research article about physical education

• Search Menu
• Sign in through your institution
• Advance Articles
• Editor's Choice
• Author Guidelines
• Submission Site
• Open Access
• About Health Education Research
• Editorial Board
• Advertising and Corporate Services
• Journals Career Network
• Self-Archiving Policy
• Dispatch Dates
• Journals on Oxford Academic
• Books on Oxford Academic

Article Contents

Introduction.

• < Previous

‘Physical education makes you fit and healthy’. Physical education's contribution to young people's physical activity levels

• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data

S. Fairclough, G. Stratton, ‘Physical education makes you fit and healthy’. Physical education's contribution to young people's physical activity levels, Health Education Research , Volume 20, Issue 1, February 2005, Pages 14–23, https://doi.org/10.1093/her/cyg101

• Permissions Icon Permissions

The purpose of this study was to assess physical activity levels during high school physical education lessons. The data were considered in relation to recommended levels of physical activity to ascertain whether or not physical education can be effective in helping young people meet health-related goals. Sixty-two boys and 60 girls (aged 11–14 years) wore heart rate telemeters during physical education lessons. Percentages of lesson time spent in moderate-and-vigorous (MVPA) and vigorous intensity physical activity (VPA) were recorded for each student. Students engaged in MVPA and VPA for 34.3 ± 21.8 and 8.3 ± 11.1% of lesson time, respectively. This equated to 17.5 ± 12.9 (MVPA) and 3.9 ± 5.3 (VPA) min. Boys participated in MVPA for 39.4 ± 19.1% of lesson time compared to the girls (29.1 ± 23.4%; P < 0.01). High-ability students were more active than the average- and low-ability students. Students participated in most MVPA during team games (43.2 ± 19.5%; P < 0.01), while the least MVPA was observed during movement activities (22.2 ± 20.0%). Physical education may make a more significant contribution to young people's regular physical activity participation if lessons are planned and delivered with MVPA goals in mind.

Regular physical activity participation throughout childhood provides immediate health benefits, by positively effecting body composition and musculo-skeletal development ( Malina and Bouchard, 1991 ), and reducing the presence of coronary heart disease risk factors ( Gutin et al. , 1994 ). In recognition of these health benefits, physical activity guidelines for children and youth have been developed by the Health Education Authority [now Health Development Agency (HDA)] ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). The primary recommendation advocates the accumulation of 1 hour's physical activity per day of at least moderate intensity (i.e. the equivalent of brisk walking), through lifestyle, recreational and structured activity forms. A secondary recommendation is that children take part in activities that help develop and maintain musculo-skeletal health, on at least two occasions per week ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). This target may be addressed through weight-bearing activities that focus on developing muscular strength, endurance and flexibility, and bone health.

School physical education (PE) provides a context for regular and structured physical activity participation. To this end a common justification for PE's place in the school curriculum is that it contributes to children's health and fitness ( Physical Education Association of the United Kingdom, 2004 ; Zeigler, 1994 ). The extent to which this rationale is accurate is arguable ( Koslow, 1988 ; Michaud and Andres, 1990 ) and has seldom been tested. However, there would appear to be some truth in the supposition because PE is commonly highlighted as a significant contributor to help young people achieve their daily volume of physical activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ; Corbin and Pangrazi, 1998 ). The important role that PE has in promoting health-enhancing physical activity is exemplified in the US ‘Health of the Nation’ targets. These include three PE-associated objectives, two of which relate to increasing the number of schools providing and students participating in daily PE classes. The third objective is to improve the number of students who are engaged in beneficial physical activity for at least 50% of lesson time ( US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000 ). However, research evidence suggests that this criterion is somewhat ambitious and, as a consequence, is rarely achieved during regular PE lessons ( Stratton, 1997 ; US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000 ; Levin et al. , 2001 ; Fairclough, 2003a ).

The potential difficulties of achieving such a target are associated with the diverse aims of PE. These aims are commonly accepted by physical educators throughout the world ( International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education, 1999 ), although their interpretation, emphasis and evaluation may differ between countries. According to Simons-Morton ( Simons-Morton, 1994 ), PE's overarching goals should be (1) for students to take part in appropriate amounts of physical activity during lessons, and (2) become educated with the knowledge and skills to be physically active outside school and throughout life. The emphasis of learning during PE might legitimately focus on motor, cognitive, social, spiritual, cultural or moral development ( Sallis and McKenzie, 1991 ; Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 ). These aspects may help cultivate students' behavioural and personal skills to enable them to become lifelong physical activity participants [(thus meeting PE goal number 2 ( Simons-Morton, 1994 )]. However, to achieve this, these aspects should be delivered within a curriculum which provides a diverse range of physical activity experiences so students can make informed decisions about which ones they enjoy and feel competent at. However, evidence suggests that team sports dominate English PE curricula, yet bear limited relation to the activities that young people participate in, out of school and after compulsory education ( Sport England, 2001 ; Fairclough et al. , 2002 ). In order to promote life-long physical activity a broader base of PE activities needs to be offered to reinforce the fact that it is not necessary for young people to be talented sportspeople to be active and healthy.

While motor, cognitive, social, spiritual, cultural and moral development are valid areas of learning, they can be inconsistent with maximizing participation in health-enhancing physical activity [i.e. PE goal number 1 ( Simons-Morton, 1994 )]. There is no guidance within the English National Curriculum for PE [NCPE ( Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 )] to inform teachers how they might best work towards achieving this goal. Moreover, it is possible that the lack of policy, curriculum development or teacher expertise in this area contributes to the considerable variation in physical activity levels during PE ( Stratton, 1996a ). However, objective research evidence suggests that this is mainly due to differences in pedagogical variables [i.e. class size, available space, organizational strategies, teaching approaches, lesson content, etc. ( Borys, 1983 ; Stratton, 1996a )]. Furthermore, PE activity participation may be influenced by inter-individual factors. For example, activity has been reported to be lower among students with greater body mass and body fat ( Brooke et al. , 1975 ; Fairclough, 2003c ), and higher as students get older ( Seliger et al. , 1980 ). In addition, highly skilled students are generally more active than their lesser skilled peers ( Li and Dunham, 1993 ; Stratton, 1996b ) and boys tend to engage in more PE activity than girls ( Stratton, 1996b ; McKenzie et al. , 2000 ). Such inter-individual factors are likely to have significant implications for pedagogical practice and therefore warrant further investigation.

In accordance with Simons-Morton's ( Simons-Morton, 1994 ) first proposed aim of PE, the purpose of this study was to assess English students' physical activity levels during high school PE. The data were considered in relation to recommended levels of physical activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ) to ascertain whether or not PE can be effective in helping children be ‘fit and healthy’. Specific attention was paid to differences between sex and ability groups, as well as during different PE activities.

Subjects and settings

One hundred and twenty-two students (62 boys and 60 girls) from five state high schools in Merseyside, England participated in this study. Stage sampling was used in each school to randomly select one boys' and one girls' PE class, in each of Years 7 (11–12 years), 8 (12–13 years) and 9 (13–14 years). Three students per class were randomly selected to take part. These students were categorized as ‘high’, ‘average’ and ‘low’ ability, based on their PE teachers' evaluation of their competence in specific PE activities. Written informed consent was completed prior to the study commencing. The schools taught the statutory programmes of study detailed in the NCPE, which is organized into six activity areas (i.e. athletic activities, dance, games, gymnastic activities, outdoor activities and swimming). The focus of learning is through four distinct aspects of knowledge, skills and understanding, which relate to; skill acquisition, skill application, evaluation of performance, and knowledge and understanding of fitness and health ( Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 ). The students attended two weekly PE classes in mixed ability, single-sex groups. Girls and boys were taught by male and female specialist physical educators, respectively.

Instruments and procedures

The investigation received ethical approval from the Liverpool John Moores Research Degrees Ethics Committee. The study involved the monitoring of heart rates (HRs) during PE using short-range radio telemetry (Vantage XL; Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland). Such systems measure the physiological load on the participants' cardiorespiratory systems, and allow analysis of the frequency, duration and intensity of physical activity. HR telemetry has been shown to be a valid and reliable measure of young people's physical activity ( Freedson and Miller, 2000 ) and has been used extensively in PE settings ( Stratton, 1996a ).

The students were fitted with the HR telemeters while changing into their PE uniforms. HR was recorded once every 5 s for the duration of the lessons. Telemeters were set to record when the teachers officially began the lessons, and stopped at the end of lessons. Total lesson ‘activity’ time was the equivalent of the total recorded time on the HR receiver. At the end of the lessons the telemeters were removed and data were downloaded for analyses. Resting HRs were obtained on non-PE days while the students lay in a supine position for a period of 10 min. The lowest mean value obtained over 1 min represented resting HR. Students achieved maximum HR values following completion of the Balke treadmill test to assess cardiorespiratory fitness ( Rowland, 1993 ). This data was not used in the present study, but was collated for another investigation assessing children's health and fitness status. Using the resting and maximum HR values, HR reserve (HRR, i.e. the difference between resting and maximum HR) at the 50% threshold was calculated for each student. HRR accounts for age and gender HR differences, and is recommended when using HR to assess physical activity in children ( Stratton, 1996a ). The 50% HRR threshold represents moderate intensity physical activity ( Stratton, 1996a ), which is the minimal intensity required to contribute to the recommended volume of health-related activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). Percentage of lesson time spent in health enhancing moderate-and-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was calculated for each student by summing the time spent ≥50% HRR threshold. HRR values ≥75% corresponded to vigorous intensity physical activity (VPA). This threshold represents the intensity that may stimulate improvements in cardiorespiratory fitness ( Morrow and Freedson, 1994 ) and was used to indicate the proportion of lesson time that students were active at this higher level.

Sixty-six lessons were monitored over a 12-week period, covering a variety of group and individual activities ( Table I ). In order to allow statistically meaningful comparisons between different types of activities, students were classified as participants in activities that shared similar characteristics. These were, team games [i.e. invasion (e.g. football and hockey) and striking games (e.g. cricket and softball)], individual games (e.g. badminton, tennis and table tennis), movement activities (e.g. dance and gymnastics) and individual activities [e.g. athletics, fitness (circuit training and running activities) and swimming]. The intention was to monitor equal numbers of students during lessons in each of the four designated PE activity categories. However, timetable constraints and student absence meant that true equity was not possible, and so the number of boys and girls monitored in the different activities was unequal.

Number and type of monitored PE lessons

Student sex, ability level and PE activity category were the independent variables, with percent of lesson time spent in MVPA and VPA set as the dependent variables. Exploratory analyses were conducted to establish whether data met parametric assumptions. Shapiro–Wilk tests revealed that only boys' MVPA were normally distributed. Subsequent Levene's tests confirmed the data's homogeneity of variance, with the exception of VPA between the PE activities. Though much of the data violated the assumption of normality, the ANOVA is considered to be robust enough to produce valid results in this situation ( Vincent, 1999 ). Considering this, alongside the fact that the data had homogenous variability, it was decided to proceed with ANOVA for all analyses, with the exception of VPA between different PE activities.

Sex × ability level factorial ANOVAs compared the physical activity of boys and girls who differed in PE competence. A one-way ANOVA was used to identify differences in MVPA during the PE activities. Post-hoc analyses were performed using Hochberg's GT2 correction procedure, which is recommended when sample sizes are unequal ( Field, 2000 ). A non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis ANOVA calculated differences in VPA during the different activities. Post-hoc Mann–Whitney U -tests determined where identified differences occurred. To control for type 1 error the Bonferroni correction procedure was applied to these tests, which resulted in an acceptable α level of 0.008. Although these data were ranked for the purposes of the statistical analysis, they were presented as means ± SD to allow comparison with the other results. All data were analyzed using SPSS version 11.0 (SPSS, Chicago, IL).

The average duration of PE lessons was 50.6 ± 20.8 min, although girls' (52.6 ± 25.4 min) lessons generally lasted longer than boys' (48.7 ± 15.1 min). When all PE activities were considered together, students engaged in MVPA and VPA for 34.3 ± 21.8 and 8.3 ± 11.1% of PE time, respectively. This equated to 17.5 ± 12.9 (MVPA) and 3.9 ± 5.3 (VPA) min. The high-ability students were more active than the average- and low-ability students, who took part in similar amounts of activity. These trends were apparent in boys and girls ( Table II ).

Mean (±SD) MVPA and VPA of boys and girls of differing abilities

Boys > girls, P < 0.01.

Boys > girls, P < 0.05.

Boys engaged in MVPA for 39.4% ± 19.1 of lesson time compared to the girls' value of 29.1 ± 23.4 [ F (1, 122) = 7.2, P < 0.01]. When expressed as absolute units of time, these data were the equivalent of 18.9 ± 10.5 (boys) and 16.1 ± 14.9 (girls) min. Furthermore, a 4% difference in VPA was observed between the two sexes [ Table II ; F (1, 122) = 4.6, P < 0.05]. There were no significant sex × ability interactions for either MVPA or VPA.

Students participated in most MVPA during team games [43.2 ± 19.5%; F (3, 121) = 6.0, P < 0.01]. Individual games and individual activities provided a similar stimulus for activity, while the least MVPA was observed during movement activities (22.2 ± 20.0%; Figure 1 ). A smaller proportion of PE time was spent in VPA during all activities. Once more, team games (13.6 ± 11.3%) and individual activities (11.8 ± 14.0%) were best suited to promoting this higher intensity activity (χ 2 (3) =30.0, P < 0.01). Students produced small amounts of VPA during individual and movement activities, although this varied considerably in the latter activity ( Figure 2 ).

Mean (±SD) MVPA during different PE activities. ** Team games > movement activities ( P < 0.01). * Individual activities > movement activities ( P < 0.05).

Mean (±SD) VPA during different PE activities. ** Team games > movement activities ( Z (3) = −4.9, P < 0.008) and individual games ( Z (3) = −3.8, P < 0.008). † Individual activities > movement activities ( Z (3) = −3.3, P < 0.008). ‡ Individual game > movement activities ( Z (3) = −2.7, P < 0.008).

This study used HR telemetry to assess physical activity levels during a range of high school PE lessons. The data were considered in relation to recommended levels of physical activity ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ) to investigate whether or not PE can be effective in helping children be ‘fit and healthy’. Levels of MVPA were similar to those reported in previous studies ( Klausen et al. , 1986 ; Strand and Reeder, 1993 ; Fairclough, 2003b ) and did not meet the US Department of Health and Human Services ( US Department of Health and Human Services, 2000 ) 50% of lesson time criterion. Furthermore, the data were subject to considerable variance, which was exemplified by high standard deviation values ( Table II , and Figures 1 and 2 ). Such variation in activity levels reflects the influence of PE-specific contextual and pedagogical factors [i.e. lesson objectives, content, environment, teaching styles, etc. ( Stratton, 1996a )]. The superior physical activity levels of the high-ability students concurred with previous findings ( Li and Dunham, 1993 ; Stratton, 1996b ). However, the low-ability students engaged in more MVPA and VPA than the average-ability group. While it is possible that the teachers may have inaccurately assessed the low and average students' competence, it could have been that the low-ability group displayed more effort, either because they were being monitored or because they associated effort with perceived ability ( Lintunen, 1999 ). However, these suggestions are speculative and are not supported by the data. The differences in activity levels between the ability groups lend some support to the criticism that PE teachers sometimes teach the class as one and the same rather than planning for individual differences ( Metzler, 1989 ). If this were the case then undifferentiated activities may have been beyond the capability of the lesser skilled students. This highlights the importance of motor competence as an enabling factor for physical activity participation. If a student is unable to perform the requisite motor skills to competently engage in a given task or activity, then their opportunities for meaningful participation become compromised ( Rink, 1994 ). Over time this has serious consequences for the likelihood of a young person being able or motivated enough to get involved in physical activity which is dependent on a degree of fundamental motor competence.

Boys spent a greater proportion of lesson time involved in MVPA and VPA than girls. These differences are supported by other HR studies in PE ( Mota, 1994 ; Stratton, 1997 ). Boys' activity levels equated to 18.9 min of MVPA, compared to 16.1 min for the girls. It is possible that the characteristics and aims of some of the PE activities that the girls took part in did not predispose them to engage in whole body movement as much as the boys. Specifically, the girls participated in 10 more movement lessons and eight less team games lessons than the boys. The natures of these two activities are diverse, with whole body movement at differing speeds being the emphasis during team games, compared to aesthetic awareness and control during movement activities. The monitored lessons reflected typical boys' and girls' PE curricula, and the fact that girls do more dance and gymnastics than boys inevitably restricts their MVPA engagement. Although unrecorded contextual factors may have contributed to this difference, it is also possible that the girls were less motivated than the boys to physically exert themselves. This view is supported by negative correlations reported between girls' PE enjoyment and MVPA ( Fairclough, 2003b ). Moreover, there is evidence ( Dickenson and Sparkes, 1988 ; Goudas and Biddle, 1993 ) to suggest that some pupils, and girls in particular ( Cockburn, 2001 ), may dislike overly exerting themselves during PE. Although physical activity is what makes PE unique from other school subjects, some girls may not see it as such an integral part of their PE experience. It is important that this perception is clearly recognized if lessons are to be seen as enjoyable and relevant, whilst at the same time contributing meaningfully to physical activity levels. Girls tend to be habitually less active than boys and their levels of activity participation start to decline at an earlier age ( Armstrong and Welsman, 1997 ). Therefore, the importance of PE for girls as a means of them experiencing regular health-enhancing physical activity cannot be understated.

Team games promoted the highest levels of MVPA and VPA. This concurs with data from previous investigations ( Strand and Reeder, 1993 ; Stratton, 1996a , 1997 ; Fairclough, 2003a ). Because these activities require the use of a significant proportion of muscle mass, the heart must maintain the oxygen demand by beating faster and increasing stroke volume. Moreover, as team games account for the majority of PE curriculum time ( Fairclough and Stratton, 1997 ; Sport England, 2001 ), teachers may actually be more experienced and skilled at delivering quality lessons with minimal stationary waiting and instruction time. Similarly high levels of activity were observed during individual activities. With the exception of throwing and jumping themes during athletics lessons, the other individual activities (i.e. swimming, running, circuit/station work) involved simultaneous movement of the arms and legs over variable durations. MVPA and VPA were lowest during movement activities, which mirrored previous research involving dance and gymnastics ( Stratton, 1997 ; Fairclough, 2003a ). Furthermore, individual games provided less opportunity for activity than team games. The characteristics of movement activities and individual games respectively emphasize aesthetic appreciation and motor skill development. This can mean that opportunities to promote cardiorespiratory health may be less than in other activities. However, dance and gymnastics can develop flexibility, and muscular strength and endurance. Thus, these activities may be valuable to assist young people in meeting the HDA's secondary physical activity recommendation, which relates to musculo-skeletal health ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ).

The question of whether PE can solely contribute to young people's cardiorespiratory fitness was clearly answered. The students engaged in small amounts of VPA (4.5 and 3.3 min per lesson for boys and girls, respectively). Combined with the limited frequency of curricular PE, these were insufficient durations for gains in cardiorespiratory fitness to occur ( Armstrong and Welsman, 1997 ). Teachers who aim to increase students' cardiorespiratory fitness may deliver lessons focused exclusively on high intensity exercise, which can effectively increase HR ( Baquet et al. , 2002 ), but can sometimes be mundane and have questionable educational value. Such lessons may undermine other efforts to promote physical activity participation if they are not delivered within an enjoyable, educational and developmental context. It is clear that high intensity activity is not appropriate for all pupils, and so opportunities should be provided for them to be able to work at developmentally appropriate levels.

Students engaged in MVPA for around 18 min during the monitored PE lessons. This approximates a third of the recommended daily hour ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). When PE activity is combined with other forms of physical activity support is lent to the premise that PE lessons can directly benefit young people's health status. Furthermore, for the very least active children who should initially aim to achieve 30 min of activity per day ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ), PE can provide the majority of this volume. However, a major limitation to PE's utility as a vehicle for physical activity participation is the limited time allocated to it. The government's aspiration is for all students to receive 2 hours of PE per week ( Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority, 1999 ), through curricular and extra-curricular activities. While some schools provide this volume of weekly PE, others are unable to achieve it ( Sport England, 2001 ). The HDA recommend that young people strive to achieve 1 hour's physical activity each day through many forms, a prominent one of which is PE. The apparent disparity between recommended physical activity levels and limited curriculum PE time serves to highlight the complementary role that education, along with other agencies and voluntary organizations must play in providing young people with physical activity opportunities. Notwithstanding this, increasing the amount of PE curriculum time in schools would be a positive step in enabling the subject to meet its health-related goals. Furthermore, increased PE at the expense of time in more ‘academic’ subjects has been shown not to negatively affect academic performance ( Shephard, 1997 ; Sallis et al. , 1999 ; Dwyer et al. , 2001 ).

Physical educators are key personnel to help young people achieve physical activity goals. As well as their teaching role they are well placed to encourage out of school physical activity, help students become independent participants and inform them about initiatives in the community ( McKenzie et al. , 2000 ). Also, they can have a direct impact by promoting increased opportunities for physical activity within the school context. These could include activities before school ( Strand et al. , 1994 ), during recess ( Scruggs et al. , 2003 ), as well as more organized extra-curricular activities at lunchtime and after school. Using time in this way would complement PE's role by providing physical activity opportunities in a less structured and pedagogically constrained manner.

This research measured student activity levels during ‘typical’, non-intensified PE lessons. In this sense it provided a representative picture of the frequency, intensity and duration of students' physical activity engagement during curricular PE. However, some factors should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the data were cross-sectional and collected over a relatively short time frame. Tracking students' activity levels over a number of PE activities may have allowed a more accurate account of how physical activity varies in different aspects of the curriculum. Second, monitoring a larger sample of students over more lessons may have enabled PE activities to be categorized into more homogenous groups. Third, monitoring lessons in schools from a wider geographical area may have enabled stronger generalization of the results. Fourth, it is possible that the PE lessons were taught differently, and that the students acted differently as a result of being monitored and having the researchers present during lessons. As this is impossible to determine, it is unknown how this might have affected the results. Fifth, HR telemetry does not provide any contextual information about the monitored lessons. Also, HR is subject to emotional and environmental factors when no physical activity is occurring. Future work should combine objective physical activity measurement with qualitative or quantitative methods of observation.

During PE, students took part in health-enhancing activity for around one third of the recommended 1-hour target ( Biddle et al. , 1998 ). PE obviously has potential to help meet this goal. However, on the basis of these data, combined with the weekly frequency of PE lessons, it is clear that PE can only do so much in supplementing young people's daily volume of physical activity. Students need to be taught appropriate skills, knowledge and understanding if they are to optimize their physical activity opportunities in PE. For improved MVPA levels to occur, health-enhancing activity needs to be recognized as an important element of lessons. PE may make a more significant contribution to young people's regular physical activity participation if lessons are planned and delivered with MVPA goals in mind.

Armstrong, N. and Welsman, J.R. ( 1997 ) Young People and Physical Activity , Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Baquet, G., Berthoin, S. and Van Praagh, E. ( 2002 ) Are intensified physical education sessions able to elicit heart rate at a sufficient level to promote aerobic fitness in adolescents? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 73 , 282 –288.

Biddle, S., Sallis, J.F. and Cavill, N. (eds) ( 1998 ) Young and Active? Young People and Health-Enhancing Physical Activity—Evidence and Implications. Health Education Authority, London.

Borys, A.H. ( 1983 ) Increasing pupil motor engagement time: case studies of student teachers. In Telema, R. (ed.), International Symposium on Research in School Physical Education. Foundation for Promotion of Physical Culture and Health, Jyvaskyla, pp. 351–358.

Brooke, J., Hardman, A. and Bottomly, F. ( 1975 ) The physiological load of a netball lesson. Bulletin of Physical Education , 11 , 37 –42.

Cockburn, C. ( 2001 ) Year 9 girls and physical education: a survey of pupil perceptions. Bulletin of Physical Education , 37 , 5 –24.

Corbin, C.B. and Pangrazi, R.P. ( 1998 ) Physical Activity for Children: A Statement of Guidelines. NASPE Publications, Reston, VA.

Department for Education and Employment/Qualifications and Curriculum Authority ( 1999 ) Physical Education—The National Curriculum for England. DFEE/QCA, London.

Dickenson, B. and Sparkes, A. ( 1988 ) Pupil definitions of physical education. British Journal of Physical Education Research Supplement , 2 , 6 –7.

Dwyer, T., Sallis, J.F., Blizzard, L., Lazarus, R. and Dean, K. ( 2001 ) Relation of academic performance to physical activity and fitness in children. Pediatric Exercise Science , 13 , 225 –237.

Fairclough, S. ( 2003 a) Physical activity levels during key stage 3 physical education. British Journal of Teaching Physical Education , 34 , 40 –45.

Fairclough, S. ( 2003 b) Physical activity, perceived competence and enjoyment during high school physical education. European Journal of Physical Education , 8 , 5 –18.

Fairclough, S. ( 2003 c) Girls' physical activity during high school physical education: influences of body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 22 , 382 –395.

Fairclough, S. and Stratton, G. ( 1997 ) Physical education curriculum and extra-curriculum time: a survey of secondary schools in the north-west of England. British Journal of Physical Education , 28 , 21 –24.

Fairclough, S., Stratton, G. and Baldwin, G. ( 2002 ) The contribution of secondary school physical education to lifetime physical activity. European Physical Education Review , 8 , 69 –84.

Field, A. ( 2000 ) Discovering Statistics using SPSS for Windows. Sage, London.

Freedson, P.S. and Miller, K. ( 2000 ) Objective monitoring of physical activity using motion sensors and heart rate. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 71 (Suppl.), S21 –S29.

Goudas, M. and Biddle, S. ( 1993 ) Pupil perceptions of enjoyment in physical education. Physical Education Review , 16 , 145 –150.

Gutin, B., Islam, S., Manos, T., Cucuzzo, N., Smith, C. and Stachura, M.E. ( 1994 ) Relation of body fat and maximal aerobic capacity to risk factors for atherosclerosis and diabetes in black and white seven-to-eleven year old children. Journal of Pediatrics , 125 , 847 –852.

International Council of Sport Science and Physical Education ( 1999 ) Results and Recommendations of the World Summit on Physical Education , Berlin, November.

Klausen, K., Rasmussen, B. and Schibye, B. ( 1986 ) Evaluation of the physical activity of school children during a physical education lesson. In Rutenfranz, J., Mocellin, R. and Klint, F. (eds), Children and Exercise XII. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, pp. 93–102.

Koslow, R. ( 1988 ) Can physical fitness be a primary objective in a balanced PE program? Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance , 59 , 75 –77.

Levin, S., McKenzie, T.L., Hussey, J., Kelder, S.H. and Lytle, L. ( 2001 ) Variability of physical activity during physical education lesson across school grades. Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science , 5 , 207 –218.

Li, X. and Dunham, P. ( 1993 ) Fitness load and exercise time in secondary physical education classes. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 12 , 180 –187.

Lintunen, T. ( 1999 ) Development of self-perceptions during the school years. In Vanden Auweele, Y., Bakker, F., Biddle, S., Durand, M. and Seiler, R. (eds), Psychology for Physical Educators. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, pp. 115–134.

Malina, R.M. and Bouchard, C. ( 1991 ) Growth , Maturation and Physical Activity . Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.

McKenzie, T.L., Marshall, S.J., Sallis, J.F. and Conway, T.L. ( 2000 ). Student activity levels, lesson context and teacher behavior during middle school physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 71 , 249 –259.

Metzler, M.W. ( 1989 ) A review of research on time in sport pedagogy. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , 8 , 87 –103.

Michaud, T.J. and Andres, F.F. ( 1990 ) Should physical education programs be responsible for making our youth fit? Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance , 61 , 32 –35.

Morrow, J. and Freedson, P. ( 1994 ) Relationship between habitual physical activity and aerobic fitness in adolescents. Pediatric Exercise Science , 6 , 315 –329.

Mota, J. ( 1994 ) Children's physical education activity, assessed by telemetry. Journal of Human Movement Studies , 27 , 245 –250.

Physical Education Association of the United Kingdom ( 2004 ) PEA UK Policy on the Physical Education Curriculum . Available: http://www.pea.uk.com/menu.html ; retrieved: 28 April, 2004.

Rink, J.E. ( 1994 ) Fitting fitness into the school curriculum. In Pate, R.R. and Hohn, R.C. (eds), Health and Fitness Through Physical Education. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, pp. 67–74.

Rowland, T.W. ( 1993 ) Pediatric Laboratory Exercise Testing . Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.

Sallis, J.F., McKenzie, R.D., Kolody, B., Lewis, S., Marshall, S.J. and Rosengard, P. ( 1999 ) Effects of health-related physical education on academic achievement: Project SPARK. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 70 , 127 –134.

Sallis, J.F. and McKenzie, T.L. ( 1991 ) Physical education's role in public health. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport , 62 , 124 –137.

Scruggs, P.W., Beveridge, S.K. and Watson, D.L. ( 2003 ) Increasing children's school time physical activity using structured fitness breaks. Pediatric Exercise Science , 15 , 156 –169.

Seliger, V., Heller, J., Zelenka, V., Sobolova, V., Pauer, M., Bartunek, Z. and Bartunkova, S. ( 1980 ) Functional demands of physical education lessons. In Berg, K. and Eriksson, B.O. (eds), Children and Exercise IX . University Park Press, Baltimore, MD, vol. 10, pp. 175–182.

Shephard, R.J. ( 1997 ) Curricular physical activity and academic performance. Pediatric Exercise Science , 9 , 113 –126.

Simons-Morton, B.G. ( 1994 ) Implementing health-related physical education. In Pate, R.R. and Hohn, R.C. (eds), Health and Fitness Through Physical Education. Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL, pp. 137–146.

Sport England ( 2001 ) Young People and Sport in England 1999 . Sport England, London.

Strand, B. and Reeder, S. ( 1993 ) Analysis of heart rate levels during middle school physical education activities. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance , 64 , 85 –91.

Strand, B., Quinn, P.B., Reeder, S. and Henke, R. ( 1994 ) Early bird specials and ten minute tickers. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance , 65 , 6 –9.

Stratton, G. ( 1996 a) Children's heart rates during physical education lessons: a review. Pediatric Exercise Science , 8 , 215 –233.

Stratton, G. ( 1996 b) Physical activity levels of 12–13 year old schoolchildren during European handball lessons: gender and ability group differences. European Physical Education Review , 2 , 165 –173.

Stratton, G. ( 1997 ) Children's heart rates during British physical education lessons, Journal of Teaching in Physical Education . 16 , 357 –367.

US Department of Health and Human Services ( 2000 ) Healthy People 2010: Understanding and Improving Health . USDHHS, Washington DC.

Vincent, W. ( 1999 ) Statistics in Kinesiology , Human Kinetics, Champaign, IL.

Zeigler, E. ( 1994 ) Physical education's 13 principal principles. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and Dance , 65 , 4 –5.

Author notes

1REACH Group and School of Physical Education, Sport and Dance, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L17 6BD and 2REACH Group and Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool L3 2ET, UK

• physical activity
• valproic acid
• physical education
• high schools

Email alerts

Citing articles via.

• Recommend to your Library

Affiliations

• Online ISSN 1465-3648
• Print ISSN 0268-1153
• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Institutional account management
• Rights and permissions
• Get help with access
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals
• Explore content
• About the journal
• Publish with us
• Sign up for alerts
• Open access
• Published: 17 December 2020

Physical education class participation is associated with physical activity among adolescents in 65 countries

• Riaz Uddin 1 , 2 , 3 ,
• Jo Salmon 1 ,
• Sheikh Mohammed Shariful Islam 1 , 3 &
• Asaduzzaman Khan 2 , 3  

Scientific Reports volume  10 , Article number:  22128 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

13k Accesses

34 Citations

99 Altmetric

Metrics details

• Health services
• Paediatric research
• Public health

In this study we examined the associations of physical education class participation with physical activity among adolescents. We analysed the Global School-based Student Health Survey data from 65 countries (N = 206,417; 11–17 years; 49% girls) collected between 2007 and 2016. We defined sufficient physical activity as achieving physical activities ≥ 60 min/day, and grouped physical education classes as ‘0 day/week’, ‘1–2 days/week’, and ‘ ≥ 3 days/week’ participation. We used multivariable logistic regression to obtain country-level estimates, and meta-analysis to obtain pooled estimates. Compared to those who did not take any physical education classes, those who took classes ≥ 3 days/week had double the odds of being sufficiently active (OR 2.05, 95% CI 1.84–2.28) with no apparent gender/age group differences. The association estimates decreased with higher levels of country’s income with OR 2.37 (1.51–3.73) for low-income and OR 1.85 (1.52–2.37) for high-income countries. Adolescents who participated in physical education classes 1–2 days/week had 26% higher odds of being sufficiently active with relatively higher odds for boys (30%) than girls (15%). Attending physical education classes was positively associated with physical activity among adolescents regardless of sex or age group. Quality physical education should be encouraged to promote physical activity of children and adolescents.

Similar content being viewed by others

Skeletal muscle energy metabolism during exercise

Heterogeneous peer effects of college roommates on academic performance

Proteomic analysis of cardiorespiratory fitness for prediction of mortality and multisystem disease risks

Introduction.

Physical activity is essential for health and wellbeing of children and adolescents 1 . Physical activity improves musculoskeletal, cardiac, metabolic, psychosocial, and cognitive health, and enhances cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness of children and adolescents 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 . Regular participation also decreases adiposity in those who are overweight 3 . For optimal health benefits, the current international guidelines (i.e., the World Health Organization [WHO]) recommends that those aged 5–17-years accumulate at least 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily 5 . Globally, four out of five (81%) adolescents aged 11–17 years do not meet this recommendation and are insufficiently active 6 . Such inactive behaviours during adolescence have both current and future ramifications on health and wellbeing as behaviours such as physical activity established during adolescence can carry over to adulthood 7 , 8 . Therefore, pragmatic strategies to promote physical activity during adolescence around the globe are of critical importance 9 .

Adolescent physical activity occurs in different settings and domains including at home, in the community, for transportation, and at school. Opportunities for physical activity at school include during recess and lunch breaks, school sport and physical education lessons. Physical education classes may provide resources and opportunities for students to accumulate the daily physical activity level and can contribute to daily energy expenditure 10 , 11 . Recent meta-analyses found that 41% of secondary school 12 and 45% of elementary school 13 physical education lessons comprised moderate-to-vigorous physical activity. In many countries, physical education provides children and adolescents the understanding and motivation for an active lifestyle and also creates an environment to acquire knowledge and skills for physical activity throughout life 14 , 15 . In addition, adolescents who may have limited access to space and equipment outside of school can benefit from attending physical education classes at school 10 , 11 . School-based physical education, therefore, can be an accessible source of physical activity for many adolescents and can help develop an active healthy lifestyle 16 . In addition to the number of physical education classes, access to high-quality physical education experience (e.g., teacher behaviours, learning outcomes), which forms the foundation for lifelong engagement in physical activity, is also important for children and adolescents 17 , 18 , 19 .

Available evidence suggest that participation in physical education classes are positively associated with higher levels of physical activity 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 . However, the evidence is mostly based on single-country studies from high-income countries with limited multi-country study and lack of representation of low- and lower-middle-income countries 25 . A recent multi-country study reported country- and regional-level differences in physical education class participation, which was also differed by sex, age, and country-income classification 26 . In addition, delivery, content and quality of physical education also vary within and between countries 27 , 28 . It is often provided infrequently in schools across countries, and therefore the potential impact on total moderate-to-vigorous physical activity among boys and girls may be limited 29 . In order to obtain a comprehensive global perspective on the relationship between physical education and physical activity, large multi-country studies with representative samples are essential. Given the context and the opportunities that exist in schools for physical activity promotion, in this study, we aimed to examine whether participation in physical education classes (i.e., number of physical education class attendance) is associated with sufficient level of physical activity among adolescents (overall, and by sex and age-group) from 65 countries around the globe. We hypothesised that higher number of physical education class participation would be positively associated with sufficient level of physical activity among adolescents.

Data source

Data for this study were from the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS), a population-based survey of school-going children and adolescents around the world 30 . In all participating countries, the GSHS uses the same standardised sampling technique and study methodology. All participants completed a standardised self-administered anonymous questionnaire, which included, but was not limited to, questions on demographics (e.g., age, sex), participation in physical education classes and physical activity. GSHS adopted questionnaire items, including items to measure physical activity and physical education from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey of American Adolescents. Countries, where GSHS were implemented, were encouraged to use culturally appropriate examples, words, and phrases to ensure sociocultural adaptability of the items. Furthermore, using a rigorous translation and back-translation process with the assistance of WHO and US CDC, countries were allowed to translate the questionnaire into their local language 31 .

As of 8 December 2019, 98 countries/territories around the globe had at least one GSHS dataset publicly available with the surveys being conducted between 2007 and 2016. For countries with more than one GSHS dataset, we used the most recent one available. Of the 98 countries, 84 countries had data on PA, while 67 countries had data on physical education. Two countries (Niue and Tokelau) were excluded from the analyses due to their small sample size (n < 140). The analytical sample consists of 206,417 adolescents aged 11 or younger to 17 years from 65 countries. Only a small proportion of students (1.05%) were in the age group “11 years old or younger”, and for modelling purposes, they were considered as 11 years old for this analysis, as it was not possible to determine what proportion of 1.05% students were younger than 11 years old. All countries provided nationally representative samples.

The GSHS received ethics approval from the Ministry of Education or a relevant Institutional Ethics Review Committee, or both in each of the participating countries. Only those adolescents and their parents who provided written or verbal consent participated. As the current study used retrospective, de-identified, publicly available data, ethics approval was not required for this secondary analysis. Detailed methods of the GSHS have been described on both the US CDC and the WHO websites 30 , 32 .

Outcome measure—physical activity participation

Physical activity was assessed with one item: ‘During the past 7 days, on how many days were you physically active for a total of at least 60 min per day?’ The response options were 0–7 days. Consistent with the WHO recommendations 5 , we defined participants as ‘sufficiently active’ who did ≥ 60 min/day of physical activity on seven days of the week.

Study factor—physical education participation

Physical education class attendance was assessed with one item: ‘During this school year, on how many days did you go to physical education (PE) class each week?’ The responses were classified into three groups: ‘0 day/week’, ‘1–2 days/week’, and ‘≥ 3 days/week’ as used elsewhere 25 , 33 .

Adolescents self-reported age, sex, and daily hours of sitting (when not in school or doing homework) in the survey. Food insecurity was assessed by asking: ‘During the past 30 days, how often did you go hungry because there was not enough food in your home?’ with response options being never, rarely, sometimes, most of the time, and always. As the GSHS did not include any direct measure of socioeconomic status, this variable was used as a proxy measure of socioeconomic status 34 , 35 . Self-reported height and weight were used to compute body mass index (BMI), which was categorised as underweight (BMI < −2SD), overweight (BMI >  + 1SD), and obese (BMI >  + 2SD), relative to median BMI, by age and sex based on the WHO Child Growth Standards 36 .

Statistical analyses

Of the 65 countries with data on physical activity and physical education, nine countries were from Africa, 20 from the Americas, 15 from Eastern Mediterranean, five from South East Asia, and 16 from the Western Pacific region. Using the World Bank country classification, collected at the time of the survey for the respective countries, seven countries were classified as low‐income, 21 lower‐middle‐income, 18 upper‐middle‐income, and 18 high-income. Income classification information was not available for Cook Island. The prevalence estimates of physical activity and physical education were obtained by using a Stata command ‘svyset’ to take into account sampling weights and the clustered sampling design of the surveys.

In examining the country-level association of physical education with physical activity, a set of covariates was considered including age, sex, weight status (i.e., BMI), food insecurity, and sitting time. Sitting time was considered as an adjusting factor given its demonstrated association with physical activity in adolescents 37 . Given the binary nature of physical activity outcome, logistic regression analysis with robust standard errors was used to examine the association at the country level, by taking into account the sampling weight that was applied to each participant record to adjust for non-response and the varying probability of selection. This GSHS weighting factor was applied in an identical way to estimate the association in each participating country. Within the GSHS protocol, weighting accounted for the probability of selection of schools and classrooms, non-responding schools and students, and distribution of the population by sex and grade.

Random effects meta-analysis was used to generate pooled estimates of the association between physical education and physical activity for the overall sample, by country income category (e.g., low-income, lower-middle income, upper-middle income, and high-income), and by WHO region, stratified by sex and age groups (11–14 years vs 15–17 years). Two age groups (11–14 years [early adolescence] and 15–17 years [middle adolescence]) 38 were considered to stratify the analysis in order to examine whether the association estimates vary across phases of adolescence. This analysis used DerSimonian and Laird method 39 with the estimate of heterogeneity being taken from the Mantel–Haenszel model. As the GSHS were conducted across different cultural settings in 65 countries around the world over a long period of time (2007–2016), it was reasonable to assume that the association estimates across countries were likely to vary from survey to survey, which supports the use of random effects meta-analysis that can adjust heterogeneity among studies 40 . The percentage of variability in estimates across studies that is attributable to between study heterogeneity (I 2 ) in our analysis ranges from 54.3 to 80.2%, which suggests a strong presence of heterogeneity in the association estimates, and further supports the use of random effects meta-analysis. All adjusted estimates of the association parameters are presented in the form of odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (CI). All analyses were conducted by StataSE V14.0.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The GSHS received ethics approval from both a national government administration and an institutional review board or ethics committee. Only adolescents and their parents who provided written/verbal consent participated. As the current study used retrospective publicly available data, we did not require ethics approval from any Institutional Ethics Review Committee for this secondary analysis.

The mean age of the participating adolescents (n = 206,417) was 14.35 (SD = 1.45) years, 54.4% aged 11–14 years, and 49.2% were girls. The prevalence of sufficient physical activity was 15.0%, with boys having higher prevalence (18.3%) than girls (11.5%). Over half (56.5%) of adolescents participated in physical education classes 1–2 days/week (boys 54.7%; girls 58.3%) and about a quarter (24.2%) participated in physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week (boys 26.8%; girls 21.6%). As shown in Fig.  1 , the overall percentage of adolescents being sufficiently active was greater for those who attended more physical education classes in both sexes.

Proportion of adolescents sufficiently physically active by participation in physical education classes, Global School-based Student Health Survey, 2007–2016.

Estimates of associations of physical education class participation with sufficient physical activity by country are shown in Table 1 . The country-level analysis shows that 50 out of 65 participating countries (77%) demonstrated significant and positive associations between attending physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week and being sufficiently active with 33 countries (51%) revealing at least double the odds (OR ≥ 2.0) of meeting physical activity guidelines. For example, Bolivian adolescents who attended physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week had threefold odds of reporting sufficient physical activity compared with their counterparts who attended no physical education class (OR 3.00, 95% CI 1.93–4.67). In examining the association between attending physical education classes 1–2 days/week and being sufficiently active, 20 countries (31%) demonstrated significant positive associations. For example, Thai adolescents who attended physical education classes 1–2 days/week had double the odds to reporting sufficient physical activity compared with their counterparts who attended no physical education class (OR 2.11, 95% CI 1.39–3.19). As shown in Table 1 , attending physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week was positively and strongly associated with physical activity in all WHO regions with South East Asia region showing the strongest association (OR 2.89, 2.11–3.97), followed by Africa (OR 2.45, 1.72–3.48) and Western Pacific region (OR 2.40, 1.92–3.00). The analysis also showed evidence of positive and moderate association between attending physical education classes 1–2 days/week and being sufficiently active in all WHO regions with the pooled association estimates ranging from OR 1.19 (1.01–1.41) in the Americas region to OR 1.86 (1.03–3.36) in South East Asia.

Overall, adolescents who took physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week, compared to those who did not take any physical education classes, had double the odds of being sufficiently active (OR 2.05, 95% CI 1.84–2.28) with no apparent gender (OR 2.09, 1.88–2.33 for boys; and OR 1.95, 1.69–2.25 for girls) or age (OR 2.19, 1.93–2.48 for 11–14-year-old; and OR 2.03, 1.80–2.28 for 15–17-year-old adolescents) differences (Table 2 ). Adolescents who participated in physical education classes 1–2 days/week had 26% higher odds of being sufficiently active (OR 1.26, 1.15–1.37) with relatively higher odds for boys (OR 1.30, 1.17–1.46) than girls (OR 1.15, 1.03–1.29) and younger adolescents aged 11–14 years (OR 1.28, 1.16–1.42) that older adolescents aged 15–17 years (OR 1.19, 1.08–1.32).

The odds of attending physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week and being sufficiently active were lower in country with higher income (Table 2 ). In low-income countries, adolescents who participated in physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week had 137% higher odds of being sufficiently active (OR 2.37, 1.51–3.73) with comparable odds for boys (OR 2.51, 1.70–3.70) and girls (OR 2.36, 1.31–4.26) and slightly higher odds for younger (OR 2.94, 1.92–4.51) than older adolescents (OR 2.32, 1.36–3.96). In high-income countries, the odds of being sufficiently active was 85% higher for adolescents who attended physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week (OR 1.85; 1.52–2.25) with no apparent gender (boys OR 1.89, 1.50–2.37; girls OR 1.69, 1.36–2.10) or age (younger OR 1.83, 1.47–2.28; older OR 1.80 (1.48–2.19) differences. In lower-middle income countries, adolescents who attended physical education classes 1–2 days/week had 39% higher odds of being sufficiently active (OR 1.39, 1.19–1.62) compared to their counterparts who did not take any physical education classes, with relatively higher odds for boys (OR 1.46, 1.21–1.76) than girls (OR 1.30, 1.03–1.65), and similar odds for younger (OR 1.36, 1.09–1.68) and older adolescents (OR 1.33, 1.16–1.51).

Boys of South East Asian region who participated in physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week had the highest odds of being sufficiently active (OR 3.29, 1.97–5.47), followed by the boys of Africa region (OR 2.41, 1.74–3.33) (Supplementary Table S1 ). Girls of Western Pacific and Africa region who participated in physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week had the highest odds of being sufficiently active (OR 2.68, 1.89–3.77, and OR 2.63, 1.63–4.26, respectively). Even by attending physical education classes 1–2 days/week, boys of the Americas region and girls of Africa region can increase their odds, though not considerably, of being sufficiently active (OR 1.29, 1.06–1.58, and OR 1.41, 1.15–1.73, respectively).

Both younger and older adolescents in all WHO regions demonstrated positive association between ≥ 3 days/week physical education class attendance and meeting the physical activity recommendations (Supplementary Table S1 ). Younger adolescents in South East Asia (OR 3.03, 2.42–3.79) and Africa (OR 2.95, 2.07–4.20), and older adolescents in South East Asia (OR 3.24, 1.57–6.67) who participated in physical education classes ≥ 3 days/week had over three times higher odds of being sufficiently active. There were moderate positive associations between physical education class attendance for 1–2 days/week and meeting the physical activity recommendations for younger adolescents in Africa (OR 1.38, 1.03–1.84), the Americas (OR 1.29, 1.07–1.56), and Eastern Mediterranean regions (OR 1.24, 1.06–1.44), and for older adolescents in Africa (OR 1.24, 1.03–1.48), Eastern Mediterranean (OR 1.26, 1.07–1.49), and Western Pacific region (OR 1.19, 1.01–1.41).

To our knowledge, this is the most extensive global study to assess the association of physical education class attendance with physical activity of adolescents, based on nationally representative samples from 65 countries around the globe. The key finding of our study is that adolescents, irrespective of sex or age, who had a higher frequency (≥ 3 days/week) of physical education class attendance had significantly higher odds of meeting the WHO’s physical activity recommendations. The estimates of association between the frequency of attending physical education and meeting physical activity recommendations were lower among countries with higher income. We observed some regional differences with South East Asia having the highest associations and the Americas having the lowest. Our findings suggest that adolescents, especially girls and those aged 15–17 years, are mostly benefited from a higher frequency (i.e., ≥ 3 days/week) of physical education participation. Our study also found some benefits of less frequent participation in physical education classes (1–2 days/week) in meeting the physical activity guidelines, which is encouraging. About one-third of the countries demonstrated positive association between less frequent participation in physical education classes and meeting the physical activity recommendations, and such association was prominent in boys and younger adolescents in all but low-income countries. Our study thus argues that even less frequent participation in physical education classes can bring some benefits for some adolescents.

Our finding that a higher frequency of physical education class attendance was positively associated with meeting the physical activity recommendations is consistent with other studies in children and adolescents 20 , 21 , 24 , 25 . It has been argued that participation in physical education classes acts as a positive reinforcement to “keep young people going” by being more physically active with less time in sedentary behaviour throughout the day 25 . Physical education classes provide children with an opportunity to familiarise themselves with different types of physical activity, motivates them to be active within the school environment, and potentially also encourages more out-of-school physical activity 41 . Physical activity during physical education classes may reduce fatigue and improve mood by changing neurophysiological stimulation and the brain’s information processing function (i.e., cerebral cortex), which may improve children’s preparedness to move more throughout the day 25 . While the frequency of physical education class is important, it is also critical that children have access to quality physical education 18 , 19 . Previously, researchers have suggested that in spite of the traditional class-based and sports-centred physical education curriculum, physical education ought to be a health-centred dynamic learning experience for children 19 , 42 . Quality physical education is important for age-appropriate cognitive learning and to acquire fitness, develop motor skills and psychosocial and emotional skills, which can help children to lead an active lifestyle, inside and outside of the school environment, throughout their life course 18 , 19 , 42 . Given the role of physical education for active and healthy lifestyle, different stakeholders, including United Nations agencies (i.e., UNESCO) 19 , European Commission 17 , have recommended to ensure quality physical education for children and adolescents, and called for political commitments and actions from Governments and supports from the international communities.

In our study, adolescents boys and girls in low-income countries with ≥ 3 days/week physical education class attendance had the highest odds of meeting the physical activity recommendations, and the associations became smaller (yet significant) with a higher country income classification for both sexes. A previous 12-country study 25 reported similar findings for boys, but not for girls. Unlike our study that is based on self-reported data, the earlier study used a device-based physical activity measure and included Australia and other high-income countries of Europe and North America. In addition to high-income countries, our study included adolescents from low- and lower-middle-income countries. It is possible that for many children, regardless of sex or country income, schools provide the most pragmatic and readily accessible opportunities for various physical activity, while out-of-school physical activity options, logistics, and environments might be variable 10 , 11 . The environments, in general, may be more supportive of out of school physical activity for children in high-income countries than their counterparts in low-income countries; however, high-income countries may have other challenges including gender and socioeconomic disparities in physical activity. For example, children from high-poverty neighbourhood may have fewer opportunities for out of school physical activity in many high-income countries 43 , 44 . Appreciating the heterogeneity in resources for physical education within- and across countries, all governments should consider schools as the primary focus to promote an active and healthy lifestyle among children and adolescents, which is likely to be a cost-effective and opportunistic initiative to get them moving. Our findings also show that physical education is potentially more important in South East Asia than the Americas in promoting physical activity. In addition to environmental support, such variations could be a sign of the quality of the respective physical education programs, including time allocated for physical education across the countries. There is a large heterogeneity in weekly time allocated for physical education in countries around the globe. For example, weekly time for physical education of secondary school students in Bangladesh (180 min) is reportedly higher than in Peru (90 min) 28 . Research is needed to understand whether physical education classes are designed to facilitate physical activity and/or how much time students actually spend in physical activity during physical education classes. It is also important to understand how physical education lessons can help the students to develop skills so that they can be more active both inside and outside of school. This information can help in designing a physical education curriculum with balanced components of physical activity and physical education lessons on other health and wellbeing so that the students can develop a healthy lifestyle. Opportunities for quality physical education should be equitable and inclusive, and available for all children regardless their gender, disability status, socio-economic position, and cultural or religious backgrounds, and the delivery of physical education should be ensured for marginalised and vulnerable groups 19 .

The strengths of our study are the inclusion of a large number of countries around the globe, representing different world regions and income groups. All countries included in our study provided nationally representative data. We used the GSHS sample weighting to account for distribution of the population by age and sex in countries for whose data were analysed. Any potential skewness, by sex or age, in the observed data is unlikely to impact the weighted analysis results. All countries where GSHS was implemented, used a standardised data collection procedure. In all countries, a standardised questionnaire with the same survey items to assess physical activity and physical education class attendance was used, which facilitated our regional comparisons. We adjusted our estimates for several potential covariates to avoid possible confounding effects of these factors.

The findings of our study should be interpreted in light of its limitations. Data for our study were collected using self-reported questionnaire; these data are vulnerable to social desirability and recall bias. Unavailability of GSHS data from European and North American countries, some of the Latin/Central American and Asia and Pacific countries, limits the generalisability of the findings only to the GSHS participating countries. Although a standardised questionnaire was used in all participating countries, there is a lack of information on the reliability and validity of GSHS measures across different countries or cultures. Physical education classes can have different meanings and can constitute different components, including a knowledge-based curriculum component (i.e., lessons and discussions) and/or skill-based physical activity session, in different settings. We did not have any information on components of physical education classes across the participating countries. The cross‐sectional design of the study limits our ability to make any causal inferences from the association estimates. Some adolescents in our study may have had difficulties with understanding the questionnaire because of poor reading skills. In this study, we used data collected between 2007 and 2016, which may have biased the results because of the period effect.

Conclusions

Our study suggests a positive association between regular participation in physical education classes and meeting the physical activity guidelines among children and adolescents around the globe regardless of sex or age group. The odds were lower in high- than low-income countries. The benefits of regular participation in physical education classes to enhance physical activity are universal across all WHO regions, with the highest being observed among adolescents from South East Asian countries. Even less frequent participation in physical education classes (i.e., 1–2 days a week) was related to higher odds of being sufficiently active in all but low-income countries, especially in boys. Thus, the findings support the importance of physical education for ensuring sufficient physical activity among school-going children and adolescents around the globe. Countries must not miss the opportunity to ensure schools deliver a daily or at least 3 days per week of well-designed physical education classes, which can play a vital role in creating active nations around the world.

Poitras, V. J. et al. Systematic review of the relationships between objectively measured physical activity and health indicators in school-aged children and youth. Appl. Physiol. Nutr. Metab. 41 , S197–S239. https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2015-0663 (2016).

Article   PubMed   Google Scholar  

Rhodes, R. E., Janssen, I., Bredin, S. S. D., Warburton, D. E. R. & Bauman, A. Physical activity: health impact, prevalence, correlates and interventions. Psychol. Health 32 , 942–975. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2017.1325486 (2017).

Whooten, R., Kerem, L. & Stanley, T. Physical activity in adolescents and children and relationship to metabolic health. Curr. Opin. Endocrinol. Diabetes Obes. 26 , 25–31 (2019).

Article   Google Scholar  

Rodriguez-Ayllon, M. et al. Role of physical activity and sedentary behavior in the mental health of preschoolers, children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med. 49 , 1383–1410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-019-01099-5 (2019).

World Health Organization. Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health (World Health Organization, Geneva, 2010).

Google Scholar  

Guthold, R., Stevens, G. A., Riley, L. M. & Bull, F. C. Global trends in insufficient physical activity among adolescents: a pooled analysis of 298 population-based surveys with 1.6 million participants. Lancet Child Adolescent Health https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(19)30323-2 (2019).

U. S. Department of Health Human Services. 2018 Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee Scientific Report (2018).

Biddle, S. J. H., Gorely, T. & Stensel, D. J. Health-enhancing physical activity and sedentary behaviour in children and adolescents. J. Sports Sci. 22 , 679–701. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410410001712412 (2004).

Salomé, A. et al. Global Matrix 3.0 Physical Activity Report Card Grades for Children and Youth: results and analysis from 49 countries. J. Phys. Act. Health 15 , S251–S273. https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.2018-0472 (2018).

Hills, A. P., Dengel, D. R. & Lubans, D. R. Supporting public health priorities: recommendations for physical education and physical activity promotion in schools. Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis. 57 , 368–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcad.2014.09.010 (2015).

Sallis, J. F. et al. Physical education’s role in public health. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 83 , 125–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2012.10599842 (2012).

Article   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Hollis, J. L. et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels in secondary school physical education lessons. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 14 , 52. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-017-0504-0 (2017).

Hollis, J. L. et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity levels in elementary school physical education lessons. Prev. Med. 86 , 34–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2015.11.018 (2016).

Kohl, H. W. III. & Cook, H. D. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School (National Academies Press, Washington, 2013).

Society of Health and Physical Educators. National Standards & GRADE-Level Outcomes for K-12 Physical Education (Human Kinetics, 2014).

Lonsdale, C. et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of interventions designed to increase moderate-to-vigorous physical activity in school physical education lessons. Prev. Med. 56 , 152–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.12.004 (2013).

Expert Group on Health-Enhancing Physical Activity. EU Work Plan for Sport 2014–2017 (Europen Commission, 2017).

Sallis, J. F. et al. Physical educations role in public health: steps forward and backward over 20 years and hope for the future. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 83 , 125–135 (2012).

PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. Quality Physical Education: Guidelines for Policy-Makers (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, 2015).

Chen, S., Kim, Y. & Gao, Z. The contributing role of physical education in youth’s daily physical activity and sedentary behavior. BMC Public Health 14 , 110. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-14-110 (2014).

Mooses, K. et al. Physical education increases daily moderate to vigorous physical activity and reduces sedentary time. J. Sch. Health 87 , 602–607. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12530 (2017).

Fröberg, A., Raustorp, A., Pagels, P., Larsson, C. & Boldemann, C. Levels of physical activity during physical education lessons in Sweden. Acta Paediatr. 106 , 135–141. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.13551 (2017).

Sigmund, E., Sigmundová, D., Hamrik, Z. & Gecková, M. A. Does participation in physical education reduce sedentary behaviour in school and throughout the day among normal-weight and overweight-to-obese Czech children aged 9–11 years?. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 11 , 1076–1093. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110101076 (2014).

Tassitano, R. M. et al. Enrollment in physical education is associated with health-related behavior among high school students. J. Sch. Health 80 , 126–133. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00476.x (2010).

Silva, D. A. S. et al. Physical education classes, physical activity, and sedentary behavior in children. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 50 , 995–1004 (2018).

Martin, A., Kelly, P., Boyle, J., Corlett, F. & Reilly, J. J. Contribution of walking to school to individual and population moderate-vigorous intensity physical activity: systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr. Exerc. Sci. 28 , 353–363. https://doi.org/10.1123/pes.2015-0207 (2016).

Expert Group on Health-Enhancing Physical Activity. EU Work Plan for Sport: 2014–2017 (2014).

United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization. World-Wide Survey of School Physical Education. Final Report 2013 (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris, 2014).

Owen, M. B., Curry, W. B., Kerner, C., Newson, L. & Fairclough, S. J. The effectiveness of school-based physical activity interventions for adolescent girls: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prev. Med. 105 , 237–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2017.09.018 (2017).

World Health Organization. Global School-Based Student Health Survey (GSHS) . https://www.who.int/ncds/surveillance/gshs/en/ (n.d.). Accessed 11 Nov 2020.

World Health Organization. Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) and Global School Health Policy and Practices Survey (SHPPS) . http://www.searo.who.int/entity/noncommunicable_diseases/events/2013-gshs-survey-implementation-english-updated.pdf (2012). Accessed 11 Nov 2020.

US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) . https://www.cdc.gov/gshs/ (n.d.). Accessed 11 Nov 2020.

Silva, D. A. S., Chaput, J.-P. & Tremblay, M. S. Participation frequency in physical education classes and physical activity and sitting time in Brazilian adolescents. PLoS ONE 14 , e0213785. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0213785 (2019).

Article   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Ashdown-Franks, G. et al. Leisure-time sedentary behavior and obesity among 116,762 adolescents aged 12–15 years from 41 low- and middle-income countries. Obesity 27 , 830–836. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.22424 (2019).

Uddin, R. & Khan, A. Sedentary behaviour is associated with overweight and obesity among adolescents: evidence from a population-based study. Acta Paediatr. 108 , 1545–1546. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.14827 (2019).

World Health Organization. Growth reference data for 5–19 years. WHO Child Growth Standards. https://www.who.int/growthref/en/ (n.d.). Accessed 11 Nov 2020.

Uddin, R., Lee, E.-Y., Khan, S. R., Tremblay, M. S. & Khan, A. Clustering of lifestyle risk factors for non-communicable diseases in 304,779 adolescents from 89 countries: a global perspective. Prev. Med. 131 , 105955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2019.105955 (2020).

Muyeed, A. Z. in Encyclopedia of Public Health (ed Wilhelm Kirch) 14–17 (Springer, 2008).

Sterne, J. A. C. Meta-analysis in Stata: an updated collection from the Stata Journal . (StataCorp LP, 2009).

Riley, R. D., Higgins, J. P. T. & Deeks, J. J. Interpretation of random effects meta-analyses. BMJ 342 , d549. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d549 (2011).

Palmer, S. E., Bycura, D. K. & Warren, M. A physical education intervention effects on correlates of physical activity and motivation. Health Promot. Pract. 19 , 455–464. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839917707740 (2017).

Martins, J. et al. A comparative study of participation in physical education classes among 170,347 adolescents from 54 low-, middle-, and high-income countries. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155579 (2020).

Bann, D., Scholes, S., Fluharty, M. & Shure, N. Adolescents’ physical activity: cross-national comparisons of levels, distributions and disparities across 52 countries. Int. J. Behav. Nutr. Phys. Act. 16 , 141. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-019-0897-z (2019).

Clennin, M. N. et al. Secular changes in physical education attendance among U.S. high school students, 1991–2015. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 89 , 403–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2018.1502411 (2018).

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the World Health Organization for making the Global School-based Student Health Survey (GSHS) data publicly available for analysis. The authors thank the GSHS country coordinators and other staff members. R.U. is supported by Alfred Deakin Postdoctoral Research Fellowship. J.S. is supported by a National Health and Medical Research Council Leadership Level 2 Fellowship (APP 1176885). S.M.S.I. is supported by the Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition, Deakin University and a post doctorate fellowship from the National Heart Foundation of Australia (Award #102112).

This research received no external funding.

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Science, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC, 3220, Australia

Riaz Uddin, Jo Salmon & Sheikh Mohammed Shariful Islam

School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, The University of Queensland, Therapies Annex, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia

Riaz Uddin & Asaduzzaman Khan

Active Healthy Kids Bangladesh (AHKBD), Dhaka, Bangladesh

Riaz Uddin, Sheikh Mohammed Shariful Islam & Asaduzzaman Khan

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Contributions

R.U.: concept and design study, data analysis and interpretation, drafting manuscript, critical revision of manuscript, final approval; J.S.: data interpretation, critical revision of manuscript, final approval; S.M.S.I.: data interpretation, critical revision of manuscript, final approval; A.K.: concept and design study, data analysis and interpretation, statistical analysis, drafting manuscript, critical revision of manuscript, final approval.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Asaduzzaman Khan .

Ethics declarations

Competing interests.

The authors declare no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's note.

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary Information

Supplementary table s1., rights and permissions.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ .

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article.

Uddin, R., Salmon, J., Islam, S.M.S. et al. Physical education class participation is associated with physical activity among adolescents in 65 countries. Sci Rep 10 , 22128 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-79100-9

Download citation

Received : 08 June 2020

Accepted : 03 December 2020

Published : 17 December 2020

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-79100-9

Share this article

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

This article is cited by

The impact of typical school provision of physical education, physical activity and sports on adolescent physical activity behaviors: a systematic literature review.

• Padraic Rocliffe
• Brendan O’Keeffe
• Ciaran MacDonncha

Adolescent Research Review (2023)

Attendance in physical education classes, sedentary behavior, and different forms of physical activity among schoolchildren: a cross-sectional study

• Gilmar Mercês de Jesus
• Raphael Henrique de Oliveira Araujo
• Maria Alice Altenburg de Assis

BMC Public Health (2022)

Mapping recommended strategies to promote active and healthy lifestyles through physical education classes: a scoping review

• Alexsandra da Silva Bandeira
• Fabricio Cesar de Paula Ravagnani
• Kelly Samara Silva

International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity (2022)

Prevalence and sociodemographic correlates of physical activity and sitting time among South American adolescents: a harmonized analysis of nationally representative cross-sectional surveys

• Raphael H. O. Araujo
• André O. Werneck
• Danilo R. Silva

Finnish late adolescents’ physical activity during COVID-19 spring 2020 lockdown

BMC Public Health (2021)

By submitting a comment you agree to abide by our Terms and Community Guidelines . If you find something abusive or that does not comply with our terms or guidelines please flag it as inappropriate.

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

• Sign in to save searches and organize your favorite content.
• Not registered? Sign up

Recently viewed (0)

• Save Search

Journal of Teaching in Physical Education

Indexed in: Web of Science, Scopus, ProQuest, APA PsycINFO, EBSCOhost, ERIC, Google Scholar

Print ISSN:  0273-5024             Online ISSN:  1543-2769

• Get eTOC Alerts
• Get New Article Alerts
• Latest Issue TOC RSS
• Get New Article RSS

Volume 43 (2024): Issue 3 (Jul 2024)

JTPE is published quarterly in January, April, July, and October.

The purpose of the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education is to communicate national and international research and stimulate discussion, study, and critique of teaching, teacher education, and curriculum as these fields relate to physical activity in schools, communities, higher education, and sport. The journal publishes original reports of empirical studies in physical education together with integrative reviews and analyses of educational and methodological issues in the field. Research using a variety of methodological approaches is acceptable for publication. Well-designed replication of previous research is also strongly encouraged. Brief research notes also will be reviewed for possible publication. The coeditors and editorial board encourage the submission of manuscripts that extend knowledge within the focus of the journal.

Specific questions about the appropriateness of any individual paper to enter the JTPE peer-review process should be directed to one of the coeditors. Except for occasional invited manuscripts, all published articles are refereed by members of the editorial board, or by other referees invited by the coeditors. The final decision on whether a paper merits publication is made by the coeditor coordinating the review process.

• Ethics Policy

Please visit the Ethics Policy page for information about the policies followed by JTPE.

Additional Content

Honoring Daryl Siedentop's contributions to JTPE : https://journals.humankinetics.com/page/Tribute-Daryl-Siedentop

Interested in being a reviewer for JTPE ? Please fill out the JTPE Online Reviewer Form .

Heather Erwin University of Kentucky, USA

Incoming Editor

Kevin Andrew Richards University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, USA

Editors Emeriti

Michael W. Metzler (Founding Editor: 1981–1987) Mark Freedman (Founding Editor: 1981–1984) Thomas J. Templin (1984–1988) David Griffey (1986–1989) Thomas J. Martinek (1988–1991) Judith Rink (1989–1992) Stephen Silverman (1991–1994) Mary O’Sullivan (1993–1996) Nell Faucette (1994–1998) Patt Dodds (1996–2000) Hans van der Mars (1998–2002) Deborah Tannehill (2000–2004) Bonnie Tjeerdsma Blankenship (2002–2006) Melinda Solmon (2004–2008) Ron McBride (2006–2010) Ping Xiang (2008–2012) Pamela Hodges Kulinna (2010–2014) Ben Dyson (2012–2016) Weidong Li (2014–2018) Mark Byra (2016–2020) Bryan McCullick (2018–2022)

Associate Editors

Erin E. Centeio University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa, USA

Sara Flory University of South Florida, USA

Karen Gaudreault University of New Mexico, USA

Michael Hemphill University of North Carolina-Greensboro, USA

Risto Marttinen George Mason University, USA

Collin Webster University of Birmingham, Dubai, UAE

Tao Zhang University of North Texas, USA

Editorial Board

Laura Alfrey, Monash University, Australia

Dominique Banville, George Mason University, USA

Eve Bernstein, Queens College - CUNY , USA

Antonio Calderón, University of Limerick, Ireland

Weiyun Chen, University of Michigan, USA

Donetta Cothran, Indiana University, USA

Matthew Curtner-Smith, University of Alabama, USA

Ben Dyson, University of North Carolina, Greensboro, USA

Tim Fletcher, Brock University, Canada

Alex Garn, Louisiana State University, USA

Tan Leng Goh, Central Connecticut State University, USA

Peter A. Hastie, Auburn University, USA

Pamela Hodges Kulinna, Arizona State University, USA

Cassandra Iannucci, Deakin University, Australia

Peter Iserbyt, KU Leuven, Belgium

Weidong Li, Ohio State University, USA

Ken Lodewyk, Brock University, Canada

Bryan McCullick, University of Georgia, USA

Scott McNamara, University of New Hampshire, USA

Geoff Meek, Bowling Green State University, USA

Thomas Quarmby, Leeds Beckett University, UK

Fernando Santos, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, School of Higher Education, Portugal

Bo Shen, Wayne State University, USA

Victoria (Tori) Shiver, University of New Mexico, USA

Mara Simon, Springfield College, USA

Kelly Simonton, University of Wyoming, USA

Oleg Sinelnikov, University of Alabama, USA

Suzan F. Smith-Ayers, Western Michigan University, USA

Melinda Solmon, Louisiana State University, USA

Michalis Stylianou, University of Queensland, Australia

Sue Sutherland, The Ohio State University, USA

Tristan Wallhead, University of Wyoming, USA

Jennifer Walton-Fisette, Kent State University, USA

Yubing Wang, Old Dominion University, USA

Phillip Ward, The Ohio State University, USA

John Williams, University of Canberra, Australia

Wesley Wilson, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, USA

Ping Xiang, Texas A&M University, USA

Xihe Zhu, Old Dominion University, USA

Social Media Manager

Paul Malinowski, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA

Human Kinetics Staff Tammy Miller, Senior Journals   Managing Editor

Prior to submission, please carefully read and follow the submission guidelines detailed below. Authors must submit their manuscripts through the journal’s ScholarOne online submission system. To submit, click the button below:

Page Content

Authorship guidelines, open access, manuscript submission template, guidelines for replication studies, guidelines for research notes, guidelines for book reviews, submitting a manuscript, receiving a decision, guidelines for monographs, guidelines for special issues, additional resources.

• Open Access Resource Center
• Figure Guideline Examples
• Copyright and Permissions for Authors
• Editor and Reviewer Guidelines

The Journals Division at Human Kinetics adheres to the criteria for authorship as outlined by the International Committee of Medical Journal Editors*:

Each author should have participated sufficiently in the work to take public responsibility for the content. Authorship credit should be based only on substantial contributions to:

a. Substantial contributions to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work; AND b. Drafting the work or revising it critically for important intellectual content; AND c. Final approval of the version to be published; AND d. Agreement to be accountable for all aspects of the work in ensuring that questions related to the accuracy or integrity of any part of the work are appropriately investigated and resolved.

Conditions a, b, c, and d must all be met. Individuals who do not meet the above criteria may be listed in the acknowledgments section of the manuscript. * http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-contributors.html

Authors who use artificial intelligence (AI)-assisted technologies (such as Large Language Models [LLMs], chatbots, or image creators) in their work must indicate how they were used in the cover letter and the work itself. These technologies cannot be listed as authors as they are unable to meet all the conditions above, particularly agreeing to be accountable for all aspects of the work.

Human Kinetics is pleased to allow our authors the option of having their articles published Open Access. In order for an article to be published Open Access, authors must complete and return the Request for Open Access form and provide payment for this option. To learn more and request Open Access, click here .

Manuscript Guidelines

All Human Kinetics journals require that authors follow our manuscript guidelines in regards to use of copyrighted material, human and animal rights, and conflicts of interest as specified in the following link: https://journals.humankinetics.com/page/author/authors

In preparing articles for submission to the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education , authors must follow the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed., 2020).

All articles must include an abstract of 100–150 words typed on a separate page along with three to six key words not used in the title. When submitting, you will be prompted to fill in the abstract in a specific box. Please also include the abstract in the manuscript file that is uploaded. JTPE editorial personnel request that a structured abstract format is used that includes labeling the following sections within the abstract paragraph: Purpose, Method, Results, and Discussion/Conclusion. Non-traditional papers (e.g., photovoice, reviews, position papers) may use other labeling systems. The entire manuscript must be double-spaced. Line numbers should be inserted, continuous throughout the text, to facilitate the review process. Tables must be prepared using Microsoft Word’s table-formatting functions. Manuscripts should be no longer than 30 total pages, inclusive of title page, abstract pages, main text, references, figures, and tables. Occasionally, the journal editors will consider longer submissions, but authors are asked to request editorial approval before submitting papers longer than 30 pages. Special attention should be given to the accuracy of the references and APA style. Figures must be crisp, clear, and properly labeled. Do not submit low-resolution electronic files. Manuscripts should not be submitted to another journal at the same time. All quantitative studies must report effect sizes. To facilitate anonymous review, the first page of the manuscript should include only the title of the manuscript and the date of submission. The manuscript itself should contain no clues as to the author’s identity. A separate cover sheet with contact information is no longer required because the necessary identifying information is entered when registering with the online submission system.

Manuscripts will be acknowledged upon receipt and will be sent to two reviewers for anonymous review; the review process normally takes two to three months for an initial decision. Once the manuscript has been accepted, it will be published in the first available space after the final revision has been received. There are no page charges to authors. 

Authors are welcome to make use of this manuscript template to help ensure that their submission is consistent with JTPE 's formatting and author guidelines. However, this is not a requirement and authors are free not to use the template if that is preferred.

Makel and Plucker (2014) proposed that replication is a powerful avenue to accumulate understanding by checking the validity of knowledge from previous research and enables questions concerning generalization across populations or contexts. Schmidt (2009) suggests that there are two primary forms of replication studies. The first includes "operational" replications that test the validity of the original data using similar procedures and research designs. The second are "constructive" replications, which attempt to replicate a research finding with different situations and different subjects, to determine if the basic findings of the original study can be applied to other participants and circumstances and is therefore linked to the wider notion of replication. In addition to the Manuscript Guidelines listed above, any Replication study submitted to JTPE must fall into one of these two categories. 

Makel, M.C., & Plucker, J.A. (2014). Facts are more important than novelty: Replication of the education sciences. Educational Researcher , 43 , 304–316. Schmidt, S. (2009). Shall we really do it again? The powerful concept of replication is neglected in the social sciences. Review of General Psychology , 13 , 90–100. 

Research Notes submitted to JTPE should meet the following guidelines:

Research Notes may consist of replication studies, data re-analyses studies, validation studies of existing instruments, and comments and dialogues on previously published papers. Manuscripts should use 12-point Times New Roman font and should be double-spaced (as per APA guidelines), with length not exceeding 14 pages, including text, references, tables, and figures. Consecutive line numbers should be inserted throughout the text to facilitate the review process. Submissions must include an abstract of 150 words or less. Research Notes should conform to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed., 2020).

Review and Publishing Process

Research Notes follow the same review and publishing process as regular manuscripts.

The Journal of Teaching in Physical Education is committed to publishing reviews of recent books that contribute to physical education, physical education teacher education, and related fields. In some instances, the book review editor may identify books worthy of review and ask scholars to author a book review. In other instances, scholars may propose to review a book based on their interest and expertise. Prospective book review authors should first contact the section editor to discuss their interest and ensure that the book they wish to review is a fit for JTPE and is not already under review.  The current book review section editor is Dr. Michael Hemphill ( [email protected] ).

Review Format

Book review authors should follow the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th edition, 2020) guidelines for journal article style. Keep references to a minimum. Check for the correct spelling of proper names. Check quotations for accuracy and make sure to provide page numbers for quotes. Reviews should be approximately 1,500 to 1,800 words. The text, including quotes and bibliographic information, should be double-spaced.

Bibliographic information for the book should be placed at the top of the review in the following format:

Title By Author(s). Publisher, year of publication, location of publisher, price, number of pages, ISBN. Reviewed by: Reviewer, institutional affiliation, location.

For example:

Reconceptualizing Physical Education: A Curriculum Framework for Physical Literacy, by Ang Chen. Routledge, 2022, New York, NY, $136, 276 pp., 9780367756949. Reviewed by: Michael Hemphill, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC.

Review Content

Book reviews should be relevant to readers of JTPE and be consistent with its mission to “stimulate discussion, study, and critique of teaching, teacher education, and curriculum as these fields relate to physical activity in schools, communities, higher education, and sport.” There are some books that would make an obvious fit to review for JTPE due to their purpose clearly relating to physical education. There may also be books from related areas that could be considered because they provide JTPE readers with insight into a topic of importance to our discipline. Prospective book review authors may contact the book review editor to discuss their interest in authoring a book review prior to committing to the project.

A good review provides description and analysis and attempts to situate a book in the larger scholarly conversation of the discipline. It is important to describe the author’s central thesis and the author’s approach to the text. The review should summarize the content and use examples to highlight key points; it should not be organized as a chapter-by-chapter synopsis of the book. Reviewers may choose to situate the book in relation to the author’s previous works, to scholarly debates in physical education or related areas, or to relevant literature in the field and particularly from JTPE . A constructive analysis of the book may include a summary of what makes it unique, strengths and weaknesses, the scope and relevance of its arguments, and/or its relationship to other published material. Book reviews often conclude by commenting on the book’s potential impact on the field, theoretical approach, or methodology. First-time reviewers are encouraged to read reviews that have appeared in other journals in related fields and from JTPE when possible.

Editorial Process

The submission of a review confirms that the review has not and will not appear elsewhere in published form. Book reviews will be received and edited by the Book Review Editor. Reviewers should note that the solicitation of a book review or the submission of an unsolicited review does not guarantee publication in the JTPE . Book review authors may be asked by the Book Review Editor to revise their reviews. The Book Review Editor makes recommendations for acceptance of reviews to the Editor of the journal. The Editor makes all final decisions about what will appear in the journal.

Acknowledgement

The guidelines for book reviews in JTPE were developed with insights from the book review section of the Sociology of Sport Journal .

Manuscripts must be submitted through ScholarOne, the online submission system for the Journal of Teaching in Physical Education (see submission button at the top of this page). ScholarOne manages the electronic transfer of manuscripts throughout the article review process, providing systematic instructions and a user-friendly design. Please access the site and follow the directions for authors submitting manuscripts.

Any problems that might be encountered can be easily resolved by selecting “Help" in the upper-right corner of any ScholarOne screen. Authors of manuscripts accepted for publication must transfer copyright to Human Kinetics, Inc. This copyright agreement can be viewed by visiting the ScholarOne site and selecting "Instructions & Forms" in the upper-right corner.

JTPE is committed to mentoring young scholars to be able to conduct high-quality, timely peer reviews. We use a reviewer onboarding system in which reviewers may invite a graduate student or young scholar to review a manuscript to provide them with valuable training experience. Authors will have the option during manuscript subscription to decline to have their manuscript be part of this process.

Effective July 1, 2019, JTPE  has implemented new decision categories for submitted manuscripts. To review these categories, see the document below.

• JTPE Decision Categories

Monograph proposals to JTPE should meet the following guidelines:

Manuscripts must use 12-point Times New Roman font (as per APA guidelines) and should be single-spaced, with length not exceeding 10 pages (including the overview but excluding the Appendix). Proposals should start with an overview chapter (Chapter 1), which clearly identifies the theme, scope, and need for the monograph. An overarching theoretical framework should inform the monograph. Individual chapters may also have additional/different theories that inform the work. Proposals should provide the abstracts for all chapters (6-10 chapters). Each chapter’s abstract should consist of the following elements: Title, Background, Purpose, Method, Data Analysis, Results, and Discussion/ Conclusions. Data should have already been collected at the time the proposal is submitted and results should be present in the proposal. Proposals should conform to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed., 2020), except that the text should be single-spaced. Guest editors should be identified in the Appendix and serve as liaisons between chapter lead authors and JTPE coeditors. An Appendix should be submitted separately that provides the contact information of guest editors and the title of each of the chapters and its contributing authors with lead author contact information, along with an abbreviated CV (two pages) for each of the guest editors and lead authors. Proposals are due by July 31 of each year.

Review Process

All proposals are reviewed by a four-person review committee comprised of the two JTPE coeditors and two members of the JTPE editorial board.

Selection Process

The selection process is based on the following criteria: (a) relevance of topic and (2) quality of proposals, as determined by the four-person committee. Guest editors will be notified regarding the selection of monographs by September 15 of each year. If selected, guest editors must submit a complete monograph for further consideration in JTPE .

Publishing Process

The complete monograph is due three months after notification of selection (by December 15). Once received, the monograph will be reviewed by the four-person review committee through the online review process, with reviews sent only to the monograph guest editors. Henceforth, the review process continues following the standard JTPE format until the monograph is considered ready for publication or the monograph is rejected.

The following guidelines are intended to help scholars prepare a special issue proposal. Proposals on time-sensitive topics may be considered for publication as a special series at the Editor’s discretion. In no more than four pages, author(s) should address the following questions using the headings provided.

Synopsis  In 150 words or less, what is your special issue about? Important: Be sure to include its main themes and objectives. Rationale What are you proposing to do differently/more innovatively/better than has already been done on the topic (in JTPE specifically, as well as in the field more generally)? Why is now the time for a special issue on this topic? Why is JTPE the most appropriate venue for this topic? What are the main competing works on the topic (e.g., edited books, other special issues)? List up to five articles recently published on the topic that show breadth of scope and authorship in the topic. Qualifications Are you proposing to serve as Guest Editor for this special issue? If so, Please provide your vitae. Have you edited/co-edited a special issue before? If yes, please give the citation(s). Do you currently serve on any journal editorial boards? If yes, please list. If not, who do you suggest for a potential Guest Editor? Timeline Given that it takes approximately 12 months to complete a special issue, please provide a detailed timeline including estimated dates or time frames for the following steps: (a) Call for papers (b) Submission deadline (c) Review process (averages 4 months) (d) Revision process (averages 3 months) (e) Final editing and approval from JTPE editor (f) Completion and submission to Human Kinetics (must be at least 3 months prior to the issue cover month; e.g., completion by January 1 for the April issue)

Individuals

Online subscriptions.

Individuals may purchase online-only subscriptions directly from this website. To order, click on an article and select the subscription option you desire for the journal of interest (individual or student, 1-year or 2-year), and then click Buy. Those purchasing student subscriptions must be prepared to provide proof of student status as a degree-seeking candidate at an accredited institution. Online-only subscriptions purchased via this website provide immediate access to all the journal's content, including all archives and Ahead of Print. Note that a subscription does not allow access to all the articles on this website, but only to those articles published in the journal you subscribe to. For step-by-step instructions to purchase online, click here .

Print + Online Subscriptions

Individuals wishing to purchase a subscription with a print component (print + online) must contact our customer service team directly to place the order. Click here to contact us!

Institutions

Institution subscriptions must be placed directly with our customer service team. To review format options and pricing, visit our Librarian Resource Center . To place your order, contact us . 

JTPE Editors and Reviewers Resource Center

Eligibility criteria and responsibilities of jtpe co-editors.

JTPE  co-editors are selected from the members of the editorial board. Upon selection, they serve as junior co-editor for a specified term of two years. Upon completion of this period, they serve as senior co-editor for another two-year term.

Eligibility Criteria Eligibility for  JTPE  co-editor appointments is based on the following criteria:

1. Co-editor candidates have published three manuscripts in the last five years in tier one journals (requirements: one publication in  JTPE  and one first authorship publication). 2. Co-editor candidates have demonstrated high-quality reviews in a timely manner while on the  JTPE  editorial board (a minimum of six reviews per year during the three-year term). 3. Co-editor candidates have served as  JTPE  editorial board members for six years (i.e., two terms) before selection.

  Responsibilities The  JTPE  co-editor responsibilities include, but are not limited to, the following:

1. Co-editors ensure the validity of the double-anonymous review process. 2. Co-editors maintain confidentiality and objectivity regarding manuscripts and the review process. 3. The senior co-editor submits manuscripts to at least two reviewers expert in the specific area who can be objective and do not have conflicts of interest. In the case that the manuscript content or focus is inappropriate for  JTPE , the coeditors contact the author(s) rather than sending it out for review. 4. Co-editors correspond with authors and reviewers. 5. Co-editors make decisions regarding acceptance/rejection and resubmission/rejection of manuscripts based on reviewers’ feedback/recommendations.

To review more information on the duties of editors, including ethical responsibilities,  click here .

Nomination Process

Nominations for the co-editor positions originate from existing editorial board members and are submitted in writing to the senior co-editor who is responsible for contacting the nominees for their curriculum vitae and letter of interest, as well as for making arrangements for the selection process.

Co-editors are selected by current co-editors from the pool of  JTPE  editorial board members who meet the eligibility criteria and are interested in the position. The co-editors’ selection is ratified by the majority vote of the  JTPE  editorial board.

Co-Editor Publication Process

In the case a co-editor submits a manuscript for publication to  JTPE , the other co-editor assigns a guest co-editor to select reviewers and monitor the review process.

Editorial Board Members

Eligibility criteria and responsibilities for jtpe editorial board membership.

Editorial board members are appointed by the senior co-editor upon consensus of the editorial council (senior and junior co-editors).

Eligibility Criteria Eligibility for new board member appointments is based on the following criteria:

1. Potential editorial board member has obtained a doctoral degree specializing in sport pedagogy or related fields at least five years before serving on the  JTPE  editorial board. 2. Potential editorial board member has published three manuscripts in the last five years in tier one journals (initial membership requirements: one publication in  JTPE  and one first authorship publication). 3. Potential editorial board member has served as a guest reviewer for  JTPE  for one year and completed an adequate number of high-quality, non-biased reviews. 4. Potential editorial board member has demonstrated expertise in areas needed on the board. 5. Potential editorial board member is committed to attending the annual  JTPE  editorial board meetings when possible and to contributing to the mission of  JTPE .  

Responsibilities The members of the  JTPE  editorial board are appointed for three years and are directly accountable to the editors of  JTPE . In turn, the senior editor of  JTPE  is responsible to Human Kinetics, Inc. The  JTPE  editorial board members’ responsibilities include, but are not limited to, the following:

1. JTPE  editorial board members complete a minimum of six reviews per year in a timely manner. 2. JTPE  editorial board members provide respectful and constructive reviews for authors that avoid hurtful language and contribute to providing high-quality papers. 3. JTPE  editorial board members demonstrate confidentiality and objectivity regarding the manuscripts and the review process. 4. JTPE  editorial board members participate in the evaluation of the quality and effectiveness of JTPE to help maintain high standards.

Editorial board membership nominations are requested from existing  JTPE  editorial board members. Board members whose term has been completed and who wish to continue on the board can also nominate themselves as a self-nomination (through a letter of intent only). Nominations should be submitted in writing (preferably via electronic mail) to the senior editor, who is responsible for arranging the review/selection process. Nominees are then asked to submit a curriculum vita to the senior editor, along with a statement expressing their interest in the position and explaining their suitability.

The co-editors of  JTPE  will consider nominees who meet the eligibility criteria and have provided requested materials as potential  JTPE  editorial board members. The  JTPE  editorial board can consist of up to 32 members at a time.

Renewal of JTPE Editorial Board Membership

The co-editors determine the renewal of  JTPE  editorial board membership. Board members, upon completion of their term of service, are invited to continue to serve on the board if they have successfully fulfilled all their responsibilities during their three-year term. This will be determined by the eligibility criteria and their ability to fulfill appropriate responsibilities for  JTPE  editorial board membership.

Reviewer Guidelines

A. guidelines for the review of research-based manuscripts.

I. Appropriateness of Manuscript for  JTPE : The reviewer should comment on the appropriateness of the manuscript (refer to editorial policy of  JTPE ) based on the guidelines below (when they apply). Co-editors make final decisions about the appropriateness of manuscripts.

II. Relevance/Significance of the Study:

1. Is there a theoretical framework and/or is the study and the related construct(s) situated in the existing literature? 2. Is the theoretical framework logically explained or are the constructs tied together to explain how the research project was conceived? 3. Is the rationale for the study clear? 4. Does the literature review provide the most relevant and current scholarship on the topic that enriches an understanding of the theoretical framework or related constructs? 5. Are the purpose and the research questions derived from the literature review and are they consistent with the theoretical framework and/or the related constructs and rationale presented in the introduction? 6. Have the data been published elsewhere? 7. Are the interpretations based on valid, reliable, or trustworthy data/materials? 8. Has the work been sufficiently thorough to warrant publication? 9. What significant, unique, or valuable knowledge will readers learn from the study? 10. Overall, does the study add new knowledge and/or make a significant and/or a unique contribution to the existing literature base?

III. Methodology and Presentation of Results:

General Guidelines

1. Are the research questions specific enough so that the theoretical framework/construct logically leads to the selection of appropriate variables/phenomena for the investigation? 2. Is the research design explicitly explained? 3. Are participants clearly described? 4. Is information offered with regard to having obtained institutional approval and participants’ consent? 5. Are key characteristics of the participants provided? 6. Is the sequence of research procedure logical? 7. Are there sufficient data sources to address the research question(s)?

Guidelines for Quantitative Methods

1. Are variables operationally defined for data collection? 2. Is information about the validity and reliability of the measures reported? 3. Do the validity and reliability of the measures meet acceptable criteria? 4. Are control procedures described in experimental/quasi-experimental designs? 5. Are effective procedures used to minimize the threats to the validity and reliability of the measures? 6. Are statistical analyses compatible with or appropriate to the research questions? 7. Are advantages and disadvantages of using the analyses explained? 8. Were adequate assumptions for the statistical analyses examined and results reported? 9. Were descriptive statistics for the variables (dependent variables in particular) reported? 10. Are the parameters/indexes chosen to report results appropriate (especially in multivariate analyses)? 11. Were results for tests of statistical significance accompanied by effect size indices? 12. Are there any indications of calculation errors? 13. When using single-subject designs, were data paths interpreted appropriately according to accepted visual analysis tactics?

Guidelines for Qualitative Methods

1. Is the type of inquiry and its associated paradigm/perspective specified? 2. Does the author reveal sufficient personal/professional subjectivity for readers to assess the degree of the researcher’s role in the study and influence on the data presented? 3. Is the description of context detailed so that readers can situate the study within its social and educational environment? 4. Are detailed descriptions of key informants provided? 5. Are data collection protocols described? 6. Are sufficient data sources used for an effective triangulation to make the case that the data are trustworthy and credible? 7. If limited data sources were used, were additional efforts made to gather sufficient in-depth information from the sources to address the research questions adequately? 8. Are approaches to establishing trustworthiness appropriate? 9. Are data analysis protocols carefully described to show that the themes/grounded theories have been derived in a logical way?

IV. Discussion and Interpretation:

1. Has the discussion/interpretation of results been linked to the theoretical framework and/or constructs and rationale presented in the introduction? 2. To what extent do the findings make unique contributions to the body of knowledge? 3. Are interpretations of the results based on the data and related to the literature? 4. Are there any indications of over- or under-generalization of the results? 5. To what extent have the results answered the research questions (completely, partially, or not at all)? 6. If there are any critical limitations of the study in any section (e.g., theoretical foundation, methodology, results, and/or discussion), how well has the author addressed them? 7. Are practical implications of the findings presented when appropriate? 8. Are similarities and differences with previous findings noted and discussed? 9. Are unexpected results acknowledged and discussed?

V. Clarity of Information Presentation and Writing:

1. Does the writing allow a clear, accurate, and concise presentation of information? Are the sections coherently connected? 2. Does the writing avoid redundancy? 3. Are concepts clearly defined and explained when they first appear in the manuscript? 4. Has technical jargon been avoided or kept to a minimum? 5. Is the general arrangement of the sections logical? 6. Is it a finished piece of work? 7. Are there inappropriate or missing sections/headers? 8. Does the manuscript conform to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (6th ed., 2010)? 9. Does the abstract present all key components in the manuscript in a very concise manner? 10. Are tables and figures accurate, clear, and concise? 11. Do tables and figures present necessary information that contributes to the understanding of the text, rather than redundant information which duplicates what is already in the text? 12. Is the reference list accurate and do citations in the manuscript accurately match those in the references section? 13. Is the tone of reporting academically appropriate? 14. Is an overly emotional tone avoided? 15. Is the length of the manuscript reasonable? 16. If longer than 28 pages (8.5 x 11, size 12 font), can any part be condensed or omitted without jeopardizing the significance of the manuscript?

B. Guidelines for the Review of Manuscripts Pertaining to Theoretical, Philosophical, and/or Applied Issues of Professional Practice

I. Contribution to the Body of Knowledge/Professional Practice: 

1. Does the author address a significant issue that is relevant to the scope of the journal (teaching/learning in physical education)? 2. Is the most current relevant literature included in the review? 3. Are the arguments based on solid theoretical frameworks, philosophical foundations, and/or empirical evidence? 4. To what extent does the manuscript advance our understanding of the issue? 5. Has the work been sufficiently thorough to warrant publication? 6. Is the quality of the content sufficient to warrant publication?

II. Quality of Information Presentation:

1. Are themes and/or philosophical positions stated clearly? 2. Are appropriate transitions used between/among themes to build logical and compelling arguments? 3. Does the presentation help readers conceptualize issues and arguments effectively? 4. Is the manuscript logically organized to achieve a clearly stated purpose that is suited to this journal? 5. Is the information conceptually integrated and coherently presented?

III. Discussion or Interpretation of Ideas and Information:

1. Has the author built constructive arguments that advance theory, knowledge, and/or applications related to the scope of the journal (teaching/learning in physical education)? 2. Is relevant literature adequately critiqued and integrated into the arguments? 3. Are the arguments based on well-reasoned thoughts, rather than emotions? 4. Does the reasoning throughout the manuscript seem to be sound? 5. Are the conclusions consistent with the arguments developed or the empirical evidence reviewed? 6. Are practical implications of the arguments and/or ideas emphasized?

C. Guidelines for Reviewing Manuscripts the Second or Third Time:

1. All major concerns by reviewers and editors should be addressed in the first revision of a manuscript. 2. New major revisions should not be requested during the second or third revision of a manuscript unless a major change (e.g., new theoretical framework or revised analyses) requires further recommendations for changes. 3. Original reviewers should be employed in subsequent reviews unless the co-editor’s decision for the original manuscript is reject.

Guest Reviewers

Guest reviewers must have an earned doctoral degree specializing in sport pedagogy or related fields. Doctoral students (in the third year of their programs or beyond) may also participate as a  JTPE  guest reviewer under the supervision of their doctoral mentors.

The Metzler-Freedman Exemplary Paper Award

The Metzler-Freedman Exemplary Paper Award was established to highlight an article published in JTPE that exemplifies papers of the utmost excellence and innovation. The annual award is carefully chosen by a committee from all JTPE articles published within the calendar year. Selection of these awards are based on the significance of the work, quality of methods and writing, and the potential to have a positive impact on the field. Each year, the winners are presented and honored at the SHAPE America convention.

The Reviewer of the Year Award

The Reviewer of the Year Award is given annually to one or two reviewers—editorial board members and/or ad hoc reviewers—who have demonstrated excellence in their contributions to JTPE within the most recent year. Excellence is considered both in terms of editorial ratings of reviewer contributions and the number of reviewers completed for the journal. The Reviewer of the Year Award is presented annually at the JTPE Editorial Board meeting at the SHAPE America national convention.

Most Popular

© 2024 Human Kinetics

Powered by:

• [185.39.149.46]
• 185.39.149.46

Character limit 500 /500

Articles on Physical education

Displaying 1 - 20 of 36 articles.

New government guidance for PE lets teachers and pupils down

David Grecic , University of Central Lancashire ; Alan Thomson , University of Central Lancashire , and Andrew Sprake , University of Central Lancashire

Is exercise really good for the brain? Here’s what the science says

Matthieu P. Boisgontier , L’Université d’Ottawa/University of Ottawa and Boris Cheval , Université de Genève

Girls should get the chance to play football at school – but PE needs a major rehaul for all students

Shrehan Lynch , University of East London

School playgrounds are getting squeezed: here are 8 ways to keep students active in small spaces

Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University ; Jessica Amy Sears , Charles Sturt University , and Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania

Outdoor education has psychological, cognitive and physical health benefits for children

Jean-Philippe Ayotte-Beaudet , Université de Sherbrooke and Felix Berrigan , Université de Sherbrooke

London’s Olympic legacy: research reveals why £2.2 billion investment in primary school PE has failed teachers

Vicky Randall , University of Winchester and Gerald Griggs

How sport can help young people to become better citizens

Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania and Casey Peter Mainsbridge , University of Tasmania

Missing out on PE during lockdowns means students will be playing  catch-up

Jora Broerse , Victoria University ; Cameron Van der Smee , Federation University Australia , and Jaimie-Lee Maple , Victoria University

Disabled children still face exclusion in PE – here’s what needs to change

Tom Gibbons , Teesside University and Kevin Dixon , Northumbria University, Newcastle

Taking the circus to school: How kids benefit from learning trapeze, juggling and unicycle in gym class

Marion Cossin , Université de Montréal

Thinking of choosing a health or PE subject in years 11 and 12? Here’s what you need to know

Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University and Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania

Aussie kids are some of the least active in the world. We developed a cheap school program that gets results

Taren Sanders , Australian Catholic University ; Chris Lonsdale , Australian Catholic University ; David Lubans , University of Newcastle ; Michael Noetel , The University of Queensland , and Philip D Parker , Australian Catholic University

When men started to obsess over  six-packs

Conor Heffernan , The University of Texas at Austin

PE can do much more than keep children fit – but its many benefits are often overlooked

David Grecic , University of Central Lancashire ; Andrew Sprake , University of Central Lancashire , and Robin Taylor , University of Central Lancashire

Distance learning makes it harder for kids to exercise, especially in low-income communities

Katelyn Esmonde , Johns Hopkins University and Keshia Pollack Porter , Johns Hopkins University

Kids need physical education – even when they can’t get it at school

Collin A. Webster , University of South Carolina

Learning through adventure: the many skills that can be taught outside the classroom

Gary Stidder , University of Brighton

Kids aren’t getting enough exercise, even in sporty Seattle

Julie McCleery , University of Washington

Bushwalking and bowls in schools: we need to teach kids activities they’ll go on to enjoy

Vaughan Cruickshank , University of Tasmania ; Brendon Hyndman , Charles Sturt University , and Shane Pill , Flinders University

How children who dread PE lessons at school can be given a sporting chance

Kiara Lewis , University of Huddersfield

Related Topics

• Physical activity
• School sport

Top contributors

Senior Lecturer in Health and Physical Education, University of Tasmania

Lecturer in Physical Education & Sport / Course Leader MA in Physical Education and School Sport, University of Central Lancashire

Senior Manager, Brisbane Catholic Education & Associate Professor of Health & Physical Education (Adj.), Charles Sturt University

Reader in Sports Science (Clinical Physiology), University of Essex

Professor of Sport and Physical Education, University of Central Lancashire

Senior Lecturer in Psychology, The University of Queensland

Lecturer in Developmental Psychology, The University of Edinburgh

Assistant Professor of Psychological and Behavioural Science, London School of Economics and Political Science

Associate Professor in Physiology, Exercise and Nutrition, University of Stirling

Senior Research Fellow, Australian Catholic University

Senior Lecturer, School of Sport, Exercise & Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham

Senior Lecturer in Physiology, Exercise and Nutrition, University of Stirling

Professor, Medical Research Future Fund Emerging Leader, University of South Australia

Senior Lecturer, Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University

Senior Lecturer, Department for Health, Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Bath

• X (Twitter)
• Unfollow topic Follow topic

• IMPACT FACTOR : 0.519
• INFOBASE IMPACT FACTOR : 4.29
• Global Impact Factor 2015 : 0.765
• Global Impact Factor 2014 : 0.654

JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL

Education research, issn online                                :   2394-4056, issn print                                   :   2394-4048, issn online     :     2394-4056, issn print        :     2394-4048, bring out the latest developments in the field of physical education, plant, animal and environmental sciences.

• Editorial Board
• Authors Guidlines
• Publication Ethics
• Submit Manuscript
• Current Issue
• Processing Fee

Journal of Physical Education Research (JOPER) is a scientific publication. It is a peer reviewed and referred journal, officially publishes original research articles on Physical Education and its allied sciences. The JOPER is an open access international journal has four annual issues (March, June, September and December), with its own issue number and supplements if necessary for each issue. JOPER publishes in both printed and online version. It is devoted to the promotion of physical education and allied sciences. The experiences of different countries are very important to share on a platform like this. Therefore, this international journal serves to bring scholars from diver's background interns of their domain of specialization and scholarships and will enrich our understanding of various issues related to the physical education and sports. It also provides an International forum for the communication and evaluation of data, methods and findings in physical education and allied sciences. Based on the international character of the Journal, the articles/research papers can be published by authors from all over the world. The journal is under the indexing phase in several international bodies and organizations. The journal publishes scientific publications according to the criteria listed in the Guidelines for the Authors. Everyone who has met the requirements of the journal and who takes full responsibility for all that is written in the publication has the right to publish their article with us. The review and the corrections made by the editorial board and its associates do not dismiss the author (the co-authors) from the responsibility for his/her publication, and they also do not change its originality.

JOPER welcomes research articles from physical educators, sports scientists, health educators, coaches, athlete trainers and research scholars profoundly involved in physical education researches from all over the world to report their research findings and experiences with us. Applications of the publications are open throughout the year.

Journal Overview

• Copyright form
• Sample paper
• Individual Subscription Form
• Institutional Subscription Form

Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field.

For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click here .

Loading metrics

Open Access

Peer-reviewed

Research Article

An experimental study on the influence of healthy physical education curriculum model on sports ability of Chinese senior high school students

Contributed equally to this work with: Shengting Dai, Qian Qiu, Yuancai Zhang, Jingfei Yan, Rongbin Yin

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Funding acquisition, Writing – original draft

Affiliation School of Sports Science and Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai, China

Roles Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation Physical Education College, Xuchang University, Xuchang, China

Roles Methodology, Resources, Supervision, Validation

Affiliation College of Physical Education and Health, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China

Roles Conceptualization, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected] (JY); [email protected] (RY)

Affiliation Ministry of Physical Education, Shanghai Institute of Technology, Shanghai, China

Roles Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing

Affiliation School of Physical Education, Soochow University, Suzhou, China

• Shengting Dai, 
• Qian Qiu, 
• Yuancai Zhang, 
• Jingfei Yan, 
• Rongbin Yin

• Published: May 14, 2024
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858
• Reader Comments

In recent years, the growing incidence of health issues among Chinese students, including obesity, diabetes, and other chronic diseases, has been attributed to a sedentary lifestyle, lack of physical activity, and unhealthy eating habits. Physical education (PE) classes play a crucial role in promoting physical activity and fostering healthy lifestyles among Chinese students. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of the healthy PE curriculum model on the sports ability of senior high school students in China. The trial adopted a quasi-experimental design with equivalent groups. The experimental group followed the healthy PE curriculum model in their PE classes, while the control group received traditional technical instruction. During the 12-week intervention, 149 senior high school students completed the sports ability test as both the pre-test and post-test measurements for this experimental study. The results indicated that the experimental group showed significant improvements in sports ability compared to the control group, highlighting the positive effects of the healthy PE curriculum model. The structural characteristics of the healthy PE curriculum model provided essential support for students’ learning and proved to be an effective way to promote physical literacy among senior high school students in China.

Citation: Dai S, Qiu Q, Zhang Y, Yan J, Yin R (2024) An experimental study on the influence of healthy physical education curriculum model on sports ability of Chinese senior high school students. PLoS ONE 19(5): e0298858. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858

Editor: Preeti Kanawjia, GSVM Medical College, INDIA

Received: June 8, 2023; Accepted: February 1, 2024; Published: May 14, 2024

Copyright: © 2024 Dai et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All data files are available from the DRYAD database: https://datadryad.org/stash/share/tP5af3E1HsllsF8bjCxfVtemLPPGNzDQBM0Orgn56c4 .

Funding: The funding for this research was made possible through the generous support of several grants: [East China University of Science and Technology Exploratory Research Fund Project]: This grant, awarded by [East China University of Science and Technology], grant number [JKL02222201], played a pivotal role in funding the initial stages of our research, including data collection and preliminary analyses. [Shanghai Educational Science Research Project]: We also received support from [Shanghai Municipal Commission of Education], grant number [C2023025], which significantly contributed to the development of our experimental design and the execution of specific research protocols. [contribution to study design, data curation, funding acquisition, decision to publish, and preparation of the manuscript, etc.]

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

1. Introduction

Physical education plays a crucial role in the development and well-being of students, especially during their formative years in senior high school [ 1 , 2 ]. With the growing concern for the sedentary lifestyles and poor health habits of today’s youth, there is a need for innovative physical education models that can help promote healthy lifestyles and enhance sports abilities [ 3 ]. In recent years, China has witnessed a dramatic increase in the number of students who suffer from health issues due to lack of physical activity [ 4 , 5 ]. The traditional physical education curriculum model in China is exam-oriented, which means that students focus mainly on achieving good grades rather than improving their physical fitness [ 6 ]. Therefore, there is a need to evaluate the effectiveness of physical education curricula in promoting physical activity and improving sports ability among Chinese senior high school students [ 7 ].

To effectively advance the implementation of China’s new primary and secondary school curriculum standards and foster the development of students’ core competencies in physical education and health, Professor Ji Liu, who led the 2015 National Primary and Secondary School Physical Education and Health Curriculum Standards Development and Revision Group and is associated with East China Normal University, drew inspiration from the” National Medium and Long-term Education Reform and Development Plan (2010–2020).”Guided by the fundamental principles outlined in the national “Physical Education and Health Curriculum Standards” for primary and secondary schools, Professor Ji Liu amalgamated international insights from physical education curriculum models and domestic best practices. This culminated in the proposal of a comprehensive physical education and health curriculum model, aptly named “The Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model(HPECM),which harmoniously blends an international perspective with distinctively Chinese characteristics [ 8 ]. HPECM ( Table 1 ) plays a pivotal role in driving the implementation of the national”Curriculum Standards” in the domain of physical education and health. It not only aligns with the principles and ethos of the “Curriculum Standards” but also offers clear guidance and methodologies to address critical issues in curriculum development, as articulated by Professor Ji Liu in 2015.

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t001

This model adopts a comprehensive curriculum perspective, operating within the framework of curriculum discourse. It encompasses the holistic design of the curriculum, ranging from modules to individual units, with a strong emphasis on effective curriculum implementation. This approach outlines overarching requirements and specific implementation strategies."

The main purpose of the Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model is to solve the problem of the continuous decline in the physical health level of Chinese teenagers in the past 30 years. The implementation of the Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model requires grasping three key points: sports skills, physical fitness, and exercise load. In terms of sports skills, structured skill learning and practice are emphasized. Whether it is a new teaching or a review class, attention should be paid to activities and competitions, and single-skill teaching should be rejected, with time maintained at around 20 minutes (a 40-minute class as an example). In terms of physical fitness, diversified, interesting, and compensatory physical fitness design is emphasized, with time maintained at around 10 minutes. In terms of exercise load, it is emphasized that the average heart rate of students in the classroom should reach 140–160 times per minute, and the continuous exercise time of students should account for about 75% of the total class time. It should be noted that the exercise time of each student does not need to reach 75% of the total class time, but the teacher should arrange the entire activity time to not exceed 25% of the total class time in a static state. The structural characteristics of the Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model not only help improve students’ sports ability but also contribute to the cultivation of students’ physical literacy [ 9 ].

Physical education curriculum models have been developed to address this issue and improve the quality of PE programs. Several studies have examined the effectiveness of the HPECM in improving sports ability outcomes among youth [ 10 , 11 ]. However, most of these studies have focused on elementary and middle school students. There is a need for research on the influence of the HPECM on sports ability among senior high school students. Therefore, the aim of this experimental study is to investigate the influence of HPECM on the sports ability of Chinese senior high school students. The study seeks to evaluate whether a curriculum model that emphasizes healthy physical activity can improve the sports ability of students and promote a more active lifestyle.

2. Materials and methods

2.1 study design.

Before the experimental research, the teacher of the experimental group was trained in the theory and practice of the healthy physical education curriculum model and achieved satisfactory training results. According to the school facilities, teachers’ characteristics, and students’ learning experience, the teaching experiment theme is basketball. Basketball teaching lasts for 12 weeks, two classes per week, for a total of 24 classes, each class lasting 80 minutes.

The experimental group firmly grasped the three key points of the healthy physical education curriculum model, and the teaching plan was jointly written between researcher and teacher after discussion. The control group implements routine teaching [ 12 ], that is, technical-traditional teaching, which has the following remarkable characteristics: The average heart rate of students in the whole class is less than 140 beats/min; Mainly adopts single movement skill teaching; There is no special physical exercise in the class. During the 12-week intervention period, all students completed the test of sports ability variables two times as the pre-test and post-test of this experimental study.

During the experiment, it is important to minimize the influence of irrelevant factors on the results. The control process mainly involves the following aspects: using identical teaching materials for both groups; ensuring that the teaching time is the same for both groups; adjusting the amount of teaching based on the weather and various school activities that may affect the experiment; to reduce experimental errors caused by differences in teaching styles and abilities among different teachers, the experimental and control groups are taught by the same teacher, and the experimental teacher is instructed to strictly follow the experimental plan while the control group should not intentionally imitate the experimental group’s teaching. Both the experimental and control groups were the students’ usual teachers. The principal investigator is present to assist and correct any problems that arise to ensure the effectiveness of the experimental teaching in the experimental group.

Inclusion/exclusion criteria :

Inclusion Criteria :

Educational Level: Participants must be currently enrolled high school students attending physical education classes.

Grade Range: Participants must specifically be high school sophomores.

Prior Physical Education Experience: Eligible participants should have successfully completed at least one year of physical education coursework.

Consent: Prior to participation, written informed consent is mandatory from both the students and their legal guardians.

Exclusion Criteria :

Medical Conditions: Participants with documented cardiovascular or respiratory conditions that may be adversely affected by physical activity will be excluded from the study.

Advanced Knowledge of Experimental Methods: Students possessing prior exposure or training in the experimental teaching methods under investigation will be excluded from participation.

These criteria aim to ensure a clear definition of the study’s target population, emphasizing the requisite educational level, grade, and prior experience in physical education. The inclusion of specific exclusion criteria serves to safeguard participant safety and maintain the integrity of the experimental design. Obtaining written informed consent further underscores the ethical considerations of the study.

Intervention condition and the control condition :

Intervention Condition: The intervention condition centers on the application of The Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model (HPECM). Grounded in contemporary pedagogical theories, HPECM seamlessly integrates cutting-edge teaching strategies tailored to elevate student engagement, facilitate skill acquisition, and optimize overall outcomes in physical education. This intervention marks a departure from conventional didactic methods, introducing a student-centric paradigm. HPECM adopts an innovative approach by incorporating technology-assisted learning tools, personalized feedback mechanisms, and collaborative learning experiences. The overarching objective is to create an enriched educational environment that transcends traditional instructional practices.

Control Condition: To mitigate potential experimental errors arising from variations in physical education teaching methods, basketball is consistently chosen as the focal subject for this study. In addressing potential confounding factors linked to diverse teaching styles and instructor capabilities, a meticulous control strategy is implemented. Specifically, both the experimental and control classes within the same academic period are instructed by the same teacher. To ensure consistency, explicit instructions are provided to the experimental teachers, mandating adherence to the experimental plan. Conversely, the control class is advised against intentionally mimicking the experimental conditions. Throughout the teaching sessions, the experimental instructor actively engages in problem-solving, offering assistance and corrections promptly.

2.2 Participants

The research study selected second-year students from a high school in Shanghai as research objects. Class selection was conducted through a randomization procedure. A random number generator was employed to allocate classes to either the experimental or control group. This approach aimed to ensure an unbiased selection process and create comparable groups at the study’s outset. Two classes from the second grade of high school were randomly selected as Experimental Group 1 (girls class) and Experimental Group 2 (boys class) due to the influence of class division teaching. Additionally, two classes were randomly selected as Control Group 1 (girls class) and Control Group 2 (boys class). Students were asked about their past medical history, family genetics, cardiovascular disease status, etc., to rule out potential risks in sports. There were 76 students in the experimental group (36 boys and 40 girls), and 73 students in the control group (35 boys and 38 girls). Please refer to Table 2 for the mean and standard deviation of the age, height, and weight of students in each experimental class and control class. During the process of recruiting subjects, there were no refusals to participate, and all subjects participated fully in the teaching experiment.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t002

2.3 Ethics statement

Prior to conducting the study, ethical approval was granted by the University Committee on Human Research Protection (UCHRP) of East China Normal University. The research protocol, including the participant consent process, was reviewed and approved by the UCHRP under protocol number [Approval Number: HR 095–2019].

All participants in this study were voluntary respondents selected by the research panel. They were provided with detailed information about the study’s purpose, procedures, potential risks, and benefits. Participants were assured that their responses would be treated as strictly confidential and anonymous. The confidentiality of their data was maintained throughout the research process. Participants provided written informed consent to participate in this study. In accordance with the approved protocol, each participant confirmed their willingness to participate by endorsing the following statement on a paper questionnaire: "I voluntarily consent to participate in this research project. I understand that my participation is entirely voluntary and that I have the right to withdraw from the study at any point without any negative consequences."

2.4 Data collection

Data were collected over a period of 3 months (From October 2020 to December 2020), incorporating pre-test and post-test measurements. The data collection process comprised the following steps:

Pre-Test Assessment: Prior to the intervention, baseline measurements were obtained to assess the initial sports ability level of the participants.

Post-Test Assessment: Following the intervention period, post-test measurements were conducted to evaluate the impact of the healthy physical education curriculum model. The same assessment components used in the pre-test were administered to both the control and intervention groups. The post-test assessments use the same standardized protocols and equipment as the pre-test.

2.5 Experimental intervention program

2.5.1 motor skill intervention program..

The motor skill exercises for both the experimental and control groups were standardized to focus on basketball. This design was implemented to eliminate potential interference from varying motor skill exercises on the experimental results [ 13 – 16 ]. The design of motor skill instruction in the experimental group adhered to the guidelines set forth by the HPECM for motor skill teaching. Structured basketball skill instruction was employed to empower students to master a comprehensive set of motor skills. The approach advocated against the exclusive teaching of isolated techniques, instead emphasizing theintegration of basketball learning within practical activities and competetive scenarios. During basketball instruction, a priority was placed on minimizeing breaks, optimizing group dynamics, and enabling students to engage in supplementary exercises during idle moments. Teachers also reinforced precise movement techniques, encouraged cooperative practice, and instilled a sense of courage and initiative.

2.5.2 Physical fitness intervention program.

The principles governing physical fitness program design were aligned with the requirments of the HPECM. These princples were thougfully talored to suit the unique physical and psychological characteristics of high school students:

• Emphasis was placed on diversification and enjoyment in the methods and approaches employed for physical fitness exercises. This approach aimed to counteract the monotony often associated with endurance focused activities like running laps, repetitive exercises such as sit-ups for core strength, and sprinting for speed.
• Special attention was given to the concept of "compensatory" physical fitness exercises. Considering the distinctive demands of basketball within this study, students were encouraged to participate in supplementary exercises targeting core abdominal strength, cardiovascular endurance, and agility. This approach was integrated into the basketball curriculum, fostering a holistic and balanced approach to physical fitness development among students.
• Efforts were made to avoid transforming physical education classes into mere physical fitness testing sessions.

2.5.3 Motor cognitive ability intervention program.

The intervention principles of the motor cognitive ability intervention plan were formulated in accordance with the spirit of the HPECM and the contemporary teaching philosophy. These principles were strategically designed to accommodate the physical and psychological development characteristics inherent to high school students. Within the classroom setting, students were introduced to motor cognitive ability related knowledge through engaging PowerPoint presentations. Experimental teachers placed a strong emphasis on cultivating student’s motor cognitive ability throughout the teaching process. For instance, during warm-up exercises, teachers underscored the critical role of preparation activities in injury prevention and highlighted the benefits of relaxation in alleviating exercise-related fatigue.

2.6 Test variables

The assessment of sports ability includes three aspects: motor skills, physical fitness, and motor cognitive ability. Motor skills mainly include single skill assessment, combination skill assessment, and performance assessment in competition. Physical fitness tests mainly include indicators such as body composition, muscle strength, muscle endurance, Cardiopulmonary function, speed, flexibility, and agility. Motor cognitive ability is mainly assessed using scale tests. See Table 3 for specific details.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t003

2.6.1 Motor skill test.

Testing Protocol:

Single Techniques: Participants are assessed on fundamental basketball skills, including shooting. Each participant is given a specific task, and their execution is observed and rated based on established criteria.

Combination Techniques: This segment evaluates participants’ ability to seamlessly integrate various basketball skills. The task is passing and shooting, assessing the fluidity and effectiveness of their execution.

Match Performance: Participants engage in a simulated basketball game, applying their skills in a dynamic and competitive context. This allows for the assessment of strategic decision-making, teamwork, and adaptability during actual gameplay.

Evaluation Method:

Three experienced teachers serve as evaluators for each test, ensuring a comprehensive and reliable assessment. Each teacher scores participants independently based on predefined criteria for each skill and performance aspect. The final score for each participant is derived by calculating the average of the three individual scores.

Scoring Criteria:

1.Single Techniques

[85 points—100 points] Standard Attainment (70%): 6 males, 4 females; Technical Evaluation (30%): Demonstrates accurate posture and distinct finger flicking motion.

[75 points—84 points] Standard Attainment (70%): 4 males, 3 females; Technical Evaluation (30%): Exhibits relatively accurate posture with noticeable finger flicking motion.

[60 points—74 points] Standard Attainment (70%): 3 males, 2 females; Technical Evaluation (30%): Displays accurate posture with no discernible finger flicking motion.

[59 points and below] Standard Attainment (70%): 2 males, 1 female; Technical Evaluation (30%): Features inaccurate posture with no discernible finger flicking motion.

2.Combination Techniques

[85 points—100 points] Exceptional proficiency in passing and dribbling, demonstrating accurate passing, a correct and effortless shooting motion, and seamless coordination in passing, receiving, and shooting. Males complete the task within 45 seconds, and females within 56 seconds, with a successful shot count of 3 or more.

[75 points—84 points] Competent in passing and dribbling, showcasing correct shooting form and excellent coordination. Males complete the task within 50 seconds, and females within 60 seconds, with a successful shot count of 2 or more.

[60 points—74 points] Adequate execution of passing and shooting, albeit with slightly weaker coordination. Males complete the task within 55 seconds, and females within 65 seconds, with a successful shot count of 1 or more.

[59 points and below] Notable errors and significant mistakes in passing and shooting. Males complete the task in 55 seconds or more, and females in 65 seconds or more, with a successful shot count of 0.

3. Match Performance

[85 points—100 points]Personal Attack Ability: Proficient utilization of offensive skills (shooting, penetration, break, pass, and catch the ball) with a rational and skilled approach.Defensive Ability: Demonstrates strength in individual defense and cooperative defense skills.Tactical Awareness: Exhibits a robust individual tactical action ability, quick transition between attack and defense, and a keen sense of fast attack throughout the entire game.

[75 points—84 points]Personal Attack Ability: Displays a reasonable and skilled application of offensive techniques (throwing, sudden moves, passing).Defensive Ability: Strong performance in individual defense and cooperative defense. Tactical Awareness: Possesses a strong individual tactical action ability, fast attack and defense transition speed, and a heightened consciousness of fast attacks throughout the game.

[60 points—74 points]Personal Attack Ability: Demonstrates a general level of rationality and proficiency in utilizing offensive techniques (throwing, leaping, passing).Defensive Ability: Displays average individual defense and coordination defense skills. Tactical Awareness: Possesses a moderate individual tactical action ability, with a general speed in attack and defense transition, and a reasonable awareness of fast attacks throughout the game.

[59 points and below]Personal Attack Ability: Shows poor and unskilled use of offensive techniques (throwing, sudden moves, passing).Defensive Ability: Exhibits poor individual defense and cooperative defense skills. Tactical Awareness: Displays weak individual tactical action ability, slow offensive and defensive transition speed, and a poor consciousness of fast attacks throughout the entire game.

2.6.2 Physical fitness test.

The body composition test includes two indexes: Percentage of Body Fat (PBF) and Waist-Hip Ratio (WHR). PBF is measured primarily by the Jawon body composition analyzer [ 17 ]. WHR is calculated by measuring the waist and hip circumference using a soft ruler, with measurements taken twice on each side and then averaged [ 18 ].

The cardiopulmonary function test includes two indicators: vital capacity [ 19 ] and a 20-meter shuttle run test [ 20 ]. Vital capacity is measured using an electronic spirometer. The 20-meter shuttle run test requires students to run back and forth between two lines that are 20 meters apart in time with the music. As the test progresses, the music speed increases. If a student cannot reach the endpoint within the required time twice in a row, the test is stopped, and the score is recorded as the number of completed 20-meter shuttles, with the unit being "times."

The muscle strength test includes two indicators: upper limb muscle strength, measured by grip strength [ 21 ], and lower limb muscle strength, measured by standing long jump [ 22 ]. For the grip strength test, the subject stands upright with their feet shoulder-width apart, arms hanging down, and palms facing inward. They then squeeze the inner and outer handles of a dynamometer with maximum effort, and the score is recorded in "kg" units. Each subject is measured twice, and the best score is taken. For the standing long jump test, the subject stands behind the take-off line with their feet together and jumps forward as far as possible without stepping or jumping in place. The distance from the take-off line to the nearest landing point is measured vertically, and the score is recorded in "m" units. Again, two measurements are taken, and the best score is taken.

The muscle endurance test measures a student’s ability to complete as many sit-ups as possible within one minute [ 23 ]. To start, the student lies down on a soft pad with their knees bent at a 90-degree angle and their hands interlaced behind their head. The examiner holds the student’s ankles on both sides, fixing their feet to the ground. Upon hearing the ’start’ command, the student completes the sit-up motion by pulling in their stomach and touching or crossing their elbows over their knees before returning to the starting position. One point is awarded for each successful sit-up completed. The examiner records the number of completed sit-ups in one minute, using "times" as the unit of measurement.

The indicator for the flexibility test is the sit-and-reach test [ 24 ]. Firstly, the teacher explains the test requirements and demonstrates. During the test, the subject sits with their feet flat against the vertical board of the measuring device, with their legs straight and not bent, and their arms straight and extended forward, pushing the cursor with their fingertips until they can no longer reach forward. Each subject is tested twice, and the best score is recorded in "cm" units.

The indicator for the speed test is the 50-meter run [ 25 ]. Firstly, the teacher explains the test requirements and organizes the students to conduct sufficient warm-up exercises. During the test, two people are tested in each group. The subjects stand at the starting line and begin to run when they hear the "run" command. The starter waves the flag at the same time as the command is given, and the timer starts timing when the flag moves. The stopwatch stops when the subject’s chest reaches the vertical plane of the finish line, and the score is recorded in "S (seconds)." The test requires the subjects not to false start, and any false starters will be called back for a restart.

The agility test is measured by the 20-second shuttle run [ 26 ], as illustrated in Fig 1 . The subject assumes a squatting position with legs straddling the center. Upon hearing the start signal, they swiftly move to the right side and repeatedly shuttle back and forth in the order of "center→right→center→left→center…". Each time the subject crosses a line, it is counted as one, and the number of crossings completed within 20 seconds is recorded. The test is performed twice, and the best score is recorded in "times" units.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.g001

2.6.3 Motor cognitive ability test.

This study used a Motor Cognitive Ability Scale, which was targeted at senior high school students and included two dimensions: motor cognition and physical fitness awareness, with a total of 9 items. The "motor cognition" dimension reflected senior high school students’ knowledge and methods of sports activities, appreciation of sports, and information about sports events. The "physical fitness awareness" dimension reflected information about senior high school students’ physical development. The scale used a 5-level Likert rating, where scores from 1 to 5 were calculated based on the degree of understanding of the theme, ranging from low to high, such as "I understand the competition rules of the sports I have learned." To assess internal consistency, we calculated Cronbach’s alpha for the scale. The standardized Cronbach’s α coefficient values of the two dimensions of sports cognition and physical fitness awareness of the scale are 0.897 and 0.865 respectively, and the standardized Cronbach’s of the scale is 0.918. To assess construct validity, we conducted exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).The χ2 /df for the scale is 2.839. The goodness-of-fit indces, GFI, CFI, NFI, TLI, and IFI, are 0.977, 0.987,0.980, 0.978, and 0.987, respectively. The RMSEA is 0.058, and the RMR is 0.029. All the fitting indexes met the standard of good fit and met the statistical requirements.

2.7 Statistical analysis

The experiment utilizes a single-factor two-group pretest-posttest design, with covariance analysis applied to process the experimental data. The pretest scores of the test indicators are treated as covariates, and the group (consisting of an experimental class and a control class) is treated as the independent variable. The posttest scores of the test indicators are used as the dependent variables. By analyzing the changes in the physical literacy-related indicators of sports and health subjects in both the experimental and control classes, the effectiveness of the experimental intervention can be determined. If there is no significant difference in the changes of the related test indicators between the two classes, a paired sample t-test is conducted to examine whether there is a significant improvement in the post-test results of each class’s related indicators.

This section may be divided by subheadings. It should provide a concise and precise description of the experimental results, their interpretation, as well as the experimental conclusions that can be drawn.

3.1 Motor skill results

Table 4 provides descriptive statistics for the motor skill results of the experimental and control groups. The results are presented separately for each variable and by gender.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t004

For the 1-minute shooting task, the mean scores for both girls and boys in the experimental groups increased from pre-test to post-test. The girls in the experimental group improved their mean score by 8.17 points ( SD = 4.94), while the boys in the experimental group improved by 3.85 points ( SD = 11.10). The control groups also saw an increase in mean scores from pre-test to post-test, with girls improving by 5.65 points ( SD = 6.34) and boys improving by 2.06 points ( SD = 12.09). However, the experimental group showed a larger improvement in mean scores compared to the control group. For the passing and cutting coordination task, the mean scores for both girls and boys in the experimental groups increased from pre-test to post-test. The girls in the experimental group improved their mean score by 4.89 points ( SD = 4.92), while the boys in the experimental group improved by 5.39 points ( SD = 8.96). The control groups also showed an increase in mean scores from pre-test to post-test, but the improvement was smaller compared to the experimental group. The girls in the control group improved their mean score by 2.26 points ( SD = 3.43), while the boys in the control group improved by 3.85 points ( SD = 8.08). For the game performance task, the mean scores for both girls and boys in the experimental groups increased from pre-test to post-test. The girls in the experimental group improved their mean score by 5.71 points ( SD = 6.21), while the boys in the experimental group improved by 5.30 points ( SD = 4.47). The control groups also showed an increase in mean scores from pre-test to post-test, but the improvement was smaller compared to the experimental group. The girls in the control group improved their mean score by 4.132 points ( SD = 5.02), while the boys in the control group improved by 3.28 points ( SD = 5.72).

Overall, the experimental groups showed greater improvement in mean scores from pre-test to post-test compared to the control groups across all three tasks. The results suggest that the intervention had a positive impact on the motor skills of both girls and boys.

The results of the covariance analysis are shown in Table 5 . After controlling for the pre-test scores of male and female students in each class during the second year of high school, the post-test scores of the experimental group were significantly higher than those of the control group. Specifically, in terms of passing and cutting coordination, male and female students in the experimental group showed significantly higher scores than those in the control group. Moreover, in basketball games, the post-test scores of male and female students in the experimental group were also significantly higher than those in the control group after controlling for their pre-test scores. These findings suggest that adopting the Chinese Healthy Physical Education Curriculum model can effectively enhance the sports skills of second-year high school students, in comparison with traditional physical education teaching methods.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t005

3.2 Physical fitness results

Table 6 presents the descriptive statistics of the physical fitness results, including the pre-test and post-test mean scores and standard deviations for each dimension, variable, gender, and group.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t006

In terms of body composition, the experimental class 1 for girls and boys’ experimental class 2 had a slightly lower post-test mean score for percent body fat (PBF) compared to their respective control classes, although the difference was minimal. A similar trend was observed in waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), where the girls’ experimental class 1 and boys’ experimental class 2 had slightly lower post-test mean scores compared to their respective control classes. Regarding cardiopulmonary function, both the girls’ experimental class 1 and boys’ experimental class 2 had higher post-test mean scores for vital capacity compared to their respective control classes. For the 20-meter shuttle run, both girls’ and boys’ experimental classes had higher post-test mean scores compared to their respective control classes. In terms of muscle strength, the girls’ experimental class 1 and boys’ experimental class 2 had higher post-test mean scores for grip strength compared to their respective control classes. However, for standing long jump, there was no significant difference observed between the experimental and control classes. For muscle endurance, the girls’ experimental class 1 and boys’ experimental class 2 had higher post-test mean scores for 1-minute crunches compared to their respective control classes. Regarding flexibility, the girls’ experimental class 1 and boys’ experimental class 2 had higher post-test mean scores for seated forward bend compared to their respective control classes. Finally, in speed and agility, the experimental classes had slightly better post-test mean scores compared to their respective control classes.

In summary, the experimental classes showed an overall improvement in physical fitness in most dimensions, variables, genders, and groups compared to the control classes. However, the differences were sometimes minimal and not significant, indicating a need for further investigation and analysis of the results to determine the effectiveness of the physical fitness intervention.

The results of the covariance analysis are shown in Table 7 . Using pre-test scores as covariates, the study found that the post-test scores of male students in the experimental class were significantly lower than those of male students in the control class in terms of percent body fat (PBF), while there was no significant difference in PBF between female students in the experimental and control classes. The study also found that the experimental class had significantly lower waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) and significantly higher lung capacity, 20-meter shuttle run, grip strength, and standing long jump scores compared to the control class for both male and female students. Additionally, the experimental group had significantly higher scores on one-minute sit-ups and the 20-second shuttle run compared to the control group for both male and female students. However, the experimental group had significantly lower scores on the 50-meter run compared to the control group for both male and female students. The study concluded that using the Chinese Health and Physical Education Curriculum model can significantly improve physical fitness outcomes among male and female students in the second year of high school.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t007

3.3 Motor cognitive ability results

Table 8 presents the descriptive statistics for the motor cognitive ability results, specifically for the variables of motor cognition and physical fitness awareness.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t008

For the variable of motor cognition, the experimental class 1 for girls had a lower pre-test mean score compared to the control class 1, but this difference was not statistically significant. However, the experimental class 1 had a higher post-test mean score compared to the control class 1, and this difference was statistically significant. For boys, the experimental class 2 had a lower pre-test mean score compared to the control class 2, but this difference was not statistically significant. The experimental class 2 had a higher post-test mean score compared to the control class 2, and this difference was statistically significant.

For the variable of physical fitness awareness, the experimental class 1 for girls had a slightly higher pre-test mean score compared to the control class 1, but this difference was not statistically significant. The experimental class 1 had a significantly higher post-test mean score compared to the control class 1. For boys, the experimental class 2 had a lower pre-test mean score compared to the control class 2, but this difference was not statistically significant. The experimental class 2 had a significantly higher post-test mean score compared to the control class 2.

In summary, the experimental classes showed improvement in motor cognitive ability in terms of motor cognition and physical fitness awareness compared to the control classes. The differences were statistically significant for most comparisons, except for the pre-test mean scores in some cases. These results suggest that the physical fitness intervention had a positive impact on the motor cognition of the students. However, further research is needed to fully evaluate the effectiveness of the intervention.

Table 9 presents the results of a covariance analysis investigating the impact of gender and group membership on motor cognition and physical fitness awareness in experimental and control groups. The analysis revealed significant differences between the two groups in both variables. Girls in the experimental group scored higher in motor cognition and physical fitness awareness compared to girls in the control group. The same trend was observed for boys in the experimental group, who outperformed boys in the control group in both variables.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0298858.t009

These results suggest that incorporating motor activities into the curriculum can positively affect motor cognition in students, particularly in motor cognition and physical fitness awareness. Gender differences were also observed, emphasizing the importance of considering gender when designing interventions to enhance motor cognition in school settings. These findings can inform future instructional approaches to promote motor cognitive abilities among students.

4 Discussion

4.1 motor skill.

The study measured motor skills using three tasks: 1-minute shooting, passing and cutting coordination, and game performance. The results show that both girls and boys in the experimental groups improved their mean scores from pre-test to post-test in all three tasks, and their improvements were greater than those in the control groups.

In the 1-minute shooting task, both the experimental and control groups showed improvement from pre-test to post-test. However, the experimental group had a larger improvement in mean scores compared to the control group. This suggests that the intervention program was effective in improving shooting accuracy for both girls and boys. It is important to note that while the girls in the experimental group had a higher mean score at post-test than the boys, the boys had a higher mean score at pre-test, indicating potential gender differences in initial motor skill levels. Similarly, in the passing and cutting coordination task, both the experimental and control groups showed improvement from pre-test to post-test, but the experimental group had a larger improvement in mean scores compared to the control group. This suggests that the intervention program was effective in improving passing and cutting coordination for both girls and boys. In the game performance task, both the experimental and control groups showed improvement from pre-test to post-test, with the experimental group showing a larger improvement in mean scores compared to the control group. This suggests that the intervention program was effective in improving game performance for both girls and boys [ 27 , 28 ].

Overall, the study’s results suggest that the intervention program was effective in improving the motor skills of both girls and boys across all three tasks. The results align with previous research that has demonstrated the positive impact of intervention programs on motor skill development in children [ 29 ]. However, it is important to note that the study’s results are limited by the small sample size and the potential influence of other factors, such as natural maturation and practice effects.

4.2 Physical fitness

The findings of this study revealed that the experimental classes had an overall improvement in most variables of physical fitness compared to the control classes. The experimental classes demonstrated a slightly lower post-test mean score for PBF and WHR, indicating a trend towards healthier body composition. Moreover, the experimental classes exhibited higher post-test mean scores for vital capacity, shuttle run, grip strength, crunches, and seated forward bend, indicating improvement in cardiopulmonary function, muscle strength, muscle endurance, and flexibility, respectively. In terms of speed and agility, the experimental classes also showed a slight improvement in post-test mean scores.

The observed gender differences in initial motor skill levels in the 1-minute shooting task suggest that there may be a need to provide targeted intervention strategies for girls and boys to achieve optimal outcomes. Moreover, although the experimental classes showed an improvement in most dimensions of physical fitness, the differences were sometimes minimal and not significant, indicating a need for further investigation and analysis of the results. Therefore, it may be necessary to incorporate additional strategies or activities to enhance the effectiveness of physical fitness interventions for school-aged children [ 30 , 31 ].

These findings are consistent with previous research that has shown the positive effects of physical fitness interventions on children’s physical fitness and health outcomes [ 32 – 34 ]. The results of this study can be used to inform the development of future physical fitness interventions that can be implemented in schools or community settings.

4.3 Motor cognitive ability

The study examined the impact of HPECM intervention on motor cognition and physical fitness awareness among students in two experimental classes compared to two control classes. The results of the study indicated that the experimental groups showed improvement in both motor cognition and physical fitness awareness compared to the control groups. The differences were statistically significant for most comparisons, except for the pre-test mean scores in some cases. These findings suggest that incorporating physical activity into the curriculum can positively impact motor cognition in students, particularly in motor cognition and physical fitness awareness.

The results of the study are consistent with previous research that has shown a positive relationship between physical activity and cognitive functioning. For instance, a study by Hillman found that regular physical activity can improve cognitive performance and brain function in children [ 35 ]. Similarly, a study by Diamond and Lee reported that physical activity can enhance cognitive control and working memory in children [ 36 ].

The study also highlighted the importance of considering gender when designing interventions to enhance motor cognition in school settings. The results showed that girls in the experimental group scored higher in motor cognition and physical fitness awareness compared to girls in the control group, and the same trend was observed for boys. These findings are consistent with previous research indicating that gender differences exist in physical activity levels and that girls tend to be less physically active than boys [ 37 – 39 ].

The study has some limitations. Firstly, the sample size was relatively small, and the study was conducted in a specific cultural and geographic context. Therefore, caution should be exercised when generalizing the results to other populations. Secondly, the research exclusively focused on basketball, lacking a comparative analysis with other activities or sports projects. Future research endeavors will include comparative studies across various projects. Additionally, the study did not investigate the long-term effects of the HPECM intervention on sports ability. Future research could address these limitations by conducting larger-scale studies in diverse populations and exploring the long-term effects of HPECM intervention on sports ability.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study provides evidence that healthy physical education curriculum model can effectively promote sports ability in senior high school students. The structural characteristics of a healthy physical education curriculum model provide needed support for students learning, improve students’ sports ability, and can be an effective way to promote physical literacy in senior high school students. Further research is needed to explore the long-term effects of the healthy physical education curriculum model on sports ability in students.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the physical education teachers, students and parents who participated in this experimental study. Without your cooperation, we could not complete this experiment.

• View Article
• Google Scholar
• 7. Ji L, Zhong BS. Interpretation of general senior high school physical education and health curriculum standards (2017th edition)[M]. Beijing: Higher Education Press,2018:75–88.
• 9. Zhao Y. Experimental Research on the Cultivation of the Core Quality of Physical Education of High School Students by the Chinese Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model [D]. East China Normal University, 2020.
• 10. Zhang Y. Research on the Characteristics of Classroom Speech Behavior of Physical Education Teachers in Primary and Secondary Schools Based on the Chinese Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model [D]. East China Normal University, 2020.
• 13. Su JZ. Research on the effect of competition situation teaching and its influencing mechanism based on the Chinese Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model[D]. East China Normal University, 2021.
• 14. Cai YN. Research on the Application of Chinese Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model in Junior Middle School Physical Education Teaching [D]. Gannan Normal University, 2019.
• 16. Qiu Q. Research on the Influence Mechanism of Physical Education Teaching on the Mental Resilience of Junior Middle School Students under the Chinese Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model [D]. East China Normal University, 2023.
• 18. World Health Organization. Waist circumference and waist-hip ratio: report of a WHO expert consultation[R].Geneva: World Health Organization,2008.
• 19. Hao XL. Research on the Effect of China’s Healthy Physical Education Curriculum Model on Students’ Intracurricular and Intracurricular Sports Participation [D]. East China Normal University, 2022.
• 29. Gallahue D, Ozmun J, Goodway J. Development of fundamental movement: Locomotor skills[J]. Understanding motor development: Infants, children, adolescents, adults, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, 2012: 185–221.

• Open supplemental data
• Reference Manager
• Simple TEXT file

People also looked at

Brief research report article, virtual physical education during covid-19: exploring future directions for equitable online learning tools.

• 1 Department of Family Medicine and Community Health, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
• 2 Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, United States
• 3 Department of Kinesiology, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, United States
• 4 Department of Physical Education, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States
• 5 School of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, United States
• 6 Department of Health Promotion and Physical Education, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA, United States

Introduction: School closures prompted by the COVID-19 pandemic reduced opportunities for US youth to be physically active and disproportionately impacted health disparities in this population. Physical education provides the largest intervention to support the physical activity of school-aged youth, but teachers' opinions about how to maintain quality programming during virtual learning periods remain unexplored. Applying a diversity, equity and inclusion framework, this study explored physical education teachers' perceived significance of different design features for an online teaching tool to promote physical activity equity during school closures.

Methods: Previous literature and focus groups informed the development of a survey administered in summer/fall 2020. Survey participants ( n = 60) were physical education teachers from 400 randomly selected US preschool-12th grade schools drawing from a national database. Participants rated the significance of four design features in relation to five key attributes of an online supplement to in-person physical education programs. One-way ANOVAs were used to assess differences in teachers' ratings by demographic characteristics.

Results: Between-group differences were found in teacher ratings of design features related to the usability, accessibility, equitability, and formal assessment capabilities of an online physical education tool. Differences were based on teacher gender, school level, and geographic location.

Conclusions: Future research to promote physical activity equity among preschool-12th grade youth should examine tailored virtual physical education learning tools that address what teachers perceive to be the most significant design features to support equitable physical education among diverse student groups.

Introduction

The disproportionate impact of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) on vulnerable populations has highlighted grave health inequities ( Berkowitz et al., 2020 ), particularly among marginalized youth ( Fortuna et al., 2020 ; Morales et al., 2020 ). School settings provide youth with critical opportunities for physical activity (PA), a key driver of positive physical, social-emotional and mental health among youth ( WHO, 2020 ). However, recent reports document PA-related effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on US school-aged youth, including decreases in PA participation and increases in sedentary behavior during home learning periods compared with prior to the COVID-19 pandemic ( Dunton et al., 2020 ). COVID-19 also has indirect effects on minority and low-income youth, including exacerbated poverty, learning losses, poorer social-emotional and mental health, and higher school dropout rates attributable to school closures ( Christakis et al., 2020 ; Dorn et al., 2020 ; Schulz et al., 2020 ; Benfer et al., 2021 ).

School physical education represents the largest youth PA intervention worldwide, given that physical education is a compulsory subject in many school curricula. Although usual in-person physical education programming is not without challenges ( Hardman, 2008 ), school closures due to COVID-19 created a new host of obstacles. As preschool through 12th grade (P-12) physical education shifted to virtual learning platforms ( Webster et al., 2021 ), physical education teachers and administrators were swiftly required to deliver robust virtual programs without adequate training and provision of appropriate teaching and learning resources. Online learning is, by its own nature, inequitable for school-aged youth, due in part to unequal access to technology, consistent high speed internet, adult supervision and support, sports equipment, and physical space to participate in online physical education ( Daum, 2020 ). Additional inequities are presented for youth with disabilities who are particularly dependent on school physical education for PA engagement, and face barriers to being physically active in home environments ( Esentürk, 2020 ).

If designed appropriately, online physical education may have the potential to reduce health disparities related to inequitable opportunities for PA engagement ( Draper et al., 2021 ). The perspectives of physical education teachers are paramount to the design of online physical education resources that optimally supplement and support quality in-person programming, taking into consideration the diverse learning and PA needs of students. In light of pervasive inequities in youth PA, this study applied a diversity, equity and inclusion framework ( Dashper and Fletcher, 2013 ). The aim of the current study was to examine US P-12 physical education teachers' perceived significance of different design features for an online teaching tool to promote PA equity during school closures. This study was developed as an exploratory pilot investigation to inform next steps toward the development of such a tool for professional practice and applied research in the area of equitable online physical education.

Materials and Methods

Participants and sampling procedure.

Participants in this study included 60 current P-12 physical education teachers representing all regions of the US. Originally, 400 P-12 schools were identified using a proportionate random sampling technique as harvested from the Institute of Education National Center for Education Statistics (IES-NES) database ( https://nces.ed.gov/ccd/schoolsearch/ ). This database includes all schools in the US listed by state. The list of schools for each state spans numerous webpages with ~10 schools included per page. Schools from each state and the District of Columbia were selected based on the percentage makeup of each state (i.e., number of webpages listing schools for the state) to the total number of pages of schools listed on the IES-NCES website. For example, there were 89 pages listing schools for Alabama. This represented 0.01% of the total number of pages for all schools listed on the website. Accordingly, three pages were randomly selected to represent Alabama schools, and one school from each of these three pages was randomly selected to search for physical education teachers' email addresses. Email addresses for all physical education teachers listed on a given school website were obtained. For any school that was identified as a charter or magnet school, or in cases where no email address for a physical education teacher could be found, another school from the same page was randomly selected. If physical education teacher emails could not be obtained from any of the schools listed on a page, another page was randomly selected. A blanket invitation to participate in the study was sent to all procured email addresses asking recipients to complete an electronic survey. There were no incentives offered to complete the survey. From the initial email, there were 18 “failure to deliver” automated replies; additionally, three prospective participants replied that they were unable to complete the survey (district/corporation policy). A reminder email was sent one week later. In all, individuals invited to participate had 14 days to complete the survey. The final response rate for the survey was 16%. This study was approved by the Indiana University Institutional Review Board.

Survey Design

The research team developed an electronic survey for this study ( Appendix A ) using Qualtrics, based on previous literature ( Smith and Boling, 2009 ) and the results of three focus group interviews the team conducted with P-12 physical education teachers. Convenience sampling was used to recruit nine teachers for the focus groups. Each interview lasted ~75 min. Interviews focused on the teachers' experiences and recommendations with respect to online physical education, particularly in reference to the recent shift in virtual teaching and learning. The interviews were held virtually and recorded via Zoom, and then transcribed verbatim. Transcripts were qualitatively analyzed using inductive analytic methods to identify patterns in the data. Overall, five key attributes of online physical education were used to frame the survey: usability, accessibility, equitability, facilitation of formal assessment, and capacity for PA tracking. Specifically, teachers described how the pivot to remote learning could marginalize a particular set of students. Examples provided from the teachers included students with disabilities, students living in multi-generational households at a low socio-economic status, students from households with English as a new language, and racial/ethnic minority student populations. Additionally, four design features specific to organizing and providing online resources were identified as potentially helpful in addressing each attribute: a bank of videos for teachers to learn from, a bank of videos for students to view, a listing of activities cataloged by learning standards, and a discussion board for teachers. The survey included an item for each key attribute (including a definition of the attribute and relevant examples), asking participants to rate the significance of each of the 4 aforementioned design features to enhancing the attribute. A rating scale of 0–100 was used with 0 indicating “not at all significant” and 100 indicating “very significant.” Additional items were included on the survey to gather information about participant demographics, including gender, age range, school level (elementary, middle school, or high school), geographic location (coastal or non-coastal), and years of teaching experience.

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics were calculated for participant demographics and significance ratings of each design feature by key attribute. Then, for each key attribute, separate one-way analyses of variance (ANOVA) were performed to assess differences in significance ratings for each design feature by teacher demographics (gender, age, school level, geographic location, years of teaching experience). SPSS software (version 27) was used, and a 0.05 significance level was applied for all models.

Participant demographics are presented in Table 1 . Participants were 52% male, mostly between 35–54 years (61%), 58% non-coastal geographic locations, and mostly elementary school level teachers (62%; mean [SD] years of teaching experience: 17.4 [11.1]).

Table 1 . Demographics of survey respondents ( n = 60).

The median significance ratings for each design feature by key attribute are presented in Table 2 . Across participants, a bank of videos for students to view was rated the highest in relation to the usability (86.0), accessibility (86.5), and assessment feasibility (81.5) of an online physical education tool. Regarding the equitability of such a tool, participants rated a discussion board for teachers as the most significant design feature (82.0). A list of activities cataloged by standards was rated as the most significant design feature with respect to being able to track students' PA (90.0).

Table 2 . Median with interquartile range scores of each design feature by key attribute.

When considering demographic variables, there was a statistically significant interaction effect for the usability attribute, F (2, 57) = 4.57, p = 0.04. Main effects analysis revealed a significant effect for gender ( p < 0.01) with higher ratings among female teachers than male teachers for the design feature of listing standards-aligned activities. There was also a statistically significant interaction effect for the accessibility attribute, F (3, 56) = 10.50, p < 0.01, with follow-up analysis again indicating a significant effect for gender ( p = 0.03). Specifically, male teachers rated a simple listing of activities lower than female teachers in relation to the usability attribute.

Additionally, there was a significant interaction effect for the equitability attribute, F (3, 57) = 5.00, p = 0.03. Main effects analysis showed a significant effect for region ( p < 0.01) with teachers in non-coastal locations rating the bank of videos for students to view that could be directly used in their teaching higher than teachers in coastal locations. Finally, there was a significant interaction effect for the key attribute of facilitating formal assessment, F (3, 57) = 5.53, p = 0.03, with follow-up analysis demonstrating a significant effect for school level ( p = 0.01). High school teachers rated the bank of videos for students to view that could be directly used in their teaching at a lower level of significance than middle school or elementary school teachers.

In order to promote accessible and equitable online physical education learning to increase PA engagement, intentional, systematic approaches must be adopted that support the needs of P-12 physical education teachers. Based on a stratified national random sample, this pilot work drew upon the perspectives of physical education teachers to better understand which design features may best support the efficacy of an online physical education tool's key attributes.

Teachers' prioritization of different design features for certain attributes varied across gender (usability and accessibility), geographic location (equitability), and school level (facilitation of formal assessment). Promoting access to PA in diverse home environments will require tailoring and tool flexibility to meet the needs of P-12 physical education teachers and their students. These findings have implications for the development of equitable online physical education instructional resources to optimally support P-12 physical educators across different teacher populations and regions. Specifically, physical educators seek robust and nimble online resources that have the capability to be tailored to their particular contextual and student needs, so they can continue to serve all students even when in-person programming is not possible. In order to address systematic inequities that prevent participation in remote physical education learning, customizable tools that support educators in developing their own content or modifying existing content may be necessary. Future research in this area should examine ways to promote access and participation in online physical education amongst diverse student groups through supporting educators with supplemental online materials based on youth access to parent/sibling supervision, safe/spacious indoor/outdoor settings, equipment, self-efficacy and ability.

Although online resources are already available for educators, they are not sufficient to meet current physical education teacher needs. For example, recent literature determined that “student access to online learning” and “availability of teacher resources” were substantial challenges related to online physical education instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic ( Pavlovic et al., 2021 ). Similarly, Mercier et al. reported that 20% of physical education teachers felt less effective teaching their students online during the pandemic. The authors inferred that teacher responses may not reflect actual learning given that half of the sample did not use assignments or video instruction ( Mercier et al., 2021 ). Moreover, a scoping review by Killian et al. found that no prior research has evaluated the efficacy of online and blended instruction to promote or inhibit skill development or promote PA outside of school ( Killian et al., 2019 ). There is a clear need for further research to inform the development of customizable online learning tools that address physical education teacher needs, particular during periods of virtual instruction.

This study is strengthened by data drawn from a randomly selected, national sample of P-12 physical education teachers representing 400 schools, and with heterogeneity across teacher age, gender, years of experience, teaching level, and geographic region. Limitations include non-response bias from invited participants who opted not to enroll in the study, and inability to account for key sociodemographic factors that are related to developing equitable online P-12 physical education tools, including teacher race/ethnicity, urban/rural setting, and demographics of students taught ( Evans, 2014 ; Hodge et al., 2017 ). Additionally, as this study was exploratory, further research will benefit from further development and validation of methods that best capture the diverse needs of teachers and their students within the context of online physical education.

The COVID-19 pandemic has had disproportionate impacts on US school-aged youth health disparities related to reduced opportunities for equitable PA. This preliminary study found higher prioritization of different design features for certain attributes across gender, geographic location, and school level for supporting standards-based, accessible, and equitable PA based on a national sample of P-12 physical education teachers. Pilot testing of an online tool that provides customizable physical education learning activities is a suitable next step for research to examine potential to promote PA engagement for diverse student groups. This tool has implications for supporting teachers in promoting PA equity among youth during COVID-19 and other times of virtual learning by offering learning models that can cater to different student populations with varied access to technology, resources, supervision, and equipment. Promoting equitable access to routine daily PA has potential to promote overall health equity related to preventing chronic conditions (cardiovascular disease, asthma, diabetes, obesity, and metabolic syndrome) ( Biddle et al., 2004 ; Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2008 ; Gordon-Larsen et al., 2010 ; Tammelin et al., 2014 ; Yang et al., 2014 ), as well as supporting mental health and reducing stress associated with traumas related to social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic ( Loades et al., 2021 ).

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by Indiana University Institutional Review Board. Written informed consent for participation was not required for this study in accordance with the national legislation and the institutional requirements.

Author Contributions

For this manuscript, all authors co-designed and implemented the study. MU conducted the analysis. EMD, MU and CAW prepared all sections of the text. All authors reviewed all sections of the text and approved the final version of this manuscript.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher's Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fspor.2021.716566/full#supplementary-material

Benfer, E. A., Vlahov, D., Long, M. Y., Walker-Wells, E., Pottenger, J. L. Jr., Gonsalves, G., et al. (2021). Eviction, health inequity, and the spread of COVID-19: housing policy as a primary pandemic mitigation strategy. J. Urban Health 98, 1–12. doi: 10.1007/s11524-020-00502-1

PubMed Abstract | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Berkowitz, S. A., Cené, C. W., and Chatterjee, A. (2020). Covid-19 and health equity—time to think big. N. Engl. J. Med. 383:e76. doi: 10.1056/NEJMp2021209

Biddle, S. J. H., Gorely, T., and Stensel, D. J. (2004). Health-enhancing physical activity and sedentary behaviour in children and adolescents. J. Sports Sci. 22, 679–701. doi: 10.1080/02640410410001712412

Christakis, D. A., Van Cleve, W., and Zimmerman, F. J. (2020). Estimation of US children's educational attainment and years of life lost associated with primary school closures during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic. JAMA Netw. Open 3:e2028786. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.28786

Dashper, K., and Fletcher, T. (2013). Introduction: diversity, equity and inclusion in sport and leisure. Sport Soc. 16, 1227–1232. doi: 10.1080/17430437.2013.821259

CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar

Daum, D. N. (2020). Thinking about hybrid or online learning in physical education? Start here! JOPERD 91, 42–44. doi: 10.1080/07303084.2020.1683387

Dorn, E., Hancock, B., Sarakatsannis, J., and Viuleg, E. (2020). COVID-19 and Student Learning in the United States: The Hurt Could Last a Lifetime . Available online at: https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/public-and-social-sector/our-insights/covid-19-and-student-learning-in-the-united-states-the-hurt-could-last-a-lifetime# (accessed November 12, 2020).

Google Scholar

Draper, C. E., Milton, K., and Schipperijn, J. (2021). COVID-19 and physical activity: how can we build back better? J Phys Act Health 18, 149–150. doi: 10.1123/jpah.2021-0037

Dunton, G. F., Do, B., and Wang, S. D. (2020). Early effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on physical activity and sedentary behavior in children living in the U.S. BMC Public Health 20:1351. doi: 10.1186/s12889-020-09429-3

Esentürk, O. K. (2020). Parents' perceptions on physical activity for their children with autism spectrum disorders during the novel Coronavirus outbreak. Int. J. Dev. Disabil. 1–12. doi: 10.1080/20473869.2020.1769333

Evans, J. (2014). Equity and inclusion in physical education PLC. Eur. Phys. Educ. Rev. 20, 319–334. doi: 10.1177/1356336X14524854

Fortuna, L. R., Tolou-Shams, M., Robles-Ramamurthy, B., and Porche, M. V. (2020). Inequity and the disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on communities of color in the United States: The need for a trauma-informed social justice response. Psychol. Trauma 12, 443–445 doi: 10.1037/tra0000889

Gordon-Larsen P. The N. S. Adair L. S. (2010). Longitudinal trends in obesity in the United States from adolescence to the third decade of life. Obesity 18, 1801–1804. doi: 10.1038/oby.2009.451

Hardman, K. (2008). Physical education in schools: a global perspective. Kinesiology 40, 5–28.

Hodge, S., Lieberman, L., and Murata, N. (2017). Essentials of Teaching Adapted Physical Education: Diversity, Culture, and Inclusion . New York, NY: Routledge. doi: 10.4324/9781351217385

Killian, C. M., Kinder, C. J., and Woods, A. M. (2019). Online and blended instruction in k−12 physical education: a scoping review. Kinesiol Rev. 8, 110–129. doi: 10.1123/kr.2019-0003

Loades, M. E. C. E., Higson-Sweeney, N., Reynolds, S., Shafran, R., Brigden, A., Linney, C., et al. (2021). Rapid systematic review: the impact of social isolation and loneliness on the mental health of children and adolescents in the context of COVID-19. J. Am. Acad. Child. Adolesc. Psychiatry 60, 6–7. doi: 10.1016/j.jaac.2020.05.009

Mercier, K., Centeio, E., Garn, A., Erwin, H., Marttinen, R., and Foley, J. (2021). Physical education teachers' experiences with remote instruction during the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic. J.Teach. Phys. Educ. 40, 337–342. doi: 10.1123/jtpe.2020-0272

Morales, D. X., Morales, S. A., and Beltran, T. F. (2020). Racial/ethnic disparities in household food insecurity during the COVID-19 pandemic: a nationally representative study. J. Racial Ethn. Health Disparities 1–15. doi: 10.1007/s40615-020-00892-7

Pavlovic, A., DeFina, L. F., Natale, B. L., et al. (2021). Keeping children healthy during and after COVID-19 pandemic: meeting youth physical activity needs. BMC Public Health 21, 1–8. doi: 10.1186/s12889-021-10545-x

Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee (2008). Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee Report, 2008 . Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

Schulz, A. J., Mehdipanah, R., Chatters, L. M., Reyes, A. G., Neblett, E. W. Jr., and Israel, B. A. (2020). Moving health education and behavior upstream: lessons from COVID-19 for addressing structural drivers of health inequities. Health Educ. Behav. 47, 519–524. doi: 10.1177/1090198120929985

Smith, K. M., and Boling, E. (2009). What do we make of design? Design as a concept in educational technology. Educ. Technol. 49, 3–17.

Tammelin, R., Yang, X., Leskinen, E., Kankaanpaa, A., Hirvensalo, M., Tammelin, T., et al. (2014). Tracking of physical activity from early childhood through youth into adulthood. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc . 46, 955–962. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000181

Webster, C. A., Emily, D. A., Urtel, M., McMullen, J., Culp, B., Egan, C. A., et al. (2021). Physical education in the COVID era: considerations for online program delivery using the comprehensive school physical activity program framework. J. Teach. Phys. Educ. 40, 337–336. doi: 10.1123/jtpe.2020-0182

WHO (2020). Prevalence of Insufficient Physical Activity . Available online at: https://www.who.int/gho/ncd/risk_factors/physical_activity_text/en/ (accessed May 2, 2020).

Yang, X., Telama, R., Hirvensalo, M., Tammelin, T., Viikari, J. S., and Raitakari, O. T. (2014). Active commuting from youth to adulthood and as a predictor of physical activity in early midlife: the young finns study. Prev. Med . 59, 5–11. doi: 10.1016/j.ypmed.2013.10.019

Keywords: virtual tools, online physical education, health equity, youth, school, students, COVID-19, diversity equity inclusion

Citation: D'Agostino EM, Urtel M, Webster CA, McMullen J and Culp B (2021) Virtual Physical Education During COVID-19: Exploring Future Directions for Equitable Online Learning Tools. Front. Sports Act. Living 3:716566. doi: 10.3389/fspor.2021.716566

Received: 28 May 2021; Accepted: 03 August 2021; Published: 26 August 2021.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2021 D'Agostino, Urtel, Webster, McMullen and Culp. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Emily M. D'Agostino, emily.m.dagostino@duke.edu

This article is part of the Research Topic

Women in Physical Education and Pedagogy: 2021

New Research Examines Physical Education in America

By Morgan Clennin, PhD, MPH, Kaiser Permanente of Colorado, University of South Carolina, and National Physical Activity Plan

School-based physical education (PE) is recommended by the Community Guide as an effective strategy to promote physical activity among youth. Unfortunately, many have speculated that PE exposure has declined precipitously among U.S. students in the past decade. Limited resources and budgets, prioritization of core academic subjects, and several other barriers have been cited as potential drivers of these claims. However, few large-scale studies have explored the merit of these claims – leaving the answers following questions unknown:

Has PE attendance decreased among U.S. students in the past decades?

What policies and practices are in place to support quality PE?

To answer these questions, the President’s Council on Sports, Fitness & Nutrition tasked the National Physical Activity Plan Alliance (NPAPA) to review the available evidence and summarize their findings. The primary objective of this effort was to better understand PE exposure over time to inform national recommendations and strategies for PE.

The NPAPA began by establishing a collaborative partnership with experts in the federal government, industry, and academia. The group analyzed existing national data sources that could be used to examine changes in PE attendance and current implementation of PE policies and practices. These efforts culminated in a final report and two peer-reviewed manuscripts. A summary of the group’s findings are outlined below.

Key Findings:

• 1/2 of U.S. high school students did not attend PE classes—which is consistent over the 24-year period studied (1991-2015).
• The percentage of U.S. high school students reporting PE attendance did not change significantly between 1991 and 2015 for the overall sample or across sex and race/ethnicity subgroup.
• Daily PE attendance did decrease 16% from 1991 to 1995 then attendance rates remained stable through 2015.
• > 65% of schools implemented 2-4 of the 7 essential PE policies
• Implementation of PE policies varied by region, metropolitan status, and school level.
• Data indicates minority students have been disproportionately affected by cuts to school PE programs during the past two decades.

Recommendations Based on Key Findings:

• Prioritize efforts to expand collection of surveillance data examining trends in PE attendance among elementary and middle school students.
• Develop policies to improve PE access for all students in order for PE to contribute to increased physical activity among youth.
• Adopt policies and programs that prioritize PE to maximize the benefits of PE.
• Utilize the findings of these efforts to target professional development and technical assistance for PE practitioners.

The Education sector of the NPAP provides evidence-based strategies and tactics that can guide efforts to support the provision of quality PE to all students. More information, and links to the respective manuscripts, can be found on the NPAPA website: http://physicalactivityplan.org/projects/physicaleducation.html

The Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.

Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by ODPHP or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.

You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• Int J Environ Res Public Health

New Developments in Physical Education and Sport

1. introduction.

Continuous updates of knowledge among professionals in physical education (PE) and sport are essential for the goal of developing quality professional work. In our current globalized and changing world, continuous and permanent learning is fundamental for organizing and complementing initial training and previous experience.

To ensure competence in the field of PE and sport, it is important to have a proactive attitude towards the extensive knowledge arising from continuous research and to integrate it with one’s prior knowledge and work experience. This is the path to career improvement and satisfaction. Certainly, research is an unfinished and diverse construct: it is a permanent learning process in terms of interpretations, explanations, and contributions.

Globalization, research, and education must respond to continuous changes in the different spheres of social, economic, and scientific activity. Information and communication technologies provide excellent mechanisms to facilitate the study, exchange, and dissemination of principal research findings regarding knowledge and knowledge socialization events. For this reason, and to develop competence or learning, it is also necessary to select the most appropriate information as well as quality publications that are produced with methodological rigor. Integrating knowledge in a way that can be suitably applied in the modern setting will help us to flourish as highly competent professionals in PE and sports, a field that is increasingly taken up by the population.

The Current Special Issue

This Special Issue was proposed in order to compile some of the latest research advances in the PE field and to evaluate the relationship of different variables with physical activity behaviors outside the classroom. Improving teaching processes and understanding the different psychological variables that affect learning are of continuous concern among the different agents involved in teaching. This is highlighted by the wide range of articles in the educational context (primary, secondary, and higher education) that focus on such issues as innovative teaching methodologies, pedagogical models, motivation, satisfaction and frustration of basic psychological needs, perfectionism, self-esteem, motivational climate, and emotional intelligence.

This issue also includes research on different aspects for promoting moderate and vigorous physical activity in students, both inside and outside of the educational center, and for creating healthy and permanent physical exercise habits in the future. Similarly, research focused on activities in nature, recreational pursuits, and sports tourism have been published, with samples comprising students and healthy adults.

Numerous and varied articles on the practice of physical activity and sports by special populations are featured in this Special Issue. On the one hand, we explore studies carried out in different sports contexts, such as those conducted on football players, young professional athletes, handball referees, and professional endurance athletes. On the other hand, we include studies on special populations such as elderly people; these articles show the importance of leading an active life or are focused on the most avant-garde technological advances in physical activity, such as a pro-device for monitoring physical activity and movement.

The progress made in adapting measurement instruments is also assessed in this Special Issue, especially the implications of their use for future research; four articles that focus on different characteristics of instruments’ psychometric properties have been published. Furthermore, in recognition that physical and sports education of high quality must be offered to society and must increasingly be based on empirical scientific evidence, this Special Issue also includes articles that report systematic review and meta-analysis, as well as studies that use experimental and quasi-experimental methodologies.

The topics covered by the articles are diverse, as are the methodologies used, and we are pleased that new developments in PE and sport have aroused interest in the scientific community. Our aim is to contribute to advances of the scientific debate and to provide a quality update for different professionals in this field.

2. The Studies Included

We received a total of 42 submissions, of which 28 were ultimately accepted. The submission process was open from October 2019 to September 2020. As readers will see, most of the accepted publications used cross-sectional methodologies, although qualitative, experimental, quasi-experimental, and meta-analytical studies were also included, along with psychometric instrument validations and systematic reviews. The majority of the studies were conducted in Spain, although some studies were conducted in populations from Taiwan, Poland, Luxembourg, Germany, Turkey, Lithuania, Croatia, Mexico, and Portugal.

Presented in chronological order of publication, this Special Issue includes the papers described below.

Trigueros, Aguilar-Parra, López-Liria, and Rocamora [ 1 ] used structural equation modeling to analyze the influence of several psychological control variables on emotional intelligence in a large sample of 1602 secondary school students. They also examined the meta-cognitive strategies employed by students with regard to emotional intelligence and the thwarting of basic psychological needs. Their results showed that psychological control positively predicted each of the sub-factors related to the thwarting of psychological needs, whereas the thwarting of psychological needs negatively predicted emotional intelligence, and emotional intelligence positively predicted meta-cognitive thinking. As the authors note, this research supports the tenets of self-determination theory, viewed from the darker side, while introducing new variables and demonstrating their applicability to Spanish culture.

Granero-Gallegos, Ruiz-Montero, Baena-Extremera, and Martínez-Molina [ 2 ] used multi-level regression models to analyze the effects of perceived teaching competence, motivation, and basic psychological needs on disruptive behaviors in secondary school PE students. Their results revealed that disruptive behaviors were more likely to occur among boys and that misbehavior decreased when a teacher was perceived as competent. Furthermore, students with greater self-determined motivation were more likely to exhibit fewer behaviors related to low engagement and irresponsibility, whereas amotivation increased various disruptive behaviors in the classroom.

Fuentesal-García, Baena-Extremera, and Sáez-Padilla [ 3 ] carried out two different research studies to analyze the psychometric properties of the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale applied to different contexts, for initial or original use, such as physical activity in nature. This included a confirmatory factorial analysis. The authors concluded that this scale could not be applied as-is in the studied context and that certain items had to be eliminated and/or modified. From this work, they obtained a new specific instrument for this type of practice.

Hinojo, López, Fuentes, Trujillo, and Pozo [ 4 ] carried out experimental research on flipped learning as an innovative approach to physical education teaching and learning processes. The authors evaluated the effectiveness of flipped learning compared with the traditional methodology. Two study groups were established: control (traditional methodology) and experimental (flipped learning) groups at each educational stage (primary and secondary education). The results showed that the experimental group scored higher than the control group in academic indicators, motivation, autonomy, and interactions between different agents.

Abad, Collado-Mateo, Fernández-Espínola, Castillo, and Fuentes-Guerra [ 5 ] conducted a systematic review with a meta-analysis of the effects of technical and tactical intervention approaches on skill execution and decision-making, and they examined the influence of the teacher/coach management style. This study was performed following PRISMA guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) using the Web of Science (WOS), PubMed (Medline), Scopus, and SportDiscus electronic databases. The meta-analysis results showed that tactical interventions achieved significant decision-making improvements, but they did not significantly improve skill execution compared with technical approaches. Tactical approaches are recommended for teaching games and sports in order to develop technique, understanding, tactical knowledge, and decision-making, all of which are required in gameplay.

García-Angulo, Palao, Giménez-Egido, García-Angulo, and Ortega-Toro [ 6 ] performed a quasi-experimental study on under-12 male football players to analyze the effect of reducing the number of players, the size of the goal, and the size of the playing space on the technical and tactical actions of young football players. The authors concluded that using modified rules generated a greater number of and more variability in technical–tactical actions, a greater number of actions with teammates in the pass line, greater continuity throughout the game, and more attacking and defensive actions close to the goal. This strategy also favored team play.

Trigueros et al. [ 7 ] took the version of the Scale of Basic Psychological Needs tailored to the physical exercise context and adapted it to and validated it in the Spanish PE context, with the important incorporation of novelty into the scale. In total, 2372 people took part in the research, and several analyses were performed. The results were reported for both the eight-factor structure and the higher-order double model, in which the eight subscales were joined into two constructs called frustration and satisfaction. The factorial structure of both models was invariant with respect to gender and age.

Sánchez-Oliva et al. [ 8 ] analyzed the relationships between perceived need support and need satisfaction with self-determined motivation and extracurricular physical activity intentions in the PE classroom, with sex and out-of-school sport participation included as moderators. Using multi-level analysis, the authors concluded that, at the classroom level, males benefited from need-supportive classes more than females in terms of increased autonomous motivation, whereas females benefited more than males in terms of decreased amotivation. Perceived need support at the class level moderated the negative association between need satisfaction and amotivation and between amotivation and intentions. The findings suggest that a need-supportive classroom environment may play an important role in students’ motivation and behavior.

Burgueño and Medina-Casaubón [ 9 ] performed a cluster-randomized controlled trial with 148 high school students (sport education group, n = 74; control group, n = 74) to assess the influence of sports education on sportsmanship orientations. The multivariate analysis showed significant multivariate effects at the level of each sportsmanship orientation between both groups, in favor of the sports education group. The authors concluded that sports education is an effective pedagogical model that should be considered by PE teachers for optimally promoting the moral and ethical education of high school students via the development of sportsmanship orientations in the context of school PE.

Tornero-Quiñones, Sáez-Padilla, Espina, Abad, and Sierra [ 10 ] carried out a study on 139 older people (between 65 and 87 years of age) to analyze the differences in autonomy between an active group (69 people) and a sedentary group (70 people) in terms of both basic daily activities and instrumental daily activities, as well as in functional capacity, fragility, and fall risk. By means of multivariate analysis, the authors found that the active group presented better values than the sedentary group, with statistically significant differences in all variables evaluated. Moreover, in the active group, functional capacity was a positive predictor variable of autonomy in instrumental daily activities, while fragility and fall risk were significant positive predictors of autonomy in basic daily activities. The importance of leading an active life after retirement is demonstrated once again.

García-Ceberino, Gamero, Feu, and Ibáñez [ 11 ] carried out quasi-experimental research to compare the declarative and procedural knowledge acquired by two groups of fifth-year students after implementing two intervention programs in school football: The Tactical Games Approach vs. the Direct Instruction Model. The results revealed no significant intergroup differences with regard to the methodology applied.

Muñoz-Villena, Gómez-López, and González-Hernández [ 12 ] analyzed psychological variables in 229 young male athletes from professional youth sport teams to evaluate the differences in anger expression and management according to self-esteem and perfectionism indicators. The results showed that high personal standards predicted lower anger trait indicators for athletes with low self-esteem. The results also revealed that high self-esteem acted as a protective factor in the predictive relationship between anger traits and personal standards. The study described the relationship between these variables and the young male footballers’ sense of belonging (under a high level of sports pressure). Their results highlight the need to foster athletes’ self-esteem in sports environments through prevention programs that include psychological and social resource training systems.

Thomas et al. [ 13 ] performed a randomized controlled trial in several European countries to assess whether an enriched sports activity program could increase physical fitness in a population of schoolchildren. The intervention group performed an additional warm-up protocol, which included cognitive-enhancing elements over 14 weeks, while the control group continued with the standard exercise activity. In the experimental group, the intragroup analysis (pre and post-test) showed a significant increase in the 1 kg and 3 kg ball throw, the standing broad jump, the 30 m sprint, and the Illinois agility test, while no significant differences were found in the quadruped test or the Léger shuttle run. In the control group, intragroup analysis (pre and post-test) showed no differences for any test except for the quadruped test and the Léger shuttle run.

Rodríguez-Medellín et al. [ 14 ] adapted and validated the Engagement and Disaffection Scale to the PE context in Mexico and assessed its reliability, factorial structure, and factorial invariance by gender on a sample of 1470 elementary school students. Confirmatory factor analysis, factorial invariance, internal consistency, correlations, and convergent and discriminant validity were performed. The authors concluded that the Mexican version of this scale is valid and useful for measuring these constructs in the PE context.

Noguera, Carmona, Rueda, Fernández, and Cimadevilla [ 15 ] carried out a quasi-experimental study with a recreational sample (48 healthy adults organized into two groups: 26 non-professional salsa dancers and 20 non-dancers) to evaluate whether dancing, as a physical activity that includes a lot of jumping and turning, affects spatial memory and executive functions. To do this, they used sensitive virtual reality-based tasks and the ANT-I task (Attentional Network Test-Interactions) to assess spatial memory and executive functions, respectively. Dancing integrates physical activity with music and involves the memory retrieval of complex step sequences and movements to create choreographies. The conclusion suggests that dancing can be a valid approach to slowing natural age-related cognitive decline. However, since dancing combines several factors, such as social contact, aerobic exercise, cognitive work with rhythms, and music, it is difficult to determine the weight of each of the variables analyzed.

Amado, León-del-Barco, Mendo-Lázaro, and Iglesias [ 16 ] performed a cross-sectional study with 944 school children to examine how body image satisfaction and gender can act as modulating variables on emotional intelligence in childhood. They analyzed differences in the intrapersonal, interpersonal, stress management, adaptability, and mood dimensions of emotional intelligence according to the degree of body image satisfaction and the children’s genders. The results revealed that children who were satisfied with their body image exhibited higher interpersonal intelligence, greater adaptability, and better mood; in addition, girls outperformed boys in stress management. The authors emphasized the need to promote campaigns designed by specialists to prevent body image dissatisfaction and to ensure that the benefits are able to reach the entire educational community (students, teachers, and parents). In this paper, several possibilities are described for meeting the demands of contemporary society.

Yang, Chuang, Lo, and Lee [ 17 ] propose a novel two-stage multi-criteria decision-making (MCDM) model that incorporates the concept of sustainable development into sports tourism. For this purpose, the authors carried out the Bayesian best–worst method (Bayesian BWM) to screen for important criteria and used a laboratory evaluation technique to map out complex influential relationships. To demonstrate the model’s effectiveness, it was tested in central Taiwan. The results showed that the quality of urban security, government marketing, business sponsorship, and mass transit planning were the most important criteria. Together with local festivals, this was the most influential factor overall for the evaluation system.

Pérez-Pueyo, Hortigüela-Alcalá, Hernando-Garijo, and Granero-Gallegos [ 18 ] carried out a qualitative study to propose the attitudinal style as a pedagogical model in PE. First, they defined the characteristics and elements that make up the attitudinal style as a pedagogical model; second, the authors analyzed the perceptions of future teachers regarding the usefulness and transferability of the model in their classes. The results revealed that future PE teachers considered this model to be a transcendental methodological tool for understanding and addressing PE at school. Interpersonal relationships in the classroom, student autonomy, and group responsibility were highlighted as necessary aspects with high transferability to the school.

Oliva-Lozano, Martín-Fuentes, and Muyor [ 19 ] analyzed the validity and reliability of an inertial device for monitoring the range of pelvic motion during simulated intercourse and then compared the results with those of a gold standard system. Twenty-six adults took part and were monitored during simulated intercourse using an inertial device (WIMU) and a motion capture system (gold standard). The authors concluded that WIMU could be considered a valid and reliable device for monitoring the in–out cycle range of motion during sexual intercourse in the missionary and cowgirl positions.

Conejero, Prado, Fernández-Echeverría, Collado-Mateo, and Moreno [ 20 ] performed a systematic review with meta-analysis to evaluate the scientific literature on the effect of decision training interventions/programs from a cognitive perspective on the decision-making capabilities of volleyball players. This research was carried out following PRISMA guidelines, and studies were accessed through the WOS, Pubmed (Medline), Scopus, SportDiscus, and Google Scholar databases. From the results, the authors recommend using decisional interventions or training, both as part of normal active training and as a complement to it, in order to improve players’ decision-making capabilities.

Płoszaj, Firek, and Czechowski [ 21 ] emphasized the role of referees as educators and suggested that they be taken into account when researching the educational value of sports among the youngest participants. This study was conducted on a group of 25 handball referees to analyze the quality of their interactions (a positive climate, responsiveness, behavior management, proficiency, instructing, communicating) with young players during handball matches. The authors concluded that the referees should be trained to foster a positive climate on the sports field by creating emotional ties with players (physical proximity, social conversation) while expressing an enthusiastic attitude and the joy of contact.

Kokkonen, Gråstén, Quay, and Kokkonen [ 22 ] performed structural equational modeling based on the self-reports of 363 fourth to sixth graders to analyze how students’ perceptions of their psychological environment (i.e., the motivational climate in PE) contributed to their adoption of moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) via their social competence and physical activity motivation. The results showed that both the motivational climate and co-operational aspect of social competence played significant roles in students’ physical activity motivation, physical activity intention, and MVPA. Thus, the analysis of creative PE highlights that teaching behaviors contribute to students’ MVPA through motivational climates, co-operation, physical activity motivation and physical activity intention.

Carrasco-Poyatos, González-Quílez, Martínez-González-Moro and Granero-Gallegos [ 23 ] proposed a protocol study for a cluster-randomized controlled trial to assess changes in the performance of high-level athletes after a heart rate variability (HRV)-guided training period or a traditional training period and to determine the differences in athletes’ performance after both training protocols (follow-up after 12 weeks for the cluster-randomized controlled protocol, control group, and HRV group). The variables measured were the maximum oxygen uptake (VO 2max ), the maximum speed (in m/s), the maximum heart rate, the respiratory exchange ratio, ventilatory thresholds (VT1 and VT2), and their derived speed, heart rate, respiratory exchange ratio, and VO 2 in an incremental treadmill test. To date, no other HRV-guided training research has been conducted on these types of professional athletes. It is expected that this HRV-guided training protocol will improve functional performance in high-level athletes, achieve better results than a traditional training method, and thus provide an effective strategy for coaches of high-level athletes.

Cattuzzo et al. [ 24 ] carried out a systematic review to examine studies that have assessed the performance of the supine-to-stand (STS) task in young people, adults, and the elderly. The databases accessed in the search were MEDLINE/Pubmed, Scielo, EMBASE, Scopus, ERIC/ProQuest, WOS, Science Direct, EBSCO, and Cochrane. After a qualitative analysis of the 37 studies included, the paper concluded that the STS task appears to be a universal tool for tracking functional motor competence and musculoskeletal fitness throughout life for clinical or research purposes.

Hutmacher, Eckelt, Bund, and Steffgen [ 25 ] performed a longitudinal study on 1681 students from elementary and high school in the context of PE. The measured variables were perceived need for support in PE, motivational regulation during PE, leisure time, attitude, subjective norm, perceived behavioral control, intention, and physical activity behavior. The main findings, based on mixed-effect models, revealed that the autonomy, competence, and relatedness support given by the PE teacher was positively related to autonomous motivation. In addition, longitudinal mediation analyses further supported the impact of autonomous motivation on physical activity, mediated by intention, attitude, and perceived behavioral control.

Ávalos-Ramos and Martínez-Ruiz [ 26 ] designed a qualitative study with 38 students who were in the first year of a bachelor’s degree in Physical Activity and Sport Sciences of a Spanish university and were enrolled in the Gymnastic and Artistic Skills course. The methodological design consisted of 13 practical learning sessions on the subject mentioned, in which a support strategy for autonomy in collaboration was implemented. The learning process was carried out in three phases (initial, progress, and final). The evolution of motivation, autonomy, collaboration, and achievements was highly valued throughout the process. The final assessment caused pressure and anxiety in the students, thus decreasing self-control, impairing action, and distorting the motivation experienced during the learning process.

Granero-Gallegos, González-Quílez, Plews, and Carrasco-Poyatos [ 27 ] performed a systematic review with meta-analysis to analyze the effect of HRV-guided training on VO 2max in endurance athletes. The methods were reported in accordance with the Campbell Collaboration policies and guidelines for systematic reviews. The register contained studies identified from the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL Complete, the Web of Science Core Collection, Global Health, Current Contents Connect, and the SciELO Citation Index. The results showed that HRV-guided training and control training enhanced the athletes’ VO 2max ( p < 0.0001), but the effect size (ES) for the HRV-guided training group was significantly higher. The amateur level and female subgroup produced better and significant results ( p < 0.0001) for VO 2max . HRV-guided training had a small (ES = 0.402) but positive effect on endurance athlete performance (VO 2max ), conditioned by the athlete’s level and sex.

Finally, Baños, Fuentesal, Conte, Ortiz-Camacho, and Zamarripa [ 28 ] carried out a probabilistic study on secondary school students in Mexico to analyze the mediating effect of satisfaction/enjoyment and boredom between the perception of autonomy support and academic performance in PE. The mediating effect was examined using the PROCESS V.3.5 macro. The main findings revealed that autonomy support was not a direct indicator of PE performance; instead, a forecast of positive PE performance only occurred if students felt satisfied with PE. Satisfaction with PE had a mediating effect between autonomy support and PE performance. However, boredom did not have a mediating effect between autonomy support and the student’s performance in the PE class.

3. Conclusions

In summary, these papers add to our understanding of the latest advances and developments in PE and sport. Through the 14 articles that analyze the educational context at different stages, from elementary school to university, the concerns of the different agents that intervene in the teaching–learning process are assessed. Two articles also focus on motivational aspects, executive functions, and spatial memory performance in relation to the practice of physical activity during leisure time. An analysis of physical activity in elderly people is also presented to address concerns such as functional capacity, frailty, and fall risk. Two articles focus on physical activity in nature and sports tourism, while another study validates the most advanced technological applications in sport and the analysis of human movements, such as the WIMU pro-device. Four papers analyze different aspects in the field of sport: football, athletes in professional youth teams, handball referees, and professional endurance athletes (runners). Finally, four systematic reviews (two with meta-analyses) explore different questions related to sports education, volleyball players, healthy individuals, and endurance athletes.

Conflicts of Interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Log in using your username and password

• Search More Search for this keyword Advanced search
• Latest content
• Current issue
• For authors
• BMJ Journals

You are here

• Volume 109, Issue 7
• Associations of excessive internet use, sleep duration and physical activity with school absences: a cross-sectional, population-based study of adolescents in years 8 and 9
• Article Text
• Article info
• Citation Tools
• Rapid Responses
• Article metrics

• http://orcid.org/0000-0002-2881-8299 Silja Kosola 1 , 2 ,
• Marianne Kullberg 3 ,
• Katja Melander 4 , 5 ,
• Janne Engblom 6 ,
• Klaus Ranta 7 , 8 ,
• Katarina Alanko 3
• 1 Research, Development and Innovations , Western Uusimaa Wellbeing Services County , Espoo , Finland
• 2 Pediatric Research Center , Helsingin ja uudenmaan sairaanhoitopiiri , Helsinki , Finland
• 3 Faculty of Arts, Psychology and Theology , Åbo Akademi University , Abo , Finland
• 4 Doctoral Programme in Population Health , University of Helsinki , Helsinki , Finland
• 5 Faculty of Medicine , Tampere University , Tampere , Finland
• 6 Department of Mathematics and Statistics , University of Turku , Turku , Finland
• 7 Department of Psychiatry , University of Helsinki , Helsinki , Finland
• 8 Faculty of Social Sciences , Tampere University , Tampere , Finland
• Correspondence to Dr Silja Kosola, Research, Development and Innovations, Western Uusimaa Wellbeing Services County, Espoo, 02033 Länsi-Uudenmaan hyvinvointialue, Finland; silja.kosola{at}helsinki.fi

Background Internet use has increased and sleep and physical activity (PA) have decreased in recent years among adolescents. Besides sleep and PA, another determinant of future health for adolescents is education. Our aim was to evaluate the associations of excessive internet use (EIU), short sleep duration and low PA with both unexcused absences and medical absences during lower secondary school.

Methods The School Health Promotion study is a national survey of adolescents conducted biennially in Finland. We used data collected in 2019, when EIU was assessed for the first time. Cumulative odds ratio analysis was conducted with unexcused absences and medical absences as outcome variables. Besides EIU, sleep duration and PA, the associations of maternal education and parental relations were assessed.

Results The mean age of the 86 270 participants was 15.3 years. Girls scored higher than boys on EIU. In all, 34.7% of participants slept less than 8 hours per night during the school week, and 34.3% reported low PA (ie, less than 3 days per week with minimum 1 hour of PA per day). EIU, short sleep and low PA were associated with both unexcused absences and medical absences from school. Longer sleep during weekends showed no association with absences, but good parental relations had the strongest protective association with both unexcused and medical absences.

Conclusions EIU, short sleep duration and low PA were associated with both unexcused and medical absences from school. This has important implications for both the promotion of general health and the support offered to students with alarming school absences.

• Adolescent Health
• Epidemiology
• Primary Health Care

Data availability statement

Data may be obtained from a third party and are not publicly available. Data from the School Health Promotion study are available for researchers from the study coordinators at the Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare.

This is an open access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited, appropriate credit is given, any changes made indicated, and the use is non-commercial. See:  http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2023-326331

Statistics from Altmetric.com

Request permissions.

If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

WHAT IS ALREADY KNOWN ON THIS TOPIC

Previous research has established a relationship between short sleep duration and school absences.

The connections of excessive internet use, short sleep and physical activity (PA) with school absences have remained unclear.

WHAT THIS STUDY ADDS

Excessive internet use was associated with an increased risk for both unexcused and medical absences from school, while longer sleep duration and higher PA showed a protective association.

A trusting relationship with parents emerged as an important protective factor for both unexcused and medical absences.

HOW THIS STUDY MIGHT AFFECT RESEARCH, PRACTICE OR POLICY

Highlights the vitality of collaboration between health and education sectors to improve long-term health outcomes among adolescents.

Introduction

Education is an essential determinant of future health for adolescents, but it can be jeopardised by school absences. School absences can be either unexcused (also called truancy) or excused, most commonly for medical reasons. School absences can be caused by physical and mental health problems, but they may also be associated with different types of risky behaviour or an unhealthy lifestyle involving excessive use of screen-based media, insufficient sleep and limited physical activity (PA). 1 2

The internet, online gaming and the upsurge of social media during the last decade have dramatically changed the lives of adolescents. 3 4 Among adolescents, excessive gaming and social media use have been associated with school absences, poor numeracy skills, anxiety and poorer sleep. 5–9 Although variance between assessment instruments of excessive internet use (EIU) complicates comparisons, digital media may be a factor tempting adolescents to stay home from school, and may also hinder learning through lack of sleep. 10

Sleep is necessary for all aspects of health and development. To promote optimal health, adolescents aged 13 to 18 should sleep 8–10 hours per night. 11 Meta-analyses have found that insufficient or disturbed sleep among children and adolescents is associated with obesity and depressive symptoms. 12 13 Insufficient sleep and poor sleep quality are also associated with poor educational attainment, possibly through school absences. 14–16 The direct impact of sleep on unexcused and medical absences, however, remains unclear.

Besides contributing a positive impact on general health throughout the life course, regular PA is important for the brain health of school-aged children and adolescents because it improves both cognition and mental health. 17 Adolescents should engage in 60 min or more of moderate-to-vigorous PA daily. 18 No consensus has been reached on the association of PA with school absences. Some studies have found higher rates of absences in both inactive and highly active children than among children with medium levels of PA. 19 De Groot et al found no direct association between PA and medical absences from school. 20

The objective of this study was to examine the associations of EIU, short sleep and PA with unexcused absences and medical absences from school among adolescents. We hypothesised that EIU would be associated with a higher risk of both unexcused and medical absences, whereas sleep and PA would have a protective association.

Study population and procedure

This study used data from the School Health Promotion study, a national biennial survey conducted in Finland and managed by the Institute for Health and Welfare. 21 All students in years 8 and 9 and present at school on the day of the survey administration are invited to participate. Both adolescents and their parents may opt out of participation. An anonymous survey was administered to adolescents in classrooms, with both online and pen-and-paper options available, and under teacher supervision. In this study, we utilised responses from the nationally representative sample of year 8 and 9 students in 2019, when EIU was assessed for the first time. These age cohorts comprised 118 178 adolescents, of whom 86 283 (73.0%) participated. Responses were geographically evenly distributed and considered nationally representative.

In Finland, education is compulsory and free of charge from the year a child turns seven until age 18 years. In school years 8 and 9, students are typically 14–16 years old. As advised by the Institute for Health and Welfare, we excluded responses if self-reported age was below 13 or exceeded 18. Year 9 marks the end of lower secondary school, and during the spring term students apply to either academic upper secondary school or vocational education. Thus, school absences in lower secondary school have special significance.

Demographics

Self-reported gender was based on the two response options (boy or girl) to the question ‘What is your official gender?’ Students also reported their school year.

Socioeconomic status was based on maternal education level, reported by the students. The question ‘What is the highest educational level your mother has achieved?’ had four response options: ‘comprehensive school or equivalent’ (meaning 9 years of education), ‘upper secondary school, high school or vocation education’ (meaning 12 years of education), ‘occupational studies in addition to upper secondary school, high school or vocational education’ and ‘university, university of applied sciences or other higher education’.

One question, ‘Can you talk about things that concern you with your parents?’, described parental relations. Response options were ‘hardly ever’, ‘occasionally’, ‘fairly often’ and ‘often’.

Excessive internet use (EIU)

The EIU scale is short and has shown good internal consistency in previous studies. 22 23 Cronbach’s alpha was 0.77 overall and 0.74 in Finland. 23 The EIU scale has five statements: ‘I have tried spending less time online but I have failed’, ‘I should spend more time with my family, friends or doing homework, but I spend all my time online’, ‘I have found that I was online even though I did not really feel like it’, ‘I have felt anxious when I do not get online’ and ‘I have failed to eat or sleep because of being online’. Respondents were asked to estimate how often they experienced each of the above on a four-point Likert scale from ‘never’ to ‘very often’, which translated to numeric values of 1–4. EIU was defined as the mean value of the five scores.

Sleep duration

Sleep duration was calculated from two questions: ‘At what time do you usually go to bed?’ and ‘At what time do you usually wake up?’ For both questions, responses were collected separately for weekdays and weekends. Response options for bedtime were provided at half-hour intervals from ‘about 7 p.m. or earlier’ to ‘about 4 a.m. or later’. Response options for wake-up times were also at half-hour intervals from ‘about 5 a.m. or earlier’ to ‘about 1 p.m. or later’.

Physical activity (PA)

PA was assessed through two questions. The first measured overall PA: ‘Think about all the moving around you have done over the past 7 days. On how many days have you been on the move for at least 1 hour per day?’ Response options ranged from zero to 7 days. The second question evaluated vigorous PA: ‘During your spare time, how many hours per week do you usually engage in physical exercise that causes shortness of breath and sweating?’, and response options were ‘none’, ‘about 0.5 hours’, ‘about 1 hours’, ‘about 2–3 hours’, ‘about 4–6 hours’ and ‘about 7 hours or more’.

Unexcused and medical absences from school

The question ‘During this school year, how often have you experienced the following’ had two subcomponents: ‘Being absent without permission, skipping school’ and ‘Absences due to illness’. Both had the same five response options: ‘not at all’, ‘a few times in the year’, ‘every month’, ‘every week’ and ‘daily or almost daily’. Because some medical absences are natural and unexcused absences have been associated with delinquent behaviour, unexcused and medical absences were classified slightly differently into three categories.

• View inline

Statistical analyses

Descriptive statistics included percentages and means (with SD). Gender differences were estimated with independent sample t-tests and odds ratios. Cumulative odds ratio (COR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) was used to measure the association of independent variables (gender, school year, maternal education, parental relations, EIU, sleep duration on weekdays and weekends, overall and vigorous PA) with unexcused and medical absences separately. For ordinal variables, CORs were calculated pairwise, with each category compared separately with the reference category. First, if COR >1, the distribution of absence is more concentrated to ‘higher’ values in the first category of the categorical independent compared with the reference category. Second, this concentration increases when a numeric independent has greater values. We ran the analyses separately for genders, but since CORs were mostly similar for both genders, overall CORs are presented and the few significant differences between genders are flagged. Model fit was estimated using Somers’ D. Results are reported as unstandardised estimates, and p<0.05 was considered significant. Analyses were conducted using Mplus version 8.7 and SAS 9.4.

Missing data

Data availability is reported for all variables separately. Since the proportion of missing data for different variables was low, complete cases were used in COR calculations.

The study was approved by the Working Group on Research Ethics of the Institute for Health and Welfare (THL/1578/6.02.01/2018 §807).

The 86 270 participants (response rate: 73.0% of respective age group) showed even gender and age distribution ( table 1 ). Mothers most commonly had university or other higher-level education, and parental relations were most often good.

Demographics and background variables of 86 270 study participants

The EIU scale average score was 1.9 (SD 0.7; table 2 ). Girls yielded a higher EIU score than boys (2.0 vs 1.8; p<0.001, Cohen’s d=0.4), and 1881 participants (2.3%) reported the maximum EIU score of 4.

Excessive internet use, sleep duration, frequency of physical activity and absences from school for adolescent boys and girls

Participants slept an average of 8.0 hours per night during the school week, and 9.2 hours per night during the weekend ( table 2 ). More than one-third (34.7%) slept less than 8 hours per night on weekdays, and 10.9% slept less than 8 hours per night on weekends.

Participants reported overall PA on average on 4 days during the preceding week and vigorous PA for 2–3 hours per week. Among boys, both no PA and daily PA were more frequent than among girls ( table 2 ).

In all, 3.2–4.0% of the study population reported high rates of school absences ( table 2 ). Boys reported more unexcused absences than girls did, while girls reported more medical absences than boys did (p<0.001 for both).

In cumulative odds ratio, EIU was associated with an increased risk for both unexcused and medical absences ( table 3 ). Older age was associated with an increased risk of unexcused absences. Maternal education level, parental relations (talking about concerns with parents), longer sleep duration during weekdays and PA showed a significant protective dose–response relationship with both unexcused and medical absences from school. Talking about concerns with parents often showed the strongest protective association. Overall, the model fit was moderate (0.35) for unexcused absences and low (0.22) for medical absences.

Results of cumulative odds ratio: risk and protective factors for unexcused and medical absences from school

In this nationally representative population-based study, adolescent girls reported more excessive internet use (EIU) than did boys, more than one-third of adolescents slept less than 8 hours per night during the school week and more than half of adolescents engaged in vigorous exercise for less than 3 hours weekly. EIU, short sleep duration during weekdays and low PA were all associated with both unexcused and medical absences from school among 14–16 year old students. Talking about concerns with parents often emerged as the strongest protective factor for both unexcused and medical absences.

Of the study participants, 2% yielded a maximum score for EIU. Previous studies have reported a prevalence of 6% for problematic mobile phone use. 24 The EIU specifically reflects the symptoms of addiction instead of measuring excessive time spent online. 25 Girls scored higher than did boys on the EIU scale. We suspect this may be due to social media, which girls use more than boys. 26 27 A recent meta-analysis supported the hypothesis that different patterns of internet addiction may be seen among men and women. 8

Shorter sleep duration especially during the school week showed direct associations with unexcused and medical school absences. Short sleep (less than 8 hours per night) during the school week showed a significant independent association with school absences, and this association was not compensated by longer sleep during weekends. This is in line with previous research, where weekend recovery sleep failed to protect against metabolic dysregulation. 28

Overall PA was associated with both unexcused and medical school absences: the more frequent light PA was, the fewer absences the adolescents reported. When PA was reported daily, however, the protective association of PA was smaller than for any other frequency of PA. It seems logical that a break is also needed from PA for optimal well-being. 29 In all, the findings between PA and school absences may reflect that adolescents who are supported to commit to a physically active lifestyle are also supported to attend school. 30 We also found a stronger relationship between overall than vigorous PA and fewer medical absences. Potentially a more active general lifestyle is healthier than a modern combination of a sedentary lifestyle and competitive sport hobbies. 31

In this study, a trusting relationship with parents was the strongest protective factor against school absences. Nearly half of the study participants reported that they often talk with their parents about their concerns. Trusting, open relationships between parents and their adolescent children also protect them against EIU. 32 Furthermore, adolescents also need their parents’ support to maintain a regular sleep schedule, because longer sleep during weekends is insufficient to protect against school absences.

The strengths of this study include a large, population-based cohort with a high participation rate, and distinguishing between unexcused and medical absences from school. Participation rates were even geographically and across schools in cities. The first limitation is the cross-sectional, self-reported nature of data, and thus, causal relationships cannot be determined. The most important group of non-participants were adolescents who were absent from school on the day of data collection. This could plausibly have included students with high rates of absences, which may cause bias especially in a study focusing on absences from school. When comparing our dataset with national statistics, the proportion of boys was slightly lower than among the entire population (49.3% vs 50.9%, respectively). Our proxy measure for socioeconomic status was maternal education. At population-level, education is only collected based on age and gender instead of parenthood. 33 The study participants reported a higher frequency of university level education among their mothers than recorded among women aged 35–54 at the population-level in Finland (45.1% vs 42.2%, respectively). Childlessness is, however, more common among persons with low or medium education, 34 and thus, potential bias associated with socioeconomic status remains unknown. The School Health Promotion study included no information on the type of internet use adolescents engaged in, and thus, no conclusions can be drawn related to gaming and social media. In this study, we only utilised data on the self-reported official gender, but population-based research on adolescents identifying as non-binary is urgently needed.

Despite its limitations, our results have important implications for promotion of health and education attainment. Our results are relevant for professionals organising and working in school health and well-being services, especially when professionals meet students whose school absences raise concern. Besides direct school-related factors, the lifestyle factors associated with absences should also be assessed, and support should be provided according to need.

Ethics statements

Patient consent for publication.

Not applicable.

Ethics approval

This study involves human participants and was approved by THL Working Group on Research Ethics, Finland (THL/1578/6.02.01/2018 §807) Participants gave informed consent to participate in the study before taking part.

• Gubbels J ,
• van der Put CE ,
• Melander K ,
• Ranta K , et al
• Ruckwongpatr K ,
• Chirawat P ,
• Ghavifekr S , et al
• US Surgeon General
• Rehbein F ,
• Baier D , et al
• Gentile DA ,
• Bavelier D , et al
• Schwartz D ,
• Kelleghan A ,
• Malamut S , et al
• Yu H , et al
• Canterford L ,
• Hoq M , et al
• Paruthi S ,
• Brooks LJ ,
• D’Ambrosio C , et al
• Andrade B ,
• Campisi SC , et al
• Haugland S ,
• Stormark KM , et al
• Tomé G , et al
• Rodriguez-Ayllon M ,
• Cadenas-Sánchez C ,
• Estévez-López F , et al
• US Department of Health and Human Services
• Hansen AR ,
• Pritchard T ,
• Melnic I , et al
• de Groot R ,
• van Dijk M ,
• Savelberg H , et al
• Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare
• Škařupová K ,
• Ševčíková A , et al
• Ólafsson K ,
• Griffiths M
• Svensson R ,
• Johnson B ,
• Booker CL ,
• Depner CM ,
• Melanson EL ,
• Eckel RH , et al
• Cadenas-Sanchez C ,
• Mena-Molina A ,
• Torres-Lopez LV , et al
• Kortteisto T ,
• Hermanson E , et al
• Statistics Finland
• Jalovaara M ,
• Miettinen A

X @SiljaKosola

SK and MK contributed equally.

Contributors SK: conception, design, interpretation of results, first draft, revisions, guarantor. MK: conception, data curation, interpretation of results, revisions. KM: conception, interpretation of results, revisions. JE: data acquisition, statistical analyses, interpretation of results, revisions. KR: conception, design, interpretation of results, revisions. KA: conception, design, data acquisition and curation, interpretation of results, revisions. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.

Funding Silja Kosola was supported by a grant from The Foundation for Pediatric Research. Marianne Kullberg was supported by a grant from The Swedish Cultural Foundation in Finland, grant number 180773. Klaus Ranta was funded by the Strategic Research Council established within the Academy of Finland to the Imagine Research Consortium, grant number 352700, and to Tampere University, grant number 353048. Katarina Alanko was funded by the C.G. Sundell Foundation. The funders had no role in the study design, data collection, analysis, interpretation of data, decision to publish, or in writing the manuscript.

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Not commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

Read the full text or download the PDF: