reading your free course and might be able to avail the training course! Kudos!

Thank you! Better put that my lecture and helped to easily understand the basics which I feel often get brushed over when beginning dissertation work.

This is quite helpful. I like how the Golden thread has been explained and the needed alignment.

This is quite helpful. I really appreciate!

The article made it simple for researcher students to differentiate between three concepts.

Very innovative and educational in approach to conducting research.

I am very impressed with all these terminology, as I am a fresh student for post graduate, I am highly guided and I promised to continue making consultation when the need arise. Thanks a lot.

A very helpful piece. thanks, I really appreciate it .

Very well explained, and it might be helpful to many people like me.

Wish i had found this (and other) resource(s) at the beginning of my PhD journey… not in my writing up year… 😩 Anyways… just a quick question as i’m having some issues ordering my “golden thread”…. does it matter in what order you mention them? i.e., is it always first aims, then objectives, and finally the questions? or can you first mention the research questions and then the aims and objectives?

Thank you for a very simple explanation that builds upon the concepts in a very logical manner. Just prior to this, I read the research hypothesis article, which was equally very good. This met my primary objective.

My secondary objective was to understand the difference between research questions and research hypothesis, and in which context to use which one. However, I am still not clear on this. Can you kindly please guide?

In research, a research question is a clear and specific inquiry that the researcher wants to answer, while a research hypothesis is a tentative statement or prediction about the relationship between variables or the expected outcome of the study. Research questions are broader and guide the overall study, while hypotheses are specific and testable statements used in quantitative research. Research questions identify the problem, while hypotheses provide a focus for testing in the study.

Exactly what I need in this research journey, I look forward to more of your coaching videos.

This helped a lot. Thanks so much for the effort put into explaining it.

What data source in writing dissertation/Thesis requires?

What is data source covers when writing dessertation/thesis

This is quite useful thanks

I’m excited and thankful. I got so much value which will help me progress in my thesis.

where are the locations of the reserch statement, research objective and research question in a reserach paper? Can you write an ouline that defines their places in the researh paper?

Very helpful and important tips on Aims, Objectives and Questions.

Thank you so much for making research aim, research objectives and research question so clear. This will be helpful to me as i continue with my thesis.

Thanks much for this content. I learned a lot. And I am inspired to learn more. I am still struggling with my preparation for dissertation outline/proposal. But I consistently follow contents and tutorials and the new FB of GRAD Coach. Hope to really become confident in writing my dissertation and successfully defend it.

As a researcher and lecturer, I find splitting research goals into research aims, objectives, and questions is unnecessarily bureaucratic and confusing for students. For most biomedical research projects, including ‘real research’, 1-3 research questions will suffice (numbers may differ by discipline).

Awesome! Very important resources and presented in an informative way to easily understand the golden thread. Indeed, thank you so much.

Well explained

The blog article on research aims, objectives, and questions by Grad Coach is a clear and insightful guide that aligns with my experiences in academic research. The article effectively breaks down the often complex concepts of research aims and objectives, providing a straightforward and accessible explanation. Drawing from my own research endeavors, I appreciate the practical tips offered, such as the need for specificity and clarity when formulating research questions. The article serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers, offering a concise roadmap for crafting well-defined research goals and objectives. Whether you’re a novice or an experienced researcher, this article provides practical insights that contribute to the foundational aspects of a successful research endeavor.

A great thanks for you. it is really amazing explanation. I grasp a lot and one step up to research knowledge.

I really found these tips helpful. Thank you very much Grad Coach.

I found this article helpful. Thanks for sharing this.

thank you so much, the explanation and examples are really helpful

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Expert Commentary

Eight questions to ask when interpreting academic studies: A primer for media

Scholarly research is a great source for rigorous, unbiased information, but making judgments about its quality can be difficult. Here are some important questions to ask when reading studies.

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This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License .

by Justin Feldman and John Wihbey, The Journalist's Resource March 26, 2015

This <a target="_blank" href="https://journalistsresource.org/home/interpreting-academic-studies-primer-media/">article</a> first appeared on <a target="_blank" href="https://journalistsresource.org">The Journalist's Resource</a> and is republished here under a Creative Commons license.<img src="https://journalistsresource.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/cropped-jr-favicon-150x150.png" style="width:1em;height:1em;margin-left:10px;">

Reading scholarly studies can help journalists integrate rigorous, unbiased sources of information into their reporting. These studies are typically carried out by professors and professional researchers — at universities, think tanks and government institutions — and are published through a peer-review process in which those familiar with the study area ensure that there are no major flaws.

Even for people who carry out research, however, interpreting scientific (and social science) studies and making judgments about their quality can be difficult tasks. In a now-famous article, Stanford professor John Ioannidis argues that “ most published research findings are false ” due to inherent limitations in how researchers design studies. (Health and medical studies can be particularly attractive to media, but be aware that there is a long history of faulty findings .) Occasionally, too, studies can be the product of outright fraud: A 1998 study falsely linking vaccines and autism is now perhaps the canonical example, as it spurred widespread and long-lasting societal damage . Journalists should also always examine the funding sources behind the study, which are frequently declared at the study’s conclusion.

Before journalists write about research and speak with authors, they should be able to both interpret a study’s results generally and understand the appropriate degree of skepticism that a given study’s findings warrant. This requires data literacy , some familiarity with statistical terms and a basic knowledge of hypothesis testing and construction of theories .

Journalists should also be well aware that most academic research contains careful qualifications about findings. The common complaint from scientists and social scientists is that news media tend to pump up findings and hype studies through catchy headlines, distorting public understanding. But landmark studies sometimes do no more than tighten the margin of error around a given measurement — not inherently flashy, but intriguing to an audience if explained with rich context and clear presentation.

Here are some important questions to ask when reading a scientific study:

1. What are the researchers’ hypotheses?

A hypothesis is a research question that a study seeks to answer. Sometimes researchers state their hypotheses explicitly, but more often their research questions are implicit. Hypotheses are testable assertions usually involving the relationship between two variables. In a study of smoking and lung cancer, the hypothesis might be that smokers develop lung cancer at a higher rate than non-smokers over a five-year period.

It is also important to note that there are formal definitions of null and alternative hypotheses for use with statistical analysis.

2. What are the independent and dependent variables?

Independent variables are factors that influence particular outcomes. Dependent variables are measures of the outcomes themselves. In the study assessing the relationship between smoking and lung cancer, smoking is the independent variable because the researcher assumes it predicts lung cancer, the dependent variable. (Some fields use related terms such as “exposure” and “outcome.”)

Pay particular attention to how the researchers define all of the variables — there can be quite a bit of nuance in the definitions. Also look at the methods by which the researchers measure the variables. Generally speaking, a variable measured using a subject’s response to a survey question is less trustworthy than one measured through more objective means — reviewing laboratory findings in their medical records, for example.

3. What is the unit of analysis?

For most studies involving human subjects, the individual person is the unit of analysis. However, studies are sometimes interested in a different level of analysis that makes comparisons between classrooms, hospitals, schools or states, for example, rather than between individuals.

4. How well does the study design address causation?

Most studies identify correlations or associations between variables, but typically the ultimate goal is to determine causation . Certain study designs are more useful than others for the purpose of determining causation.

At the most basic level, studies can be placed into one of two categories: experimental and observational . In experimental studies, the researchers decide who is exposed to the independent variable and who is not. In observational studies, the researchers do not have any control over who is exposed to the independent variable — instead they make comparisons between groups that are already different from one another. In nearly all cases, experimental studies provide stronger evidence than observational studies.

Here are descriptions of some of the most common study designs, presented along with their respective values for inferring causation:

• Randomized controlled trials (RCTs), also known as clinical trials, are experimental studies that are considered the “gold standard” in research. Out of all study designs, they have the most value for determining causation although they do have limitations. In an RCT, researchers randomly divide subjects into at least two groups: One that receives a treatment, and the other — the control group — that receives either no treatment or a simulated version of the treatment called a placebo . The independent variable in these experiments is whether or not the subject receives the real treatment. Ideally an RCT should be double-blind — the participants should not know to which treatment group they have been assigned, nor should the study staff know. This arrangement helps to avoid bias. Researchers commonly use RCTs to meet regulatory requirements, such as evaluating pharmaceuticals for the Food and Drug Administration. Due to issues of cost, logistics and ethics, RCTs are fairly uncommon for other purposes. Example: “ Short-Term Soy Isoflavone Intervention in Patients with Localized Prostate Cancer ”
• Longitudinal studies , like RCTs, follow the same subjects over a given time period. Unlike in RCTs, they are observational. Researchers do not assign the independent variable in longitudinal studies — they instead observe what happens in the real world. A longitudinal study might compare the risk for heart disease among one group of people who are exposed to high levels of air pollution to the risk of heart disease among another group exposed to low levels of air pollution. The problem is that, because there is no random assignment, the groups may differ from one another in other important ways and, as a result, we cannot completely isolate the effects of air pollution. These differences result in confounding and other forms of bias. For that reason, longitudinal studies have less validity for inferring causation than RCTs and other experimental study designs. Longitudinal studies have more validity than other kinds of observational studies, however. Example: “ Mood after Moderate and Severe Traumatic Brain Injury: A Prospective Cohort Study ”
• Case-control studies are technically a type of longitudinal study, but they are unique enough to discuss separately. Common in public health and medical research, case-control studies begin with a group of people who have already developed a particular disease and compare them to a similar but disease-free group recruited by the researchers. These studies are more likely to suffer from bias than other longitudinal studies for two reasons. First, they are always retrospective , meaning they collect data about independent variables years after the exposures of interest occurred — sometimes even after the subject has died. Second, the group of disease-free people is very likely to differ from the group that developed the disease, creating a substantial risk for confounding. Example: “ Risk Factors for Preeclampsia in Women from Colombia ”.
• Cross-sectional studies are a kind of observational study that measure both dependent and independent variables at a single point in time. Although researchers may administer the same cross-sectional survey every few years, they do not follow the same subjects over time. An important part of determining causation is establishing that the independent variable occurred for a given subject before the dependent variable occurred. But because they do not measure the variables over time, cross-sectional studies cannot determine that a hypothesized cause precedes its effect, so the design is limited to making inferences about correlations rather than causation. Example : “ Physical Predictors of Cognitive Performance in Healthy Older Adults ”
• Ecological studies are observational studies that are similar to cross-sectional studies except that they measure at least one variable on the group-level rather that the subject-level. For example, an ecological study may look at the relationship between individuals’ meat consumption and their incidence of colon cancer. But rather than using individual-level data, the study relies on national cancer rates and national averages for meat consumption. While it might seem that higher meat consumption is linked to a higher risk of cancer, there is no way to know if the individuals eating more meat within a country are the same people who are more likely to develop cancer. This means that ecological studies are not only inadequate for inferring causation, they are also inadequate for establishing a correlation. As a consequence, they should be regarded with strong skepticism. Example: “ A Multi-country Ecological Study of Cancer Incidence Rates in 2008 with Respect to Various Risk-Modifying Factors ”
• Systematic reviews are surveys of existing studies on a given topic. Investigators specify inclusion and exclusion criteria to weed out studies that are either irrelevant to their research question or poorly designed. Using keywords, they systematically search research databases, present the findings of the studies they include and draw conclusions based on their consideration of the findings. Assuming that the review includes only well-designed studies, systematic reviews are more useful for inferring causation than any single well-designed study. Example: “ Enablers and Barriers to Large-Scale Uptake of Improved Solid Fuel Stoves. ” For a sense of how systematic reviews are interpreted and used by researchers in the field, see “How to Read a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis and Apply the Results to Patient Care,” published in the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA.)
• Meta-analyses are similar to systematic reviews but use the original data from all included studies to create a new analysis. As a result, a meta-analysis is able to draw conclusions that are more meaningful than a systematic review. Again, a meta-analysis is more useful for inferring causation than any single study, assuming that all studies are well-designed. Example: “ Occupational Exposure to Asbestos and Ovarian Cancer ”

5. What are the study’s results?

There are several aspects involved in understanding a study’s results:

• Understand whether or not the study found statistically significant relationships between the dependent and independent variables. If the relationship is statistically significant, it means that any difference observed between groups is unlikely to be due to random chance. P-values help researchers to decide whether observed differences are simply due to chance or represent a true difference between groups.
• If the relationship is statistically significant, it is then important to determine the effect size , which is the size of the difference observed between the groups. Subjects enrolled in a weight loss program may have experienced a statistically significant reduction in weight compared to those in a control group, but is that difference one ounce, one pound or ten pounds? There are myriad ways in which studies present effect sizes — such obscure terms as regression coefficients, odds ratios, and population attributable fractions may come into play. Unfortunately, research articles sometimes fail to interpret effect sizes in words. In these cases, it may be best to consult an expert to help develop a plain-English interpretation.
• Even if there is a statistically significant difference between comparison groups, this does not mean the effect size is meaningful. A weight loss program that leads to a total weight reduction of one ounce on average or a policy that saves one life out of a billion may not be meaningful. Again, consulting an expert in the field can help to determine how meaningful an effect size is, a determination that is ultimately a subjective judgment call.

6. How generalizable are the results?

Study results are useful because they help us make inferences about the relationship between independent and dependent variables among a larger population. The subjects enrolled in the study must be similar to those in the larger population, however, in order to generalize the findings. Even a perfectly designed study may be of limited value when its results cannot be generalized. It is important to pay attention to the composition of the study sample. If the unit of analysis is the individual, important factors to consider regarding the group’s composition include age, race/ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, and geographic location. While some samples are deliberately constructed to be representative of a country or region, most are not.

7. What limitations do the authors note?

Within a research article, authors often state some of the study’s limitations explicitly. This information can be very helpful in determining the strength of the evidence presented in the study.

8. What conclusions do similar studies draw?

With some notable exceptions, a single study is unlikely to fundamentally change what is already known about the research question it addresses. It is important to compare a new study’s findings to existing studies that address similar research questions, particularly systematic reviews or meta-analyses if available.

Further: One hidden form of bias that is easily missed is what’s called “selecting on the dependent variable,” which is the research practice of focusing on only those areas where there are effects and ignoring ones where there are not. This can lead to exaggerated conclusions (and thereby false media narratives). For example, it is tempting to say that “science has become polarized,” as survey data suggest significant differences in public opinion on issues such as climate change, vaccinations and nuclear power. However, on most scientific issues, there is almost no public debate or controversy . Additionally, the reality of “publication bias” — academic journals have traditionally been more interested in publishing studies that show effects, rather than no effects — can create a biased incentive structure that distorts larger truths.

For an updated overview, see a 2014 paper by Stanford’s John Ioannidis, “How to Make More Published Research True.”

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How to Write a Research Question

What is a research question? A research question is the question around which you center your research. It should be:

• clear : it provides enough specifics that one’s audience can easily understand its purpose without needing additional explanation.
• focused : it is narrow enough that it can be answered thoroughly in the space the writing task allows.
• concise : it is expressed in the fewest possible words.
• complex : it is not answerable with a simple “yes” or “no,” but rather requires synthesis and analysis of ideas and sources prior to composition of an answer.
• arguable : its potential answers are open to debate rather than accepted facts.

You should ask a question about an issue that you are genuinely curious and/or passionate about.

The question you ask should be developed for the discipline you are studying. A question appropriate for Biology, for instance, is different from an appropriate one in Political Science or Sociology. If you are developing your question for a course other than first-year composition, you may want to discuss your ideas for a research question with your professor.

Why is a research question essential to the research process? Research questions help writers focus their research by providing a path through the research and writing process. The specificity of a well-developed research question helps writers avoid the “all-about” paper and work toward supporting a specific, arguable thesis.

Steps to developing a research question:

• Choose an interesting general topic. Most professional researchers focus on topics they are genuinely interested in studying. Writers should choose a broad topic about which they genuinely would like to know more. An example of a general topic might be “Slavery in the American South” or “Films of the 1930s.”
• Do some preliminary research on your general topic. Do a few quick searches in current periodicals and journals on your topic to see what’s already been done and to help you narrow your focus. What issues are scholars and researchers discussing, when it comes to your topic? What questions occur to you as you read these articles?
• Consider your audience. For most college papers, your audience will be academic, but always keep your audience in mind when narrowing your topic and developing your question. Would that particular audience be interested in the question you are developing?
• Start asking questions. Taking into consideration all of the above, start asking yourself open-ended “how” and “why” questions about your general topic. For example, “Why were slave narratives effective tools in working toward the abolishment of slavery?” or “How did the films of the 1930s reflect or respond to the conditions of the Great Depression?”
• Is your research question clear? With so much research available on any given topic, research questions must be as clear as possible in order to be effective in helping the writer direct his or her research.
• Is your research question focused? Research questions must be specific enough to be well covered in the space available.
• Is your research question complex? Research questions should not be answerable with a simple “yes” or “no” or by easily-found facts.  They should, instead, require both research and analysis on the part of the writer. They often begin with “How” or “Why.”
• Begin your research . After you’ve come up with a question, think about the possible paths your research could take. What sources should you consult as you seek answers to your question? What research process will ensure that you find a variety of perspectives and responses to your question?

Sample Research Questions

Unclear: How should social networking sites address the harm they cause? Clear: What action should social networking sites like MySpace and Facebook take to protect users’ personal information and privacy? The unclear version of this question doesn’t specify which social networking sites or suggest what kind of harm the sites might be causing. It also assumes that this “harm” is proven and/or accepted. The clearer version specifies sites (MySpace and Facebook), the type of potential harm (privacy issues), and who may be experiencing that harm (users). A strong research question should never leave room for ambiguity or interpretation. Unfocused: What is the effect on the environment from global warming? Focused: What is the most significant effect of glacial melting on the lives of penguins in Antarctica?

The unfocused research question is so broad that it couldn’t be adequately answered in a book-length piece, let alone a standard college-level paper. The focused version narrows down to a specific effect of global warming (glacial melting), a specific place (Antarctica), and a specific animal that is affected (penguins). It also requires the writer to take a stance on which effect has the greatest impact on the affected animal. When in doubt, make a research question as narrow and focused as possible.

Too simple: How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.? Appropriately Complex:   What main environmental, behavioral, and genetic factors predict whether Americans will develop diabetes, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the medical community in prevention of the disease?

The simple version of this question can be looked up online and answered in a few factual sentences; it leaves no room for analysis. The more complex version is written in two parts; it is thought provoking and requires both significant investigation and evaluation from the writer. As a general rule of thumb, if a quick Google search can answer a research question, it’s likely not very effective.

Last updated 8/8/2018

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Greater Good Science Center • Magazine • In Action • In Education

10 Questions to Ask about Scientific Studies

Here at Greater Good , we cover research into social and emotional well-being, and we try to help people apply findings to their personal and professional lives. We are well aware that our business is a tricky one.

Summarizing scientific studies and applying them to people’s lives isn’t just difficult for the obvious reasons, like understanding and then explaining scientific jargon or methods to non-specialists. It’s also the case that context gets lost when we translate findings into stories, tips, and tools for a more meaningful life, especially when we push it all through the nuance-squashing machine of the Internet. Many people never read past the headlines, which intrinsically aim to overgeneralize and provoke interest. Because our articles can never be as comprehensive as the original studies, they almost always omit some crucial caveats, such as limitations acknowledged by the researchers. To get those, you need access to the studies themselves.

And it’s very common for findings to seem to contradict each other. For example, we recently covered an experiment that suggests stress reduces empathy—after having previously discussed other research suggesting that stress-prone people can be more empathic. Some readers asked: Which one is correct? (You’ll find my answer here .)

But probably the most important missing piece is the future. That may sound like a funny thing to say, but, in fact, a new study is not worth the PDF it’s printed on until its findings are replicated and validated by other studies—studies that haven’t yet happened. An experiment is merely interesting until time and testing turns its finding into a fact.

Scientists know this, and they are trained to react very skeptically to every new paper. They also expect to be greeted with skepticism when they present findings. Trust is good, but science isn’t about trust. It’s about verification.

However, journalists like me, and members of the general public, are often prone to treat every new study as though it represents the last word on the question addressed. This particular issue was highlighted last week by—wait for it—a new study that tried to reproduce 100 prior psychological studies to see if their findings held up. The result of the three-year initiative is chilling: The team, led by University of Virginia psychologist Brian Nosek, got the same results in only 36 percent of the experiments they replicated. This has led to some predictably provocative, overgeneralizing headlines implying that we shouldn’t take psychology seriously.

I don’t agree.

Despite all the mistakes and overblown claims and criticism and contradictions and arguments—or perhaps because of them—our knowledge of human brains and minds has expanded dramatically during the past century. Psychology and neuroscience have documented phenomena like cognitive dissonance, identified many of the brain structures that support our emotions, and proved the placebo effect and other dimensions of the mind-body connection, among other findings that have been tested over and over again.

These discoveries have helped us understand and treat the true causes of many illnesses. I’ve heard it argued that rising rates of diagnoses of mental illness constitute evidence that psychology is failing, but in fact, the opposite is true: We’re seeing more and better diagnoses of problems that would have compelled previous generations to dismiss people as “stupid” or “crazy” or “hyper” or “blue.” The important thing to bear in mind is that it took a very, very long time for science to come to these insights and treatments, following much trial and error.

Science isn’t a faith, but rather a method that takes time to unfold. That’s why it’s equally wrong to uncritically embrace everything you read, including what you are reading on this page.

Given the complexities and ambiguities of the scientific endeavor, is it possible for a non-scientist to strike a balance between wholesale dismissal and uncritical belief? Are there red flags to look for when you read about a study on a site like Greater Good or in a popular self-help book? If you do read one of the actual studies, how should you, as a non-scientist, gauge its credibility?

I drew on my own experience as a science journalist, and surveyed my colleagues here at the UC Berkeley Greater Good Science Center. We came up 10 questions you might ask when you read about the latest scientific findings. These are also questions we ask ourselves, before we cover a study.

1. Did the study appear in a peer-reviewed journal?

Peer review—submitting papers to other experts for independent review before acceptance—remains one of the best ways we have for ascertaining the basic seriousness of the study, and many scientists describe peer review as a truly humbling crucible. If a study didn’t go through this process, for whatever reason, it should be taken with a much bigger grain of salt.

2. Who was studied, where?

Animal experiments tell scientists a lot, but their applicability to our daily human lives will be limited. Similarly, if researchers only studied men, the conclusions might not be relevant to women, and vice versa.

This was actually a huge problem with Nosek’s effort to replicate other people’s experiments. In trying to replicate one German study, for example, they had to use different maps (ones that would be familiar to University of Virginia students) and change a scale measuring aggression to reflect American norms. This kind of variance could explain the different results. It may also suggest the limits of generalizing the results from one study to other populations not included within that study.

As a matter of approach, readers must remember that many psychological studies rely on WEIRD (Western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic) samples, mainly college students, which creates an in-built bias in the discipline’s conclusions. Does that mean you should dismiss Western psychology? Of course not. It’s just the equivalent of a “Caution” or “Yield” sign on the road to understanding.

3. How big was the sample?

In general, the more participants in a study, the more valid its results. That said, a large sample is sometimes impossible or even undesirable for certain kinds of studies. This is especially true in expensive neuroscience experiments involving functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI, scans.

And many mindfulness studies have scanned the brains of people with many thousands of hours of meditation experience—a relatively small group. Even in those cases, however, a study that looks at 30 experienced meditators is probably more solid than a similar one that scanned the brains of only 15.

4. Did the researchers control for key differences?

Diversity or gender balance aren’t necessarily virtues in a research study; it’s actually a good thing when a study population is as homogenous as possible, because it allows the researchers to limit the number of differences that might affect the result. A good researcher tries to compare apples to apples, and control for as many differences as possible in her analysis.

5. Was there a control group?

One of the first things to look for in methodology is whether the sample is randomized and involved a control group; this is especially important if a study is to suggest that a certain variable might actually cause a specific outcome, rather than just be correlated with it (see next point).

For example, were some in the sample randomly assigned a specific meditation practice while others weren’t? If the sample is large enough, randomized trials can produce solid conclusions. But, sometimes, a study will not have a control group because it’s ethically impossible. (Would people still divert a trolley to kill one person in order to save five lives, if their decision killed a real person, instead of just being a thought experiment? We’ll never know for sure!)

The conclusions may still provide some insight, but they need to be kept in perspective.

6. Did the researchers establish causality, correlation, dependence, or some other kind of relationship?

I often hear “Correlation is not causation” shouted as a kind of battle cry, to try to discredit a study. But correlation—the degree to which two or more measurements seem to change at the same time—is important, and is one step in eventually finding causation—that is, establishing a change in one variable directly triggers a change in another.

The important thing is to correctly identify the relationship.

7. Is the journalist, or even the scientist, overstating the result?

Language that suggests a fact is “proven” by one study or which promotes one solution for all people is most likely overstating the case. Sweeping generalizations of any kind often indicate a lack of humility that should be a red flag to readers. A study may very well “suggest” a certain conclusion but it rarely, if ever, “proves” it.

This is why we use a lot of cautious, hedging language in Greater Good , like “might” or “implies.”

8. Is there any conflict of interest suggested by the funding or the researchers’ affiliations?

A recent study found that you could drink lots of sugary beverages without fear of getting fat, as long as you exercised. The funder? Coca Cola, which eagerly promoted the results. This doesn’t mean the results are wrong. But it does suggest you should seek a second opinion .

9. Does the researcher seem to have an agenda?

Readers could understandably be skeptical of mindfulness meditation studies promoted by practicing Buddhists or experiments on the value of prayer conducted by Christians. Again, it doesn’t automatically mean that the conclusions are wrong. It does, however, raise the bar for peer review and replication. For example, it took hundreds of experiments before we could begin saying with confidence that mindfulness can indeed reduce stress.

10. Do the researchers acknowledge limitations and entertain alternative explanations?

Is the study focused on only one side of the story or one interpretation of the data? Has it failed to consider or refute alternative explanations? Do they demonstrate awareness of which questions are answered and which aren’t by their methods?

I summarize my personal stance as a non-scientist toward scientific findings as this: Curious, but skeptical. I take it all seriously and I take it all with a grain of salt. I judge it against my experience, knowing that my experience creates bias. I try to cultivate humility, doubt, and patience. I don’t always succeed; when I fail, I try to admit fault and forgive myself. My own understanding is imperfect, and I remind myself that one study is only one step in understanding. Above all, I try to bear in mind that science is a process, and that conclusions always raise more questions for us to answer.

About the Author

Jeremy Adam Smith

Uc berkeley.

Jeremy Adam Smith edits the GGSC's online magazine, Greater Good . He is also the author or coeditor of five books, including The Daddy Shift , Are We Born Racist? , and (most recently) The Gratitude Project: How the Science of Thankfulness Can Rewire Our Brains for Resilience, Optimism, and the Greater Good . Before joining the GGSC, Jeremy was a John S. Knight Journalism Fellow at Stanford University.

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Think Like a Researcher: Instruction Resources: #6 Developing Successful Research Questions

• Guide Organization
• Overall Summary
• #1 Think Like a Researcher!
• #2 How to Read a Scholarly Article
• #3 Reading for Keywords (CREDO)
• #4 Using Google for Academic Research
• #4 Using Google for Academic Research (Alternate)
• #5 Integrating Sources
• Research Question Discussion
• #7 Avoiding Researcher Bias
• #8 Understanding the Information Cycle
• #9 Exploring Databases
• #10 Library Session
• #11 Post Library Session Activities
• Summary - Readings
• Summary - Research Journal Prompts
• Summary - Key Assignments
• Jigsaw Readings
• Permission Form

Course Learning Outcome:   Develop ability to synthesize and express complex ideas; demonstrate information literacy and be able to work with evidence

Goal:  Develop students’ ability to recognize and create successful research questions

Specifically, students will be able to

• identify the components of a successful research question.
• create a viable research question.

What Makes a Good Research Topic Handout

These handouts are intended to be used as a discussion generator that will help students develop a solid research topic or question. Many students start with topics that are poorly articulated, too broad, unarguable, or are socially insignificant. Each of these problems may result in a topic that is virtually un-researchable. Starting with a researchable topic is critical to writing an effective paper.

Research shows that students are much more invested in writing when they are able to choose their own topics. However, there is also research to support the notion that students are completely overwhelmed and frustrated when they are given complete freedom to write about whatever they choose. Providing some structure or topic themes that allow students to make bounded choices may be a way mitigate these competing realities.

These handouts can be modified or edited for your purposes.  One can be used as a handout for students while the other can serve as a sample answer key.  The document is best used as part of a process.  For instance, perhaps starting with discussing the issues and potential research questions, moving on to problems and social significance but returning to proposals/solutions at a later date.

• Research Questions - Handout Key (2 pgs) This document is a condensed version of "What Makes a Good Research Topic". It serves as a key.
• Research Questions - Handout for Students (2 pgs) This document could be used with a class to discuss sample research questions (are they suitable?) and to have them start thinking about problems, social significance, and solutions for additional sample research questions.
• Research Question Discussion This tab includes materials for introduction students to research question criteria for a problem/solution essay.

Additional Resources

These documents have similarities to those above.  They represent original documents and conversations about research questions from previous TRAIL trainings.

• What Makes a Good Research Topic? - Original Handout (4 pgs)
• What Makes a Good Research Topic? Revised Jan. 2016 (4 pgs)
• What Makes a Good Research Topic? Revised Jan 2016 with comments

Topic Selection (NCSU Libraries)

Howard, Rebecca Moore, Tricia Serviss, and Tanya K. Rodrigues. " Writing from sources, writing from sentences ." Writing & Pedagogy 2.2 (2010): 177-192.

Research Journal

Assign after students have participated in the Developing Successful Research Topics/Questions Lesson OR have drafted a Research Proposal.

Think about your potential research question.

• What is the problem that underlies your question?
• Is the problem of social significance? Explain.
• Is your proposed solution to the problem feasible? Explain.
• Do you think there is evidence to support your solution?

Keys for Writers - Additional Resource

Keys for Writers (Raimes and Miller-Cochran) includes a section to guide students in the formation of an arguable claim (thesis).  The authors advise students to avoid the following since they are not debatable. 

• "a neutral statement, which gives no hint of the writer's position"
• "an announcement of the paper's broad subject"
• "a fact, which is not arguable"
• "a truism (statement that is obviously true)"
• "a personal or religious conviction that cannot be logically debated"
• "an opinion based only on your feelings"
• "a sweeping generalization" (Section 4C, pg. 52)

The book also provides examples and key points (pg. 53) for a good working thesis.

• << Previous: #5 Integrating Sources
• Next: Research Question Discussion >>
• Last Updated: Apr 26, 2024 10:23 AM
• URL: https://libguides.ucmerced.edu/think_like_a_researcher

18 common audience questions at academic conferences (+ how to react)

While you can practice your conference presentation a hundred times, audience questions are more difficult to prepare for. Nonetheless, several typical audience questions are frequently asked at academic conferences. Be aware of these questions and know how to react!

Common audience questions about your key contribution

What is your main argument.

Carving out your presentation’s core argument is not an easy task, so it is good to prepare this in advance.

How do your insights differ from previous studies?

You can also criticise previous studies in your answer. However, do this respectfully. Don’t say “ previous studies are useless because they don’t look at…”. Instead, say “ one aspect that previous studies have not considered is …” or “ one element that has been under-researched so far is … “.

What is your theoretical contribution?

To prepare a good answer, think about several dimensions. Does your research confirm or contradict a specific aspect of a theoretical relationship? Does your research highlight the importance of a specific aspect that should be considered in theories related to your topic? Does your research uniquely combine different theories?

Common audience questions about research relevance

What is the scientific relevance of your research, what is the societal relevance of your research.

How to react: Academic research increasingly focuses on societal impact: the impact that research can have beyond the confines of universities and beyond abstract, theoretical knowledge.

Common audience questions about literature and theory

How do you define … .

Furthermore, be prepared to embed your understanding or definitions of keywords and concepts within the existing literature. Did you follow a definition of a certain scholar? Or does your understanding of a term differ from the way it is commonly understood in scientific work on the topic?

What is your theoretical framework?

What is your conceptual framework.

How to react: Your conceptual framework is embedded in your theoretical framework, but concretely describes the variables (and their relationships) that you address in your study. In a way, a conceptual framework provides a roadmap for your research.

Common audience questions about the research process

How did you collect your data.

The question on data collection can be answered skillfully if you can provide information on your data sources and data gathering. You can also share some of the challenges you experienced when collecting data, and how you overcame them.

What did you do to prevent research biases?

Common audience questions about research avenues not taken, have you considered the work of … .

How to react: When doing research, you simply cannot incorporate everything and everyone. At some point, you need to make a decision. However, many presenters at academic conferences are asked whether they considered incorporating the work of specific scholars working on similar topics.

Why did you not use the method of … ?

When you react to this question, you can be completely honest. Maybe you did not use a specific method because of time or budgetary constraints. Maybe you are not familiar with the named method. Or maybe you simply don’t believe that the suggested method would have generated any valuable findings.

If you could start over, what would you do differently?

Common audience questions about research limitations, what are the limitations of your research.

How to react: Every research has limitations. And being able to be explicit about your research limitations is a sign of strength, not weakness!

Are you able to generalise your findings?

For quantitative research, you can more easily refer to numeric criteria that indicate whether you can generalise findings or not. For qualitative research, generalisation may not have been the objective, to begin with. Nonetheless, we can learn from the insights. Be prepared to explain your stance on generalising your findings.

Common audience questions about future research

How will you continue your research.

For instance, which elements would you like to explore that were not covered in your research yet? Which relationship do you plan to investigate further? What is your next research step, building upon your current findings?

What are your suggestions for future research?

How to react: Individual researchers cannot cover everything about an interesting topic on their own. Therefore, a common audience question focuses on research suggestions for other scholars.

What is your advice for people studying a similar phenomenon?

How to react: This is a fun question! It asks you to share your wisdom. Yes, yours! Having conducted your research means you have valuable lessons to share with others embarking on a similar journey.

It can be difficult to come up with good advice on the spot, so make sure to have a few answers up your sleeve. You can, for instance, advise people to start the data collection earlier, to work closely with external partners, or to be open about changes in the research process.

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How to appropriately email a researcher to ask for details about their paper?

Often when I am reading a newly published article, I will encounter some points that are difficult to understand. For example, some details of the methodology that I think the authors did not explain in enough detail.

I'm not sure how to write an appropriate email to ask for clarification, especially on how to phrase, so as to be polite. For example, should I write "Ask for details on methodology" or "Inquiry on details on methodology" or ...?

• 1 You can also ask if there is an appendix (published or not) containing more methodological details than appeared in the published article. –  Alexis Commented Jul 6, 2020 at 23:24
• 2 Does this answer your question? How should I phrase an important question that I need to ask a professor? –  Anonymous Physicist Commented Jul 6, 2020 at 23:42
• 3 Be warned that authors of papers can be of varying degrees of helpfulness when you ask them about details of their papers or more explicit details of their methodology/computations. –  Tom Commented Jul 7, 2020 at 0:45
• 2 There is a website called pubpeer, which is useful for public comments of papers, if you have a question it's possible other people may too, maybe someone has asked it before –  Rainb Commented Jul 7, 2020 at 5:10
• 1 By the way, it should go without saying but also make sure you have thoroughly read the paper before asking :) –  a3nm Commented Jul 7, 2020 at 8:26

9 Answers 9

Showing interest is nice, accusing people is not. So, show interest, something like "I saw your article XXX in YYY and I am working on something similar. I was wondering how exactly you dealt with ZZZ."

This probably is a bit culturally determined, but almost anything polite will do. I personally prefer your second formulation, but others might not. Don't overthink it.

But in a first mail to the author(s) I suggest asking questions that can be answered fairly simply/quickly and don't ask for too much. If it seems like it will be a lot of work to reply, then you might not get any answer. You can always follow up with additional questions if the authors seem open to communication.

In the best case it can open the possibility of future collaboration if the topic is of mutual interest.

Contacting researchers for clarification is good practice. Before you do, ask yourself why you think the authors did not provide enough details . In formulating an answer, you may find they did provide enough details. Otherwise, you'll have established a better understanding for what you need to know, and you can put that to the researchers. Always be humble in asking.

Let's get more templated . What about this?

To: %Corresponding author% Subject: %Paper title% Dear Prof. %NAME% , With a great interest I read your paper on %TOPIC% . Since I work in a similar area, I would like to %short presentation of what you want% [e.g., to compare my approach [1, 2, 3] to yours]. Do you have %your actual inquiry, detailed% ? Thank you very much in advance. [1] Paper [2] Paper [3] Paper Best regards, %Your name% -- %Your signature, including your institution, email, phone, and further ways to contact you%

If you are asking for code, try searching GitHub and further usual places first. Googling the corresponding author would also help. Take a look at their most recent papers, may be your question is already answered.

• What if I'm not sure if they are a professor or not. –  hotohoto Commented Jan 31, 2023 at 6:12
• 1 Just google them? –  Oleg Lobachev Commented Feb 1, 2023 at 10:33

So long as what you write is not rude or arrogant, nobody will care much.

The important thing is to ask some specific questions. If you just asked me for "details of methodology" I would hit the delete button, because I'm not going to write a comprehensive reply that is probably longer than the published paper telling you every little detail about what I did - especially if the paper was published years ago and I have forgotten most of the details anyway.

• That depends imho. If you write an article about Nuclear Power and completely leave out the part about uranium atoms splitting, well, do you assume your readers will know ? –  clockw0rk Commented Jul 8, 2020 at 8:09
• @clockw0rk yes? For a journal article, I think you can safely assume a decent general science background, especially in the topic of the journal (e.g., fission for a Modern Physics Letters paper). –  Matt Commented Jul 9, 2020 at 0:11
• @Matt u maybe right about that, but I encountered papers about advanced hacking techniques where the author completely leaves out facts about what he is refferring to when he says "... because it is simply a fact" or "...as is common knowledge". Not the topic of this question, but definately provide at least sources to your readers where they can find the basics of your research. Well, I guess it's part of the topic that these papers always come a little "mysterious" or "arcane", so to speak. –  clockw0rk Commented Jul 9, 2020 at 12:31

I was for 5 or so years a university researcher and co-wrote a few papers. I would have been thrilled if someone had written to me asking a sensible question (they never did) but horrified if they had found an error. Professors, on the other hand, can be time poor, so it will be best to write to the most junior author if this is an option. In my experience many academics build upon their previous work and answers to any questions will often be found in previous papers. To be specific I would suggest: "Do you use the [your best guess at the techniques/methodology used] system in your research?" after a preamble much as Oleg has given above.

If the paper is published it is because the editor (and presumably the referees) believe there are enough details either in the manuscript per se , in the references or that the procedure is sufficiently well-known not to waste time on it.

Thus I would encourage you to be very careful in suggesting there is not enough information: it might not be enough information for you but presumably it’s enough information for that typical reader of the journal.

You might ask for clarifications on a few specific points but do so selectively, making sure you include significant context and references so that your query is legitimate.

A while ago I also read a paper and had a question which was not answered in the paper (or maybe it was and I just wasn't capable of interpreting it).

I searched for the address of the main author and wrote a polite, kind email without much fluff (because I had often heard that scientists don't like fluff).

I also mentioned that I had asked another scientist I knew first, but that no one knew the answer (just to add some justification for why I was writing him instead of asking others or consulting books).

For me, he was something like a famous Professor and I thought he would never answer my mail. But not even a day later I received a kind and helpful answer from him.

I would also like to add here to encourage everyone to answer emails like this if possible. For him it was maybe just an email but his answer meant so very much to me, I nearly even cried because I was so happy and I felt taken seriously and acknowledged.

This is what I used to do when I was a math grad student:

• Be extra polite (I would start with "Dear Prof. NNN")
• Introduce yourself. Say what level you're at, what institution you're at, and who you're working with. (Briefly.) It will help them understand what level you're at and indicate a connection.
• Be somewhat detailed about what you do understand. Don't just say "I didn't understand this step in the methods." Say "When you say that you did XXX, did you mean YYY, or ZZZ? Or perhaps I misunderstand completely?" Just like with Stack Exchange you want to make it clear you put some effort in, and you also want to make it clear just what needs to be explained.
• Include a phone number in case they want to talk further.

I want to re-emphasize the importance of being clear about where you are uncertain. You want to make it as easy as possible for them to answer your question. And as you try to put your confusion into words, it may actually become more clear to you.

But don't be afraid to make the contact. It could even lead to a future collaboration. Connecting with other researchers is a good thing to do.

One other note: Even though I suggested "Dear Prof. NNN", that's just for the first contact. After that, look at how they talk to you. If they close with just their first name, that's generally an invitation to address them that way.

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Burning Questions: “What’s the Best Way to Approach a Research Paper When You Don’t Know Where to Start?”

We, librarians, are fortunate that we get to meet a lot of incoming Hopkins students. We often request that they give us their “burning questions” — about Baltimore, Hopkins, the library, life and love, etc. We’ve curated some of their questions and their answers into a series of blog posts that we hope will address some “burning questions” of your own.

Q: “What’s the best way to approach a research paper when you don’t know where to start?”

A: You find yourself staring at the blank page. The cursor is blinking with expectation, adding to the pressure of getting started on your research paper but your mind is as blank as the page. Where do you begin?

We’ve all been there! Starting your research can be daunting! Luckily, you’ve got the library (and the librarians) waiting in the wings, ready to help! There are a few basic steps that can get you started.

1 – A Topic: Even if you’ve got a topic in mind, it’s worth interrogating it and making sure that you’re able to write something interesting about it.

• Do I know this topic/field well enough to contribute to the academic conversation?
• Is your topic specific enough? If it’s not you’ll have an impossible time describing the phenomenon you are hoping to address. If it is too specific, you may struggle to find resources that address your subject.
• Do you have access to what you’ll need to conduct your research? This is where you can depend on the library! If you are looking for a resource, let us know and we can help you find it. If we don’t have it, we can get it!

2 – Preliminary Research: Do a quick survey of what resources are out there that address your subject. Reviewing the literature on your topic will give you an idea of where you can look for more information and what angle you can take in your paper. Ask yourself who, what, where, and when you need to know to address your subject. You can use the information you find in this stage to construct a research strategy to make life easier for yourself. Pull keywords, key figures, dates, places, events, etc., from your preliminary research and let it inform your search going forward. This is the perfect stage to check out the library’s Research Guides . These guides act as signposts that can direct you toward where you can look for books , articles , datasets , and other resources about your topic.

3 – Create a Rough Outline: Ask yourself what you are trying to say with your research. Once you know that, create an outline of the arguments you intend to make that will bring the reader from Point A to Point Z. Start fleshing out your outline with your ideas, thoughts, and preliminary research. Make sure that your points flow together, following a logical order so that the reader can understand your thinking.

4 – Conduct further research: Now that you have your outline you can ask yourself “What am I trying to say in this portion of my research?” Then hit the library to find the resources you need to support the point you are making. Can’t find what you’re after? Getting frustrated? Reach out to your librarian. We can talk through your ideas, help you organize, and help you to find resources that may be eluding you.

5 – Write! Remember that writing and research is an iterative process. As you write, don’t be surprised to find yourself coming back to the library to find additional resources. Keep track of your research using a citation manager. Edit, rewrite, and get feedback!

Don’t let the blank page intimidate you. You’ve got things to say and ideas to contribute! We can’t wait to see what you do!

Related posts:

• Burning Questions: Getting Out on the Town
• Burning Questions: “Is There a Graphic Novel Section?
• Paper Due Tomorrow? Here’s Where to Start
• Burning Questions: “Is the Library Strictly Academic or Are There Recreational Books as Well?”
• Burning Questions: Writers’ Associations
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How to ask a good Research Questions?

Developing the right research questions is a critical first step in the research process. A research question is a question that a study or research project aims to answer. This question often addresses an issue or a problem, which, through analysis and interpretation of data, is answered in the study’s conclusion.

Types of Research Questions

Steps to developing a good research question, 1. start with a broad topic: , 2. narrow down your topic and determine potential research questions: , 3. another way of identifying and constructing research questions:.

• The development of a research question is an iterative process that involves continuously updating one’s knowledge on the topic and refining ideas at all stages.
• Remain updated on current trends, state-of-the-art research studies, and technological advances in the field of study you are pursuing.
• Make the research question as specific and concise as possible to ensure clarity. Avoid using words or terms that don’t add to the meaning of the research question.
• Aside from doing a literature review, seek the input of experts in the field, mentors, and colleagues. Such inputs can prove beneficial not only for the research question but also for creating the rest of the study.
• Finally, refrain from committing the two most common mistakes in framing research questions: posing a question as an anticipated contribution and framing a question as a method.

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Ask a Question, Get Answers Directly from Research Article

Today, we're excited to introduce the capability for scite users to ask research questions in plain language and get answers directly from the full text of research articles..

Today, we’re excited to introduce the capability for scite users to ask research questions in plain language and get answers directly from the full text of research articles ( Try it out now ).

Think of all the questions you’ve had and how difficult it was to find a reliable answer. Maybe you wondered whether Tanning beds increase the risk of cancer, or Does drinking hard water have any negative health effects?

On google, you get ads. Elsewhere, you’re not sure if you can trust the source. Or you have to construct your question in a way that a scientific expert can.

Our new “Ask a Question” search lets you ask frequent questions like this in simple, human terms. And we show you results straight from the full-text of over 32 million research articles that have the answer you’re looking for, or at least a clue to point you in the right direction.

Asking, “Do tanning beds increase the risk of cancer?” surfaces answers like this, which indicate that there is an associated cancer risk, with the confidence that these results are backed by peer-reviewed research.

And asking “Does drinking hard water have any negative health effects?” yields a number of results indicating some of the adverse effects of drinking hard water.

By the way, these results are not summarized or AI-generated, but snippets from full-text articles that real researchers wrote and published.

How is this possible?

At scite, we’ve built the world’s largest database of Citation Statements – the sentences from full-text articles where references are used in-text.

When we started years ago, we leveraged these to disambiguate traditional citation counts through our badge, and helped users read exactly how a particular paper and its findings were cited in newer research through our article report pages.

Then, we built a unique search experience across those Citation Statements, allowing users across domains to find facts straight from the full-text of articles. But even this required some advanced knowledge of querying.

Now, with “Ask a Question”, that wealth of information is even more accessible to anyone who engages with research.

Try it out now , and let us know what you think . For a deep dive into how it works on a technical level, check out our blog post

scite is a Brooklyn-based organization that helps researchers better discover and understand research articles through Smart Citations–citations that display the context of the citation and describe whether the article provides supporting or contrasting evidence. scite is used by students and researchers from around the world and is funded in part by the National Science Foundation and the National Institute on Drug Abuse of the National Institutes of Health.

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How to Start a Research Project: Choosing a Topic

• Choosing a Topic

Beginning Your Research Project

You have an assignment coming up in class. You need to write a research paper, create an annotated bibliography, or make a presentation. These are just some research projects you may need to do.

This guide will show you different ways to start a research project. When following this guide, please consider 3 concepts:

• Center your personal research interests - What are you interested in?
• Take as long on each step as you would like.
• Skip steps and repeat steps as you need.

Starting from Nothing: The Mind Map

A mind map is a visual way of building a topic into a research question .

A topic is the basic idea that interests you. This is the idea that sparks your research. A topic could be "barbeque," "The Cold War," "flightless birds," or "the common cold." If you are having trouble choosing a topic , review the class syllabus or canvas modules. Find a topic covered in class that you can see yourself spending time with.

A research question is the focus of your research project. It is the thesis of your paper or the point of your presentation.

Work with us through the mind map steps to build your own research question .

To create a mind map , you will need to be able to write or type text, and the text must also be rearrangeable.

• Start with an idea like "Kitchen Design". Place your idea in the center.

• Surround your central idea with related concepts. I wrote all the kinds of kitchens I could think of. I could have also chosen to list appliances or design themes instead.

• Out of the kitchen-types, I was most drawn to "Hospital Kitchens". I then added concepts around "Hospital Kitchens". These concepts can be moved to also combined with other ideas.

• I also thought more about "Home Kitchens". I combined, "Kitchen Safety", "Consumer Preferences", and "Advertisements."

• My final version of my mind map example is very small. Don't worry if you have many more ideas and need more time rearranging your cards and planning.

I have identified two different starting research questions by combining my concepts:

• How could hospital managers design hospital kitchens to be safer for employees?
• How do kitchen appliance manufacturers advertise the safety of their products to consumers?

Research Questions

A research question is the focus of your research project. It is the thesis of your paper or the point of your presentation. Here are some requirements of a good research question:

• Research questions cannot be answered with "yes" or "no".
• Research questions can be researched.
• A small research paper shouldn't have a research question with a giant scope: How does preventative healthcare get planned?
• A small research paper should have a research question with a manageable scope: How do preventative care programs for type II diabetes in Alabaman clinics get advertised?

In this example, we narrowed the scope of our initial research question in a few ways:

• Type: "Preventative care" was limited to - "type II diabetes"
• Place: We had no initial location limit. We limited ourselves to "Alabaman clinics"
• Action: "Planned" was defined as "advertised"

Sometimes, research questions need to change slightly after you have done some research. If you were not able to find any useful resources for the example research question, then you could try changing the scope. If you cannot find anything specific to Alabaman clinics, then you could change that part of your research question to "United States clinics" or "Alabaman healthcare providers."

Still stuck? Please check Monash University's Developing Research Questions guide .

Turning your Research Question into a Search

Useful links.

• Purdue OWL: Choosing a Topic This handout provides detailed information about how to write research papers including discussing research papers as a genre, choosing topics, and finding sources.
• UNC: Brainstorming This handout discusses techniques that will help you start writing a paper and continue writing through the challenges of the revising process. Brainstorming can help you choose a topic, develop an approach to a topic, or deepen your understanding of the topic’s potential.
• University Writing Center Schedule a session with a tutor at the University Writing Center.
• Next: JSTOR >>
• Last Updated: Aug 12, 2024 9:27 AM
• URL: https://libguides.southalabama.edu/start-research

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World Leaders in Research-Based User Experience

Handling sensitive questions in surveys and screeners.

August 9, 2024 2024-08-09

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Frequently, surveys and screeners contain questions that some respondents may find sensitive or be reluctant to answer. Even questions that might seem innocuous to a researcher, like age, gender, or income level, could cause an emotional response from your respondents.

This article guides you through handling sensitive questions in surveys and screeners and provides some example wording for you to use in the future.

In This Article:

Which questions are sensitive, guidelines for handling sensitive questions, specific question wordings.

Researchers should always attempt to avoid any possible discomfort experienced by their research participants. In addition to the obvious ethical implications, sensitive questions could cause participants to either abandon the survey or, worse, provide unreliable answers.

A sensitive question is one that respondents might find embarrassing or invasive.

There are multiple categories of sensitive questions to be aware of, but two are particularly worthy of consideration for user researchers: demographic questions and questions about socially undesirable behaviors.

Demographic Questions

Survey researchers often add demographic questions  to a questionnaire without considering how they might be construed. While many survey takers might breeze through demographic questions, they can be potentially triggering or offensive for some respondents.

Demographic questions that have the potential to be perceived as sensitive include those asking about:

• Income level

Income level can be especially problematic and lead to high rates of nonresponse. One study by Jeffrey Moore and colleagues found that questions about income are 10 times more likely to be left blank than other demographic questions.

Sex and gender are other categories of questions that can be sensitive depending on one’s gender identity. Take this question from a recent Nielsen Radio Ratings survey.

Many people would easily complete this question without a second thought. However, consider this account from genderqueer essayist s.e. smith:

“For some trans* folk, it is a place of endless heartbreak. Every. Single. Time. I fill out a form, I stop here. There is a long pause. A hesitation. A sigh. I am not male. I am not female. On paper forms, I often leave it blank [...] Imagine dreading the filling out of forms not because it’s a hassle and it’s repetitive and it’s not very fun. Imagine dreading it because you know that you are going to have to lie and erase yourself every time you fill out a form.”

User researchers like to refer to themselves as user advocates. This lofty designation extends not only to designing delightful user experiences and interfaces but also to protecting the human experiences of our research participants. This includes all participants, not just those that fall into a perceived norm.

Questions About Socially Undesirable Behaviors

Social-desirability bias is a cognitive bias that dictates that people are less likely to disclose behaviors or preferences that are deemed to be undesirable by society. Behaviors that are considered socially undesirable can vary from person to person and, therefore, are likely to slip undetected through a survey creation process.

Common behaviors known to lead to underreporting in surveys include:

• Alcohol consumption
• Cigarette smoking (especially during pregnancy)

However, there are less obvious behaviors as well. For example, voting is also considered a socially desirable behavior, and in many surveys, the reported voting rate is higher than the real one.

Beyond these categories, additional topics that might include sensitive questions include the following:

• Questions about illegal activity
• Identifying information (e.g., home address)
• Emotionally upsetting topics (e.g., health concerns or victimization)
• Information that might be threatening in the wrong hands (e.g., disclosing a preexisting health condition)

While the strategy for addressing sensitive survey questions will vary based on multiple factors, some general guidelines are always helpful.

Determine if You Really Need to Ask

Researchers frequently include demographic questions in a survey just out of habit, without considering whether asking is truly necessary. To optimize response rate, surveys should be kept as short as possible, and therefore any question should be included only if necessary for the research at hand.

Here are 2 questions you should ask yourself before including any question in a questionnaire, regardless of sensitivity.

1. Do You Truly Care About the Answer?

Don’t ask questions because you’re merely curious, or assume all questionnaires should include basic demographic questions. If you have no plans to make decisions based on the outcome, you probably shouldn’t include the question.

2. Can You Find the Answer Another Way?

Are you using a recruiting panel like UserTesting.com or User Interviews? If so, a lot of demographic data about respondents is already included in their profiles and, therefore, doesn’t need to be asked.

Are you asking about browsing behavior on your site, data that could be gathered more accurately from analytics? Don’t ask users to provide you with information that you can access in another, less intrusive way.

Emphasize Confidentiality and Anonymity

Whether to keep participant data confidential, anonymous, or both is an important consideration in survey methodology. While often conflated, these two terms describe two different concepts.

Anonymity means a participant's data cannot be traced back to their identity. Ensuring anonymity may mean using a pseudonym or code number instead of the participant’s name in reporting.

Confidentiality limits the people who are permitted to view the response. Ensuring confidentiality might mean that no one beyond the immediate research team will ever view the survey data.

Anonymity is typically required in most cases of user research, and confidentiality is typically overkill. That said, adding the promise of confidentiality can sometimes increase the likelihood of complete and honest responses to sensitive questions.

Respondents should never have to guess whether a survey is anonymous, confidential, both, or neither. This information should be readily available to respondents when they are deciding whether to take the survey. For example:

Your privacy is important to us. All responses to this survey will be kept strictly confidential. Individual answers will be anonymized and aggregated for analysis. Your personal information will not be shared with any third parties, and will only be used for the purpose of this research. Thank you for your participation.

Lead Up to Sensitive Questions

Sensitive questions placed too early in a questionnaire or screener are more likely to lead to dropoffs. Build respondent trust with nonsensitive questions first, allowing them to invest effort in the process.

This guideline also applies to demographic questions, which should be optional and placed at the end of a questionnaire, not at the beginning, as is often the case. Demographic questions at the beginning are much more likely to lead to dropoffs than demographic questions at the end, even when they are not deemed to be sensitive.

Also, avoid placing particularly sensitive questions at the very end of a survey. If you inadvertently offend a respondent, you don’t want that to be their lasting impression of the survey.

Provide Context and Use “Question Loading”

UXers love to remove unnecessary text from interfaces and forms. Sometimes, however, adding more information is necessary.

First, you may use question loading (not to be confused with a leading question ). Question loading is the inclusion of additional context that may assuage respondent guilt or shame around questionable behavior.

Original question: Do you save a portion of your income each month?

With question loading: Given the rising cost of living and various financial commitments, many people find it challenging to save regularly. How often are you able to save a portion of your income each month?

Additionally, if a question or topic may raise eyebrows, consider explaining the purpose of asking it and the benefit that could come from answering it honestly. For example, if a survey asks a question about abortion, the drafter may include language such as the following:

We are conducting a survey to understand people's experiences with abortion. Please know that your responses are completely anonymous and will be used solely to improve access to abortion care for those who need it. We approach this topic with sensitivity and without judgment.

Use Ranges Rather than Specific Values

Imagine you want to ask about someone’s income — something they may reasonably feel sensitive about sharing. Imagine someone’s reaction to reading the following question:

What is your annual household income: __________

A respondent would likely feel very apprehensive about sharing their specific income for several reasons. They may:

• Worry about how their income will compare to the rest of the sample and whether they would be an outlier on either end of the scale
• Be confused about input formats (Do I include a dollar sign? Do I include “.00 ”? Do I include “ per year ”?)
• Worry about whether giving an exact number may be somehow identifying or overly revealing
• Be reluctant to do math if their income is variable or complex

Now consider the following format instead:

What is your total annual household income?

• $24,999 or less
• $25,000 to $49,999
• $50,000 to $74,999
• $75,000 to $99,999
• $100,000 to $149,999
• $150,000 to $199,999
• $200,000 or more

This tweak addresses all the previous concerns. With this question format, a respondent would:

• Have a sense of how their income compares to the range, and hopefully get some reassurance that they are not alone in whatever range they fall into
• Not need to worry about an input format
• Not need to provide an exact number
• Be less likely to need to do math

Ranges feel less sensitive than asking for specific values. The larger the ranges provided, the less sensitive the request feels.

Ask About Frequency Rather than Yes/No Questions

Consider the following question from the 2019 Youth Risk Behaviors Survey.

During your life, how many times have you used marijuana?

• 1 or 2 times
• 3 to 9 times
• 10 to 19 times
• 20 to 39 times
• 40 to 99 times
• 100 or more times

Rather than simply asking Have you ever used marijuana? (which, admittedly, would probably have been easier for respondents to answer correctly if they had been willing to share that information) , the researchers asked about the frequency of use. While the Yes/No formulation may imply a moral judgment and encourage lying, the frequency question makes a slight assumption that the respondent has indeed used marijuana in the past, which encourages honesty.

Additionally, you may wish to provide additional response options at the end of the range that may be perceived as undesirable, to skew the responses away from bias. For example, consider the following question about exercise frequency.

How often do you engage in physical exercise each month?

• 0 to 3 times a month
• 4 to 7 times a month
• 8 to 12 times a month
• 13 to 20 times a month
• More than 20 times a month

Someone who only works out once or twice per month may feel shame around selecting the bottommost option, and dishonestly select a response towards the middle of the range (see central-tendency bias ).

The following formulation would likely encourage more honest responses from infrequent exercisers.

• 0 times a month
• 1 to 2 times a month
• 3 to 4 times a month
• 5 to 7 times a month

Ask Indirectly

For particularly sensitive topics, researchers may wish to employ an indirect surveying technique, such as the item-count method.

In this approach, the respondent population is divided into two groups. Each group is asked an identical question about how many behaviors from a list they have engaged in, with the addition of the behavior in question for only one of the groups.

For example, consider this question from a 2014 study by Jouni Kuha and Jonathan Jackson at the London School of Economics:

I am now going to read you a list of five [six] things that people may do or that may happen to them. Please listen to them and tell me how many of them you have done or have happened to you in the last 12 months. Do not tell me which ones are and are not true for you. Just tell me how many you have done at least once. Attended a religious service, except for a special occasion like a wedding or funeral Went to a sporting event Attended an opera Visited a country outside [your country] Had personal belongings such as money or a mobile phone stolen from you or from your house? Treatment group only: Bought something you thought might have been stolen

During the analysis, the research will then compare the differences between the two groups in order to estimate the frequency of the behavior in question.

Embed the Sensitive Question

A single sensitive question in an otherwise mundane questionnaire can stand out and be jarring. Researchers may attempt to disarm the respondent with other slightly sensitive questions to mask the question of interest.

Some questions (e.g., demographic questions) are very common and potentially sensitive. The following section includes recommendations for specific wording for these questions. You are welcome to utilize these wordings in your own surveys and screeners.

Sex and Gender

Sex and gender, while frequently conflated and confused, are different (sex is biological characteristics, whereas gender is one’s social identity). The first question you need to ask yourself when asking about sex or gender (after asking, “Do I really need to be asking at all?”) is, “Which one do I care about?” Most of the time, UX researchers care about gender, not sex.

The most important thing to remember when asking about gender is to use inclusive and gender-expansive language that captures the full breadth of gender identity that society now recognizes.

First, consider the question wording. Please select your gender implies that one of the options provided will be a perfect match for the respondent’s gender identity and, therefore, requires the inclusion of an Other:_______ option.

On the other hand, Which of the following best represents your gender? implies only a best fit, so the use of a fill-in-the-blank Other option, while still advisable, is not required.

Next, consider the options provided. It is no longer acceptable to limit gender identity options to simply man and woman . Society’s understanding of gender identity has expanded, and research methods must reflect that.

In most instances, it is sufficient to limit options to the following categories:

• Prefer to self-describe:_______
• Prefer not to disclose

If you additionally have a need to know whether someone is transgender (e.g., in order to differentiate between cisgender men and transgender men, both of whom would select Man from the above options), ask a followup question:

Do you identify as transgender?

If you are conducting research for which a granular and inclusive capturing of one’s gender identity is necessary, consider using the following options to the first question and omitting the followup transgender question.

• Cisgender man
• Cisgender woman
• Transgender man
• Transgender woman
• Nonbinary person
• Genderqueer/genderfluid person
• Agender person
• Two-spirit person
• Intersex person
• Prefer to self-describe:______

Age is a common question in in user-research surveys, as age may correlate to distinct persona traits. Adhere to the following best practices when asking about age:

One recommended wording is:

How old are you? (single select)

• 17 or under

Race and Ethnicity

Like sex and gender, race and ethnicity are often confused but are different (race refers to physical traits; ethnicity refers to cultural identity and heritage).

Determine first which you care about. It is possible to formulate questions that ask about race only, about ethnicity only, or about both.

Additionally, be aware that many people identify with more than one racial and ethnic group and will be excluded if you force them to pick one. For this reason, use multiselect question formats for these questions.

How do you describe yourself? (multiselect)

• American Indian or Alaska Native
• Black or African American
• Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander
• White or Caucasian
• Other:______

Just Ethnicity

Are you of Hispanic, Latinx, or of Spanish origin? (single select)

You can ask about both race and ethnicity separately, using the two questions above, or you can combine them into a single question:

How do you describe yourself? (multi-select)

• Hispanic or Latinx

Accessibility Needs and Disabilities

When asking about accessibility needs or disability, do so directly, using language used by the communities in question.

Do you have any of the following accessibility needs? (Select all that apply)

• Cognitive: such as dyslexia or ADHD
• Emotional: such as anxiety or depression
• Hearing: such as deafness or hearing loss
• Motor: such as cerebral Palsy or arthritis
• Visual: such as blindness or vision loss
• Other:________
• No, I don’t have any accessibility needs

Make sure to avoid language that implies negativity (e.g., Do you have diabetes? instead of Do you suffer from diabetes?; Do you use a wheelchair ? instead of Are you confined to a wheelchair? ).

Language Proficiency

Suppose you need to know about someone’s qualitative assessment of their own language proficiency. In that case, it is helpful to provide a brief description of each answer option to ensure understanding, particularly if the reader is less proficient with the language.

How would you describe your English language level (or proficiency)?

• Native / Mother-tongue: English is my first language
• Fluent: I can speak, read, and write in English fluently
• Proficient: I am skilled in English but not fluent
• Conversational: I can communicate effectively in English in most situations
• Basic knowledge: I have a basic knowledge of the language

Groves, R.M., Fowler Jr, F.J., Couper, M.P., Lepkowski, J.M., Singer, E., and Tourangeau, R. 2009. Survey Methodology . 2nd ed. Wiley.

Jarrett, C. 2021. Surveys That Work . Rosenfeld Media.

Kuha, J. and Jackson, J. 2014. The item count method for sensitive survey questions: modelling criminal behaviour. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series C (Applied Statistics) 63, 2 (Feb. 2014), 321-341. Published by Oxford University Press.

Moore, J., Stinson, L., and Welniak, E. 1997. Income Measurement Error in Surveys: A Review. In Cognition and Survey Research, Sirken, M., Herrmann, D., Schechter, S., Schwarz, N., Tanur, J., and Tourangeau, R. (Eds.). Wiley, New York, 155-174.

smith, s.e. 2009. Beyond the Binary: Forms. Retrieved March 31, 2021, from meloukhia.net/2009/12/beyond_the_binary_forms/.

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• 14 August 2024

Has your paper been used to train an AI model? Almost certainly

• Elizabeth Gibney

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Academic publisher Wiley has sold access to its research papers to firms developing large language models. Credit: Timon Schneider/Alamy

Academic publishers are selling access to research papers to technology firms to train artificial-intelligence (AI) models. Some researchers have reacted with dismay at such deals happening without the consultation of authors. The trend is raising questions about the use of published and sometimes copyrighted work to train the exploding number of AI chatbots in development.

Experts say that, if a research paper hasn’t yet been used to train a large language model (LLM), it probably will be soon. Researchers are exploring technical ways for authors to spot if their content being used.

AI models fed AI-generated data quickly spew nonsense

Last month, it emerged that the UK academic publisher Taylor & Francis, had signed a US$10-million deal with Microsoft, allowing the US technology company to access the publisher’s data to improve its AI systems. And in June, an investor update showed that US publisher Wiley had earned $23 million from allowing an unnamed company to train generative-AI models on its content.

Anything that is available to read online — whether in an open-access repository or not — is “pretty likely” to have been fed into an LLM already, says Lucy Lu Wang, an AI researcher at the University of Washington in Seattle. “And if a paper has already been used as training data in a model, there’s no way to remove that paper after the model has been trained,” she adds.

Massive data sets

LLMs train on huge volumes of data, frequently scraped from the Internet. They derive patterns between the often billions of snippets of language in the training data, known as tokens, that allow them to generate text with uncanny fluency.

Generative-AI models rely on absorbing patterns from these swathes of data to output text, images or computer code. Academic papers are valuable for LLM builders owing to their length and “high information density”, says Stefan Baack, who analyses AI training data sets at the Mozilla Foundation, a global non-profit organization in San Francisco, California that aims to keep the Internet open for all to access.

How does ChatGPT ‘think’? Psychology and neuroscience crack open AI large language models

Training models on a large body of scientific information also give them a much better ability to reason about scientific topics, says Wang, who co-created S2ORC, a data set based on 81.1 million academic papers. The data set was originally developed for text mining — applying analytical techniques to find patterns in data — but has since been used to train LLMs.

The trend of buying high-quality data sets is growing. This year, the Financial Times has offered its content to ChatGPT developer OpenAI in a lucrative deal, as has the online forum Reddit, to Google. And given that scientific publishers probably view the alternative as their work being scraped without an agreement, “I think there will be more of these deals to come,” says Wang.

Information secrets

Some AI developers, such as the Large-scale Artificial Intelligence Network, intentionally keep their data sets open, but many firms developing generative-AI models have kept much of their training data secret, says Baack. “We have no idea what is in there,” he says. Open-source repositories such as arXiv and the scholarly database PubMed of abstracts are thought to be “very popular” sources, he says, although paywalled journal articles probably have their free-to-read abstracts scraped by big technology firms. “They are always on the hunt for that kind of stuff,” he adds.

Proving that an LLM has used any individual paper is difficult, says Yves-Alexandre de Montjoye, a computer scientist at Imperial College London. One way is to prompt the model with an unusual sentence from a text and see whether the output matches the next words in the original. If it does, that is good evidence that the paper is in the training set. But if it doesn’t, that doesn’t mean that the paper wasn’t used — not least because developers can code the LLM to filter responses to ensure they don’t match training data too closely. “It takes a lot for this to work,” he says.

Robo-writers: the rise and risks of language-generating AI

Another method to check whether data are in a training set is known as membership inference attack. This relies on the idea that a model will be more confident about its output when it is seeing something that it has seen before. De Montjoye’s team has developed a version of this, called a copyright trap, for LLMs.

To set the trap, the team generates sentences that look plausible but are nonsense, and hides them in a body of work, for example as white text on a white background or in a field that’s displayed as zero width on a webpage. If an LLM is more ‘surprised’ — a measure known as its perplexity — by an unused control sentence than it is by the one hidden in the text, “that is statistical evidence that the traps were seen before”, he says.

Copyright questions

Even if it were possible to prove that an LLM has been trained on a certain text, it is not clear what happens next. Publishers maintain that, if developers use copyrighted text in training and have not sought a licence, that counts as infringement. But a counter legal argument says that LLMs do not copy anything — they harvest information content from training data, which gets broken up, and use their learning to generate new text.

AI is complicating plagiarism. How should scientists respond?

Litigation might help to resolve this. In an ongoing US copyright case that could be precedent-setting, The New York Times is suing Microsoft and ChatGPT’s developer OpenAI in San Francisco, California. The newspaper accuses the firms of using its journalistic content to train their models without permission.

Many academics are happy to have their work included in LLM training data — especially if the models make them more accurate. “I personally don’t mind if I have a chatbot who writes in the style of me,” says Baack. But he acknowledges that his job is not threatened by LLM outputs in the way that those of other professions, such as artists and writers, are.

Individual scientific authors currently have little power if the publisher of their paper decides to sell access to their copyrighted works. For publicly available articles, there is no established means to apportion credit or know whether a text has been used.

Some researchers, including de Montjoye, are frustrated. “We want LLMs, but we still want something that is fair, and I think we’ve not invented what this looks like yet,” he says.

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-02599-9

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Bonus question: how does flexible incentive pay affect wage rigidity.

Overview: In the paper “ Bonus Question: How Does Flexible Incentive Pay Affect Wage Rigidity? " NYU Stern Professor Abdoulaye Ndiaye , along with co-authors Meghana Gaur (Princeton University), John Grigsby (Princeton University), and Jonathon Hazell (London School of Economics), studies how incentive pay affects our understanding of macroeconomic behavior. Why study this now: Since the 1930s, economists have believed that wages that don't change much during good or bad economic times (wage rigidity) play a big role in how the macroeconomy works. When wages remain constant, it can cause more unemployment during economic downturns. Additionally, about half of US workers get some form of incentive pay – which can change often – making it an important aspect to analyze when studying the economy.  What the authors found: The researchers developed a new model of inflation and unemployment dynamics. The model shows that incorporating incentive pay can mimic the same economic responses (unemployment and inflation) as models with fixed wages. This is because changes in wages and incentives balance out to keep marginal costs stable.

What does this change : The study highlights the importance of, and a proper way of accounting for, incentive pay in economic models to better understand labor market behavior and inflation during booms and busts. Understanding how incentive pay influences wage rigidity can help policymakers and economists better predict and manage employment and inflation responses to economic changes. Key insight: “These results suggest that researchers should assess the extent to which wage cyclicality is due to incentives when calibrating their models,” say the authors. “We offer one attempt at such measurement through a calibrated model and find that approximately 46% of the wage cyclicality in the data arises because of firms’ procyclical desire to incentivize worker effort. Models that do not feature incentive pay should therefore target a value of wage cyclicality significantly lower than that in the data to correctly reproduce the impulse response of unemployment.”

More from Professor Abdoulaye Ndiaye

Local Projections

Òscar Jordà

Alan M. Taylor

Download PDF (986 KB)

2024-24 | August 12, 2024

A central question in applied research is to estimate the effect of an exogenous intervention or shock on an outcome. The intervention can affect the outcome and controls on impact and over time. Moreover, there can be subsequent feedback between outcomes, controls and the intervention. Many of these interactions can be untangled using local projections. This method’s simplicity makes it a convenient and versatile tool in the empiricist’s kit, one that is generalizable to complex settings. This article reviews the state-of-the art for the practitioner, discusses best practices and possible extensions of local projections methods, along with their limitations.

Suggested citation:

Jordà, Òscar and Alan M. Taylor. 2024. “Local Projections.” Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Working Paper 2024-24. https://doi.org/10.24148/wp2024-24

How to cite ChatGPT

Use discount code STYLEBLOG15 for 15% off APA Style print products with free shipping in the United States.

We, the APA Style team, are not robots. We can all pass a CAPTCHA test , and we know our roles in a Turing test . And, like so many nonrobot human beings this year, we’ve spent a fair amount of time reading, learning, and thinking about issues related to large language models, artificial intelligence (AI), AI-generated text, and specifically ChatGPT . We’ve also been gathering opinions and feedback about the use and citation of ChatGPT. Thank you to everyone who has contributed and shared ideas, opinions, research, and feedback.

In this post, I discuss situations where students and researchers use ChatGPT to create text and to facilitate their research, not to write the full text of their paper or manuscript. We know instructors have differing opinions about how or even whether students should use ChatGPT, and we’ll be continuing to collect feedback about instructor and student questions. As always, defer to instructor guidelines when writing student papers. For more about guidelines and policies about student and author use of ChatGPT, see the last section of this post.

Quoting or reproducing the text created by ChatGPT in your paper

If you’ve used ChatGPT or other AI tools in your research, describe how you used the tool in your Method section or in a comparable section of your paper. For literature reviews or other types of essays or response or reaction papers, you might describe how you used the tool in your introduction. In your text, provide the prompt you used and then any portion of the relevant text that was generated in response.

Unfortunately, the results of a ChatGPT “chat” are not retrievable by other readers, and although nonretrievable data or quotations in APA Style papers are usually cited as personal communications , with ChatGPT-generated text there is no person communicating. Quoting ChatGPT’s text from a chat session is therefore more like sharing an algorithm’s output; thus, credit the author of the algorithm with a reference list entry and the corresponding in-text citation.

When prompted with “Is the left brain right brain divide real or a metaphor?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that although the two brain hemispheres are somewhat specialized, “the notation that people can be characterized as ‘left-brained’ or ‘right-brained’ is considered to be an oversimplification and a popular myth” (OpenAI, 2023).

OpenAI. (2023). ChatGPT (Mar 14 version) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com/chat

You may also put the full text of long responses from ChatGPT in an appendix of your paper or in online supplemental materials, so readers have access to the exact text that was generated. It is particularly important to document the exact text created because ChatGPT will generate a unique response in each chat session, even if given the same prompt. If you create appendices or supplemental materials, remember that each should be called out at least once in the body of your APA Style paper.

When given a follow-up prompt of “What is a more accurate representation?” the ChatGPT-generated text indicated that “different brain regions work together to support various cognitive processes” and “the functional specialization of different regions can change in response to experience and environmental factors” (OpenAI, 2023; see Appendix A for the full transcript).

Creating a reference to ChatGPT or other AI models and software

The in-text citations and references above are adapted from the reference template for software in Section 10.10 of the Publication Manual (American Psychological Association, 2020, Chapter 10). Although here we focus on ChatGPT, because these guidelines are based on the software template, they can be adapted to note the use of other large language models (e.g., Bard), algorithms, and similar software.

The reference and in-text citations for ChatGPT are formatted as follows:

• Parenthetical citation: (OpenAI, 2023)
• Narrative citation: OpenAI (2023)

Let’s break that reference down and look at the four elements (author, date, title, and source):

Author: The author of the model is OpenAI.

Date: The date is the year of the version you used. Following the template in Section 10.10, you need to include only the year, not the exact date. The version number provides the specific date information a reader might need.

Title: The name of the model is “ChatGPT,” so that serves as the title and is italicized in your reference, as shown in the template. Although OpenAI labels unique iterations (i.e., ChatGPT-3, ChatGPT-4), they are using “ChatGPT” as the general name of the model, with updates identified with version numbers.

The version number is included after the title in parentheses. The format for the version number in ChatGPT references includes the date because that is how OpenAI is labeling the versions. Different large language models or software might use different version numbering; use the version number in the format the author or publisher provides, which may be a numbering system (e.g., Version 2.0) or other methods.

Bracketed text is used in references for additional descriptions when they are needed to help a reader understand what’s being cited. References for a number of common sources, such as journal articles and books, do not include bracketed descriptions, but things outside of the typical peer-reviewed system often do. In the case of a reference for ChatGPT, provide the descriptor “Large language model” in square brackets. OpenAI describes ChatGPT-4 as a “large multimodal model,” so that description may be provided instead if you are using ChatGPT-4. Later versions and software or models from other companies may need different descriptions, based on how the publishers describe the model. The goal of the bracketed text is to briefly describe the kind of model to your reader.

Source: When the publisher name and the author name are the same, do not repeat the publisher name in the source element of the reference, and move directly to the URL. This is the case for ChatGPT. The URL for ChatGPT is https://chat.openai.com/chat . For other models or products for which you may create a reference, use the URL that links as directly as possible to the source (i.e., the page where you can access the model, not the publisher’s homepage).

Other questions about citing ChatGPT

You may have noticed the confidence with which ChatGPT described the ideas of brain lateralization and how the brain operates, without citing any sources. I asked for a list of sources to support those claims and ChatGPT provided five references—four of which I was able to find online. The fifth does not seem to be a real article; the digital object identifier given for that reference belongs to a different article, and I was not able to find any article with the authors, date, title, and source details that ChatGPT provided. Authors using ChatGPT or similar AI tools for research should consider making this scrutiny of the primary sources a standard process. If the sources are real, accurate, and relevant, it may be better to read those original sources to learn from that research and paraphrase or quote from those articles, as applicable, than to use the model’s interpretation of them.

We’ve also received a number of other questions about ChatGPT. Should students be allowed to use it? What guidelines should instructors create for students using AI? Does using AI-generated text constitute plagiarism? Should authors who use ChatGPT credit ChatGPT or OpenAI in their byline? What are the copyright implications ?

On these questions, researchers, editors, instructors, and others are actively debating and creating parameters and guidelines. Many of you have sent us feedback, and we encourage you to continue to do so in the comments below. We will also study the policies and procedures being established by instructors, publishers, and academic institutions, with a goal of creating guidelines that reflect the many real-world applications of AI-generated text.

For questions about manuscript byline credit, plagiarism, and related ChatGPT and AI topics, the APA Style team is seeking the recommendations of APA Journals editors. APA Style guidelines based on those recommendations will be posted on this blog and on the APA Style site later this year.

Update: APA Journals has published policies on the use of generative AI in scholarly materials .

We, the APA Style team humans, appreciate your patience as we navigate these unique challenges and new ways of thinking about how authors, researchers, and students learn, write, and work with new technologies.

American Psychological Association. (2020). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). https://doi.org/10.1037/0000165-000

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