case study for social studies

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Assignments

• Annotated Bibliography
• Analyzing a Scholarly Journal Article
• Group Presentations
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Leading a Class Discussion
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Works
• Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Reflective Paper
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Generative AI and Writing
• Acknowledgments

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, condition, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study research paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or more subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in the Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• The case represents an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• The case provides important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• The case challenges and offers a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in current practice. A case study analysis may offer an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• The case provides an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings so as to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• The case offers a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for an exploratory investigation that highlights the need for further research about the problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of east central Africa. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a rural village of Uganda can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community. This example of a case study could also point to the need for scholars to build new theoretical frameworks around the topic [e.g., applying feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation].

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work.

In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What is being studied? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis [the case] you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why is this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would involve summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to investigate the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your use of a case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in relation to explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular case [i.e., subject of analysis] and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that constitutes your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; and, c) what were the consequences of the event in relation to the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experiences they have had that provide an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of their experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using them as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem [e.g., why is one politician in a particular local election used to show an increase in voter turnout from any other candidate running in the election]. Note that these issues apply to a specific group of people used as a case study unit of analysis [e.g., a classroom of students].

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, historical, cultural, economic, political], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, explain why you are studying Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research suggests Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut off? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should clearly support investigation of the research problem and linked to key findings from your literature review. Be sure to cite any studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for examining the problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your analysis of the case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is common to combine a description of the results with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings Remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations revealed by the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research if that is how the findings can be interpreted from your case.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and any need for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1) reiterate the main argument supported by the findings from your case study; 2) state clearly the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in or the preferences of your professor, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented as it applies to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were engaged with social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood more in terms of managing access rather than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis that leave the reader questioning the results.

Case Studies. Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent] knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical [context-dependent] knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

• << Previous: Writing a Case Analysis Paper
• Next: Writing a Field Report >>
• Last Updated: Jun 3, 2024 9:44 AM
• URL: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/assignments

The Ultimate Guide to Qualitative Research - Part 1: The Basics

• Introduction and overview
• What is qualitative research?
• What is qualitative data?
• Examples of qualitative data
• Qualitative vs. quantitative research
• Mixed methods
• Qualitative research preparation
• Theoretical perspective
• Theoretical framework
• Literature reviews

Research question

• Conceptual framework
• Conceptual vs. theoretical framework

Data collection

• Qualitative research methods
• Focus groups
• Observational research

What is a case study?

Applications for case study research, what is a good case study, process of case study design, benefits and limitations of case studies.

• Ethnographical research
• Ethical considerations
• Confidentiality and privacy
• Power dynamics
• Reflexivity

Case studies

Case studies are essential to qualitative research , offering a lens through which researchers can investigate complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. This chapter explores the concept, purpose, applications, examples, and types of case studies and provides guidance on how to conduct case study research effectively.

Whereas quantitative methods look at phenomena at scale, case study research looks at a concept or phenomenon in considerable detail. While analyzing a single case can help understand one perspective regarding the object of research inquiry, analyzing multiple cases can help obtain a more holistic sense of the topic or issue. Let's provide a basic definition of a case study, then explore its characteristics and role in the qualitative research process.

Definition of a case study

A case study in qualitative research is a strategy of inquiry that involves an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon within its real-world context. It provides researchers with the opportunity to acquire an in-depth understanding of intricate details that might not be as apparent or accessible through other methods of research. The specific case or cases being studied can be a single person, group, or organization – demarcating what constitutes a relevant case worth studying depends on the researcher and their research question .

Among qualitative research methods , a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence, such as documents, artifacts, interviews , or observations , to present a complete and nuanced understanding of the phenomenon under investigation. The objective is to illuminate the readers' understanding of the phenomenon beyond its abstract statistical or theoretical explanations.

Characteristics of case studies

Case studies typically possess a number of distinct characteristics that set them apart from other research methods. These characteristics include a focus on holistic description and explanation, flexibility in the design and data collection methods, reliance on multiple sources of evidence, and emphasis on the context in which the phenomenon occurs.

Furthermore, case studies can often involve a longitudinal examination of the case, meaning they study the case over a period of time. These characteristics allow case studies to yield comprehensive, in-depth, and richly contextualized insights about the phenomenon of interest.

The role of case studies in research

Case studies hold a unique position in the broader landscape of research methods aimed at theory development. They are instrumental when the primary research interest is to gain an intensive, detailed understanding of a phenomenon in its real-life context.

In addition, case studies can serve different purposes within research - they can be used for exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes, depending on the research question and objectives. This flexibility and depth make case studies a valuable tool in the toolkit of qualitative researchers.

Remember, a well-conducted case study can offer a rich, insightful contribution to both academic and practical knowledge through theory development or theory verification, thus enhancing our understanding of complex phenomena in their real-world contexts.

What is the purpose of a case study?

Case study research aims for a more comprehensive understanding of phenomena, requiring various research methods to gather information for qualitative analysis . Ultimately, a case study can allow the researcher to gain insight into a particular object of inquiry and develop a theoretical framework relevant to the research inquiry.

Why use case studies in qualitative research?

Using case studies as a research strategy depends mainly on the nature of the research question and the researcher's access to the data.

Conducting case study research provides a level of detail and contextual richness that other research methods might not offer. They are beneficial when there's a need to understand complex social phenomena within their natural contexts.

The explanatory, exploratory, and descriptive roles of case studies

Case studies can take on various roles depending on the research objectives. They can be exploratory when the research aims to discover new phenomena or define new research questions; they are descriptive when the objective is to depict a phenomenon within its context in a detailed manner; and they can be explanatory if the goal is to understand specific relationships within the studied context. Thus, the versatility of case studies allows researchers to approach their topic from different angles, offering multiple ways to uncover and interpret the data .

The impact of case studies on knowledge development

Case studies play a significant role in knowledge development across various disciplines. Analysis of cases provides an avenue for researchers to explore phenomena within their context based on the collected data.

This can result in the production of rich, practical insights that can be instrumental in both theory-building and practice. Case studies allow researchers to delve into the intricacies and complexities of real-life situations, uncovering insights that might otherwise remain hidden.

Types of case studies

In qualitative research , a case study is not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the nature of the research question and the specific objectives of the study, researchers might choose to use different types of case studies. These types differ in their focus, methodology, and the level of detail they provide about the phenomenon under investigation.

Understanding these types is crucial for selecting the most appropriate approach for your research project and effectively achieving your research goals. Let's briefly look at the main types of case studies.

Exploratory case studies

Exploratory case studies are typically conducted to develop a theory or framework around an understudied phenomenon. They can also serve as a precursor to a larger-scale research project. Exploratory case studies are useful when a researcher wants to identify the key issues or questions which can spur more extensive study or be used to develop propositions for further research. These case studies are characterized by flexibility, allowing researchers to explore various aspects of a phenomenon as they emerge, which can also form the foundation for subsequent studies.

Descriptive case studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a complete and accurate representation of a phenomenon or event within its context. These case studies are often based on an established theoretical framework, which guides how data is collected and analyzed. The researcher is concerned with describing the phenomenon in detail, as it occurs naturally, without trying to influence or manipulate it.

Explanatory case studies

Explanatory case studies are focused on explanation - they seek to clarify how or why certain phenomena occur. Often used in complex, real-life situations, they can be particularly valuable in clarifying causal relationships among concepts and understanding the interplay between different factors within a specific context.

Intrinsic, instrumental, and collective case studies

These three categories of case studies focus on the nature and purpose of the study. An intrinsic case study is conducted when a researcher has an inherent interest in the case itself. Instrumental case studies are employed when the case is used to provide insight into a particular issue or phenomenon. A collective case study, on the other hand, involves studying multiple cases simultaneously to investigate some general phenomena.

Each type of case study serves a different purpose and has its own strengths and challenges. The selection of the type should be guided by the research question and objectives, as well as the context and constraints of the research.

The flexibility, depth, and contextual richness offered by case studies make this approach an excellent research method for various fields of study. They enable researchers to investigate real-world phenomena within their specific contexts, capturing nuances that other research methods might miss. Across numerous fields, case studies provide valuable insights into complex issues.

Critical information systems research

Case studies provide a detailed understanding of the role and impact of information systems in different contexts. They offer a platform to explore how information systems are designed, implemented, and used and how they interact with various social, economic, and political factors. Case studies in this field often focus on examining the intricate relationship between technology, organizational processes, and user behavior, helping to uncover insights that can inform better system design and implementation.

Health research

Health research is another field where case studies are highly valuable. They offer a way to explore patient experiences, healthcare delivery processes, and the impact of various interventions in a real-world context.

Case studies can provide a deep understanding of a patient's journey, giving insights into the intricacies of disease progression, treatment effects, and the psychosocial aspects of health and illness.

Asthma research studies

Specifically within medical research, studies on asthma often employ case studies to explore the individual and environmental factors that influence asthma development, management, and outcomes. A case study can provide rich, detailed data about individual patients' experiences, from the triggers and symptoms they experience to the effectiveness of various management strategies. This can be crucial for developing patient-centered asthma care approaches.

Other fields

Apart from the fields mentioned, case studies are also extensively used in business and management research, education research, and political sciences, among many others. They provide an opportunity to delve into the intricacies of real-world situations, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of various phenomena.

Case studies, with their depth and contextual focus, offer unique insights across these varied fields. They allow researchers to illuminate the complexities of real-life situations, contributing to both theory and practice.

Whatever field you're in, ATLAS.ti puts your data to work for you

Download a free trial of ATLAS.ti to turn your data into insights.

Understanding the key elements of case study design is crucial for conducting rigorous and impactful case study research. A well-structured design guides the researcher through the process, ensuring that the study is methodologically sound and its findings are reliable and valid. The main elements of case study design include the research question , propositions, units of analysis, and the logic linking the data to the propositions.

The research question is the foundation of any research study. A good research question guides the direction of the study and informs the selection of the case, the methods of collecting data, and the analysis techniques. A well-formulated research question in case study research is typically clear, focused, and complex enough to merit further detailed examination of the relevant case(s).

Propositions

Propositions, though not necessary in every case study, provide a direction by stating what we might expect to find in the data collected. They guide how data is collected and analyzed by helping researchers focus on specific aspects of the case. They are particularly important in explanatory case studies, which seek to understand the relationships among concepts within the studied phenomenon.

Units of analysis

The unit of analysis refers to the case, or the main entity or entities that are being analyzed in the study. In case study research, the unit of analysis can be an individual, a group, an organization, a decision, an event, or even a time period. It's crucial to clearly define the unit of analysis, as it shapes the qualitative data analysis process by allowing the researcher to analyze a particular case and synthesize analysis across multiple case studies to draw conclusions.

Argumentation

This refers to the inferential model that allows researchers to draw conclusions from the data. The researcher needs to ensure that there is a clear link between the data, the propositions (if any), and the conclusions drawn. This argumentation is what enables the researcher to make valid and credible inferences about the phenomenon under study.

Understanding and carefully considering these elements in the design phase of a case study can significantly enhance the quality of the research. It can help ensure that the study is methodologically sound and its findings contribute meaningful insights about the case.

Ready to jumpstart your research with ATLAS.ti?

Conceptualize your research project with our intuitive data analysis interface. Download a free trial today.

Conducting a case study involves several steps, from defining the research question and selecting the case to collecting and analyzing data . This section outlines these key stages, providing a practical guide on how to conduct case study research.

Defining the research question

The first step in case study research is defining a clear, focused research question. This question should guide the entire research process, from case selection to analysis. It's crucial to ensure that the research question is suitable for a case study approach. Typically, such questions are exploratory or descriptive in nature and focus on understanding a phenomenon within its real-life context.

Selecting and defining the case

The selection of the case should be based on the research question and the objectives of the study. It involves choosing a unique example or a set of examples that provide rich, in-depth data about the phenomenon under investigation. After selecting the case, it's crucial to define it clearly, setting the boundaries of the case, including the time period and the specific context.

Previous research can help guide the case study design. When considering a case study, an example of a case could be taken from previous case study research and used to define cases in a new research inquiry. Considering recently published examples can help understand how to select and define cases effectively.

Developing a detailed case study protocol

A case study protocol outlines the procedures and general rules to be followed during the case study. This includes the data collection methods to be used, the sources of data, and the procedures for analysis. Having a detailed case study protocol ensures consistency and reliability in the study.

The protocol should also consider how to work with the people involved in the research context to grant the research team access to collecting data. As mentioned in previous sections of this guide, establishing rapport is an essential component of qualitative research as it shapes the overall potential for collecting and analyzing data.

Collecting data

Gathering data in case study research often involves multiple sources of evidence, including documents, archival records, interviews, observations, and physical artifacts. This allows for a comprehensive understanding of the case. The process for gathering data should be systematic and carefully documented to ensure the reliability and validity of the study.

Analyzing and interpreting data

The next step is analyzing the data. This involves organizing the data , categorizing it into themes or patterns , and interpreting these patterns to answer the research question. The analysis might also involve comparing the findings with prior research or theoretical propositions.

Writing the case study report

The final step is writing the case study report . This should provide a detailed description of the case, the data, the analysis process, and the findings. The report should be clear, organized, and carefully written to ensure that the reader can understand the case and the conclusions drawn from it.

Each of these steps is crucial in ensuring that the case study research is rigorous, reliable, and provides valuable insights about the case.

The type, depth, and quality of data in your study can significantly influence the validity and utility of the study. In case study research, data is usually collected from multiple sources to provide a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case. This section will outline the various methods of collecting data used in case study research and discuss considerations for ensuring the quality of the data.

Interviews are a common method of gathering data in case study research. They can provide rich, in-depth data about the perspectives, experiences, and interpretations of the individuals involved in the case. Interviews can be structured , semi-structured , or unstructured , depending on the research question and the degree of flexibility needed.

Observations

Observations involve the researcher observing the case in its natural setting, providing first-hand information about the case and its context. Observations can provide data that might not be revealed in interviews or documents, such as non-verbal cues or contextual information.

Documents and artifacts

Documents and archival records provide a valuable source of data in case study research. They can include reports, letters, memos, meeting minutes, email correspondence, and various public and private documents related to the case.

These records can provide historical context, corroborate evidence from other sources, and offer insights into the case that might not be apparent from interviews or observations.

Physical artifacts refer to any physical evidence related to the case, such as tools, products, or physical environments. These artifacts can provide tangible insights into the case, complementing the data gathered from other sources.

Ensuring the quality of data collection

Determining the quality of data in case study research requires careful planning and execution. It's crucial to ensure that the data is reliable, accurate, and relevant to the research question. This involves selecting appropriate methods of collecting data, properly training interviewers or observers, and systematically recording and storing the data. It also includes considering ethical issues related to collecting and handling data, such as obtaining informed consent and ensuring the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Data analysis

Analyzing case study research involves making sense of the rich, detailed data to answer the research question. This process can be challenging due to the volume and complexity of case study data. However, a systematic and rigorous approach to analysis can ensure that the findings are credible and meaningful. This section outlines the main steps and considerations in analyzing data in case study research.

Organizing the data

The first step in the analysis is organizing the data. This involves sorting the data into manageable sections, often according to the data source or the theme. This step can also involve transcribing interviews, digitizing physical artifacts, or organizing observational data.

Categorizing and coding the data

Once the data is organized, the next step is to categorize or code the data. This involves identifying common themes, patterns, or concepts in the data and assigning codes to relevant data segments. Coding can be done manually or with the help of software tools, and in either case, qualitative analysis software can greatly facilitate the entire coding process. Coding helps to reduce the data to a set of themes or categories that can be more easily analyzed.

Identifying patterns and themes

After coding the data, the researcher looks for patterns or themes in the coded data. This involves comparing and contrasting the codes and looking for relationships or patterns among them. The identified patterns and themes should help answer the research question.

Interpreting the data

Once patterns and themes have been identified, the next step is to interpret these findings. This involves explaining what the patterns or themes mean in the context of the research question and the case. This interpretation should be grounded in the data, but it can also involve drawing on theoretical concepts or prior research.

Verification of the data

The last step in the analysis is verification. This involves checking the accuracy and consistency of the analysis process and confirming that the findings are supported by the data. This can involve re-checking the original data, checking the consistency of codes, or seeking feedback from research participants or peers.

Like any research method , case study research has its strengths and limitations. Researchers must be aware of these, as they can influence the design, conduct, and interpretation of the study.

Understanding the strengths and limitations of case study research can also guide researchers in deciding whether this approach is suitable for their research question . This section outlines some of the key strengths and limitations of case study research.

Benefits include the following:

• Rich, detailed data: One of the main strengths of case study research is that it can generate rich, detailed data about the case. This can provide a deep understanding of the case and its context, which can be valuable in exploring complex phenomena.
• Flexibility: Case study research is flexible in terms of design , data collection , and analysis . A sufficient degree of flexibility allows the researcher to adapt the study according to the case and the emerging findings.
• Real-world context: Case study research involves studying the case in its real-world context, which can provide valuable insights into the interplay between the case and its context.
• Multiple sources of evidence: Case study research often involves collecting data from multiple sources , which can enhance the robustness and validity of the findings.

On the other hand, researchers should consider the following limitations:

• Generalizability: A common criticism of case study research is that its findings might not be generalizable to other cases due to the specificity and uniqueness of each case.
• Time and resource intensive: Case study research can be time and resource intensive due to the depth of the investigation and the amount of collected data.
• Complexity of analysis: The rich, detailed data generated in case study research can make analyzing the data challenging.
• Subjectivity: Given the nature of case study research, there may be a higher degree of subjectivity in interpreting the data , so researchers need to reflect on this and transparently convey to audiences how the research was conducted.

Being aware of these strengths and limitations can help researchers design and conduct case study research effectively and interpret and report the findings appropriately.

Ready to analyze your data with ATLAS.ti?

See how our intuitive software can draw key insights from your data with a free trial today.

On the site

Belfer center studies in international security.

• political science

Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences

by Alexander L. George and Andrew Bennett

ISBN: 9780262572224

Pub date: April 15, 2005

• Publisher: The MIT Press

352 pp. , 6 x 9 in ,

ISBN: 9780262262897

ISBN: 9780262072571

Pub date: April 22, 2005

eTextbook rental

4 months: $26.50, 12 months: $37.10.

• 9780262572224
• Published: April 2005
• 9780262262897
• 9780262072571
• MIT Press Bookstore
• Penguin Random House
• Barnes and Noble
• Bookshop.org
• Books a Million

Other Retailers:

• Amazon.co.uk
• Waterstones
• Description

The use of case studies to build and test theories in political science and the other social sciences has increased in recent years. Many scholars have argued that the social sciences rely too heavily on quantitative research and formal models and have attempted to develop and refine rigorous methods for using case studies. This text presents a comprehensive analysis of research methods using case studies and examines the place of case studies in social science methodology. It argues that case studies, statistical methods, and formal models are complementary rather than competitive.

The book explains how to design case study research that will produce results useful to policymakers and emphasizes the importance of developing policy-relevant theories. It offers three major contributions to case study methodology: an emphasis on the importance of within-case analysis, a detailed discussion of process tracing, and development of the concept of typological theories. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences will be particularly useful to graduate students and scholars in social science methodology and the philosophy of science, as well as to those designing new research projects, and will contribute greatly to the broader debate about scientific methods.

Alexander L. George was Graham H. Stuart Professor of Political Science Emeritus at Stanford University and the author or coauthor of many books, most recently Presidential Personality and Performance (1998).

Andrew Bennett is Associate Professor of Government at Georgetown University and the author of Condemned to Repetition? The Rise, Fall, and Reprise of Soviet-Russian Military Interventionism, 1973-1996 (MIT Press, 1999).

In this book, George and Bennett explain how research methods such as process tracing and comparative case studies are designed, carried out, and used as the basis for theory development in social science. They provide an invaluable research guide for any scholar interested in the case study approach. But the book is much more than an account of how to do case study research. The authors also offer a sophisticated discussion of the philosophy of science that will be useful to anyone interested in the place of case-study methods in broader debates about social science methodology, and they give a discerning analysis of policy-relevant theory that is sure to draw the attention of a research community increasingly concerned about the social and political relevance of modern social science. In scope, clarity, and erudition, this book sets a new standard not only in the analysis of case study methods, but also in the study of social science methods more broadly. David Dessler, Associate Professor of Government, College of William & Mary

This book combines clear and concise instructions on how to do qualitative research with sophisticated but accessible epistemological reasons for that advice. The volume provides step-by-step templates on ways to design research, compare across cases, congruence test and process trace, and use typological theories. This guidance is illustrated with dozens of concrete examples. Almost no other methodology text comes close to matching the authors' top-to-bottom synthesis of philosophy of science and practical advice. Colin Elman, Executive Director, Consortium on Qualitative Research Methods, Assistant Professor of Political Science, Arizona State University

This landmark study offers to scholars of all methodological persuasions a philosophically informed, theoretically nuanced, and methodologically detailed treatment of case study analysis. With this book Alexander George and Andrew Bennett help all of us in improving our research, teaching, and disciplinary debates. Peter J. Katzenstein, Walter S. Carpenter, Jr., Professor of International Studies, Cornell University

Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences makes an indispensable contribution to the growing literature on qualitative methods in the social sciences. It provides a definitive analysis of case study methods and research designs, anchors those methods in contemporary philosophy of science, and argues that case study, statistical, and formal approaches can and should be mutually reinforcing in the development and testing of social theories. Jack S. Levy, Board of Governors' Professor, Rutgers University

Today, more and more social scientists recognize the importance of cases in social and political research and are looking for new ways to make their research more case oriented. George and Bennett show how in this important new work. The beauty of their approach is their careful integration of theory and method and their conviction that the pursuit of empirical knowledge is profoundly theory dependent. Charles Ragin, Professor of Sociology, University of Arizona

Andrew Bennett and Alexander George have written an immensely helpful practical guide to the case method. It offers sharp insight on scientific inference and very useful how-to guidance on doing case studies. Graduate students in social science: don't leave home without it! Stephen Van Evera, Professor of Political Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

The history of social science shows that well-designed case studies can be both a fertile source of new theories and a powerful tool for testing them. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences raises our understanding of case study methodology to a new level of rigor and sophistication. George and Bennett provide a careful analysis of the virtues and pitfalls of comparative case study research and offer valuable advice for any scholar engaged in qualitative research. The more widely this book is read, the better future social science will be. Stephen M. Walt, Robert and Renée Belfer Professor of International Affairs, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University

This is an extraordinarily valuable book—a guide written with the practitioner in mind, very sophisticated in its approach to the subject, but loaded with practical advice. George and Bennett show how systematic, rigorous, and above all meaningful case study work is to be done. This is the sort of book scholars—and not just graduate students—will want to come back to over and over again. Marc Trachtenberg, Professor of Political Science, University of California, Los Angeles

Additional Material

Sample Chapter

Related Books

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 20). What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods. Scribbr. Retrieved August 19, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/case-study/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, primary vs. secondary sources | difference & examples, what is a theoretical framework | guide to organizing, what is action research | definition & examples, get unlimited documents corrected.

✔ Free APA citation check included ✔ Unlimited document corrections ✔ Specialized in correcting academic texts

• Privacy Policy

Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is a research method that involves an in-depth examination and analysis of a particular phenomenon or case, such as an individual, organization, community, event, or situation.

It is a qualitative research approach that aims to provide a detailed and comprehensive understanding of the case being studied. Case studies typically involve multiple sources of data, including interviews, observations, documents, and artifacts, which are analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, and grounded theory. The findings of a case study are often used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Types of Case Study

Types and Methods of Case Study are as follows:

Single-Case Study

A single-case study is an in-depth analysis of a single case. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand a specific phenomenon in detail.

For Example , A researcher might conduct a single-case study on a particular individual to understand their experiences with a particular health condition or a specific organization to explore their management practices. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a single-case study are often used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Multiple-Case Study

A multiple-case study involves the analysis of several cases that are similar in nature. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to identify similarities and differences between the cases.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a multiple-case study on several companies to explore the factors that contribute to their success or failure. The researcher collects data from each case, compares and contrasts the findings, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as comparative analysis or pattern-matching. The findings of a multiple-case study can be used to develop theories, inform policy or practice, or generate new research questions.

Exploratory Case Study

An exploratory case study is used to explore a new or understudied phenomenon. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to generate hypotheses or theories about the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an exploratory case study on a new technology to understand its potential impact on society. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as grounded theory or content analysis. The findings of an exploratory case study can be used to generate new research questions, develop theories, or inform policy or practice.

Descriptive Case Study

A descriptive case study is used to describe a particular phenomenon in detail. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to provide a comprehensive account of the phenomenon.

For Example, a researcher might conduct a descriptive case study on a particular community to understand its social and economic characteristics. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of a descriptive case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Instrumental Case Study

An instrumental case study is used to understand a particular phenomenon that is instrumental in achieving a particular goal. This type of case study is useful when the researcher wants to understand the role of the phenomenon in achieving the goal.

For Example, a researcher might conduct an instrumental case study on a particular policy to understand its impact on achieving a particular goal, such as reducing poverty. The researcher collects data from multiple sources, such as interviews, observations, and documents, and uses various techniques to analyze the data, such as content analysis or thematic analysis. The findings of an instrumental case study can be used to inform policy or practice or generate new research questions.

Case Study Data Collection Methods

Here are some common data collection methods for case studies:

Interviews involve asking questions to individuals who have knowledge or experience relevant to the case study. Interviews can be structured (where the same questions are asked to all participants) or unstructured (where the interviewer follows up on the responses with further questions). Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing.

Observations

Observations involve watching and recording the behavior and activities of individuals or groups relevant to the case study. Observations can be participant (where the researcher actively participates in the activities) or non-participant (where the researcher observes from a distance). Observations can be recorded using notes, audio or video recordings, or photographs.

Documents can be used as a source of information for case studies. Documents can include reports, memos, emails, letters, and other written materials related to the case study. Documents can be collected from the case study participants or from public sources.

Surveys involve asking a set of questions to a sample of individuals relevant to the case study. Surveys can be administered in person, over the phone, through mail or email, or online. Surveys can be used to gather information on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors related to the case study.

Artifacts are physical objects relevant to the case study. Artifacts can include tools, equipment, products, or other objects that provide insights into the case study phenomenon.

How to conduct Case Study Research

Conducting a case study research involves several steps that need to be followed to ensure the quality and rigor of the study. Here are the steps to conduct case study research:

• Define the research questions: The first step in conducting a case study research is to define the research questions. The research questions should be specific, measurable, and relevant to the case study phenomenon under investigation.
• Select the case: The next step is to select the case or cases to be studied. The case should be relevant to the research questions and should provide rich and diverse data that can be used to answer the research questions.
• Collect data: Data can be collected using various methods, such as interviews, observations, documents, surveys, and artifacts. The data collection method should be selected based on the research questions and the nature of the case study phenomenon.
• Analyze the data: The data collected from the case study should be analyzed using various techniques, such as content analysis, thematic analysis, or grounded theory. The analysis should be guided by the research questions and should aim to provide insights and conclusions relevant to the research questions.
• Draw conclusions: The conclusions drawn from the case study should be based on the data analysis and should be relevant to the research questions. The conclusions should be supported by evidence and should be clearly stated.
• Validate the findings: The findings of the case study should be validated by reviewing the data and the analysis with participants or other experts in the field. This helps to ensure the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Write the report: The final step is to write the report of the case study research. The report should provide a clear description of the case study phenomenon, the research questions, the data collection methods, the data analysis, the findings, and the conclusions. The report should be written in a clear and concise manner and should follow the guidelines for academic writing.

Examples of Case Study

Here are some examples of case study research:

• The Hawthorne Studies : Conducted between 1924 and 1932, the Hawthorne Studies were a series of case studies conducted by Elton Mayo and his colleagues to examine the impact of work environment on employee productivity. The studies were conducted at the Hawthorne Works plant of the Western Electric Company in Chicago and included interviews, observations, and experiments.
• The Stanford Prison Experiment: Conducted in 1971, the Stanford Prison Experiment was a case study conducted by Philip Zimbardo to examine the psychological effects of power and authority. The study involved simulating a prison environment and assigning participants to the role of guards or prisoners. The study was controversial due to the ethical issues it raised.
• The Challenger Disaster: The Challenger Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Space Shuttle Challenger explosion in 1986. The study included interviews, observations, and analysis of data to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.
• The Enron Scandal: The Enron Scandal was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the Enron Corporation’s bankruptcy in 2001. The study included interviews, analysis of financial data, and review of documents to identify the accounting practices, corporate culture, and ethical issues that led to the company’s downfall.
• The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster : The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster was a case study conducted to examine the causes of the nuclear accident that occurred at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant in Japan in 2011. The study included interviews, analysis of data, and review of documents to identify the technical, organizational, and cultural factors that contributed to the disaster.

Application of Case Study

Case studies have a wide range of applications across various fields and industries. Here are some examples:

Business and Management

Case studies are widely used in business and management to examine real-life situations and develop problem-solving skills. Case studies can help students and professionals to develop a deep understanding of business concepts, theories, and best practices.

Case studies are used in healthcare to examine patient care, treatment options, and outcomes. Case studies can help healthcare professionals to develop critical thinking skills, diagnose complex medical conditions, and develop effective treatment plans.

Case studies are used in education to examine teaching and learning practices. Case studies can help educators to develop effective teaching strategies, evaluate student progress, and identify areas for improvement.

Social Sciences

Case studies are widely used in social sciences to examine human behavior, social phenomena, and cultural practices. Case studies can help researchers to develop theories, test hypotheses, and gain insights into complex social issues.

Law and Ethics

Case studies are used in law and ethics to examine legal and ethical dilemmas. Case studies can help lawyers, policymakers, and ethical professionals to develop critical thinking skills, analyze complex cases, and make informed decisions.

Purpose of Case Study

The purpose of a case study is to provide a detailed analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. A case study is a qualitative research method that involves the in-depth exploration and analysis of a particular case, which can be an individual, group, organization, event, or community.

The primary purpose of a case study is to generate a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the case, including its history, context, and dynamics. Case studies can help researchers to identify and examine the underlying factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and detailed understanding of the case, which can inform future research, practice, or policy.

Case studies can also serve other purposes, including:

• Illustrating a theory or concept: Case studies can be used to illustrate and explain theoretical concepts and frameworks, providing concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Developing hypotheses: Case studies can help to generate hypotheses about the causal relationships between different factors and outcomes, which can be tested through further research.
• Providing insight into complex issues: Case studies can provide insights into complex and multifaceted issues, which may be difficult to understand through other research methods.
• Informing practice or policy: Case studies can be used to inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.

Advantages of Case Study Research

There are several advantages of case study research, including:

• In-depth exploration: Case study research allows for a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific phenomenon, issue, or problem in its real-life context. This can provide a comprehensive understanding of the case and its dynamics, which may not be possible through other research methods.
• Rich data: Case study research can generate rich and detailed data, including qualitative data such as interviews, observations, and documents. This can provide a nuanced understanding of the case and its complexity.
• Holistic perspective: Case study research allows for a holistic perspective of the case, taking into account the various factors, processes, and mechanisms that contribute to the case and its outcomes. This can help to develop a more accurate and comprehensive understanding of the case.
• Theory development: Case study research can help to develop and refine theories and concepts by providing empirical evidence and concrete examples of how they can be applied in real-life situations.
• Practical application: Case study research can inform practice or policy by identifying best practices, lessons learned, or areas for improvement.
• Contextualization: Case study research takes into account the specific context in which the case is situated, which can help to understand how the case is influenced by the social, cultural, and historical factors of its environment.

Limitations of Case Study Research

There are several limitations of case study research, including:

• Limited generalizability : Case studies are typically focused on a single case or a small number of cases, which limits the generalizability of the findings. The unique characteristics of the case may not be applicable to other contexts or populations, which may limit the external validity of the research.
• Biased sampling: Case studies may rely on purposive or convenience sampling, which can introduce bias into the sample selection process. This may limit the representativeness of the sample and the generalizability of the findings.
• Subjectivity: Case studies rely on the interpretation of the researcher, which can introduce subjectivity into the analysis. The researcher’s own biases, assumptions, and perspectives may influence the findings, which may limit the objectivity of the research.
• Limited control: Case studies are typically conducted in naturalistic settings, which limits the control that the researcher has over the environment and the variables being studied. This may limit the ability to establish causal relationships between variables.
• Time-consuming: Case studies can be time-consuming to conduct, as they typically involve a detailed exploration and analysis of a specific case. This may limit the feasibility of conducting multiple case studies or conducting case studies in a timely manner.
• Resource-intensive: Case studies may require significant resources, including time, funding, and expertise. This may limit the ability of researchers to conduct case studies in resource-constrained settings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Experimental Design – Types, Methods, Guide

Basic Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Qualitative Research Methods

Mixed Methods Research – Types & Analysis

Descriptive Research Design – Types, Methods and...

Applied Research – Types, Methods and Examples

Comparative Case Studies: Methodological Discussion

• Open Access
• First Online: 25 May 2022

Cite this chapter

You have full access to this open access chapter

• Marcelo Parreira do Amaral 7  

Part of the book series: Palgrave Studies in Adult Education and Lifelong Learning ((PSAELL))

14k Accesses

7 Citations

Case Study Research has a long tradition and it has been used in different areas of social sciences to approach research questions that command context sensitiveness and attention to complexity while tapping on multiple sources. Comparative Case Studies have been suggested as providing effective tools to understanding policy and practice along three different axes of social scientific research, namely horizontal (spaces), vertical (scales), and transversal (time). The chapter, first, sketches the methodological basis of case-based research in comparative studies as a point of departure, also highlighting the requirements for comparative research. Second, the chapter focuses on presenting and discussing recent developments in scholarship to provide insights on how comparative researchers, especially those investigating educational policy and practice in the context of globalization and internationalization, have suggested some critical rethinking of case study research to account more effectively for recent conceptual shifts in the social sciences related to culture, context, space and comparison. In a third section, it presents the approach to comparative case studies adopted in the European research project YOUNG_ADULLLT that has set out to research lifelong learning policies in their embeddedness in regional economies, labour markets and individual life projects of young adults. The chapter is rounded out with some summarizing and concluding remarks.

You have full access to this open access chapter,  Download chapter PDF

Similar content being viewed by others

Introduction to the Book and the Comparative Study

Theoretical and Methodological Considerations

Main findings and discussion.

• Case-based research
• Comparative case studies

1 Introduction

Exploring landscapes of lifelong learning in Europe is a daunting task as it involves a great deal of differences across places and spaces; it entails attending to different levels and dimensions of the phenomena at hand, but not least it commands substantial sensibility to cultural and contextual idiosyncrasies. As such, case-based methodologies come to mind as tested methodological approaches to capturing and examining singular configurations such as the local settings in focus in this volume, in which lifelong learning policies for young people are explored in their multidimensional reality. The ensuing question, then, is how to ensure comparability across cases when departing from the assumption that cases are unique. Recent debates in Comparative and International Education (CIE) research are drawn from that offer important insights into the issues involved and provide a heuristic approach to comparative cases studies. Since the cases focused on in the chapters of this book all stem from a common European research project, the comparative case study methodology allows us to at once dive into the specifics and uniqueness of each case while at the same time pay attention to common treads at the national and international (European) levels.

The chapter, first, sketches the methodological basis of case-based research in comparative studies as a point of departure, also highlighting the requirements in comparative research. In what follows, second, the chapter focuses on presenting and discussing recent developments in scholarship to provide insights on how comparative researchers, especially those investigating educational policy and practice in the context of globalization and internationalization, have suggested some critical rethinking of case study research to account more effectively for recent conceptual shifts in the social sciences related to culture, context, space and comparison. In a third section, it presents the approach to comparative case studies adopted in the European research project YOUNG_ADULLLT that has set out to research lifelong learning policies in their embeddedness in regional economies, labour markets and individual life projects of young adults. The chapter is rounded out with some summarizing and concluding remarks.

2 Case-Based Research in Comparative Studies

In the past, comparativists have oftentimes regarded case study research as an alternative to comparative studies proper. At the risk of oversimplification: methodological choices in comparative and international education (CIE) research, from the 1960s onwards, have fallen primarily on either single country (small n) contextualized comparison, or on cross-national (usually large n, variable) decontextualized comparison (see Steiner-Khamsi, 2006a , 2006b , 2009). These two strands of research—notably characterized by Development and Area Studies on the one side and large-scale performance surveys of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) type, on the other—demarcated their fields by resorting to how context and culture were accounted for and dealt with in the studies they produced. Since the turn of the century, though, comparativists are more comfortable with case study methodology (see Little, 2000 ; Vavrus and Bartlett 2006 , 2009 ; Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 ) and diagnoses of an “identity crisis” of the field due to a mass of single-country studies lacking comparison proper (see Schriewer, 1990 ; Wiseman & Anderson, 2013 ) started dying away. Greater acceptance of and reliance on case-based methodology has been related with research on policy and practice in the context of globalization and coupled with the intention to better account for culture and context, generating scholarship that is critical of power structures, sensitive to alterity and of other ways of knowing.

The phenomena that have been coined as constituting “globalization” and “internationalization” have played, as mentioned, a central role in the critical rethinking of case study research. In researching education under conditions of globalization, scholars placed increasing attention on case-based approaches as opportunities for investigating the contemporary complexity of policy and practice. Further, scholarly debates in the social sciences and the humanities surrounding key concepts such as culture, context, space, and place but also comparison have also contributed to a reconceptualization of case study methodology in CIE. In terms of the requirements for such an investigation, scholarship commands an adequate conceptualization that problematizes the objects of study and that does not take them as “unproblematic”, “assum[ing] a constant shared meaning”; in short, objects of study that are “fixed, abstract and absolute” (Fine, quoted in Dale & Robertson, 2009 , p. 1114). Case study research is thus required to overcome methodological “isms” in their research conceptualization (see Dale & Robertson, 2009 ; Robertson & Dale, 2017 ; see also Lange & Parreira do Amaral, 2018 ). In response to these requirements, the approaches to case study discussed in CIE depart from a conceptualization of the social world as always dynamic, emergent, somewhat in motion, and always contested. This view considers the fact that the social world is culturally produced and is never complete or at a standstill, which goes against an understanding of case as something fixed or natural. Indeed, in the past cases have often been understood almost in naturalistic ways, as if they existed out there, waiting for researchers to “discover” them. Usually, definitions of case study also referred to inquiry that aims at elucidating features of a phenomenon to yield an understanding of why, how and with what consequences something happens. One can easily find examples of cases understood simply as sites to observe/measure variables—in a nomothetic cast—or examples, where cases are viewed as specific and unique instances that can be examined in the idiographic paradigm. In contrast, rather than taking cases as pre-existing entities that are defined and selected as cases, recent case-oriented research has argued for a more emergent approach which recognizes that boundaries between phenomenon and context are often difficult to establish or overlap. For this reason, researchers are incited to see this as an exercise of “casing”, that is, of case construction. In this sense, cases here are seen as complex systems (Ragin & Becker, 1992 ) and attention is devoted to the relationships between the parts and the whole, pointing to the relevance of configurations and constellations within as well as across cases in the explanation of complex and contingent phenomena. This is particularly relevant for multi-case, comparative research since the constitution of the phenomena that will be defined, as cases will differ. Setting boundaries will thus also require researchers to account for spatial, scalar (i.e., level or levels with which a case is related) and temporal aspects.

Further, case-based research is also required to account for multiple contexts while not taking them for granted. One of the key theoretical and methodological consequences of globalization for CIE is that it required us to recognize that it alters the nature and significance of what counts as contexts (see Parreira do Amaral, 2014 ). According to Dale ( 2015 ), designating a process, or a type of event, or a particular organization, as a context, entails bestowing a particular significance on them, as processes, events, and so on that are capable of affecting other processes and events. The key point is that rather than being so intrinsically, or naturally, contexts are constructed as “contexts”. In comparative research, contexts have been typically seen as the place (or the variables) that enable us to explain why what happens in one case is different from what happens another case; what counts as context then is seen as having the same effect everywhere, although the forms it takes vary substantially (see Dale, 2015 ). In more general terms, recent case study approaches aim at accounting for the increasing complexity of the contexts in which they are embedded, which, in turn, is related to the increasing impact of globalization as the “context of contexts” (Dale, 2015 , p. 181f; see also Carter & Sealey, 2013 ; Mjoset, 2013 ). It also aims at accounting for overlapping contexts. Here it is important to note that contexts are not only to be seen in spatio-geographical terms (i.e., local, regional, national, international), but contexts may also be provided by different institutional and/or discursive contexts that create varying opportunity structures (Dale & Parreira do Amaral, 2015 ; see also Chap. 2 in this volume). What one can call temporal contexts also plays an important role, for what happens in the case unfolds as embedded not only in historical time, but may be related to different temporalities (see the concept of “timespace” as discussed by Lingard & Thompson, 2016 ) and thus are influenced by path dependence or by specific moments of crisis (Rhinard, 2019 ; see also McLeod, 2016 ). Moreover, in CIE research, the social-cultural production of the world is influenced by developments throughout the globe that take place at various places and on several scales, which in turn influence each other, but in the end, become locally relevant in different facets. As Bartlett and Vavrus write, “context is not a primordial or autonomous place; it is constituted by social interactions, political processes, and economic developments across scales and times.” ( Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 , p. 14). Indeed, in this sense, “context is not a container for activity, it is the activity” (Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 , p. 12, emphasis in orig.).

Also, dealing with the complexity of education policy and practice requires us to transcend the dichotomy of idiographic versus nomothetic approaches to causation. Here, it can be argued that case studies allow us to grasp and research the complexity of the world, thus offering conceptual and methodological tools to explore how phenomena viewed as cases “depend on all of the whole, the parts, the interactions among parts and whole, and the interactions of any system with other complex systems among which it is nested and with which it intersects” (Byrne, 2013 , p. 2). The understanding of causation that undergirds recent developments in case-based research aims at generalization, yet it resists ambitions to establishing universal laws in social scientific research. Focus is placed on processes while tracking the relevant factors, actors and features that help explain the “how” and the “why” questions (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 , p. 38ff), and on “causal mechanisms”, as varying explanations of outcomes within and across cases, always contingent on interaction with other variables and dependent contexts (see Byrne, 2013 ; Ragin, 2000 ). In short, the nature of causation underlying the recent case study approaches in CIE is configurational and not foundational.

This is also in line with how CIE research regards education practice, research, and policy as a socio-cultural practice. And it refers to the production of social and cultural worlds through “social actors, with diverse motives, intentions, and levels of influence, [who] work in tandem with and/or in response to social forces” (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 , p. 1). From this perspective, educational phenomena, such as in policymaking, are seen as a “deeply political process of cultural production engaged in and shaped by social actors in disparate locations who exert incongruent amounts of influence over the design, implementation, and evaluation of policy” ( Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 , p. 1f). Culture here is understood in non-static and complex ways that reinforce the “importance of examining processes of sense-making as they develop over time, in distinct settings, in relation to systems of power and inequality, and in increasingly interconnected conversation with actors who do not sit physically within the circle drawn around the traditional case” (Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 , p. 11, emphasis in orig.).

In sum, the approaches to case study put forward in CIE provide conceptual and methodological tools that allow for an analysis of education in the global context throughout scale, space, and time, which is always regarded as complexly integrated and never as isolated or independent. The following subsection discusses Comparative Case Studies (CCS) as suggested in recent comparative scholarship, which aims at attending to the methodological requirements discussed above by integrating horizontal, vertical, and transversal dimensions of comparison.

2.1 Comparative Case Studies: Horizontal, Vertical and Transversal Dimensions

Building up on their previous work on vertical case studies (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 ; Vavrus & Bartlett, 2006 , 2009 ), Frances Vavrus and Lesley Bartlett have proposed a comparative approach to case study research that aims at meeting the requirements of culture and context sensitive research as discussed in this special issue.

As a research approach, CCS offers two theoretical-methodological lenses to research education as a socio-cultural practice. These lenses represent different views on the research object and account for the complexity of education practice, policy, and research in globalized contexts. The first lens is “context-sensitive”, which focuses on how social practices and interactions constitute and produce social contexts. As quoted above, from the perspective of a socio-cultural practice, “context is not a container for activity, it is the activity” (Vavrus and Bartlett 2017: 12, emphasis in orig.). The settings that influence and condition educational phenomena are culturally produced in different and sometimes overlapping (spatial, institutional, discursive, temporal) contexts as just mentioned. The second CCS lens is “culture-sensitive” and focuses on how socio-cultural practices produce social structures. As such, culture is a process that is emergent, dynamic, and constitutive of meaning-making as well as social structuration.

The CCS approach aims at studying educational phenomena throughout scale, time, and space by providing three axes for a “studying through” of the phenomena in question. As stated by Lesley Bartlett and Frances Vavrus with reference to comparative analyses of global education policy:

the horizontal axis compares how similar policies unfold in distinct locations that are socially produced […] and ‘complexly connected’ […]. The vertical axis insists on simultaneous attention to and across scales […]. The transversal comparison historically situates the processes or relations under consideration (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 : 3, emphasis in orig.).

These three axes allow for a methodological conceptualization of “policy formation and appropriation across micro-, meso-, and macro levels” by not theorizing them as distinct or unrelated (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 , p. 4). In following Latour, they state:

the macro is neither “above” nor “below” the intersections but added to them as another of their connections’ […]. In CCS research, one would pay close attention to how actions at different scales mutually influence one another (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 , p. 13f, emphasis in orig.)

Thus, these three axes contain

processes across space and time; and [the CCS as a research design] constantly compares what is happening in one locale with what has happened in other places and historical moments. These forms of comparison are what we call horizontal, vertical, and transversal comparisons (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 , p. 11, emphasis in orig.)

In terms of the three axes along with comparison is organized, the authors state that horizontal comparison commands attention to how historical and contemporary processes have variously influenced the “cases”, which might be constructed by focusing “people, groups of people, sites, institutions, social movements, partnerships, etc.” (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 , p. 53) Horizontal comparisons eschew pressing categories resultant from one case others, which implies including multiple cases at the same scale in a comparative case study, while at the same time attending to “valuable contextual information” about each of them. Horizontal comparisons use units of analysis that are homologous, that is, equivalent in terms of shape, function, or institutional/organizational nature (for instance, schools, ministries, countries, etc.) ( Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 , p. 53f). Similarly, comparative case studies may also entail tracing a phenomenon across sites, as in multi-sited ethnography (see Coleman & von Hellermann, 2012 ; Marcus, 1995 ).

Vertical comparison, in turn, does not simply imply the comparison of levels; rather it involves analysing networks and their interrelationships at different scales. For instance, in the study of policymaking in a specific case, vertical comparison would consider how actors at different scales variably respond to a policy issued at another level—be it inter−/supranational or at the subnational level. CCS assumes that their different appropriation of policy as discourse and as practice is often due to different histories of racial, ethnic, or gender politics in their communities that appropriately complicate the notion of a single cultural group (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 , p. 73f). Establishing what counts as context in such a study would be done “by tracing the formation and appropriation of a policy” at different scales; and “by tracing the processes by which actors and actants come into relationship with one another and form non-permanent assemblages aimed at producing, implementing, resisting, and appropriating policy to achieve particular aims” ( Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 , p. 76). A further element here is that, in this way, one may counter the common problem that comparison of cases (oftentimes countries) usually overemphasizes boundaries and treats them as separated or as self-sustaining containers, when, in reality, actors and institutions at other levels/scales significantly impact policymaking (Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 ).

In terms of the transversal axis of comparison, Bartlett and Vavrus argue that the social phenomena of interest in a case study have to be seen in light of their historical development (Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 , p. 93), since these “historical roots” impacted on them and “continues to reverberate into the present, affecting economic relations and social issues such as migration and educational opportunities.” As such, understanding what goes on in a case requires to “understand how it came to be in the first place.” ( Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 , p. 93) argue:

history offers an extensive fount of evidence regarding how social institutions function and how social relations are similar and different around the world. Historical analysis provides an essential opportunity to contrast how things have changed over time and to consider what has remained the same in one locale or across much broader scales. Such historical comparison reveals important insights about the flexible cultural, social, political, and economic systems humans have developed and sustained over time (Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 , p. 94).

Further, time and space are intimately related and studying the historical development of the social phenomena of interest in a case study “allows us to assess evidence and conflicting interpretations of a phenomenon,” but also to interrogate our own assumptions about them in contemporary times (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 ), thus analytically sharpening our historical analyses.

As argued by the authors, researching the global dimension of education practice, research or policy aims at a “studying through” of phenomena horizontally, vertically, and transversally. That is, comparative case study builds on an emergent research design and on a strong process orientation that aims at tracing not only “what”, but also “why” and “how” phenomena emerge and evolve. This approach entails “an open-ended, inductive approach to discover what […] meanings and influences are and how they are involved in these events and activities—an inherently processual orientation” (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 , p. 7, emphasis in orig.).

The emergent research design and process orientation of the CCS relativizes a priori, somewhat static notions of case construction in CIE and emphasizes the idea of a processual “casing”. The process of casing put forward by CCS has to be understood as a dynamic and open-ended embedding of “cased” research phenomena within moments of scale, space, and time that produce varying sets of conditions or configurations.

In terms of comparison, the primary logic is well in line with more sophisticated approaches to comparison that not simply establish relationships between observable facts or pre-existing cases; rather, the comparative logic aims at establishing “relations between sets of relationships”, as argued by Jürgen Schriewer:

[the] specific method of science dissociates comparison from its quasi-natural union with resemblances; the interest in identifying similarities shifts from the level of factual contents to the level of generalizable relationships. […] One of the primary ways of extending their scope, or examining their explanatory power, is the controlled introduction of varying sets of conditions. The logic of relating relationships, which distinguishes the scientific method of comparison, comes close to meeting these requirements by systematically exploring and analysing sociocultural differences with respect to scrutinizing the credibility of theories, models or constructs (Schriewer, 1990 , p. 36).

The notion of establishing relations between sets of relationships allows to treat cases not as homogeneous (thus avoiding a universalizing notion of comparison); it establishes comparability not along similarity but based on conceptual, functional and/or theoretical equivalences and focuses on reconstructing ‘varying sets of conditions’ that are seen as relevant in social scientific explanation and theorizing, and to which then comparative case studies may contribute.

The following section aims presents the adaptation and application of a comparative case study approach in the YOUNG_ADULLLT research project.

3 Exploring Landscapes of Lifelong Learning through Case Studies

This section illustrates the usage of comparative case studies by drawing from research conducted in a European research project upon which the chapters in this volume are based. The project departed from the observation that most current European lifelong learning (LLL) policies have been designed to create economic growth and, at the same time, guarantee social inclusion and argued that, while these objectives are complementary, they are, however, not linearly nor causally related and, due to distinct orientations, different objectives, and temporal horizons, conflicts and ambiguities may arise. The project was designed as a mixed-method comparative study and aimed at results at the national, regional, and local levels, focusing in particular on policies targeting young adults in situations of near social exclusion. Using a multi-level approach with qualitative and quantitative methods, the project conducted, amongst others, local/regional 18 case studies of lifelong learning policies through a multi-method and multi-level design (see Parreira do Amaral et al., 2020 for more information). The localisation of the cases in their contexts was carried out by identifying relevant areas in terms of spatial differentiation and organisation of social and economic relations. The so defined “functional regions” allowed focus on territorial units which played a central role within their areas, not necessarily overlapping with geographical and/or administrative borders. Footnote 1

Two main objectives guided the research: first, to analyse policies and programmes at the regional and local level by identifying policymaking networks that included all social actors involved in shaping, formulating, and implementing LLL policies for young adults; second, to recognize strengths and weaknesses (overlapping, fragmented or unfocused policies and projects), thus identifying different patterns of LLL policymaking at regional level, and investigating their integration with the labour market, education and other social policies. The European research project focused predominantly on the differences between the existing lifelong learning policies in terms of their objectives and orientations and questioned their impact on young adults’ life courses, especially those young adults who find themselves in vulnerable positions. What concerned the researchers primarily was the interaction between local institutional settings, education, labour markets, policymaking landscapes, and informal initiatives that together nurture the processes of lifelong learning. They argued that it is by inquiring into the interplay of these components that the regional and local contexts of lifelong learning policymaking can be better assessed and understood. In this regard, the multi-layered approach covered a wide range of actors and levels and aimed at securing compatibility throughout the different phases and parts of the research.

The multi-level approach adopted aimed at incorporating the different levels from transnational to regional/local to individual, that is, the different places, spaces, and levels with which policies are related. The multi-method design was used to bring together the results from the quantitative, qualitative and policy/document analysis (for a discussion: Parreira do Amaral, 2020 ).

Studying the complex relationships between lifelong learning (LLL) policymaking on the one hand, and young adults’ life courses on the other, requires a carefully established research approach. This task becomes even more challenging in the light of the diverse European countries and their still more complex local and regional structures and institutions. One possible way of designing a research framework able to deal with these circumstances clearly and coherently is to adopt a multi-level or multi-layered approach. This approach recognises multiple levels and patterns of analysis and enables researchers to structure the workflow according to various perspectives. It was this multi-layered approach that the research consortium of YOUNG_ADULLLT adopted and applied in its attempts to better understand policies supporting young people in their life course.

3.1 Constructing Case Studies

In constructing case studies, the project did not apply an instrumental approach focused on the assessment of “what worked (or not)?” Rather, consistently with Bartlett and Vavrus’s proposal (Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 ), the project decided to “understand policy as a deeply political process of cultural production engaged in and shaped by social actors in disparate locations who exert incongruent amounts of influence over the design, implementation, and evaluation of policy” ( Bartlett & Vavrus, 2017 , p. 1f). This was done in order to enhance the interactive and relational dimension among actors and levels, as well as their embeddedness in local infra-structures (education, labour, social/youth policies) according to project’s three theoretical perspectives. The analyses of the information and data integrated by our case study approach aimed at a cross-reading of the relations among the macro socio-economic dimensions, structural arrangements, governance patterns, addressee biographies and mainstream discourses that underlie the process of design and implementation of the LLL policies selected as case study. The subjective dimensions of agency and sense-making animated these analyses, and the multi-level approach contextualized them from the local to the transnational levels. Figure 3.1 below represents the analytical approach to the research material gathered in constructing the case studies. Specifically, it shows the different levels, from the transnational level down to the addressees.

Multi-level and multi-method approach to case studies in YOUNG_ADULLLT. Source: Palumbo et al., 2019

The project partners aimed at a cross-dimensional construction of the case studies, and this implied the possibility of different entry points, for instance by moving the analytical perspective top-down or bottom-up, as well as shifting from left to right of the matrix and vice versa. Considering the “horizontal movement”, the multidimensional approach has enabled taking into consideration the mutual influence and relations among the institutional, individual, and structural dimensions (which in the project corresponded to the theoretical frames of CPE, LCR, and GOV). In addition, the “vertical movement” from the transnational to the individual level and vice versa was meant to carefully carry out a “study of flows of influence, ideas, and actions through these levels” (Bartlett and Vavrus 2017 , p. 11), emphasizing the correspondences/divergences among the perspectives of different actors at different levels. The transversal dimension, that is, the historical process, focused on the period after the financial crisis of 2007/2008 as it has impacted differently on the social and economic situations of young people, often resulting in stern conditions and higher competition in education and labour markets, which also called for a reassessment of existing policies targeting young adults in the countries studied.

Concerning the analyses, a further step included the translation of the conceptual model illustrated in Fig. 3.1 above into a heuristic table used to systematically organize the empirical data collected and guide the analyses cases constructed as multi-level and multidimensional phenomena, allowing for the establishment of interlinkages and relationships. By this approach, the analysis had the possibility of grasping the various levels at which LLL policies are negotiated and displaying the interplay of macro-structures, regional environments and institutions/organizations as well as individual expectations. Table 3.1 illustrates the operationalization of the data matrix that guided the work.

In order to ensure the presentability and intelligibility of the results, Footnote 2 a narrative approach to case studies analysis was chosen whose main task was one of “storytelling” aimed at highlighting what made each case unique and what difference it makes for LLL policymaking and to young people’s life courses. A crucial element of this entails establishing relations “between sets of relationships”, as argued above.

LLL policies were selected as starting points from which the cases themselves could be constructed and of which different stories could be developed. That stories can be told differently does not mean that they are arbitrary, rather this refers to different ways of accounting for the embedding of the specific case to its context, namely the “diverging policy frameworks, patterns of policymaking, networks of implementation, political discourses and macro-structural conditions at local level” (see Palumbo et al., 2020 , p. 220). Moreover, developing different narratives aimed at representing the various voices of the actors involved in the process—from policy-design and appropriation through to implementation—and making the different stakeholders’ and addressees’ opinions visible, creating thus intelligible narratives for the cases (see Palumbo et al., 2020 ). Analysing each case started from an entry point selected, from which a story was told. Mainly, two entry points were used: on the one hand, departing from the transversal dimension of the case and which focused on the evolution of a policy in terms of its main objectives, target groups, governance patterns and so on in order to highlight the intended and unintended effects of the “current version” of the policy within its context and according to the opinions of the actors interviewed. On the other hand, biographies were selected as starting points in an attempt to contextualize the life stories within the biographical constellations in which the young people came across the measure, the access procedures, and how their life trajectories continued in and possibly after their participation in the policy (see Palumbo et al., 2020 for examples of these narrative strategies).

4 Concluding Remarks

This chapter presented and discussed the methodological basis and requirements of conducting case studies in comparative research, such as those presented in the subsequent chapters of this volume. The Comparative Case Study approach suggested in the previous discussion offers productive and innovative ways to account sensitively to culture and contexts; it provides a useful heuristic that deals effectively with issues related to case construction, namely an emergent and dynamic approach to casing, instead of simply assuming “bounded”, pre-defined cases as the object of research; they also offer a helpful procedural, configurational approach to “causality”; and, not least, a resourceful approach to comparison that allows researchers to respect the uniqueness and integrity of each case while at the same time yielding insights and results that transcend the idiosyncrasy of the single case. In sum, CCS offers a sound approach to CIE research that is culture and context sensitive.

For a discussion of the concept of functional region, see Parreira do Amaral et al., 2020 .

This analytical move is in line with recent developments that aim at accounting for a cultural turn (Jameson, 1998 ) or ideational turn (Béland & Cox, 2011 ) in policy analysis methodology, called interpretive policy analysis (see Münch, 2016 ).

Bartlett, L., & Vavrus, F. (2017). Rethinking case study research. A comparative approach . Routledge.

Google Scholar  

Béland, D., & Cox, R. H. (Eds.). (2011). Ideas and politics in social science research . Oxford University Press.

Byrne, D. (2013). Introduction. Case-based methods: Why we need them; what they are; how to do them. In D. Byrne & C. C. Ragin (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of case-based methods (pp. 1–13). SAGE.

Carter, B., & Sealey, A. (2013). Reflexivity, realism and the process of casing. In D. Byrne & C. C. Ragin (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of case-based methods (pp. 69–83). SAGE.

Coleman, S., & von Hellermann, P. (Eds.). (2012). Multi-sited ethnography: Problems and possibilities in the translocation of research methods . Routledge.

Dale, R., & Parreira do Amaral, M. (2015). Discursive and institutional opportunity structures in the governance of educational trajectories. In M. P. do Amaral, R. Dale, & P. Loncle (Eds.), Shaping the futures of young Europeans: Education governance in eight European countries (pp. 23–42). Symposium Books.

Dale, R., & Robertson, S. (2009). Beyond methodological ʻismsʼ in comparative education in an era of globalisation. In R. Cowen & A. M. Kazamias (Eds.), International handbook of comparative education (pp. 1113–1127). Springer Netherlands.

Chapter   Google Scholar  

Dale, R. (2015). Globalisierung in der Vergleichenden Erziehungswissenschaft re-visited: Die Relevanz des Kontexts des Kontexts. In M. P. do Amaral & S.K. Amos (Hrsg.) (Eds.), Internationale und Vergleichende Erziehungswissenschaft. Geschichte, Theorie, Methode und Forschungsfelder (pp. 171–187). Waxmann.

Jameson, F. (1998). The cultural turn. Selected writings on the postmodern. 1983–1998 . Verso.

Lange, S., & Parreira do Amaral, M. (2018). Leistungen und Grenzen internationaler und vergleichender Forschung— Regulative Ideen für die methodologische Reflexion? Tertium Comparationis, 24 (1), 5–31.

Lingard, B., & Thompson, G. (2016). Doing time in the sociology of education. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 38 (1), 1–12.

Article   Google Scholar  

Little, A. (2000). Development studies and comparative education: Context, content, comparison and contributors. Comparative Education, 36 (3), 279–296.

Marcus, G. E. (1995). Ethnography in/of the world system: The emergence of multi-sited ethnography. Annual Review of Anthropology, 24 , 95–117.

McLeod, J. (2016). Marking time, making methods: Temporality and untimely dilemmas in the sociology of youth and educational change. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 38 (1), 13–25.

Mjoset, L. (2013). The Contextualist approach to social science methodology. In D. Byrne & C. C. Ragin (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of case-based methods (pp. 39–68). SAGE.

Münch, S. (2016). Interpretative Policy-Analyse. Eine Einführung . Springer VS.

Book   Google Scholar  

Palumbo, M., Benasso, S., Pandolfini, V., Verlage, T., & Walther, A. (2019). Work Package 7 Cross-case and cross-national Report. YOUNG_ADULLLT Working Paper. http://www.young-adulllt.eu/publications/working-paper/index.php . Accessed 31 Aug 2021.

Palumbo, M., Benasso, S., & Parreira do Amaral, M. (2020). Telling the story. Exploring lifelong learning policies for young adults through a narrative approach. In M. P. do Amaral, S. Kovacheva, & X. Rambla (Eds.), Lifelong learning policies for young adults in Europe. Navigating between knowledge and economy (pp. 217–239). Policy Press.

Parreira do Amaral, M. (2014). Globalisierung im Fokus vergleichender Forschung. In C. Freitag (Ed.), Methoden des Vergleichs. Komparatistische Methodologie und Forschungsmethodik in interdisziplinärer Perspektive (pp. 117–138). Budrich.

Parreira do Amaral, M. (2020). Lifelong learning policies for young adults in Europe: A conceptual and methodological discussion. In M. P. do Amaral, S. Kovacheva, & X. Rambla (Eds.), Lifelong learning policies for young adults in Europe. Navigating between knowledge and economy (pp. 3–20). Policy Press.

Parreira do Amaral, M., Lowden, K., Pandolfini, V., & Schöneck, N. (2020). Coordinated policy-making in lifelong learning: Functional regions as dynamic units. In M. P. do Amaral, S. Kovacheva, & X. Rambla (Eds.), Lifelong learning policies for young adults in Europe navigating between knowledge and economy (pp. 21–42). Policy Press.

Ragin, C. C., & Becker, H. (1992). What is a case? Cambridge UP.

Ragin, C. C. (2000). Fuzzy set social science . Chicago UP.

Rhinard, M. (2019). The Crisisification of policy-making in the European Union. Journal of Common Market Studies, 57 (3), 616–633.

Robertson, S., & Dale, R. (2017). Comparing policies in a globalizing world. Methodological reflections. Educação & Realidade, 42 (3), 859–876.

Schriewer, J. (1990). The method of comparison and the need for externalization: Methodological criteria and sociological concepts. In J. Schriewer & B. Holmes (Eds.), Theories and methods in comparative education (pp. 25–83). Lang.

Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2006a). The development turn in comparative and international education. European Education: Issues and Studies, 38 (3), 19–47.

Steiner-Khamsi, G. (2006b). U.S. social and educational research during the cold war: An interview with Harold J. Noah. European Education: Issues and Studies, 38 (3), 9–18.

Vavrus, F., & Bartlett, L. (2006). Comparatively knowing: Making a case for vertical case study. Current Issues in Comparative Education, 8 (2), 95–103.

Vavrus, F., & Bartlett, L. (Eds.). (2009). Critical approaches to comparative education: Vertical case studies from Africa, Europe, the Middle East, and the Americas . Palgrave Macmillan.

Wiseman, A. W., & Anderson, E. (2013). Introduction to part 3: Conceptual and methodological developments. In A. W. Wiseman & E. Anderson (Eds.), Annual review of comparative and international education 2013 (international perspectives on education and society, Vol. 20) (pp. 85–90). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Institute of Education, University of Münster, Münster, Germany

Marcelo Parreira do Amaral

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marcelo Parreira do Amaral .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Department of Educational Sciences, University of Genoa, Genova, Italy

Sebastiano Benasso

Faculty of Teacher Education, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia

Dejana Bouillet

Faculty of Psychology and Education Sciences, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal

Tiago Neves

Rights and permissions

Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.

The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 The Author(s)

About this chapter

do Amaral, M.P. (2022). Comparative Case Studies: Methodological Discussion. In: Benasso, S., Bouillet, D., Neves, T., Parreira do Amaral, M. (eds) Landscapes of Lifelong Learning Policies across Europe. Palgrave Studies in Adult Education and Lifelong Learning. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96454-2_3

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96454-2_3

Published : 25 May 2022

Publisher Name : Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-030-96453-5

Online ISBN : 978-3-030-96454-2

eBook Packages : Education Education (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Conducting Case Study Research in Sociology

Steve Debenport / Getty Images

• Key Concepts
• Major Sociologists
• News & Issues
• Research, Samples, and Statistics
• Recommended Reading
• Archaeology

A case study is a research method that relies on a single case rather than a population or sample. When researchers focus on a single case, they can make detailed observations over a long period of time, something that cannot be done with large samples without costing a lot of money. Case studies are also useful in the early stages of research when the goal is to explore ideas, test, and perfect measurement instruments, and to prepare for a larger study. The case study research method is popular not just within ​the field of sociology, but also within the fields of anthropology, psychology, education, political science, clinical science, social work, and administrative science.

Overview of the Case Study Research Method

A case study is unique within the social sciences for its focus of study on a single entity, which can be a person, group or organization, event, action, or situation. It is also unique in that, as a focus of research, a case is chosen for specific reasons, rather than randomly , as is usually done when conducting empirical research. Often, when researchers use the case study method, they focus on a case that is exceptional in some way because it is possible to learn a lot about social relationships and social forces when studying those things that deviate from norms. In doing so, a researcher is often able, through their study, to test the validity of the social theory, or to create new theories using the grounded theory method .

The first case studies in the social sciences were likely conducted by Pierre Guillaume Frédéric Le Play, a 19th-century French sociologist and economist who studied family budgets. The method has been used in sociology, psychology, and anthropology since the early 20th century.

Within sociology, case studies are typically conducted with qualitative research methods . They are considered micro rather than macro in nature , and one cannot necessarily generalize the findings of a case study to other situations. However, this is not a limitation of the method, but a strength. Through a case study based on ethnographic observation and interviews, among other methods, sociologists can illuminate otherwise hard to see and understand social relations, structures, and processes. In doing so, the findings of case studies often stimulate further research.

Types and Forms of Case Studies

There are three primary types of case studies: key cases, outlier cases, and local knowledge cases.

• Key cases are those which are chosen because the researcher has ​a particular interest in it or the circumstances surrounding it.
• Outlier cases are those that are chosen because the case stands out from other events, organizations, or situations, for some reason, and social scientists recognize that we can learn a lot from those things that differ from the norm .
• Finally, a researcher may decide to conduct a local knowledge case study when they already have amassed a usable amount of information about a given topic, person, organization, or event, and so is well-poised to conduct a study of it.

Within these types, a case study may take four different forms: illustrative, exploratory, cumulative, and critical.

• Illustrative case studies are descriptive in nature and designed to shed light on a particular situation, set of circumstances, and the social relations and processes that are embedded in them. They are useful in bringing to light something about which most people are not aware of.
• Exploratory case studies are also often known as pilot studies . This type of case study is typically used when a researcher wants to identify research questions and methods of study for a large, complex study. They are useful for clarifying the research process, which can help a researcher make the best use of time and resources in the larger study that will follow it.
• Cumulative case studies are those in which a researcher pulls together already completed case studies on a particular topic. They are useful in helping researchers to make generalizations from studies that have something in common.
• Critical instance case studies are conducted when a researcher wants to understand what happened with a unique event and/or to challenge commonly held assumptions about it that may be faulty due to a lack of critical understanding.

Whatever type and form of case study you decide to conduct, it's important to first identify the purpose, goals, and approach for conducting methodologically sound research.

• Definition of Idiographic and Nomothetic
• Convenience Samples for Research
• What Is a Snowball Sample in Sociology?
• What Is Ethnography?
• Understanding Cohorts and How to Use Them in Research
• How to Understand Interpretive Sociology
• Understanding Purposive Sampling
• What Is a Quota Sample in Sociology?
• Pilot Study in Research
• Understanding Secondary Data and How to Use It in Research
• All About Marxist Sociology
• Definition of a Hypothesis
• Defining Unobtrusive Measures in Sociology Experiments
• Positivism in the Study of Sociology
• Understanding Path Analysis

• About This Site
• What is social theory?
• Habermas/Parsons
• Frankfurt School
• Inequalities
• Research Students
• Dirty Looks
• Latest Posts
• Pedagogy & Curriculum
• Contributors
• Publications

Select Page

What are the benefits and drawbacks of case study research?

Posted by Mark Murphy | May 24, 2014 | Method , Research Students | 0

There should be no doubt that with case studies what you gain in depth you lose in breadth – this is the unavoidable compromise that needs to be understood from the beginning of the research process. So this is neither an advantage nor a disadvantage as one aspect cancels out the benefits/drawbacks of the other – there are other benefits and drawbacks that need attention however …

• Their flexibility: case studies are popular for a number of reasons, one being that they can be conducted at various points in the research process. Researchers are known to favour them as a way to develop ideas for more extensive research in the future – pilot studies often take the form of case studies. They are also effective conduits for a broad range of research methods; in that sense they are non-prejudicial against any particular type of research – focus groups are just as welcome in case study research as are questionnaires or participant observation.
• Capturing reality: One of their key benefits is their ability to capture what Hodkinson and Hodkinson call ‘lived reality’ (2001: 3). As they put it, case studies have the potential, when applied successfully, to ‘retain more of the “noise” of real life than many other types of research’ (Hodkinson and Hodkinson, 2001: 3). The importance of ‘noise’ and its place in research is especially important in contexts such as education, for example in schools where background noise is unavoidable. Educational contexts are always complex, and as a result it is difficult to exclude other unwanted variables, ‘some of which may only have real significance for one of their students’ (Hodkinson and Hodkinson, 2001, 4).
• The challenge of generality: At the same time, given their specificity, care needs to be taken when attempting to generalise from the findings. While there’s no inherent flaw in case study design that precludes its broader application, it is preferable that researchers choose their case study sites carefully, while also basing their analysis within existing research findings that have been generated via other research designs. No design is infallible but so often has the claim against case studies been made, that some of the criticism (unwarranted and unfair in many cases) has stuck.
• Suspicion of amateurism: Less partisan researchers might wonder whether the case study offers the time and finance-strapped researcher a convenient and pragmatic source of data, providing findings and recommendations that, given the nature of case studies, can neither be confirmed nor denied, in terms of utility or veracity. Who is to say that case studies offer anything more than a story to tell, and nothing more than that?
• But alongside this suspicion is another more insiduous one – a notion that ‘stories’ are not what social science research is about. This can be a concern for those who favour  case study research, as the political consequences can be hard to ignore. That said, so much research is based either on peoples’ lives or the impact of other issues (poverty, institutional policy) on their lives, so the stories of what actually occurs in their lives or in professional environments tend to be an invaluable source of evidence. The fact is that stories (individual, collective, institutional) have a vital role to play in the world of research. And to play the specific v. general card against case study design suggests a tendency towards forms of research fundamentalism as opposed to any kind of rational and objective take on case study’s strengths and limitations.
• Preciousness: Having said that, researchers should not fall into the trap (surprising how often this happens) of assuming that case study data speaks for itself – rarely is this ever the case, an assumption that is as patronising to research subjects as it is false. The role of the researcher is both to describe social phenomena and also to explain – i.e., interpret. Without interpretation the research findings lack meaningful presentation – they present themselves as fact when of course the reality of ‘facts’ is one of the reasons why such research is carried out.
• Conflation of political/research objectives: Another trap that case study researchers sometimes fall into is presenting research findings as if they were self-evidently true, as if the stories were beyond criticism. This is often accompanied by a vague attachment to the notion that research is a political process – one that is performed as a form of liberation against for example policies that seek to ignore the stories of those who ‘suffer’ at the hands of overbearing political or economic imperatives. Case study design should not be viewed as a mechanism for providing a ‘local’ bulwark against the ‘global’ – bur rather as a mechanism for checking the veracity of universalist claims (at least one of its objectives). The valorisation of particularism can only get you so far in social research.

[This post is adapted from material in ‘Research and Education’ (Curtis, Murphy and Shields , Routledge 2014), pp. 80-82].

Reference: Hodkinson, P. and H. Hodkinson (2001). The strengths and limitations of case study research. Paper presented to the Learning and Skills Development Agency conference, Making an impact on policy and practice , Cambridge, 5-7 December 2001, downloaded from h ttp://education.exeter.ac.uk/tlc/docs/publications/LE_PH_PUB_05.12.01.rtf.26.01.2013

About The Author

Mark Murphy

Mark Murphy is a Reader in Education and Public Policy at the University of Glasgow. He previously worked as an academic at King’s College, London, University of Chester, University of Stirling, National University of Ireland, Maynooth, University College Dublin and Northern Illinois University. Mark is an active researcher in the fields of education and public policy. His research interests include educational sociology, critical theory, accountability in higher education, and public sector reform.

Related Posts

Whose higher education experience is it anyway?

November 28, 2017

The experiences of ‘estranged students’: Call for Participants

April 27, 2018

Call for book proposals: Social Theory and Methodology in Education Research (Bloomsbury Press)

December 21, 2017

Time for citizen science in the social sciences

January 3, 2015

Recent Posts

We use essential cookies to make Venngage work. By clicking “Accept All Cookies”, you agree to the storing of cookies on your device to enhance site navigation, analyze site usage, and assist in our marketing efforts.

Manage Cookies

Cookies and similar technologies collect certain information about how you’re using our website. Some of them are essential, and without them you wouldn’t be able to use Venngage. But others are optional, and you get to choose whether we use them or not.

Strictly Necessary Cookies

These cookies are always on, as they’re essential for making Venngage work, and making it safe. Without these cookies, services you’ve asked for can’t be provided.

Show cookie providers

• Google Login

Functionality Cookies

These cookies help us provide enhanced functionality and personalisation, and remember your settings. They may be set by us or by third party providers.

Performance Cookies

These cookies help us analyze how many people are using Venngage, where they come from and how they're using it. If you opt out of these cookies, we can’t get feedback to make Venngage better for you and all our users.

• Google Analytics

Targeting Cookies

These cookies are set by our advertising partners to track your activity and show you relevant Venngage ads on other sites as you browse the internet.

• Google Tag Manager
• Infographics
• Daily Infographics
• Popular Templates
• Accessibility
• Graphic Design
• Graphs and Charts
• Data Visualization
• Human Resources
• Beginner Guides

Blog Beginner Guides 6 Types of Case Studies to Inspire Your Research and Analysis

6 Types of Case Studies to Inspire Your Research and Analysis

Written by: Ronita Mohan Sep 20, 2021

Case studies have become powerful business tools. But what is a case study? What are the benefits of creating one? Are there limitations to the format?

If you’ve asked yourself these questions, our helpful guide will clear things up. Learn how to use a case study for business. Find out how cases analysis works in psychology and research.

We’ve also got examples of case studies to inspire you.

Haven’t made a case study before? You can easily  create a case study  with Venngage’s customizable case study templates .

Click to jump ahead:

What is a case study?

6 types of case studies, what is a business case study, what is a case study in research, what is a case study in psychology, what is the case study method, benefits of case studies, limitations of case studies, faqs about case studies.

A case study is a research process aimed at learning about a subject, an event or an organization. Case studies are use in business, the social sciences and healthcare.

A case study may focus on one observation or many. It can also examine a series of events or a single case. An effective case study tells a story and provides a conclusion.

Healthcare industries write reports on patients and diagnoses. Marketing case study examples , like the one below, highlight the benefits of a business product.

Now that you know what a case study is, let’s look at the six different types of case studies next.

There are six common types of case reports. Depending on your industry, you might use one of these types.

Descriptive case studies

Explanatory case studies, exploratory case reports, intrinsic case studies, instrumental case studies, collective case reports.

We go into more detail about each type of study in the guide below.

Related:  15+ Professional Case Study Examples [Design Tips + Templates]

When you have an existing hypothesis, you can design a descriptive study. This type of report starts with a description. The aim is to find connections between the subject being studied and a theory.

Once these connections are found, the study can conclude. The results of this type of study will usually suggest how to develop a theory further.

A study like the one below has concrete results. A descriptive report would use the quantitative data as a suggestion for researching the subject deeply.

When an incident occurs in a field, an explanation is required. An explanatory report investigates the cause of the event. It will include explanations for that cause.

The study will also share details about the impact of the event. In most cases, this report will use evidence to predict future occurrences. The results of explanatory reports are definitive.

Note that there is no room for interpretation here. The results are absolute.

The study below is a good example. It explains how one brand used the services of another. It concludes by showing definitive proof that the collaboration was successful.

Another example of this study would be in the automotive industry. If a vehicle fails a test, an explanatory study will examine why. The results could show that the failure was because of a particular part.

Related: How to Write a Case Study [+ Design Tips]

An explanatory report is a self-contained document. An exploratory one is only the beginning of an investigation.

Exploratory cases act as the starting point of studies. This is usually conducted as a precursor to large-scale investigations. The research is used to suggest why further investigations are needed.

An exploratory study can also be used to suggest methods for further examination.

For example, the below analysis could have found inconclusive results. In that situation, it would be the basis for an in-depth study.

Intrinsic studies are more common in the field of psychology. These reports can also be conducted in healthcare or social work.

These types of studies focus on a unique subject, such as a patient. They can sometimes study groups close to the researcher.

The aim of such studies is to understand the subject better. This requires learning their history. The researcher will also examine how they interact with their environment.

For instance, if the case study below was about a unique brand, it could be an intrinsic study.

Once the study is complete, the researcher will have developed a better understanding of a phenomenon. This phenomenon will likely not have been studied or theorized about before.

Examples of intrinsic case analysis can be found across psychology. For example, Jean Piaget’s theories on cognitive development. He established the theory from intrinsic studies into his own children.

Related: What Disney Villains Can Tell Us About Color Psychology [Infographic]

This is another type of study seen in medical and psychology fields. Instrumental reports are created to examine more than just the primary subject.

When research is conducted for an instrumental study, it is to provide the basis for a larger phenomenon. The subject matter is usually the best example of the phenomenon. This is why it is being studied.

Take the example of the fictional brand below.

Assume it’s examining lead generation strategies. It may want to show that visual marketing is the definitive lead generation tool. The brand can conduct an instrumental case study to examine this phenomenon.

Collective studies are based on instrumental case reports. These types of studies examine multiple reports.

There are a number of reasons why collective reports are created:

• To provide evidence for starting a new study
• To find pattens between multiple instrumental reports
• To find differences in similar types of cases
• Gain a deeper understanding of a complex phenomenon
• Understand a phenomenon from diverse contexts

A researcher could use multiple reports, like the one below, to build a collective case report.

Related: 10+ Case Study Infographic Templates That Convert

A business or marketing case study aims at showcasing a successful partnership. This can be between a brand and a client. Or the case study can examine a brand’s project.

There is a perception that case studies are used to advertise a brand. But effective reports, like the one below, can show clients how a brand can support them.

Hubspot created a case study on a customer that successfully scaled its business. The report outlines the various Hubspot tools used to achieve these results.

Hubspot also added a video with testimonials from the client company’s employees.

So, what is the purpose of a case study for businesses? There is a lot of competition in the corporate world. Companies are run by people. They can be on the fence about which brand to work with.

Business reports  stand out aesthetically, as well. They use  brand colors  and brand fonts . Usually, a combination of the client’s and the brand’s.

With the Venngage  My Brand Kit  feature, businesses can automatically apply their brand to designs.

A business case study, like the one below, acts as social proof. This helps customers decide between your brand and your competitors.

Don’t know how to design a report? You can learn  how to write a case study  with Venngage’s guide. We also share design tips and examples that will help you convert.

Related: 55+ Annual Report Design Templates, Inspirational Examples & Tips [Updated]

Research is a necessary part of every case study. But specific research fields are required to create studies. These fields include user research, healthcare, education, or social work.

For example, this UX Design  report examined the public perception of a client. The brand researched and implemented new visuals to improve it. The study breaks down this research through lessons learned.

Clinical reports are a necessity in the medical field. These documents are used to share knowledge with other professionals. They also help examine new or unusual diseases or symptoms.

The pandemic has led to a significant increase in research. For example,  Spectrum Health  studied the value of health systems in the pandemic. They created the study by examining community outreach.

The pandemic has significantly impacted the field of education. This has led to numerous examinations on remote studying. There have also been studies on how students react to decreased peer communication.

Social work case reports often have a community focus. They can also examine public health responses. In certain regions, social workers study disaster responses.

You now know what case studies in various fields are. In the next step of our guide, we explain the case study method.

In the field of psychology, case studies focus on a particular subject. Psychology case histories also examine human behaviors.

Case reports search for commonalities between humans. They are also used to prescribe further research. Or these studies can elaborate on a solution for a behavioral ailment.

The American Psychology Association  has a number of case studies on real-life clients. Note how the reports are more text-heavy than a business case study.

Famous psychologists such as Sigmund Freud and Anna O popularised the use of case studies in the field. They did so by regularly interviewing subjects. Their detailed observations build the field of psychology.

It is important to note that psychological studies must be conducted by professionals. Psychologists, psychiatrists and therapists should be the researchers in these cases.

Related: What Netflix’s Top 50 Shows Can Teach Us About Font Psychology [Infographic]

The case study method, or case method, is a learning technique where you’re presented with a real-world business challenge and asked how you’d solve it.

After working through it independently and with peers, you learn how the actual scenario unfolded. This approach helps develop problem-solving skills and practical knowledge.

This method often uses various data sources like interviews, observations, and documents to provide comprehensive insights. The below example would have been created after numerous interviews.

Case studies are largely qualitative. They analyze and describe phenomena. While some data is included, a case analysis is not quantitative.

There are a few steps in the case method. You have to start by identifying the subject of your study. Then determine what kind of research is required.

In natural sciences, case studies can take years to complete. Business reports, like this one, don’t take that long. A few weeks of interviews should be enough.

The case method will vary depending on the industry. Reports will also look different once produced.

As you will have seen, business reports are more colorful. The design is also more accessible . Healthcare and psychology reports are more text-heavy.

Designing case reports takes time and energy. So, is it worth taking the time to write them? Here are the benefits of creating case studies.

• Collects large amounts of information
• Helps formulate hypotheses
• Builds the case for further research
• Discovers new insights into a subject
• Builds brand trust and loyalty
• Engages customers through stories

For example, the business study below creates a story around a brand partnership. It makes for engaging reading. The study also shows evidence backing up the information.

We’ve shared the benefits of why studies are needed. We will also look at the limitations of creating them.

Related: How to Present a Case Study like a Pro (With Examples)

There are a few disadvantages to conducting a case analysis. The limitations will vary according to the industry.

• Responses from interviews are subjective
• Subjects may tailor responses to the researcher
• Studies can’t always be replicated
• In certain industries, analyses can take time and be expensive
• Risk of generalizing the results among a larger population

These are some of the common weaknesses of creating case reports. If you’re on the fence, look at the competition in your industry.

Other brands or professionals are building reports, like this example. In that case, you may want to do the same.

What makes a case study a case study?

A case study has a very particular research methodology. They are an in-depth study of a person or a group of individuals. They can also study a community or an organization. Case reports examine real-world phenomena within a set context.

How long should a case study be?

The length of studies depends on the industry. It also depends on the story you’re telling. Most case studies should be at least 500-1500 words long. But you can increase the length if you have more details to share.

What should you ask in a case study?

The one thing you shouldn’t ask is ‘yes’ or ‘no’ questions. Case studies are qualitative. These questions won’t give you the information you need.

Ask your client about the problems they faced. Ask them about solutions they found. Or what they think is the ideal solution. Leave room to ask them follow-up questions. This will help build out the study.

How to present a case study?

When you’re ready to present a case study, begin by providing a summary of the problem or challenge you were addressing. Follow this with an outline of the solution you implemented, and support this with the results you achieved, backed by relevant data. Incorporate visual aids like slides, graphs, and images to make your case study presentation more engaging and impactful.

Now you know what a case study means, you can begin creating one. These reports are a great tool for analyzing brands. They are also useful in a variety of other fields.

Use a visual communication platform like Venngage to design case studies. With Venngage’s templates, you can design easily. Create branded, engaging reports, all without design experience.

Discover popular designs

Infographic maker

Brochure maker

White paper online

Newsletter creator

Flyer maker

Timeline maker

Letterhead maker

Mind map maker

Ebook maker

Log in using your username and password

• Search More Search for this keyword Advanced search
• Latest content
• Current issue
• Write for Us
• BMJ Journals

You are here

• Volume 21, Issue 1
• What is a case study?
• Article Text
• Article info
• Citation Tools
• Rapid Responses
• Article metrics

• Roberta Heale 1 ,
• Alison Twycross 2
• 1 School of Nursing , Laurentian University , Sudbury , Ontario , Canada
• 2 School of Health and Social Care , London South Bank University , London , UK
• Correspondence to Dr Roberta Heale, School of Nursing, Laurentian University, Sudbury, ON P3E2C6, Canada; rheale{at}laurentian.ca

https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2017-102845

Statistics from Altmetric.com

Request permissions.

If you wish to reuse any or all of this article please use the link below which will take you to the Copyright Clearance Center’s RightsLink service. You will be able to get a quick price and instant permission to reuse the content in many different ways.

What is it?

Case study is a research methodology, typically seen in social and life sciences. There is no one definition of case study research. 1 However, very simply… ‘a case study can be defined as an intensive study about a person, a group of people or a unit, which is aimed to generalize over several units’. 1 A case study has also been described as an intensive, systematic investigation of a single individual, group, community or some other unit in which the researcher examines in-depth data relating to several variables. 2

Often there are several similar cases to consider such as educational or social service programmes that are delivered from a number of locations. Although similar, they are complex and have unique features. In these circumstances, the evaluation of several, similar cases will provide a better answer to a research question than if only one case is examined, hence the multiple-case study. Stake asserts that the cases are grouped and viewed as one entity, called the quintain . 6  ‘We study what is similar and different about the cases to understand the quintain better’. 6

The steps when using case study methodology are the same as for other types of research. 6 The first step is defining the single case or identifying a group of similar cases that can then be incorporated into a multiple-case study. A search to determine what is known about the case(s) is typically conducted. This may include a review of the literature, grey literature, media, reports and more, which serves to establish a basic understanding of the cases and informs the development of research questions. Data in case studies are often, but not exclusively, qualitative in nature. In multiple-case studies, analysis within cases and across cases is conducted. Themes arise from the analyses and assertions about the cases as a whole, or the quintain, emerge. 6

Benefits and limitations of case studies

If a researcher wants to study a specific phenomenon arising from a particular entity, then a single-case study is warranted and will allow for a in-depth understanding of the single phenomenon and, as discussed above, would involve collecting several different types of data. This is illustrated in example 1 below.

Using a multiple-case research study allows for a more in-depth understanding of the cases as a unit, through comparison of similarities and differences of the individual cases embedded within the quintain. Evidence arising from multiple-case studies is often stronger and more reliable than from single-case research. Multiple-case studies allow for more comprehensive exploration of research questions and theory development. 6

Despite the advantages of case studies, there are limitations. The sheer volume of data is difficult to organise and data analysis and integration strategies need to be carefully thought through. There is also sometimes a temptation to veer away from the research focus. 2 Reporting of findings from multiple-case research studies is also challenging at times, 1 particularly in relation to the word limits for some journal papers.

Examples of case studies

Example 1: nurses’ paediatric pain management practices.

One of the authors of this paper (AT) has used a case study approach to explore nurses’ paediatric pain management practices. This involved collecting several datasets:

Observational data to gain a picture about actual pain management practices.

Questionnaire data about nurses’ knowledge about paediatric pain management practices and how well they felt they managed pain in children.

Questionnaire data about how critical nurses perceived pain management tasks to be.

These datasets were analysed separately and then compared 7–9 and demonstrated that nurses’ level of theoretical did not impact on the quality of their pain management practices. 7 Nor did individual nurse’s perceptions of how critical a task was effect the likelihood of them carrying out this task in practice. 8 There was also a difference in self-reported and observed practices 9 ; actual (observed) practices did not confirm to best practice guidelines, whereas self-reported practices tended to.

Example 2: quality of care for complex patients at Nurse Practitioner-Led Clinics (NPLCs)

The other author of this paper (RH) has conducted a multiple-case study to determine the quality of care for patients with complex clinical presentations in NPLCs in Ontario, Canada. 10 Five NPLCs served as individual cases that, together, represented the quatrain. Three types of data were collected including:

Review of documentation related to the NPLC model (media, annual reports, research articles, grey literature and regulatory legislation).

Interviews with nurse practitioners (NPs) practising at the five NPLCs to determine their perceptions of the impact of the NPLC model on the quality of care provided to patients with multimorbidity.

Chart audits conducted at the five NPLCs to determine the extent to which evidence-based guidelines were followed for patients with diabetes and at least one other chronic condition.

The three sources of data collected from the five NPLCs were analysed and themes arose related to the quality of care for complex patients at NPLCs. The multiple-case study confirmed that nurse practitioners are the primary care providers at the NPLCs, and this positively impacts the quality of care for patients with multimorbidity. Healthcare policy, such as lack of an increase in salary for NPs for 10 years, has resulted in issues in recruitment and retention of NPs at NPLCs. This, along with insufficient resources in the communities where NPLCs are located and high patient vulnerability at NPLCs, have a negative impact on the quality of care. 10

These examples illustrate how collecting data about a single case or multiple cases helps us to better understand the phenomenon in question. Case study methodology serves to provide a framework for evaluation and analysis of complex issues. It shines a light on the holistic nature of nursing practice and offers a perspective that informs improved patient care.

• Gustafsson J
• Calanzaro M
• Sandelowski M

Competing interests None declared.

Provenance and peer review Commissioned; internally peer reviewed.

Read the full text or download the PDF:

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

Evaluation of urban resilience and its influencing factors: a case study of the yichang–jingzhou–jingmen–enshi urban agglomeration in china.

1. Introduction

2. materials and methods, 2.1. study area, 2.2. construction of the indicator system, 2.3. method, 2.3.1. standardization method, 2.3.2. entropy weight method, 2.3.3. robustness analysis, 2.3.4. calculation of urban resilience index, 2.3.5. getis–ord gi* model, 2.3.6. factor contribution model, 2.3.7. ca-markov model, 2.4. data sources, 3.1. results of the robustness analysis, 3.2. spatial-temporal differentiation characteristics of urban resilience, 3.3. driving factors of urban resilience, 3.4. modeling changes in urban resilience in the future, 4. discussion, 5. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• Webber, S.; Leitner, H.; Sheppard, E. Wheeling Out Urban Resilience: Philanthrocapitalism, Marketization, and Local Practice. Ann. Am. Assoc. Geogr. 2021 , 111 , 343–363. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tang, J.; Heinimann, H.; Han, K.; Luo, H.; Zhong, B. Evaluating resilience in urban transportation systems for sustainability: A systems-based Bayesian network model. Transp. Res. Part C Emerg. Technol. 2020 , 121 , 102840. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, J.; Liu, J.; Peng, Q.; Yin, Y. Resilience assessment of an urban rail transit network: A case study of Chengdu subway. Phys. A Stat. Mech. Appl. 2022 , 586 , 126517. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Waters, C.N.; Zalasiewicz, J.; Summerhayes, C.; Barnosky, A.D.; Poirier, C.; Gałuszka, A.; Cearreta, A.; Edgeworth, M.; Ellis, E.C.; Ellis, M.; et al. The Anthropocene is functionally and stratigraphically distinct from the Holocene. Science 2016 , 351 , add2622. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jouni, K.; Juha-Pekka, S. Quantifying the relationship of resilience and eco-efficiency in complex adaptive energy systems. Ecol. Econ. 2015 , 120 , 83–92. [ Google Scholar ]
• Shi, C.; Guo, N.; Zhu, X.; Wu, F. Assessing Urban Resilience from the Perspective of Scaling Law: Evidence from Chinese Cities. Land 2022 , 11 , 1803. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Deng, H.; Liu, K. Spatiotemporal Evolution of Urban Resilience and Spatial Spillover Effects in Guangdong Province, China. Land 2023 , 12 , 1800. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Suárez, M.; Benayas, J.; Justel, A.; Sisto, R.; Montes, C.; Sanz-Casado, E. A holistic index-based framework to assess urban resilience: Application to the Madrid Region, Spain. Ecol. Indic. 2024 , 166 , 112293. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yang, X.D.; Li, H.L.; Zhang, J.Y.; Niu, S.Y.; Miao, M.M. Urban economic resilience within the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration: Exploring spatially correlated network and spatial heterogeneity. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2024 , 103 , 105270. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Shi, C.C.; Lu, J.J. Unlocking Economic Resilience: A New Methodological Approach and Empirical Examination under Digital Transformation. Land 2024 , 13 , 621. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Gyucha, A.; Derby, L.A.; Solinis, C.R.; Piland, N.C.; Alberti, M. Editorial: Shaping the future: Urban resilience and socio-ecological systems through time. Front. Ecol. Evol. 2024 , 12 , 1392723. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhao, Z.L.; Holland, N.; Nelson, J. Optimizing smart grid performance: A stochastic approach to renewable energy integration. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2024 , 111 , 105533. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Romero-Lankao, P.; Gnatz, D.M.; Wilhelmi, O.; Hayden, M. Urban Sustainability and Resilience: From Theory to Practice. Sustainability 2016 , 8 , 1224. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhao, R.; Fang, C.; Liu, H. Progress and prospect of urban resilience research. Prog. Geogr. 2020 , 39 , 1717–1731. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhou, Q.; Qiao, Y.; Zhang, H.; Zhou, S. How does college scale affect urban resilience? Spatiotemporal evidence from China. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2022 , 85 , 104084. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Büyüközkan, G.; Ilıcak, Ö.; Feyzioğlu, O. A Review of Urban Resilience Literature. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2022 , 77 , 103579. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Mote, S.; Rivas, J.; Kalnay, E.; Asrar, G.R.; Busalacchi, A.J.; Cahalan, R.F.; Cane, M.A.; Colwell, R.R.; Feng, K.; Franklin, R.; et al. Modeling Sustainability: Population, Inequality, Consumption, and Bidirectional Coupling of the Earth and Human Systems. Natl. Sci. Rev. 2016 , 3 , 470–494. [ Google Scholar ]
• Marjolein, S.; Bas, W. Building up resilience in cities worldwide: Rotterdam as participant in the 100 Resilient Cities Programme. Cities 2017 , 61 , 109–116. [ Google Scholar ]
• Si, Y.; Liang, L.; Zhou, W. An Evaluation of Urban Resilience Using Structural Equation Modeling from Practitioners’ Perspective: An Empirical Investigation in Huangshi City, China. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7031. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Huang, J.; Sun, Z.; Du, M. Differences and Drivers of Urban Resilience in Eight Major Urban Agglomerations: Evidence from China. Land 2022 , 11 , 1470. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Holling, C.S. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 1973 , 4 , 1–23. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Walker, B.H.; Anderies, J.M.; Kinzig, A.P.; Ryan, P. Exploring resilience in social-ecological systems through comparative studies and theory development: Introduction to the special issue. Ecol. Soc. 2006 , 11 , 12. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Smit, B.; Wandel, J. Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability. Global Environ. Chang. 2006 , 16 , 282–292. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Alexander, D.E. Resilience and Disaster Risk Reduction: An Etymological Journey. Nat. Hazards Earth Syst. Sci. 2013 , 13 , 2707–2716. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ma, F.; Wang, Z.H.; Sun, Q.P.; Yuen, K.F.; Zhang, Y.X.; Xue, H.F.; Zhao, S.M. Spatial–Temporal Evolution of Urban Resilience and Its Influencing Factors: Evidence from the Guanzhong Plain Urban Agglomeration. Sustainability 2020 , 12 , 2593. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ma, X.; Chen, X.; Du, Y.; Zhu, X.; Dai, Y.; Li, X.; Zhang, R.; Wang, Y. Evaluation of Urban Spatial Resilience and Its Influencing Factors: Case Study of the Harbin–Changchun Urban Agglomeration in China. Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 2899. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wardekker, J.A.; de Jong, A.; Knoop, J.M.; van der Sluijs, J.P. Operationalising a resilience approach to adapting an urban delta to uncertain climate changes. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. 2010 , 77 , 987–998. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yang, M.; Jiao, M.; Zhang, J. Research on Urban Resilience and Influencing Factors of Chengdu-Chongqing Economic Circle. Sustainability 2022 , 14 , 10585. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Cui, P.; Li, D. A SNA-based methodology for measuring the community resilience from the perspective of social capitals: Take Nanjing, China as an example. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2020 , 53 , 101880. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Suárez, M.; Gómez-Baggethun, E.; Benayas, J.; Tilbury, D. Towards an urban resilience Index: A case study in 50 Spanish cities. Sustainability 2016 , 8 , 774. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Xun, X.; Yuan, Y. Research on the urban resilience evaluation with hybrid multiple attribute TOPSIS method: An example in China. Nat. Hazards 2020 , 103 , 557–577. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhao, R.; Fang, C.; Liu, J.; Zhang, L. The evaluation and obstacle analysis of urban resilience from the multidimensional perspective in Chinese cities. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2022 , 86 , 104160. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, L.; Lei, Y.; Fath, B.D.; Hubacek, K.; Yao, H.; Liu, W. The spatio-temporal dynamics of urban resilience in China’s capital cities. J. Clean. Prod. 2022 , 379 , 134400. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Liu, L.; Luo, Y.; Pei, J.; Wang, H.; Li, J.; Li, Y. Temporal and spatial differentiation in urban resilience and its influencing factors in Henan Province. Sustainability 2021 , 13 , 12460. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Qin, W.; Lin, A.; Fang, J.; Wang, L.; Li, M. Spatial and temporal evolution of community resilience to natural hazards in the coastal areas of China. Nat. Hazards 2017 , 89 , 331–349. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Huang, G.; Li, D.; Zhu, X.; Zhu, J. Influencing factors and their influencing mechanisms on urban resilience in China. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2021 , 74 , 103210. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• James, S.; Ron, M. The economic resilience of regions: Towards an evolutionary approach. Camb. J. Reg. Econ. Soc. 2010 , 3 , 27–43. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chen, Y.; Su, X.; Zhou, Q. Study on the spatiotemporal evolution and influencing factors of urban resilience in the yellow river basin. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021 , 18 , 10231. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Martin, R.; Sunley, P. On the notion of regional economic resilience: Conceptualization and explanation. J. Econ. Geogr. 2015 , 15 , 1–42. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Christian, R.; Thomas, S. CPGPRC (Central People’s Government of the People’s Republic of China). Notification by the Standard of State Council on Adjusting the Urban Scale. Available online: https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2014-11/20/content_9225.htm (accessed on 22 March 2024).
• Reuter, C.; Spielhofer, T. Towards social resilience: A quantitative and qualitative survey on citizens’ perception of social media in emergencies in Europe. Technol. Forecast. Soc. Chang. 2017 , 121 , 168–180. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ranasinghe, U.; Jefferies, M.; Davis, P.; Pillay, M. Resilience Engineering Indicators and Safety Management: A Systematic Review. Saf. Health Work 2020 , 11 , 127–135. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Liu, Y. Urban resilience system development measurement: Based on an empirical study of 288 Chinese cities. Urban Dev. Stud. 2021 , 28 , 93–100. [ Google Scholar ]
• Perch-Nielsen, S.L. The vulnerability of beach tourism to climate change: An index approach. Clim. Chang. 2010 , 100 , 579–606. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Singh, R.K.; Murty, H.R.; Gupta, S.K.; Dikshit, A.K. An overview of sustainability assessment methodologies. Ecol. Indic. 2009 , 9 , 189–212. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kondyli, J. Measurement and evaluation of sustainable development: A composite indicator for the islands of the North Aegean region, Greece. Environ. Impact Asses. 2011 , 30 , 347–356. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ord, J.K.; Getis, A. Local spatial autocorrelation statistics: Distributional issues and an application. Geogr. Anal. 1995 , 27 , 286–306. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Li, T.; Singh, R.K.; Pandey, R.; Liu, H.D.; Cui, L.Z.; Xu, Z.H.; Xia, A.Q.; Wang, F.; Tang, L.; Wu, W.C.; et al. Enhancing sustainable livelihoods in the Three Rivers Headwater Region: A geospatial and obstacles context. Ecol. Indic. 2023 , 156 , 111134. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Firozjaei, M.K.; Sedighi, A.; Argany, M.; Jelokhani-Niaraki, M.; Arsanjani, J.J. A geographical direction-based approach for capturing the local variation of urban expansion in the application of CA-Markov model. Cities 2019 , 93 , 120–135. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tang, F.; Fu, M.C.; Wang, L.; Zhang, P.T. Land-use change in Changli County, China: Predicting its spatio-temporal evolution in habitat quality. Ecol. Indic. 2020 , 117 , 106719. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhao, Z.L.; Wu, X.; Zhang, Y.L.; Gao, J.G. Assessment of Changes in the Value of Ecosystem Services in the Koshi River Basin, Central High Himalayas Based on Land Cover Changes and the CA-Markov Model. J. Resour. Ecol. 2017 , 8 , 67–76. [ Google Scholar ]
• Liu, N.; Wang, S.; Su, F.; Ye, J. Research on coupling coordination of China’s New-Type Urbanization and urban resilience—Taking Yangtze River Economic Belt as an example. Sustainability 2023 , 15 , 456. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tang, D.C.; Li, J.N.; Zhao, Z.Q.; Boamah, V.; Lansana, D.D. The influence of industrial structure transformation on urban resilience based on 110 prefecture-level cities in the Yangtze River. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2023 , 96 , 104621. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sun, J.; Zhai, N.N.; Mu, H.R.; Miao, J.C.; Li, W.X.; Li, M.F. Assessment of urban resilience and subsystem coupling coordination in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban agglomeration. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2024 , 100 , 105058. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, K.; Zhao, S.; Chen, X.; Lei, Z.; Zhou, X. Spatio-Temporal Evolution and Influencing Factors of the Resilience of Tourism Environmental Systems in the Yangtze River Economic Belt of China. Sustainability 2023 , 15 , 10527. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lee, C.C.; Yan, J.Y.; Li, T. Ecological resilience of city clusters in the middle reaches of Yangtze river. J. Clean. Prod. 2024 , 443 , 141082. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lin, Y.Z.; Peng, C.; Chen, P.; Zhang, M.J. Conflict or synergy? Analysis of economic-social- infrastructure-ecological resilience and their coupling coordination in the Yangtze River economic Belt, China. Ecol. Indic. 2022 , 142 , 109194. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, L.; Li, J.; Lv, L. Urban Resilience and Its Links to City Size: Evidence from the Yangtze River Economic Belt in China. Land 2023 , 12 , 2131. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, X.; Peng, W.J.; Xiong, H.P. Spatial-temporal evolution and driving factors of rural resilience in the urban agglomerations in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. R. 2024 , 31 , 25076–25095. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Lin, Y.Z.; Peng, C.; Shu, J.F.; Zhai, W.; Cheng, J.Q. Spatiotemporal characteristics and influencing factors of urban resilience efficiency in the Yangtze River Economic Belt, China. Environ. Sci. Pollut. R. 2022 , 29 , 39807–39826. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhu, Z.Y.; Zheng, Y.H.; Xiang, P.C. Deciphering the spatial and temporal evolution of urban anthropogenic resilience within the Yangtze River Delta urban agglomeration. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2023 , 88 , 104274. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Click here to enlarge figure

Share and Cite

Zhao, Z.; Hu, Z.; Han, X.; Chen, L.; Li, Z. Evaluation of Urban Resilience and Its Influencing Factors: A Case Study of the Yichang–Jingzhou–Jingmen–Enshi Urban Agglomeration in China. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 7090. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167090

Zhao Z, Hu Z, Han X, Chen L, Li Z. Evaluation of Urban Resilience and Its Influencing Factors: A Case Study of the Yichang–Jingzhou–Jingmen–Enshi Urban Agglomeration in China. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):7090. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167090

Zhao, Zhilong, Zengzeng Hu, Xu Han, Lu Chen, and Zhiyong Li. 2024. "Evaluation of Urban Resilience and Its Influencing Factors: A Case Study of the Yichang–Jingzhou–Jingmen–Enshi Urban Agglomeration in China" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 7090. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167090

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

• CLASSIFIEDS
• Advanced search

American Board of Family Medicine

Advanced Search

Factors Associated with Patient Engagement in a Health and Social Needs Case Management Program

• Find this author on Google Scholar
• Find this author on PubMed
• Search for this author on this site
• Figures & Data
• Info & Metrics

Introduction: Many patients offered case management services to address their health and social needs choose not to engage. Factors that drive engagement remain unclear. We sought to understand patient characteristics associated with engagement in a social needs case management program and variability by case manager.

Methods: Between August 2017 and February 2021, 43,347 Medicaid beneficiaries with an elevated risk of hospital or emergency department use were offered case management in Contra Costa County, California. Results were analyzed in 2022 using descriptive statistics and multilevel logistic regression models to examine 1) associations between patient engagement and patient characteristics and 2) variation in engagement attributable to case managers. Engagement was defined as responding to case manager outreach and documentation of at least 1 topic to mutually address. A sensitivity analysis was performed by stratifying the pre-COVID-19 and COVID-19 cohorts.

Results: A total of 16,811 (39%) of eligible patients engaged. Adjusted analyses indicate associations between higher patient engagement and female gender, age 40 and over, Black/African American race, Hispanic/Latino ethnicity, history of homelessness, and a medical history of certain chronic conditions and depressive disorder. The intraclass correlation coefficient indicates that 6% of the variation in engagement was explained at the case manager level.

Conclusions: Medicaid patients with a history of housing instability and specific medical conditions were more likely to enroll in case management services, consistent with prior evidence that patients with greater need are more receptive to assistance. Case managers accounted for a small percentage of variation in patient engagement.

• Case Management
• Logistic Regression
• Patient Engagement
• Population Health
• Risk Factors
• Social Determinants of Health
• Introduction

In recent years, health plans have increasingly directed their efforts toward addressing social determinants of health (SDOH). There is growing recognition that addressing patients’ social needs may improve health. 1 Medicaid agencies and Medicaid Managed Care Organizations (MMCOs) have pioneered many early efforts aimed at assisting patients with health-related social needs. 2 In a 2022 nationally representative survey of MMCOs, 90% of health plans offered programs to support patients experiencing homelessness or housing instability and 67% offered assistance to patients with substance use disorders. 3 85% of health plans screened patients for SDOH. 3 As of August 2023, the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) approved Section 1115 waivers for 19 states with SDOH-related provisions and an additional 12 states have pending SDOH requests. 4 Anticipated requirements in 2024, as outlined by CMS, indicate a heightened focus on addressing SDOH. This includes mandatory social needs screening requirements for health plans reporting to the Inpatient Quality Reporting (IQR) program. 5

Despite the increasing attention on screening for SDOH, a significant proportion of patients who screen positive for social risks decline services for identified social needs. These services may encompass coaching, help with scheduling medical appointments, and referrals to community resources. Recent literature shows that patient interest in receiving assistance to address social needs varies widely, with patient interest rates as low as 3% and rarely exceeding 60%. 6 – 8 Patient-reported reasons for declining assistance include not perceiving the need for assistance, finding the offered help irrelevant to their needs, and facing competing priorities, previous negative experiences, stigma, and access challenges. 9 – 11

Although valuable studies have begun to explore this topic, factors that drive the variability in engagement rates remain unclear. We examined whether patient characteristics and case manager variability were associated with patient engagement in Contra Costa County’s Whole Person Care (WPC) pilot, one of the largest interdisciplinary health and social needs case management programs studied to date. 12 – 14 Factors previously found to be associated with patient activation include higher socio-economic status, White race, non-Hispanic/Latino ethnicity, and absence of depression and chronic conditions. 15 – 16 This was assessed through the Patient Activation Measure (PAM), which evaluates people’s capacity and inclination to assume the responsibility of managing their health and health care use. 17 However, studies examining patients’ interest in receiving social needs assistance reveal a different pattern, indicating that individuals with lower income, belonging to racial and ethnic minority groups, and having at least 1 chronic condition are more inclined. 18 – 20 We hypothesize that our findings will closely align with observations from other social needs assistance studies, given the similarity in populations and the type of services offered.

Study Population

Contra Costa County’s WPC pilot, led by Contra Costa Health, was funded through the Section 1115 Medicaid waiver. It is one of the most extensive health and social needs case management initiatives studied to date, 12 – 14 characterized by broad population criteria and comprehensive coverage of various social needs. Between August 2017 and February 2021, Contra Costa County’s WPC pilot offered 43,347 Medicaid beneficiaries case management services, with new enrollments occurring on a monthly basis. Patients were identified through a risk model that predicted a person’s propensity for avoidable hospital and emergency department use. The model incorporated 91 variables including sociodemographics, medical history, and social risk indicators. Data were collected from health care, mental health, substance use, housing, and detention services. For more information about the risk model, see Brown et al and its supplemental appendix. 12 Patients who were predicted to have an elevated risk of hospital or emergency department use were stratified into 2 risk tiers and offered case management services. A patient’s risk tier often determined the type of case manager assigned and mode of interaction, whether telephonic or in-person. All patients were at least 18 years of age, enrolled in Medicaid, and not already engaged in another case management program.

A total of 128 case managers, employed through Contra Costa County’s WPC pilot, were tasked with reaching out to identified patients. Tier 1 patients, considered at higher risk, were offered in-person case management and were typically matched to specialized case managers (eg, nurses, social workers, and housing specialists), whereas tier 2 patients, considered at lower risk, were offered telephonic case management and were typically matched to community health workers. All newly enrolled patients received a program welcome letter with their case manager’s name and contact information along with information about program services and benefits. Case managers then made two contact attempts in the first week of a patient’s enrollment, using contact records available in the electronic health record including phone, e-mail, and the electronic health record portal. For tier 1 patients, case managers could contact other care team members to initiate a warm handoff, for example, after an upcoming medical appointment. Case managers made an additional outreach attempt each week during the second and third weeks of enrollment. If still unable to reach the patient, the case manager mailed a notice asking the patient to contact the case manager within 30 days otherwise the patient would be disenrolled due to lack of engagement.

Case managers connected patients with services tailored to their needs, which included assistance with housing, food, transportation, and medical care coordination. Though case managers represented a diverse range of skill sets, including community health workers, registered nurses, substance abuse counselors, social workers, mental health care specialists, and housing stability specialists, each worked to holistically address patient needs. They were also encouraged to consult with their case manager colleagues across disciplines. After an initial assessment, patients could also be rematched with a case manager who could better address their specific needs. Case managers utilized Epic for recording and tracking activities, monitoring progress, and communicating with care teams. For additional details about the program design and patient goal topics, see Brown et al. and its supplemental appendix. 12

Dependent Variable

Engagement was measured by the acceptance of case management services, whether through in-person or telephonic outreach. Upon expressing interest in the case management program, patients underwent an initial assessment of their needs conducted by case managers using motivational interviewing techniques. Together, patients with their case managers identified at least 1 topic to mutually address. Topics included dental, food, housing, health transportation, vision, utilities, insurance, behavioral health, employment, finances, legal, and education. 12 Most patients identified both health care and social needs topics as goals. 12 Subsequently, patients and case managers collaboratively created a patient-centered care plan, formalizing the patient’s acceptance of services. The program duration was 12 months, and patients were eligible for enrollment multiple times if they failed to engage previously or met eligibility criteria again. For the purpose of this study, we restricted the data to patients’ first interaction with Contra Costa County’s WPC pilot.

Independent Variables

Patient-level covariates included sociodemographic factors such as race, age, sex, and marital status, in addition to relevant medical history. The selection of variables was informed by prior studies indicating that these patient sociodemographic factors along with medical history could have an impact on patient activation. 15 – 16 Although housing status and behavioral health acuity are typically not variables included in existing models, they bear significance for this analysis, which examines a health and social needs case management program aimed at providing assistance to some of the most economically disadvantaged and medically vulnerable populations. Housing status is based on electronic health record documentation. Behavioral health acuity is an indication of the severity of a mental health disorder based on a standard, state-approved clinical tool, and patients with moderate-severe acuity are eligible for specific specialty mental health services. 21

To create a nonredundant list of medical conditions, we eliminated highly correlated conditions with a tetrachoric correlation coefficient greater than 0.45. For instance, patients experiencing chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) were often found to also have respiratory failure. This process generated a final list of medical conditions that was concise yet represented key conditions while avoiding statistical collinearity. The remaining medical conditions analyzed are presented with other patient sociodemographics in Table 1 .

• View inline

Sociodemographic and Clinical Characteristics of the Study Population

To examine the degree to which case managers influenced engagement, patients were organized into clusters based on their initial case manager assignment. To enhance the reliability of this analysis, case managers overseeing fewer than 40 patients during the study period and their respective patients were excluded. 22 By implementing these criteria, we aimed to ensure a robust examination of the relationship between case managers and patient engagement rates.

Statistical Analysis

Descriptive statistics were used to describe the sociodemographic and clinical characteristics of the population. A 2-level random intercept hierarchical logit model with patients (level 1) clustered within case managers (level 2) was used to estimate the association of patient characteristics with engagement in the health and social needs case management program and the degree to which case manager variability was associated with patient engagement. Patient-level covariates were controlled for in the model; there were no additional case manager-level covariates. All analyses were done using Stata, version 17.

Considering the study period spans COVID-19 and the potential significance of COVID-19 in influencing patient engagement, we investigated the impact of the pandemic on patient engagement by conducting a sensitivity analysis using data from enrollments in February 2020, the onset of the pandemic, through February 2021, 13 months post-onset.

Research procedures were approved by the Contra Costa Regional Medical Center and Health Centers Institutional Review Committee. Data are not publicly available to protect potentially sensitive information. For data inquiries, please contact the corresponding author.

A total of 39% of patients engaged with a case manager. Table 1 displays the sociodemographic and clinical attributes of the study population. Majority of the patients were female (60%), English speaking (78%), and in the lower risk tier (75%). The average patient age was 43 (S.D. 16). The most prevalent medical conditions in this population were chronic pain (29%), depressive disorder (28%), and alcohol and other drug (AOD) dependence (20%).

In adjusted analyses, patient characteristics that were associated with higher levels of patient engagement included female gender (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 1.24, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.19 to 1.29), age 40 and more than (aOR: 1.29, CI: 1.22 to 1.36 for ages 40 to 59 and aOR: 1.26, CI: 1.18 to 1.36 for ages 60+) compared with ages 18 to 39, Black/African American (aOR: 1.38, CI: 1.30 to 1.46) race compared with White, Hispanic/Latino (aOR: 1.24, CI: 1.16 to 1.32) ethnicity compared with White, Spanish as a primary language (aOR: 1.47, CI: 1.37 to 1.58) compared with English, history of homelessness (aOR: 1.15, CI: 1.05 to 1.30), mild to moderate behavioral health acuity level (aOR: 1.4, CI: 1.31 to 1.50) compared with stable, and a medical history for conditions such as chronic pain (aOR: 1.32, CI: 1.26 to 1.38), depressive disorder (aOR: 1.18, CI: 1.13 to 1.24), cancer (aOR: 1.18, CI: 1.07 to 1.30), and diabetes (aOR: 1.15, CI: 1.09 to 1.23) [ Table 2 ].

Association Between Patient Characteristics and Engagement

The intraclass correlation coefficient, at 0.064, indicates minimal clustering at the case manager level. 128 case managers were employed in this case management program. Telephonic community health workers, which represented the largest discipline of case managers (41 out of 128) and carried larger panels of lowerrisk (tier 2) patients, conducted outreach to the majority of the patients (66%). Other disciplines included registered nurses (31 out of 128), social workers (16 out of 128), substance abuse counselors (13 out of 128), mental health specialists (12 out of 128), in-person community health workers (10 out of 128), and housing stability specialists (5 out of 128) [ Table 3 ]. Engagement rates for case managers ranged between 14 to 67%.

Case Manager Characteristics

The COVID-19 cohort (enrolled February 2020 through February 2021) exhibited similarities to the prepandemic cohort, although there was a notable decrease in patient engagement from the lower risk tier compared with the higher risk tier ( Appendix Table A1 ). This trend is likely attributable to program modifications due to challenges and needs during COVID-19 such as suspended in-person outreach during shelter-in-place periods and temporary reassignment of some staff to contact tracing and other prevention efforts. Although eligibility remained unchanged during the COVID-19 cohort and more than 90% of enrollees still received at least 1 outreach call during that period, 14 engagement may have been impacted by reduced case manager continuity and lower capacity to follow up with nonengaging patients.

This study aimed to identify factors that predicted increased engagement in a health and social needs case management program. Despite facing substantial health challenges and potential access barriers, we observed that patients with higher levels of medical need and within underserved communities were more receptive to assistance. These findings are consistent with existing research that examined patients’ interest in receiving social needs assistance. 18 – 20 However, they contrast with patient activation literature, which often suggests that people with chronic conditions or depression is associated with lower activation, particularly for racial and ethnic minority groups. 15 – 16 Results from a 2017 systematic review, examining literature using the PAM, underscore the limited research on patient activation among racially and ethnically diverse, low socioeconomic status, and multimorbid patients in the US. 23 This may contribute to the disparate results observed in our study.

In this study, 39% of patients in this case management program engaged. Few studies have examined engagement rates when patients are offered health and social needs case management without self-selection or screening tools. Such evidence is important because offering case management assistance before assessing for social risks might lead to increased interest. 19 Further, screening tools, which are often not validated, might not fully capture a patient’s desire for social needs assistance. 24 – 26

Little variation in engagement was attributable to case managers in this program. Case manager variability accounted for only 6% of the variation in engagement observed in the study. It is essential to acknowledge that Contra Costa County’s WPC pilot employed their case managers and provided consistent and standardized training for all case managers. Different staffing models in other case management programs could yield different results. For instance, programs contracting with multiple community-based organizations, each with distinct training protocols, may contribute to greater variation. As a result, the 6% observed in this study might not be representative of all case management programs. Further research should explore various case management models to gain a better understanding of the extent to which standard protocols may decrease engagement variation across case management staff and how variation across staff relates to overall engagement.

Limitations

One limitation in this study is the definition of engagement, which is when patients signify acceptance of services by completing an initial assessment and developing a care plan with a case manager. Existing literature indicates that only a subset of patients who initially agree to social needs assistance actually follow through with referrals, making this measure inadequate for measuring the extent of social needs case management services utilized. 24 , 27 – 29 However, it is important to note that the process of accepting this case management service involved more engagement compared with some of the studies mentioned – that is, engagement required patients to actively participate in developing a thoughtful care plan in collaboration with their case manager. Further research aimed at understanding the factors that influence patients to follow through with recommended services would provide valuable insights for improving program implementation.

Given the program’s method of assigning case managers to patients and conducting outreach, discerning engagement variability by case manager type was challenging due to potential confounding factors. As a result, our study does not provide insights into the variability of engagement based on case manager types.

The characteristics of this study population may differ from those of other case management programs. Contra Costa County’s WPC pilot offered services to more than 40,000 patients, roughly 25% of Medicaid beneficiaries in Contra Costa County, which suggests that their eligibility criteria may be less stringent compared with other programs that target top percentages of high utilizers. Thus the findings from this study may not be generalizable across all case management programs. Engagement rates should be interpreted with consideration of the population’s specific attributes. Low engagement is not always an indication of poor program implementation or outreach.

• Conclusions

Engagement rates in health and social needs case management programs reflect the medical and social burden of the population, a factor that is influenced by the selection process for the program. Patients with higher levels of need are more likely to engage when presented with the opportunity. Case manager variability had minimal impact on engagement rates in this study, suggesting that variation in engagement is predominantly driven by patient and other unmeasured factors.

• Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to the Contra Costa County Health Services Department and the practice team, especially the case managers, and patients who made this work possible.

Association Between Patient Characteristics and Engagement Before and During COVID-19

This article was externally peer reviewed.

Funding: Christine H. Lo and Margae J. Knox were supported by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) Ruth L. Kirschstein National Research Service Award (T32HS022241). All work is the authors’ own.

Conflict of interest: None.

To see this article online, please go to: http://jabfm.org/content/37/3/418.full .

• Received for publication October 24, 2023.
• Revision received January 7, 2024.
• Accepted for publication January 17, 2024.
• 1. ↵ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine . Integrating social care into the delivery of health care: moving upstream to improve the nation's health . Washington, DC : The National Academies Press . Available at: https://doi.org/10.17226/25467 . Published 2019 . Accessed October 6, 2023 .
• 2. ↵ Beyond Health Care : The role of social determinants in promoting health and health equity. Kaiser Family Foundation website . Available at: https://www.kff.org/racial-equity-and-health-policy/issue-brief/beyond-health-care-the-role-of-social-determinants-in-promoting-health-and-health-equity/ . Published May 10 , 2018 . Accessed December 24, 2023 .
• 3. ↵ Institute for Medicaid Innovation . 2022 Annual Medicaid MCO survey fact sheets . Available at: https://medicaidinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/IMI-2022-Annual_Medicaid_MCO_Survey-All_Fact_Sheets.pdf . Published 2023 . Accessed July 28, 2023 .
• 4. ↵ Medicaid Waiver Tracker : Approved and pending section 1115 Waivers by State . Kaiser Family Foundation website. Available at: https://www.kff.org/medicaid/issue-brief/medicaid-waiver-tracker-approved-and-pending-section-1115-waivers-by-state/#Table3 . Updated September 26 , 2023 . Accessed September 28, 2023 .
• 5. ↵ Fact Sheet FY 2024 Hospital Inpatient Prospective Payment System (IPPS) and Long-Term Care Hospital Prospective Payment System (LTCH PPS) final rule—CMS-1785 and CMS-1788-F Fact Sheet . CMS.gov Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services . Available at: https://www.cms.gov/newsroom/fact-sheets/fy-2024-hospital-inpatient-prospective-payment-system-ipps-and-long-term-care-hospital-prospective-0 . Published August 1 , 2023 . Accessed December 24, 2023 .
• Fichtenberg CM ,
• De Marchis EH ,
• Gottlieb LM
• Kashiri PL ,
• Isaacson N ,
• Pfeiffer EJ ,
• De Paula CL ,
• Flores WO ,
• Hernandez EA ,
• Fleming MD ,
• Hibbard JH ,
• Cunningham PJ
• Kirkland E ,
• Schumann SO ,
• Schreiner A ,
• Stockard J ,
• Mahoney ER ,
• Attridge M ,
• Hessler D ,
• Fichtenberg C ,
• 21. ↵ Medi-Cal Managed Care Health Plan Responsibilities for Outpatient Mental Health Services . State of California Department of Health Care Services website. Available at: https://www.dhcs.ca.gov/formsandpubs/Documents/MMCDAPLsandPolicyLetters/APL2017/APL17-018.pdf . Published October 27 , 2017 . Accessed January 5, 2023 .
• Schmittdiel JA ,
• Fireman B ,
• Napoles TM ,
• Alderwick H ,
• Henrikson NB ,
• Dorsey CN ,
• Mehdipanah R ,
• Bottino CJ ,
• Rhodes ET ,
• Kreatsoulas C ,
• Schickedanz A ,

In this issue

• Table of Contents
• Table of Contents (PDF)
• Cover (PDF)
• Index by author
• Back Matter (PDF)
• Front Matter (PDF)

Thank you for your interest in spreading the word on American Board of Family Medicine.

NOTE: We only request your email address so that the person you are recommending the page to knows that you wanted them to see it, and that it is not junk mail. We do not capture any email address.

Citation Manager Formats

• EndNote (tagged)
• EndNote 8 (xml)
• RefWorks Tagged
• Ref Manager

• Tweet Widget
• Facebook Like
• Google Plus One

Jump to section

Related articles.

• No related articles found.
• Google Scholar

Cited By...

• Clinical and Practice Innovation Improving the Practice of Family Medicine

More in this TOC Section

• Recent Innovations in Primary Care Cancer Survivorship Roles
• Elastic Scattering Spectroscopy on Patient-Selected Lesions Concerning for Skin Cancer
• Telemedicine Adoption During COVID-19 Pandemic: Perspectives from Primary Care Clinicians in Safety-Net Settings

Similar Articles

• Washington State University

Social Studies

College of Arts and Sciences

Department of History

Department of Teaching & Learning

Gain a broad basis of historical knowledge by studying history, culture, geography, and political science.  

Degree Types:

Bachelor's

• Participate in undergraduate research guided by renowned faculty 
• Study abroad and internship opportunities allow you to apply your knowledge and gain experience 

Specializations

Teaching prepares you for a teaching career in secondary education in social studies.  

With a Social Studies degree, you can work in: 

• Public and private schools 
• Counseling  
• Coaching 
• Educational administration 
• Community organization

Transfer Students

WSU accepts credit from Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, and CLEP exams, associate degrees, Running Start and more.  

You’re considered a transfer student at WSU if you’ve received college credit post-high school.  

Use our Transfer Course Search Tool to determine what courses you need to take at your current institution to transition to WSU smoothly. 

Admission to WSU and admission to your desired major are two separate processes. Contact your academic department for specific requirements and prerequisites unique to your major.   

Scholarships

Complete the General Scholarship Application to be eligible for 700+ WSU scholarship programs, including ones specifically for a major you’re interested in. Use our search tool to find more scholarships outside WSU.  

Fill out the FAFSA (Free Application for Federal Student Aid) or WASFA (Washington Application for State Financial Aid) to be considered for scholarships, grants, loans, and other forms of aid. 

Internships, Jobs, and Work-study

Find hundreds of student-friendly jobs, internships, and work-study opportunities with our WSU student job board, Handshake. You can also check with departments for internships specific to a major. 

Get advice and learn more at the Academic Success and Career Center.  

Dig Deeper Find out more about a degree in Social Studies

Degree Options

Bachelor of arts in social studies: education option.

Contact your personal admission counselor

• rep.wsu.edu
• [email protected]
• 888-GO-TO-WSU (888-468-6978)

Related Degrees & Majors

Anthropology

Comparative Ethnic Studies

Criminal Justice and Criminology

Human Biology

Human Development

Political Science

Social Sciences

Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies 

Still undecided not sure what to study.

Request Information

* Required field

Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper: Writing a Case Study

• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Reading Research Effectively
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• What Is Scholarly vs. Popular?
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Annotated Bibliography
• Dealing with Nervousness
• Using Visual Aids
• Grading Someone Else's Paper
• Types of Structured Group Activities
• Group Project Survival Skills
• Multiple Book Review Essay
• Reviewing Collected Essays
• Writing a Case Study
• About Informed Consent
• Writing Field Notes
• Writing a Policy Memo
• Writing a Research Proposal
• Bibliography

The term case study refers to both a method of analysis and a specific research design for examining a problem, both of which are used in most circumstances to generalize across populations. This tab focuses on the latter--how to design and organize a research paper in the social sciences that analyzes a specific case.

A case study research paper examines a person, place, event, phenomenon, or other type of subject of analysis in order to extrapolate  key themes and results that help predict future trends, illuminate previously hidden issues that can be applied to practice, and/or provide a means for understanding an important research problem with greater clarity. A case study paper usually examines a single subject of analysis, but case study papers can also be designed as a comparative investigation that shows relationships between two or among more than two subjects. The methods used to study a case can rest within a quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method investigative paradigm.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010 ; “What is a Case Study?” In Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London: SAGE, 2010.

How to Approach Writing a Case Study Research Paper

General information about how to choose a topic to investigate can be found under the " Choosing a Research Problem " tab in this writing guide. Review this page because it may help you identify a subject of analysis that can be investigated using a single case study design.

However, identifying a case to investigate involves more than choosing the research problem . A case study encompasses a problem contextualized around the application of in-depth analysis, interpretation, and discussion, often resulting in specific recommendations for action or for improving existing conditions. As Seawright and Gerring note, practical considerations such as time and access to information can influence case selection, but these issues should not be the sole factors used in describing the methodological justification for identifying a particular case to study. Given this, selecting a case includes considering the following:

• Does the case represent an unusual or atypical example of a research problem that requires more in-depth analysis? Cases often represent a topic that rests on the fringes of prior investigations because the case may provide new ways of understanding the research problem. For example, if the research problem is to identify strategies to improve policies that support girl's access to secondary education in predominantly Muslim nations, you could consider using Azerbaijan as a case study rather than selecting a more obvious nation in the Middle East. Doing so may reveal important new insights into recommending how governments in other predominantly Muslim nations can formulate policies that support improved access to education for girls.
• Does the case provide important insight or illuminate a previously hidden problem? In-depth analysis of a case can be based on the hypothesis that the case study will reveal trends or issues that have not been exposed in prior research or will reveal new and important implications for practice. For example, anecdotal evidence may suggest drug use among homeless veterans is related to their patterns of travel throughout the day. Assuming prior studies have not looked at individual travel choices as a way to study access to illicit drug use, a case study that observes a homeless veteran could reveal how issues of personal mobility choices facilitate regular access to illicit drugs. Note that it is important to conduct a thorough literature review to ensure that your assumption about the need to reveal new insights or previously hidden problems is valid and evidence-based.
• Does the case challenge and offer a counter-point to prevailing assumptions? Over time, research on any given topic can fall into a trap of developing assumptions based on outdated studies that are still applied to new or changing conditions or the idea that something should simply be accepted as "common sense," even though the issue has not been thoroughly tested in practice. A case may offer you an opportunity to gather evidence that challenges prevailing assumptions about a research problem and provide a new set of recommendations applied to practice that have not been tested previously. For example, perhaps there has been a long practice among scholars to apply a particular theory in explaining the relationship between two subjects of analysis. Your case could challenge this assumption by applying an innovative theoretical framework [perhaps borrowed from another discipline] to the study a case in order to explore whether this approach offers new ways of understanding the research problem. Taking a contrarian stance is one of the most important ways that new knowledge and understanding develops from existing literature.
• Does the case provide an opportunity to pursue action leading to the resolution of a problem? Another way to think about choosing a case to study is to consider how the results from investigating a particular case may result in findings that reveal ways in which to resolve an existing or emerging problem. For example, studying the case of an unforeseen incident, such as a fatal accident at a railroad crossing, can reveal hidden issues that could be applied to preventative measures that contribute to reducing the chance of accidents in the future. In this example, a case study investigating the accident could lead to a better understanding of where to strategically locate additional signals at other railroad crossings in order to better warn drivers of an approaching train, particularly when visibility is hindered by heavy rain, fog, or at night.
• Does the case offer a new direction in future research? A case study can be used as a tool for exploratory research that points to a need for further examination of the research problem. A case can be used when there are few studies that help predict an outcome or that establish a clear understanding about how best to proceed in addressing a problem. For example, after conducting a thorough literature review [very important!], you discover that little research exists showing the ways in which women contribute to promoting water conservation in rural communities of Uganda. A case study of how women contribute to saving water in a particular village can lay the foundation for understanding the need for more thorough research that documents how women in their roles as cooks and family caregivers think about water as a valuable resource within their community throughout rural regions of east Africa. The case could also point to the need for scholars to apply feminist theories of work and family to the issue of water conservation.

Eisenhardt, Kathleen M. “Building Theories from Case Study Research.” Academy of Management Review 14 (October 1989): 532-550; Emmel, Nick. Sampling and Choosing Cases in Qualitative Research: A Realist Approach . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2013; Gerring, John. “What Is a Case Study and What Is It Good for?” American Political Science Review 98 (May 2004): 341-354; Mills, Albert J. , Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Seawright, Jason and John Gerring. "Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research." Political Research Quarterly 61 (June 2008): 294-308.

Structure and Writing Style

The purpose of a paper in the social sciences designed around a case study is to thoroughly investigate a subject of analysis in order to reveal a new understanding about the research problem and, in so doing, contributing new knowledge to what is already known from previous studies. In applied social sciences disciplines [e.g., education, social work, public administration, etc.], case studies may also be used to reveal best practices, highlight key programs, or investigate interesting aspects of professional work. In general, the structure of a case study research paper is not all that different from a standard college-level research paper. However, there are subtle differences you should be aware of. Here are the key elements to organizing and writing a case study research paper.

I.  Introduction

As with any research paper, your introduction should serve as a roadmap for your readers to ascertain the scope and purpose of your study . The introduction to a case study research paper, however, should not only describe the research problem and its significance, but you should also succinctly describe why the case is being used and how it relates to addressing the problem. The two elements should be linked. With this in mind, a good introduction answers these four questions:

• What was I studying? Describe the research problem and describe the subject of analysis you have chosen to address the problem. Explain how they are linked and what elements of the case will help to expand knowledge and understanding about the problem.
• Why was this topic important to investigate? Describe the significance of the research problem and state why a case study design and the subject of analysis that the paper is designed around is appropriate in addressing the problem.
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study? Provide background that helps lead the reader into the more in-depth literature review to follow. If applicable, summarize prior case study research applied to the research problem and why it fails to adequately address the research problem. Describe why your case will be useful. If no prior case studies have been used to address the research problem, explain why you have selected this subject of analysis.
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding? Explain why your case study will be suitable in helping to expand knowledge and understanding about the research problem.

Each of these questions should be addressed in no more than a few paragraphs. Exceptions to this can be when you are addressing a complex research problem or subject of analysis that requires more in-depth background information.

II.  Literature Review

The literature review for a case study research paper is generally structured the same as it is for any college-level research paper. The difference, however, is that the literature review is focused on providing background information and  enabling historical interpretation of the subject of analysis in relation to the research problem the case is intended to address . This includes synthesizing studies that help to:

• Place relevant works in the context of their contribution to understanding the case study being investigated . This would include summarizing studies that have used a similar subject of analysis to investigate the research problem. If there is literature using the same or a very similar case to study, you need to explain why duplicating past research is important [e.g., conditions have changed; prior studies were conducted long ago, etc.].
• Describe the relationship each work has to the others under consideration that informs the reader why this case is applicable . Your literature review should include a description of any works that support using the case to study the research problem and the underlying research questions.
• Identify new ways to interpret prior research using the case study . If applicable, review any research that has examined the research problem using a different research design. Explain how your case study design may reveal new knowledge or a new perspective or that can redirect research in an important new direction.
• Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies . This refers to synthesizing any literature that points to unresolved issues of concern about the research problem and describing how the subject of analysis that forms the case study can help resolve these existing contradictions.
• Point the way in fulfilling a need for additional research . Your review should examine any literature that lays a foundation for understanding why your case study design and the subject of analysis around which you have designed your study may reveal a new way of approaching the research problem or offer a perspective that points to the need for additional research.
• Expose any gaps that exist in the literature that the case study could help to fill . Summarize any literature that not only shows how your subject of analysis contributes to understanding the research problem, but how your case contributes to a new way of understanding the problem that prior research has failed to do.
• Locate your own research within the context of existing literature [very important!] . Collectively, your literature review should always place your case study within the larger domain of prior research about the problem. The overarching purpose of reviewing pertinent literature in a case study paper is to demonstrate that you have thoroughly identified and synthesized prior studies in the context of explaining the relevance of the case in addressing the research problem.

III.  Method

In this section, you explain why you selected a particular subject of analysis to study and the strategy you used to identify and ultimately decide that your case was appropriate in addressing the research problem. The way you describe the methods used varies depending on the type of subject of analysis that frames your case study.

If your subject of analysis is an incident or event . In the social and behavioral sciences, the event or incident that represents the case to be studied is usually bounded by time and place, with a clear beginning and end and with an identifiable location or position relative to its surroundings. The subject of analysis can be a rare or critical event or it can focus on a typical or regular event. The purpose of studying a rare event is to illuminate new ways of thinking about the broader research problem or to test a hypothesis. Critical incident case studies must describe the method by which you identified the event and explain the process by which you determined the validity of this case to inform broader perspectives about the research problem or to reveal new findings. However, the event does not have to be a rare or uniquely significant to support new thinking about the research problem or to challenge an existing hypothesis. For example, Walo, Bull, and Breen conducted a case study to identify and evaluate the direct and indirect economic benefits and costs of a local sports event in the City of Lismore, New South Wales, Australia. The purpose of their study was to provide new insights from measuring the impact of a typical local sports event that prior studies could not measure well because they focused on large "mega-events." Whether the event is rare or not, the methods section should include an explanation of the following characteristics of the event: a) when did it take place; b) what were the underlying circumstances leading to the event; c) what were the consequences of the event.

If your subject of analysis is a person. Explain why you selected this particular individual to be studied and describe what experience he or she has had that provides an opportunity to advance new understandings about the research problem. Mention any background about this person which might help the reader understand the significance of his/her experiences that make them worthy of study. This includes describing the relationships this person has had with other people, institutions, and/or events that support using him or her as the subject for a case study research paper. It is particularly important to differentiate the person as the subject of analysis from others and to succinctly explain how the person relates to examining the research problem.

If your subject of analysis is a place. In general, a case study that investigates a place suggests a subject of analysis that is unique or special in some way and that this uniqueness can be used to build new understanding or knowledge about the research problem. A case study of a place must not only describe its various attributes relevant to the research problem [e.g., physical, social, cultural, economic, political, etc.], but you must state the method by which you determined that this place will illuminate new understandings about the research problem. It is also important to articulate why a particular place as the case for study is being used if similar places also exist [i.e., if you are studying patterns of homeless encampments of veterans in open spaces, why study Echo Park in Los Angeles rather than Griffith Park?]. If applicable, describe what type of human activity involving this place makes it a good choice to study [e.g., prior research reveals Echo Park has more homeless veterans].

If your subject of analysis is a phenomenon. A phenomenon refers to a fact, occurrence, or circumstance that can be studied or observed but with the cause or explanation to be in question. In this sense, a phenomenon that forms your subject of analysis can encompass anything that can be observed or presumed to exist but is not fully understood. In the social and behavioral sciences, the case usually focuses on human interaction within a complex physical, social, economic, cultural, or political system. For example, the phenomenon could be the observation that many vehicles used by ISIS fighters are small trucks with English language advertisements on them. The research problem could be that ISIS fighters are difficult to combat because they are highly mobile. The research questions could be how and by what means are these vehicles used by ISIS being supplied to the militants and how might supply lines to these vehicles be cut? How might knowing the suppliers of these trucks from overseas reveal larger networks of collaborators and financial support? A case study of a phenomenon most often encompasses an in-depth analysis of a cause and effect that is grounded in an interactive relationship between people and their environment in some way.

NOTE:   The choice of the case or set of cases to study cannot appear random. Evidence that supports the method by which you identified and chose your subject of analysis should be linked to the findings from the literature review. Be sure to cite any prior studies that helped you determine that the case you chose was appropriate for investigating the research problem.

IV.  Discussion

The main elements of your discussion section are generally the same as any research paper, but centered around interpreting and drawing conclusions about the key findings from your case study. Note that a general social sciences research paper may contain a separate section to report findings. However, in a paper designed around a case study, it is more common to combine a description of the findings with the discussion about their implications. The objectives of your discussion section should include the following:

Reiterate the Research Problem/State the Major Findings Briefly reiterate the research problem you are investigating and explain why the subject of analysis around which you designed the case study were used. You should then describe the findings revealed from your study of the case using direct, declarative, and succinct proclamation of the study results. Highlight any findings that were unexpected or especially profound.

Explain the Meaning of the Findings and Why They are Important Systematically explain the meaning of your case study findings and why you believe they are important. Begin this part of the section by repeating what you consider to be your most important or surprising finding first, then systematically review each finding. Be sure to thoroughly extrapolate what your analysis of the case can tell the reader about situations or conditions beyond the actual case that was studied while, at the same time, being careful not to misconstrue or conflate a finding that undermines the external validity of your conclusions.

Relate the Findings to Similar Studies No study in the social sciences is so novel or possesses such a restricted focus that it has absolutely no relation to previously published research. The discussion section should relate your case study results to those found in other studies, particularly if questions raised from prior studies served as the motivation for choosing your subject of analysis. This is important because comparing and contrasting the findings of other studies helps to support the overall importance of your results and it highlights how and in what ways your case study design and the subject of analysis differs from prior research about the topic.

Consider Alternative Explanations of the Findings It is important to remember that the purpose of social science research is to discover and not to prove. When writing the discussion section, you should carefully consider all possible explanations for the case study results, rather than just those that fit your hypothesis or prior assumptions and biases. Be alert to what the in-depth analysis of the case may reveal about the research problem, including offering a contrarian perspective to what scholars have stated in prior research.

Acknowledge the Study's Limitations You can state the study's limitations in the conclusion section of your paper but describing the limitations of your subject of analysis in the discussion section provides an opportunity to identify the limitations and explain why they are not significant. This part of the discussion section should also note any unanswered questions or issues your case study could not address. More detailed information about how to document any limitations to your research can be found here .

Suggest Areas for Further Research Although your case study may offer important insights about the research problem, there are likely additional questions related to the problem that remain unanswered or findings that unexpectedly revealed themselves as a result of your in-depth analysis of the case. Be sure that the recommendations for further research are linked to the research problem and that you explain why your recommendations are valid in other contexts and based on the original assumptions of your study.

V.  Conclusion

As with any research paper, you should summarize your conclusion in clear, simple language; emphasize how the findings from your case study differs from or supports prior research and why. Do not simply reiterate the discussion section. Provide a synthesis of key findings presented in the paper to show how these converge to address the research problem. If you haven't already done so in the discussion section, be sure to document the limitations of your case study and needs for further research.

The function of your paper's conclusion is to: 1)  restate the main argument supported by the findings from the analysis of your case; 2) clearly state the context, background, and necessity of pursuing the research problem using a case study design in relation to an issue, controversy, or a gap found from reviewing the literature; and, 3) provide a place for you to persuasively and succinctly restate the significance of your research problem, given that the reader has now been presented with in-depth information about the topic.

Consider the following points to help ensure your conclusion is appropriate:

• If the argument or purpose of your paper is complex, you may need to summarize these points for your reader.
• If prior to your conclusion, you have not yet explained the significance of your findings or if you are proceeding inductively, use the conclusion of your paper to describe your main points and explain their significance.
• Move from a detailed to a general level of consideration of the case study's findings that returns the topic to the context provided by the introduction or within a new context that emerges from your case study findings.

Note that, depending on the discipline you are writing in and your professor's preferences, the concluding paragraph may contain your final reflections on the evidence presented applied to practice or on the essay's central research problem. However, the nature of being introspective about the subject of analysis you have investigated will depend on whether you are explicitly asked to express your observations in this way.

Problems to Avoid

Overgeneralization One of the goals of a case study is to lay a foundation for understanding broader trends and issues applied to similar circumstances. However, be careful when drawing conclusions from your case study. They must be evidence-based and grounded in the results of the study; otherwise, it is merely speculation. Looking at a prior example, it would be incorrect to state that a factor in improving girls access to education in Azerbaijan and the policy implications this may have for improving access in other Muslim nations is due to girls access to social media if there is no documentary evidence from your case study to indicate this. There may be anecdotal evidence that retention rates were better for girls who were on social media, but this observation would only point to the need for further research and would not be a definitive finding if this was not a part of your original research agenda.

Failure to Document Limitations No case is going to reveal all that needs to be understood about a research problem. Therefore, just as you have to clearly state the limitations of a general research study , you must describe the specific limitations inherent in the subject of analysis. For example, the case of studying how women conceptualize the need for water conservation in a village in Uganda could have limited application in other cultural contexts or in areas where fresh water from rivers or lakes is plentiful and, therefore, conservation is understood differently than preserving access to a scarce resource.

Failure to Extrapolate All Possible Implications Just as you don't want to over-generalize from your case study findings, you also have to be thorough in the consideration of all possible outcomes or recommendations derived from your findings. If you do not, your reader may question the validity of your analysis, particularly if you failed to document an obvious outcome from your case study research. For example, in the case of studying the accident at the railroad crossing to evaluate where and what types of warning signals should be located, you failed to take into consideration speed limit signage as well as warning signals. When designing your case study, be sure you have thoroughly addressed all aspects of the problem and do not leave gaps in your analysis.

Case Studies . Writing@CSU. Colorado State University; Gerring, John. Case Study Research: Principles and Practices . New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007; Merriam, Sharan B. Qualitative Research and Case Study Applications in Education . Rev. ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1998; Miller, Lisa L. “The Use of Case Studies in Law and Social Science Research.” Annual Review of Law and Social Science 14 (2018): TBD; Mills, Albert J., Gabrielle Durepos, and Eiden Wiebe, editors. Encyclopedia of Case Study Research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010; Putney, LeAnn Grogan. "Case Study." In Encyclopedia of Research Design , Neil J. Salkind, editor. (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, 2010), pp. 116-120; Simons, Helen. Case Study Research in Practice . London: SAGE Publications, 2009;  Kratochwill,  Thomas R. and Joel R. Levin, editors. Single-Case Research Design and Analysis: New Development for Psychology and Education .  Hilldsale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1992; Swanborn, Peter G. Case Study Research: What, Why and How? London : SAGE, 2010; Yin, Robert K. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . 6th edition. Los Angeles, CA, SAGE Publications, 2014; Walo, Maree, Adrian Bull, and Helen Breen. “Achieving Economic Benefits at Local Events: A Case Study of a Local Sports Event.” Festival Management and Event Tourism 4 (1996): 95-106.

Writing Tip

At Least Five Misconceptions about Case Study Research

Social science case studies are often perceived as limited in their ability to create new knowledge because they are not randomly selected and findings cannot be generalized to larger populations. Flyvbjerg examines five misunderstandings about case study research and systematically "corrects" each one. To quote, these are:

Misunderstanding 1 :  General, theoretical [context-independent knowledge is more valuable than concrete, practical (context-dependent) knowledge. Misunderstanding 2 :  One cannot generalize on the basis of an individual case; therefore, the case study cannot contribute to scientific development. Misunderstanding 3 :  The case study is most useful for generating hypotheses; that is, in the first stage of a total research process, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building. Misunderstanding 4 :  The case study contains a bias toward verification, that is, a tendency to confirm the researcher’s preconceived notions. Misunderstanding 5 :  It is often difficult to summarize and develop general propositions and theories on the basis of specific case studies [p. 221].

While writing your paper, think introspectively about how you addressed these misconceptions because to do so can help you strengthen the validity and reliability of your research by clarifying issues of case selection, the testing and challenging of existing assumptions, the interpretation of key findings, and the summation of case outcomes. Think of a case study research paper as a complete, in-depth narrative about the specific properties and key characteristics of your subject of analysis applied to the research problem.

Flyvbjerg, Bent. “Five Misunderstandings About Case-Study Research.” Qualitative Inquiry 12 (April 2006): 219-245.

• << Previous: Reviewing Collected Essays
• Next: Writing a Field Report >>
• Last Updated: Jan 17, 2023 10:50 AM
• URL: https://libguides.pointloma.edu/ResearchPaper

What Exactly is “Righteous Anger?”

“Do you do well to be angry?”

That’s what God asks Jonah in Jonah 4:4 after the prophet prayed an angry prayer. Jonah is sitting outside of Nineveh watching the city not get destroyed. And he’s hopping mad. He’s mad that they repented. And he’s mad that God relented from judging them.

The first time God answers the question Jonah doesn’t respond. At least not verbally. He built a shelter and sat down to watch. I’m assuming that Jonah wonders if his little fit moved the heart of God to destroy the Ninevites.

While out in the scorching heat, God provides for His stubborn prophet. A plant grows up and gives him shade. But then God decided to give mercy to a hungry worm. As that worm chewed up Jonah’s plant, the prophet once again becomes angry. When a scorching east wind settles upon the now exposed prophet, we hear another lament. Jonah wants to die.

God asks him another question. “Is it right for you to be angry about the plant?”

And then Jonah says it. “It is!” And in fact, God, “I’m so angry I wish I were dead.” I don’t want to live in a world where my plants die and those stupid Ninevites live!!! That’s what Jonah is essentially saying to the Lord. Jonah believes his anger to be righteous.

We can read this story and see that Jonah’s anger is unjustified. But I wonder if we read our own story through a similar lens. Is there such a thing as righteous anger? And if so, how do I know my anger is righteous?

Where Do We Find This Concept in the Bible?

You will not find the phrase “righteous anger” in the Bible. But we can develop this concept, at least when we talk about God, by combining a few things we know to be true. First, we know from Psalm 145:17 that, “The Lord is righteous in all his ways and kind in all his works.” Secondly, we can read in places like Numbers 11:1 that God’s “anger was kindled” against the Israelites for their foolish grumbling. If we combine this with a belief that God is always righteous — we are brought to the conclusion that God is righteous in His anger towards the Israelites.

We might say something similar of Jesus cleansing the temple in the Gospels. He is certainly righteous in this cleansing and it is clear that He is angry. Therefore, we see a human (yes, the God-Man) to be both righteous and angry. But can this be said of us who are not perfectly righteous?

Ephesians 4:26 seems to call us to anger. The NIV has softened this a little by saying, “In your anger do not sin.” But the original is an imperative. “Be angry” (ESV) isn’t an awful translation of an imperative. Many, then, take this to mean that we ought to be angry. Eugene Peterson in the Message even says, “Go ahead and be angry. You do well to be angry…” If that’s correct then I suppose there is a type of anger that is indeed “good” and righteous. Besides, Paul is just borrowing from David in Psalm 4:4 .

James 1:19-20 also tells us to be “slow to anger,” which doesn’t exactly say “never be angry.” Maybe there are some things of which anger is a proper emotional response. Maybe we do well to be angry on occasion.

If there is righteous anger, how do I know my anger is righteous? How do I know I’m not being a Jonah?

How Do You Know if Anger Is Righteous?

We must acknowledge from the beginning that our anger isn’t “righteous” simply because we feel justified in having it. Or that we can build a case for why we have been treated unfairly. Jonah could have done both of those things. Jonah was convinced that his anger was a good thing for him to hold onto. And Jonah was wrong.

We’re not the best judge of whether or not our anger is righteous. We are quick to be deceived. That’s why it is helpful to have at least some baseline biblical criteria for how anger could be righteous. I like the summary Robert Jones gives in his book, Uprooting Anger . He gives us three criteria:

• Righteous anger reacts against actual sin
• Righteous anger focuses on God and His Kingdom, Rights, and Concerns, not on me and my kingdom, rights, and concerns.
• Righteous anger is accompanied by other godly qualities and expresses itself in godly ways

We might say that Jonah would have been right to be angry about the sin of the Ninevites. Their horrible treatment of people and their defaming of God was worth Jonah’s anger. But when they repented and he was still angry, that tells us more was going on. He didn’t want their redemption. He wanted their destruction. Why? Because Jonah’s heart was really offended for his kingdom and not God’s. Therefore, his anger wasn’t accompanied by those other godly qualities. And he certainly was right to be mad at God for his little plant dying.

Compare this with Jesus in the temple. He’s angry at actual sin. They are making the temple a den of robbers. But it’s not even about them turning the temple into a Wal-Mart. The bigger issue is they are blocking would-be worshippers out of the kingdom. They are trying to make a buck off the poor and vulnerable. Jesus’ words echo the heart of Jeremiah’s complaint — the people are unrighteous and building their own fallen kingdom instead of one which honors God and creates flourishing for even the weakest members of their society.

Jesus is angry at this injustice. His anger isn’t about Himself (at least not in His humanity). Even here I think we could argue that His heart beats for the repentance of the religious leaders. He didn’t sit outside Jerusalem waiting for their destruction, He bled there in hopes they’d come to repentance.

All this to say, I think there is such a thing as righteous anger. I’m just not sure we fallen humans are capable of it. At times our anger might begin with mostly righteousness, but it quickly morphs into something else. I’m not confident we’re all that capable of righteous anger, nor am I convinced it’s a characteristic we are supposed to pursue. A closer look at Ephesians 4:26 will be helpful.

Does Ephesians 4:26 Really Teach Righteous Anger?

“In your anger do not sin: Do not let the sun go down while you are still angry.”

As you can see from some different translations of Ephesians 4:26 , there is some debate about how to handle the imperative in that verse. Is it a command to be angry? Or is it saying something closer to the NIV, “In your anger do not sin…”?

An indicative is a statement. “The trash is smelly.” An imperative is a command. “Take out the trash!” But sometimes an imperative can be what is called a concessive. Take as an example John 7:52 . Here the religious leaders are challenging people to go look at the Scriptures and see if a prophet comes from Galilee. The meaning is something like, “If you go check it out (imperative), you’ll find that a prophet doesn’t come from Galilee.”

Most Greek scholars believe that the imperative in Ephesians 4:26 is doing something similar. The main point Paul is making here is clearly that anger shouldn’t be maintained. I find it strange then that we would think this verse is encouraging people to pursue anger. “Pursue it, but drop it really quickly” seems like a strange command.

This is especially the case when we consider a few verses down we are said to “Let all bitterness and wrath and anger  … be put away.” Why would Paul command the church to pursue something, drop something, and then a few verses down say to put every bit of it away? It doesn’t make much sense in the context. Maybe it would be better, then, to say, “You’re going to get angry. But when you do. Deal with it before bedtime. Don’t nourish this thing.”

Keep Your Eyes on the Gospel

There is much more that could be said here but I’ll sum it up this way: Yes, there is such a thing as righteous anger. But I doubt this side of glory we humans fully experience it. Sin is far too mixed, even in the heart of those declared righteous by Christ.

My thinking on this is that there will be times when true righteous anger will bubble up when we see or experience an injustice. Some of our anger will have righteousness in it. But it will seldom stay there. As soon as we declare ourselves righteous, we tend to lose sight of the gospel. And when we lose sight of the gospel, well, bad stuff happens in our hearts.

The problem with a focus on righteous anger is that we’re usually trying to declare ourselves righteous. And when we do this, we put ourselves in the position of Jonah. We are prone to stand outside of Nineveh comforting ourselves with our own righteousness until we are confronted with the God of mercy. Jonah could have been celebrating inside Nineveh. He could have been swimming in an ocean of grace. He chose His self-declared righteous anger.

The anger of man does not bring about the righteousness of God. But the good news of Jesus does.

Source Robert Jones, Uprooting Anger , 29-30

Photo credit: ©Getty Images/ideabug

• News and Events

Participants needed for oxygen delivery study

Case Western Reserve University Associate Professor Michael Decker, PhD, is seeking healthy, non-smoking adults, 18–55 years of age to participate in a study to determine how oxygen delivered at a steady concentration or at a variable concentration may change how a person’s brain processes information. 

Study participation will last approximately seven days and involves four visits to Case Western Reserve’s main campus. 

• Baseline data collection and a blood sample will be collected at the first, 30-minute study visit. 
• Participants will be given a sleep/activity tracking device (Fitbit watch) to wear for approximately seven days and nights while completing questionnaires on sleep, activity, diet and fatigue levels. 
• Participants will breathe oxygen via a face mask for two hours during each of the next three visits—scheduled three days within a seven- to 10-day period, while brain activity is measured using electroencephalography (EEG). 
• After two of the oxygen exposure sessions, a blood sample will be collected.

Participants will be compensated. People who take daily medications for asthma, those with heart disease, lung disease or neurological diseases, or who are currently pregnant or attempting pregnancy, are not eligible. Contact Elizabeth Damato at 216.368.5634 or [email protected] for more information.

From Nazi propaganda to Holocaust denial, social media is pushing hate on users: study

The world’s biggest social media platforms are not just hosting antisemitic and hateful content , they are promoting it and making it easier to find.

That's the conclusion of two new studies, provided exclusively to USA TODAY, which found that Facebook, Instagram and X, formerly Twitter, steer users to tropes and conspiracies.

The result, researchers say, is fomenting dangerous ideas as antisemitic incidents in the U.S. surge to historic levels .

Released Thursday, the studies from the Anti-Defamation League (ADL) and the Tech Transparency Project (TTP) take a hard look at the powerful role of social media algorithms and search functions in recommending extremist content, particularly to young people. 

In one of the studies, researchers created six online accounts for fictional people on YouTube, Facebook, Instagram and X − four adults and two teenagers.

Three out of four of the social media platforms began pushing hateful suggestions, the study found. The more the accounts liked pages or followed accounts, the more antisemitic content they were shown. 

Nazi propaganda, Holocaust denial and white supremacist symbols shown to teenage accounts in study

Instagram, for example, served up Nazi propaganda, Holocaust denial and white supremacist symbols to one of the accounts belonging to a fictional 14-year-old.

One account recommended on Instagram featured a sonnenrad, a sunwheel symbol associated with the Nazi party, and a video interview with American Nazi Party founder George Lincoln Rockwell in which he proclaimed: “The main thing we are fighting for is the preservation of the white race.” 

Notably, the most virulent content on Instagram was pushed to the teenage account, but not to adults, the study found.  

Only YouTube, which has its own troubled history with extremism , didn’t surface hateful content.

"Over the years, we’ve made significant investments in the systems and processes that enable YouTube to be a more reliable source of high quality information and we continue to invest in the people, policies and technology that enable us to successfully do this work," YouTube said in a statement.

Facebook and Instagram owner Meta said in an emailed statement that hate has no place on its platforms.

"We continue to take significant action through our policies by removing harmful stereotypes about Jewish people and content that denies or distorts the Holocaust, while educating people about it with authoritative information," the company said. "We've made progress in fighting antisemitism on our platforms, and our work is never done.” 

X did not respond to a request for comment.

The findings come as antisemitism continues to spike and white supremacist propaganda has hit an all-time high across the country, according to the ADL.

An ADL survey earlier this year found the number of Americans who believe in antisemitic tropes has doubled since 2019. One-fifth of people surveyed by the organization believe in six or more ideas the group describes as anti-Jewish tropes, the highest level the survey has found in three decades.

Meanwhile, racist young “influencers” like Holocaust denier Nick Fuentes continue to attract new fans via online streaming platforms and social media.

Why do algorithms automate hate and antisemitism?

Algorithms are partly to blame, says Matthew Williams, founder of HateLab, author of "The Science of Hate" and professor of criminology at Cardiff University.

Social media platforms use these automated systems to suggest content for users and keep them on the platform longer. 

Williams says “algorithmic antisemitism” is driven by engagement metrics such as views, likes, shares and comments.

“Because extreme content, such as hatred in general, tends to capture the attention of users due to the evolved human proclivity to identify threats, such content racks up a lot of engagement,” he said. 

Hate is “sticky,” Williams said, “meaning it gets recommended unless humans step in to adjust the algorithm.” YouTube is one of the platforms that appears to have adjusted its algorithms, he said.

If YouTube can do it, why can't other platforms, asked Yael Eisenstat, ADL’s vice president and head of the ADL Center for Technology & Society.

Eisenstat says the findings suggest that social media platforms should be doing more to curb the spread of online antisemitism and extremism.

“I understand how complicated these things are,” said Eisenstat, who previously worked at Facebook. “It is still a business decision on what you will and will not prioritize.” 

Detecting hate and antisemitism on Facebook, Instagram, YouTube and X

Rooting out antisemitism isn't simple and requires more than technical know-how, according to Sabine von Mering, a professor at Brandeis University. What’s more, Nazis and other extremists play a cat-and-mouse game with social media platforms, resorting to codewords, emoji combinations or deliberate typos to evade detection.

“Whether it's human content moderators or AI, detecting antisemitism requires intricate knowledge of a long history of hatred of Jews,” she said. 

Antisemitism is so common in cultures around the globe that not everyone recognizes the memes for what they are, says Monika Hübscher, co-editor with von Mering of “Antisemitism on Social Media.”

If social media users show interest in topics related to Jewish life or the Holocaust, social media algorithms notice and suggest more content and that includes antisemitic memes that can be generated in seconds and then spread intentionally or unwittingly on social media, according to Hübscher, a PhD Candidate at the University of Haifa and research associate at the project “Antisemitism and Youth” at the University Duisburg-Essen.

Images generated by AI such as pornographic images of Anne Frank or a pillow fight in Auschwitz are also increasing on social media, she said.

Over time, the spread of conspiracy theories and tropes has created an environment where people feel comfortable expressing antisemitism, Hübscher said. 

“Because antisemitism is a cultural code we all learned, and are able to recognize and put to work, its algorithmically reinforced dissemination is very dangerous,” she said. 

Social media fueling hate and violence, not doing enough to stop it, critics say

Antisemitic incidents reached a new high in the U.S. in 2022, the ADL said in March, citing a 36% rise from 2021. 

A New Jersey man was arrested in November after publishing an online manifesto threatening attacks on synagogues. Two men were arrested in New York that same month on suspicion they planned to attack at least one synagogue in New York City. Last month, a jury recommended the death penalty for a man who shot and killed 11 people at a synagogue in Pittsburgh in 2018.

Natasha Zinda, an online content creator and activist, says social media platforms are doing too little to stop the rise in hate and violence that they are helping fuel. 

“We've seen the rise of white supremacist groups, we've seen how this is affecting and tearing apart our society at this point,” she said. “We've seen the amount of hatred, the amount of unrest, the rise in hate crime, the rise in everybody being more xenophobic and more outwardly racist. We've seen what's happening – the hateful laws being passed – we've seen the actual fruits of the labors that these people are putting in on social media.”

Social media companies know exactly what they’re doing when they allow hateful content to be easily found and shared, said Zinda, who is Black and has been targeted by organized racist attacks online.

Hate and extremism drives engagement on these platforms, and engagement means profit, Zinda said. That’s why multi-billion dollar tech companies haven’t addressed the problem, she said: it’s all about the bottom line.

“I think it's definitely intentional, and I think it's based off greed,” Zinda said. “I very much believe the system is working as intended.”

Facebook, Instagram and X recommended antisemitic content to all six accounts in study

Initially, the researchers who created accounts for fictional people searched for 50 terms, including conspiracy theories such as “flat earth” and “deep state” as well as “elites” and other terms commonly associated with anti-Jewish tropes. They also searched for public figures such as Microsoft co-founder Bill Gates and billionaire philanthropist George Soros who have been targeted by conspiracies and public figures who have posted antisemitic content such as rapper Ye, formerly known as Kanye West and YouTube star PewDiePie. 

The accounts also looked up popular topics with no connection to antisemitism or hate, such as internet personalities and video games. 

Three of the six accounts then interacted with the social media platforms, clicking on links and videos recommended by the site’s algorithms. The other three accounts did not click on recommended content, essentially serving as a “control” group for the study.

Facebook, Instagram and X all recommended additional antisemitic and hateful content to all six accounts. The accounts that clicked on related links were recommended ever-more extremist content at far higher rates than the control accounts, the researchers found.

Meta said the recommendations are not representative of what people see on its platforms. The study only analyzed content recommended to users who search for or click on antisemitic content and figures but did not examine recommendations to users who express no interest in such content. It also used newly installed operating systems and browsers whereas social media platforms target content to users based on their activity on third-party sites and apps.

The findings reveal the overlap of two longstanding concerns about social media: That platforms' algorithms thrive off engagement from users, and that the companies aren’t enforcing their own rules when it comes to hateful and racist content.

“The study’s findings undermine assurances from the three social media platforms − Facebook, Instagram and Twitter − that they ban hate speech and that their algorithms promote high-quality content,” the study concludes.    

A second study investigated the search functions on Facebook, Instagram and YouTube. 

Researchers searched on each platform for the names of 130 hate groups or movements gleaned from the ADL’s “Glossary of Extremism.” They found that all three platforms are hosting dozens of hate groups and movements, and concluded the sites make it easier to search for these groups because they predict what the user is searching for as they type the name in.

Facebook and YouTube also automatically created pages or channels for hateful accounts, including neo-Nazi and white supremacist music bands, the study found. 

“This completely upends this notion that they are just neutral pipes, it’s just third-party content and therefore they are doing their best but they are not actually responsible for what’s happening,” ADL’s Eisenstat said.