essay on trait theory of personality

Trait Theory of Personality: Definition And Examples

Sourabh Yadav (MA)

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The trait theory of personality is an approach to studying human personality through traits, such as extraversion, agreeableness, honesty, etc.

When somebody asks us about a certain person, then we usually describe them through traits: “She is a little shy” or “he is a perfectionist”. These traits are essentially habitual patterns of behavior, which make us who we are.

Starting from Allport & Odbert, various psychologists have come up with trait theories , some of which we will discuss below. But before that, let us learn about the concept in more detail and look at some examples.

Trait Theory of Personality Definition

Saul Kassin defines a trait as 

“A relatively stable predisposition to behave in a certain way.” (Kassin, 2022)

The trait theory was first developed by Gordon Allport, who felt that instead of searching for analytical explanations of behavior—as psychoanalysis attempted to do—psychologists must first learn to describe and measure the basic units of personality (Kassin).

So, Allport and Odbert searched through an unabridged English dictionary and compiled a list of 18,000 words that could be used to describe people. They then removed obscure words & synonyms, reducing the list to 4,500 words, which were further grouped into 200 traits.

For them, these traits were the building blocks of personality, and they were characterized by:

• Consistency: Traits are consistent over various situations. For example, if someone is talkative, they will participate more in conversations in all contexts: schools, offices, parties, etc.
• Stability: Traits are not simply transient states; instead, they are stable over long periods. So, someone who is a perfectionist as a school student will most likely still be a perfectionist later in their professional life.
• Individual Differences: Different individuals have different traits. They may or may not have a certain trait (say desire for fame). Other traits (like introversion vs extraversion) may have a spectrum, with individuals being placed at different points. 

Approaches to Trait Theory: Origins and Development

Various psychologists have attempted to develop trait theories, some of which include:

1. Allport & Odbert 

Allport & Odbert developed the first trait theory, and they categorized traits into three levels (1961).

Cardinal traits dominate and shape a person’s behavior, so much so that they seem to become synonymous with the person. These include the need for money, ambition, etc.

In contrast, central traits are less dominating, and they are present in all human beings to different degrees. For example, “honesty” or “intelligence”. Finally, secondary traits are very specific behaviors or preferences that appear in certain contexts, say being impatient while waiting.

2. Raymond Cattell

Cattell reduced the size of Allport’s list to make it more manageable and created a science of personality. 

He collected people’s ratings of themselves & others, and then put these numbers through factor analysis (a statistical technique that identifies clusters of correlating items). In this way, he found out that personality consists of 16 distinct units, which he called source traits (1978). 

Cattell believed that every human being has a unique combination of these traits, which is what distinguishes us from others (Kassin). These traits included dominance, perfectionism, self-reliance, etc. 

Cattell used these findings to create the Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (16PF), which yields 16 separate scores (one for each factor) and is one of the most widely used personality questionnaires. 

3. The Five-Factor Model and Eysenck

Later researchers further simplified Cattell’s work into the five-factor model, and Eysenck came up with a three-dimension personality model. 

With time, factor analysis became more sophisticated, and researchers realized that Cattell’s model could be simplified even further (Kassin). They then came up with the five-factor model of personality because it emerged consistently in studies across ages and countries.

These traits have been called the Big Five, and they include neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness . The five-factor model is also backed by scientists, who have found that genetic variations are responsible for personality traits (Vukasović & Bratko, 2015)

But Hans Eysenck felt that even five factors were too many. So, he created a three-dimension model, which included extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Eysenck also claimed that individual differences are biologically rooted: introverts have central nervous systems that are more sensitive to stimulation and so avoid intense sources of excitement. (1967)

10 Trait Theory Examples

• Extraversion: Although psychologists disagree about specific traits, they all agree that one of the most powerful dimensions is introversion-extraversion, which exists across all age groups & cultures.  An extrovert typically has many friends, likes social events, and is uninhibited. In contrast, an introvert has just a few close friends, shies away from stimulation, and acts cautiously (Kassin). Studies by Kagan and others have found that the rudiments of adult introversion/extraversion can even be seen in the predisposition of infants (1994).
• Neuroticism: Neuoriticism (sometimes also called emotional instability) refers to the tendency to have strong negative emotions, such as anger or depression. Neurotic people are more vulnerable to stress, and they often perceive ordinary situations to be threatening. They are also likely to be pessimistic about work and think less clearly (Fiske). In contrast, less neurotic individuals are calm and free from persistent negative feelings. 
• Psychoticism: Psychoticism is most clearly exhibited in aggressiveness and interpersonal hostility. This was one of the traits identified in Eysenck’s personality model, and it characterizes individuals who are usually anti-social, hostile, and even manipulative. Eysenck believed that higher levels of this trait made a person more vulnerable to psychosis (like schizophrenia) and that it was genetically inherited.
• Openness to Experience: People who are open to experience are intellectually curious, appreciate beauty, and enjoy trying new things. They have a greater art appreciation, which makes them more aware of their feelings and more creative. Often, they have unconventional beliefs and may engage in risky behavior.
• Agreeableness: This trait indicates a person’s concern for social harmony: agreeable people like to get along with others. They are trusting, helpful, and usually compromise with others. Agreeable people have good relationships with their team members and also make good transformational leaders.
• Conscientiousness: It refers to a desire to perform tasks well and take one’s obligations seriously . Conscientious people are careful, efficient, and organized in doing whatever they do. They are hard-working and reliable, but an extreme version of this trait may turn someone into a “workaholic”.
• Honesty-Humility: Honesty-humility is the tendency to be fair and genuine with others; it is one of the 6 traits of the HEXACO personality model. If you have a high level of this trait, you will avoid manipulating anyone, be unwilling to break rules, and have less concern for social status .
• Self-Esteem: How we view ourselves is called self-esteem. It is our sense of our value or worth, describing the extent to which we approve of ourselves. Self-esteem includes both beliefs (like “I am worthy of success”) and emotional states ( like pride ). Unlike the humanistic theory of personality , trait theory thinks we wither have self-esteem, or we don’t.
• Perfectionism: Perfectionism is a tendency to strive for flawlessness. It can be both external (being deeply concerned with evaluations of others) or internal (being self-motivated to be perfect). Perfectionism can often lead to adjustment problems like anxiety and depression.
• Rigidity: Rigidity refers to inflexibility and adherence to fixed patterns. Rigid people find it difficult to change their established habits & attitudes. They often also refuse to appreciate another person’s viewpoint.

Trait Theory Strengths & Weaknesses

The trait theories of personality help us conceptualize different personalities, but they often find it difficult to explain development changes and situational factors.

Various trait theories help us conceptualize different personalities. These can help us gain an in-depth understanding of a person, which is why employers often use personality tests in hiring. They often also examine one’s social media behavior to learn more about them.

The right kind of personality assessment can greatly help mental health professionals in helping their clients. Moreover, psychology students can use their understanding of human behavior in sales and marketing positions across the business world.

However, the trait theories also have their weakness. Earlier, while defining traits, we discussed how they are usually stable over time. But over a lifespan, people are bound to have personality changes: you may have been shy in high school and then become more confident afterward.

D.P. McAdams argues that trait theory fails to explain this dynamic nature of personality development. Moreover, critics also accuse trait theorists of focusing solely on personality traits. This makes them ignore the importance of situational factors, which often deeply influence behavior.

The trait theory of personality tries to understand humans by identifying and measuring traits, such as extraversion, agreeableness, etc.

Traits are habitual patterns of behavior, which make us who we are. Studying human traits can help us gain an in-depth understanding of a person, but it is also important to note that people grow over time and that situations also influence our behavior.

Competing Theories:

• Freud’s Theory of Personality
• The Humanistic Theory of Personality

Allport, Gordon W. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality (14 print. ed.). Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Cattell, R. B. (1978). Use of Factor Analysis in Behavioral and Life Sciences . New York: Plenum

Fiske ST, Gilbert DT, Lindzey G (2009). Handbook of Social Psychology . Wiley.

Hans Eysenck, (1967). The biological basis of personality . Springfield, IL: Thomas.

Kagan, J., Snidman, N., Kahn, V., Towsley, S., Steinberg, L., & Fox, N. A. (2007). The Preservation of Two Infant Temperaments into Adolescence. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development , 72(2), i–95. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30163598

Kassin, Saul M. (2022). Essentials of Psychology . SAGE. 

McAdams, D. P. (1992). “The five-factor model in personality: A critical appraisal”. Journal of Personality , 60(2), 329-361. Wiley-Blackwell.

Vukasović, T., & Bratko, D. (2015). Heritability of personality: A meta-analysis of behavior genetic studies. Psychological Bulletin , 141(4), 769–785. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000017 . APA

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Theories of Personality: Hans Eysenck, Gordon Allport & Raymond Cattell

Saul McLeod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

On This Page:

Key Takeaways

• Personality tests date back to the 18th century, when phrenology, measuring bumps on the skull, and physiognomy, analyzing a person’s outer appearance, were used to assess personality (Goldstein & Hershen, 2000).
• Beginning in the late 19th century, Sir Francis Galton, a British polymath (an expert in many fields) estimated the number of adjectives in the English dictionary that described personality. Louis Leon Thurstone eventually refined the list to 60 words, and through analyzing roughly 1,300 participants, the list was reduced again to seven common factors (Goldberg, 1993).
• Similarly, British-American psychologist Raymond Cattell developed a Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire, a 185 multiple-choice self-report questionnaire used to measure personality in both clinical and non-clinical settings.
• In the 1980s, after an almost four-decade-long hiatus, Lewis Goldberg and colleagues (1980) revived Ernest Tupes and Raymond Christal’s (1961) exploration of five major personality traits : openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (commonly abbreviated as the acronym OCEAN).
• This new model significantly contributed to the wide acceptance and increased popularity the five-factor model received.

What is this thing we call personality? Consider the following definitions, what do they have in common?

“Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristics behavior and thought” (Allport, 1961, p. 28). “The characteristics or blend of characteristics that make a person unique” (Weinberg & Gould, 1999).

Both definitions emphasize the uniqueness of the individual and consequently adopt an idiographic view.

The idiographic view assumes that each person has a unique psychological structure and that some traits are possessed by only one person; and that there are times when it is impossible to compare one person with others. It tends to use case studies for information gathering.

The nomothetic view, on the other hand, emphasizes comparability among individuals. This viewpoint sees traits as having the same psychological meaning in everyone.

This approach tends to use self-report personality questions, factor analysis, etc. People differ in their positions along a continuum in the same set of traits.

We must also consider the influence and interaction of nature (biology, genetics, etc.) and nurture (the environment, upbringing) with respect to personality development.

Trait theories of personality imply that personality is biologically based, whereas state theories, such as Bandura’s (1977) Social Learning Theory , emphasize the role of nurture and environmental influence.

Sigmund Freud’s psychodynamic theory of personality assumes there is an interaction between nature (innate instincts) and nurture (parental influences).

Trait Approach to Personality

This approach assumes behavior is determined by relatively stable traits, the fundamental units of one’s personality.

Traits predispose one to act in a certain way, regardless of the situation. This means that traits should remain consistent across situations and over time, but may vary between individuals.

It is presumed that individuals differ in their traits due to genetic differences.

These theories are sometimes referred to as psychometric theories, because of their emphasis on measuring personality by using psychometric tests. Trait scores are continuous (quantitative) variables. A person is given a numeric score to indicate how much of a trait they possess.

Eysenck’s Personality Theory

Eysenck (1952, 1967, 1982) proposed a theory of personality based on biological factors, arguing that individuals inherit a type of nervous system that affects their ability to learn and adapt to the environment.

During the 1940s, Eysenck was working at the Maudsley psychiatric hospital in London. His job was to make an initial assessment of each patient before their mental disorder was diagnosed by a psychiatrist.

Through this position, he compiled a battery of questions about behavior, which he later applied to 700 soldiers who were being treated for neurotic disorders at the hospital (Eysenck (1947).

He found that the soldiers” answers seemed to link naturally with one another, suggesting that there were a number of different personality traits which were being revealed by the soldier’s answers. He called these first-order personality traits.

He used a technique called factor analysis. This technique reduces behavior to a number of factors which can be grouped together under separate headings, called dimensions.

Eysenck (1947) found that their behavior could be represented by two dimensions: Introversion / Extroversion (E); Neuroticism / Stability (N). Eysenck called these second-order personality traits.

Each aspect of personality (extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism) can be traced back to a different biological cause. Personality is dependent on the balance between the excitation and inhibition process of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) .

Extraversion/Introversion

• Extraverts are sociable and crave excitement and change, and thus can become bored easily. They tend to be carefree, optimistic, and impulsive.
• They are more likely to take risks and be thrill seekers. Eysenck argues that this is because they inherit an under aroused nervous system and so seek stimulation to restore the level of optimum stimulation.
• Introverts lie at the other end of this scale, being quiet and reserved. They are already over-aroused and shun sensation and stimulation.
• Introverts are reserved, plan their actions and control their emotions. They tend to be serious, reliable, and pessimistic.

Neuroticism/Stability

A person’s level of neuroticism is determined by the reactivity of their sympathetic nervous system . A stable person’s nervous system will generally be less reactive to stressful situations, remaining calm and level headed.

Someone high in neuroticism on the other hand will be much more unstable, and prone to overreacting to stimuli and may be quick to worry, anger or fear.

They are overly emotional and find it difficult to calm down once upset. Neurotic individuals have an ANS that responds quickly to stress.

Psychoticism/normality

Eysenck (1966) later added a third trait (dimension) called psychoticism, characterized by lacking of empathy, being cruel, being a loner, aggressive and troublesome.

This has been related to high levels of testosterone. The higher the testosterone, the higher the level of psychoticism, with low levels related to more normal balanced behavior.

He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as individuals.

According to Eysenck, the two dimensions of neuroticism (stable vs. unstable) and introversion-extroversion combine to form a variety of personality characteristics.

Critical Evaluation

Twin studies can be used to see if personality is genetic. However, the findings are conflicting and non-conclusive.

Shields (1976) found that monozygotic (identical) twins were significantly more alike on the Introvert – Extrovert (E) and Psychoticism (P) dimensions than dizygotic (non-identical) twins.

Loehlin, Willerman, and Horn (1988) found that only 50% of the variations of scores on personality dimensions are due to inherited traits. This suggests that social factors are also important.

One good element of Eysenck’s theory is that it takes into account both nature and nurture. Eysenck’s theory argues strongly that biological predispositions towards certain personality traits combined with conditioning and socialization during childhood in order to create our personality.

This interactionist approach may, therefore, be much more valid than either a biological or environmental theory alone.

It also links nicely with the diathesis-stress model of behavior which argues for a biological predisposition combined with an environmental trigger for a particular behavior.

Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI)

Cattell’s 16PF Trait Theory

Raymond Cattell (1965) disagreed with Eysenck’s view that personality can be understood by looking at only two or three dimensions of behavior.

Instead, he argued that it was necessary to look at a much larger number of traits in order to get a complete picture of someone’s personality.

Whereas Eysenck based his theory based on the responses of hospitalized servicemen, Cattell collected data from a range of people through three different sources of data.

• L-data – this is life record data such as school grades, absence from work, etc.
• Q-data – this was a questionnaire designed to rate an individual’s personality (known as the 16PF).
• T-data – this is data from objective tests designed to “tap” into a personality construct.

Cattell analyzed the T-data and Q-data using a mathematical technique called factor analysis to look at which types of behavior tended to be grouped together in the same people. He identified 16 personality traits (factors) common to all people.

Cattell made a distinction between source and surface traits. Surface traits are very obvious and can be easily identified by other people, whereas source traits are less visible to other people and appear to underlie several different aspects of behavior.

Cattell regarded source traits are more important in describing personality than surface traits.

Cattell produced a personality test similar to the EPI that measured each of the sixteen traits. The 16PF (16 Personality Factors Test) has 160 questions in total, ten questions relating to each personality factor.

Allport’s Trait Theory

Gordon Allport’s theory of personality emphasizes the uniqueness of the individual and the internal cognitive and motivational processes that influence behavior. For example, intelligence, temperament, habits, skills, attitudes, and traits.

Allport (1937) believes that personality is biologically determined at birth, and shaped by a person’s environmental experience.

He categorized traits into three levels: cardinal traits (dominant traits shaping a person’s entire life), central traits (characteristics influencing behavior in various situations), and secondary traits (specific traits that have minimal impact).

Allport emphasized the importance of studying individuals holistically and understanding the complexity of human personality beyond mere trait labels.

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Personality Traits Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

The study of personality traits has always been a fascinating subject for researchers. In this personality traits essay, the author dives into the personality theories that explain an individual’s unique personality. From extroversion to conscientiousness, this essay on personality traits will explore the different elements that shape our behavior and interactions with the world. The paper aims to comprehensively understand the complexity of human personality and its impact on our daily lives.

Introduction

Research/theories.

Different individuals are characterized by different physiological and psychological characteristics or values. Collectively, these factors contribute significantly to the nature of the behavior of these individuals. The term personality trait refers to these intrinsic differences in individuals that remain outstanding and stable throughout the life of the individuals.

In many individuals these intrinsic differences remain a personal and constant aspect that explains why the individual behave or react towards situations the way the do. Personality theories explain that individuals have distinctive and characteristic behavior which remains distinctive throughout a variety of situations.

Humans are in one way or another compelled to articulating a certain behavioral pattern and to identify or note differences in the way other people behave. (Emotional Competency, 2009).

Personality trait theories try to explain the differences in behavior patterns that are displayed by different personalities in similar situations. They as well try to explain why individuals behave differently in such situations. An individual can be said to be cheerful, talkative, cold, compulsive, and intelligent.

It can be noted that these personality traits remains more or less consistent over a long period of time or probably they last over a life time. What brings continuity in a person’s behavior characteristic is described as his or her personality.

Lexical hypothesis has found it extended application in describing personality traits. According to the hypothesis, people become used to characteristic differences more and more until they finally get engrossed into their languages of communication.

The hypothesis argue that the more important a difference is, the more people will notice it and the more they will talk about it and consequently they will invent a word for it. (Emotional Competency, 2009).

Researchers extracted from a list of 18000 words and came up with the Big Five Personality Factors. There factors happens to be very similar to the Five Factor Model of Personality. These Five Personality Factors includes:

• Extraversion. Examples include talkative, extroverted, aggressive, bold, assertive, unrestrained, shy, quiet, untalkative and confident.
• Agreeableness. Examples include sympathetic, kind, warm, considerate, cold, unsympathetic, unkind, helpful, affectionate and truthful.
• Conscientiousness. Examples include organized, orderly, neat, disorganized, disorderly, careless and sloppy.
• Emotional stability. Examples include relaxed, unenvious, unexcitable, patient, moody, temperamental, touchy, envious irritable and self-pity.
• Intellect. Examples include creative, intellectual, imaginative, philosophical, unimaginative, uncreative, unsophisticated and imperceptive. (Emotional Competency, 2009).

As earlier stated, personality traits last for long period of time and in many cases they extend throughout the life of the individual. Sources have shown that it is these personal attributes that form integration web among our communities. In the process of understanding oneself, it becomes substantially important for one to understand, accept and apply his or her personality traits. (Emotional Competency, 2009).

Social unacceptability is connected to social inclusion or exclusion from certain social groupings. The issue of exclusion or inclusion is a major decision the humans as social animals have to take care of. An individual is either included or excluded from certain social entities.

A different approach on defining personality trait aimed at identifying descriptive nouns. From this research, there was development of the Eight Factor Model of Personality traits. According to this model, the eight factors that are a part and parcel of people personality tarts are; social unacceptability, intellect, egocentrism, ruggedness, delinquency, attractiveness, liveliness and disorientation.

According to this development, characteristic traits such as lawbreaker, alcoholic, rebel, comedian, speculator, daydreamer, tough, dummy, moron, poet, aggressor and many others were developed. (Emotional Competency, 2009). The above eight factors can be seen to correlate with people primal concerns as follows:

• Intellect refers to the level of enlightenment in matters that affect the community at large. The levels of intelligency place humans at different social orientations. Sometimes the level of intelligence is seen as the levels of evolutionary advancement and therefore distinguishes humans that belong to a certain generational grouping.
• Egocentrism on the other hand relates to lack of empathy and concern for others. It sometimes can be presented as a false self-image or someone being overzealous.
• The fourth factor, ruggedness relates to aggression, dominance and hunger to attain power.
• Delinquency is more or less similar to cheating. The importance and effectiveness of cheater detectors within the society cannot be overemphasized as explained in the theory of reciprocal altruism.
• Sex and procreating are bonded together in this sixth factor of personality trait.
• Factor seven is related to attracting attention. This factor is termed as important in attracting attention especially from mates of the opposite sex.
• Disorientation relates to reliability and competence of a person. (Emotional Competency, 2009).

According to the developed theories, personality trait understanding are very critical if understanding different behavior patterns that are displayed by different persons is anything to go by.(Emotional Competency, 2009).

It is therefore important to understand ones personal trait so that if there is anything negative about how e behave, one can consider the possibility of averting from it. This is necessary because some of these traits are detrimental in the way we live and relate with those who live with us. (Emotional Competency, 2009).

Emotional Competency. (2009). Personality Traits . Web.

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Big Five Personality Traits: The OCEAN Model Explained

“Who are you?”

It’s a simple enough question, but it’s one of the hardest ones to answer.

There are many ways to interpret that question. An answer could include your name, your job title, your role in your family, your hobbies or passions, and your place of residence or birth. A more comprehensive answer might include a description of your beliefs and values.

Every one of us has a different answer to this question, and each answer tells a story about who we are. While we may have a lot in common with our fellow humans, like race, religion, sexual orientation, skills, and eye color, there is one thing that makes us each unique: personality.

You can meet hundreds, thousands, or even tens of thousands of people, but no two will be exactly the same. Which raises the question: how do we categorize and classify something as widely varied as personality?

In this article, we’ll define what personality is, explore the different ways personalities can be classified (and how those classifications have evolved), and explain the OCEAN model, one of the most ubiquitous personality inventories in modern psychology.

Before you continue, we thought you might like to download our three Strengths Exercises for free . These detailed, science-based exercises will help your clients realize their unique potential and create a life that feels energizing and authentic.

This Article Contains

What is personality, personality research: a brief review, ocean: the five factors, the trait network, assessing the big five, a take-home message, frequently asked questions.

Personality is an easy concept for most of us to grasp. It’s what makes you, you. It encompasses all the traits, characteristics, and quirks that set you apart from everyone else.

In the world of psychology research, personality is a little more complicated. The definition of personality can be complex, and the way it is defined can influence how it is understood and measured.

According to the researchers at the Personality Project, personality is “the coherent pattern of affect, cognition, and desires (goals) as they lead to behavior” (Revelle, 2013).

Meanwhile, the American Psychological Association (APA) defines personality as “individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving” (2017).

However you define personality, it’s an important part of who you are. In fact, personality shows a positive correlation with life satisfaction (Boyce, Wood, & Powdthavee, 2013). With personality having such a large impact on our lives, it’s important to have a reliable way to conceptualize and measure it.

The most prevalent personality framework is the Big Five, also known as the five-factor model of personality. Not only does this theory of personality apply to people in many countries and cultures around the world (Schmitt et al., 2007), it provides a reliable assessment scale for measuring personality.

To understand how we got to the Big Five, we have to go back to the beginning of personality research.

Ancient Greece

It seems that for as long as there have been humans with personalities, there have been personality theories and classification systems.

The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates hypothesized that two binaries define temperament: hot versus cold and moist versus dry. This theory resulted in four possible temperaments (hot/moist, hot/dry, cold/moist, cold/dry) called humors , which were thought to be key factors in both physical health issues and personality peculiarities.

Later, the philosopher Plato suggested a classification of four personality types or factors: artistic (iconic), sensible (pistic), intuitive (noetic), and reasoning (dianoetic).

Plato’s renowned student Aristotle mused on a possible connection between the physical body and personality, but this connection was not a widespread belief until the rise of phrenology and the shocking case of Phineas Gage.

Phrenology and Phineas Gage

Phrenology, a pseudoscience that is not based on any verifiable evidence, was promoted by a neuroanatomist named Franz Gall in the late 18th century. Phrenology hypothesizes a direct relationship between the physical properties of different areas of the brain (such as size, shape, and density) and opinions, attitudes, and behaviors.

While phrenology was debunked relatively quickly, it marked one of the first attempts to tether an individual’s traits and characteristics to the physical brain. And it wasn’t long before actual evidence of this connection presented itself.

In 1848, one man’s unfortunate accident forever changed mainstream views on the interconnectivity of the brain and personality.

A railroad construction worker named Phineas Gage was on the job when a premature detonation of explosive powder launched a 3.6 foot (1.1 m), 13.25 pound (6 kg) iron rod into Gage’s left cheek, through his head, and out the other side.

Gage, astonishingly, survived the incident, and his only physical ailments (at first) were blindness in his left eye and a wound where the rod penetrated his head.

However, his friends reported that his personality had completely changed after the accident—suddenly he could not keep appointments, showed little respect or compassion for others, and uttered “the grossest profanity.” He died in 1860 after suffering from a series of seizures (Twomey, 2010).

This was the first case that was widely recognized as clear evidence of a link between the physical brain and personality, and it gained national attention. Interest in the psychological conception of personality spiked, leading to the next phase in personality research.

Sigmund Freud

The Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud is best known as the father of psychoanalysis , an intensive form of therapy that digs deep into an individual’s life—especially childhood—to understand and treat psychological ailments.

However, Freud also focused on personality, and some of his ideas are familiar to many people. One of his most fleshed-out theories held that the human mind consists of three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego.

The id is the primal part of the human mind that runs on instinct and aims for survival at all costs. The ego bridges the gap between the id and our day-to-day experiences, providing realistic ways to achieve the wants and needs of the id and coming up with justifications for these desires.

The superego is the part of the mind that represents humans’ higher qualities, providing the moral framework that humans use to regulate their baser behavior.

While scientific studies have largely not supported Freud’s idea of a three-part mind, this theory did bring awareness to the fact that at least some thoughts, behaviors, and motivations are unconscious. After Freud, people began to believe that behavior was truly the tip of the iceberg when assessing a person’s attitudes, opinions, beliefs, and unique personality.

Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung was influenced by Freud, his mentor, but ultimately came up with his own system of personality. Jung believed that there were some overarching types of personality that each person could be classified into based on dichotomous variables.

For example, Jung believed that individuals were firmly within one of two camps:

• Introverts , who gain energy from the “internal world” or from solitude with the self;
• Extroverts, who gain energy from the “external world” or from interactions with others.

This idea is still prevalent today, and research has shown that this is a useful differentiator between two relatively distinct types of people. Today, most psychologists see introversion and extroversion as existing on a spectrum rather than a binary. It can also be situational, as some situations exhaust our energy one day and on other days, fuel us to be more social.

Jung also identified what he found to be four essential psychological functions:

He believed that each of these functions could be experienced in an introverted or extroverted fashion and that one of these functions is more dominant than the others in each person.

Jung’s work on personality had a huge impact on the field of personality research that’s still felt today. In fact, the popular Myers-Briggs Type Indicator® test is based in part on Jung’s theories of personality.

Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

American psychologist Abraham Maslow furthered an idea that Freud brought into the mainstream: At least some aspects or drivers of personality are buried deep within the unconscious mind.

Maslow hypothesized that personality is driven by a set of needs that each human has. He organized these needs into a hierarchy, with each level requiring fulfillment before a higher level can be fulfilled.

The pyramid is organized from bottom to top (pictured to the right), beginning with the most basic need (McLeod, 2007):

• Physiological needs (food, water, warmth, rest);
• Safety needs (security, safety);
• Belongingness and love needs (intimate relationships, friends);
• Esteem needs (prestige and feelings of accomplishment);
• Self-actualization needs (achieving one’s full potential, self-fulfillment).

Maslow believed that all humans aim to fulfill these needs, usually in order from the most basic to the most transcendent, and that these motivations result in the behaviors that make up a personality.

Carl Rogers , another American psychologist, built upon Maslow’s work, agreeing that all humans strive to fulfill needs, but Rogers disagreed that there is a one-way relationship between striving toward need fulfillment and personality. Rogers believed that the many different methods humans use to meet these needs spring from personality, rather than the other way around.

Rogers’ contributions to the field of personality research signaled a shift in thinking about personality. Personality was starting to be seen as a collection of traits and characteristics that were not necessarily permanent rather than a single, succinct construct that can be easily described.

Multiple Personality Traits

In the 1940s, German-born psychologist Hans Eysenck built off of Jung’s dichotomy of introversion versus extroversion, hypothesizing that there were only two defining personality traits : extroversion and neuroticism. Individuals could be high or low on each of these traits, leading to four key types of personalities.

Eysenck also connected personality to the physical body in a greater way than most earlier psychology researchers and philosophers. He posited that differences in the limbic system resulted in varying hormones and hormonal activation. Those who were already highly stimulated (introverts) would naturally seek out less stimulation while those who were naturally less stimulated (extroverts) would search for greater stimulation.

Eysenck’s thoroughness in connecting the body to the mind and personality pushed the field toward a more scientific exploration of personality based on objective evidence rather than solely philosophical musings.

American psychologist Lewis Goldberg may be the most prominent researcher in the field of personality psychology. His groundbreaking work whittled down Raymond Cattell’s 16 “fundamental factors” of personality into five primary factors, similar to the five factors found by fellow psychology researchers in the 1960s.

The five factors Goldberg identified as primary factors of personality are:

Extroversion

Agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism.

• Openness to experience

This five-factor model caught the attention of two other renowned personality researchers, Paul Costa and Robert McCrae, who confirmed the validity of this model. This model was named the “Big Five” and launched thousands of explorations of personality within its framework, across multiple continents and cultures and with a wide variety of populations.

The Big Five brings us right up to the current era in personality research. The Big Five theory still holds sway as the prevailing theory of personality, but some salient aspects of current personality research include:

• Conceptualizing traits on a spectrum instead of as dichotomous variables;
• Contextualizing personality traits (exploring how personality shifts based on environment and time);
• Emphasizing the biological bases of personality and behavior.

Since the Big Five is still the most mainstream and widely accepted framework for personality, the rest of this piece will focus exclusively on this framework.

As noted above, the five factors grew out of decades of personality research, growing from the foundations of Cattell’s 16 factors and eventually becoming the most accepted model of personality to date. This model has been translated into several languages and applied in dozens of cultures, resulting in research that not only confirms its validity as a theory of personality but also establishes its validity on an international level.

These five factors do not provide completely exhaustive explanations of personality, but they are known as the Big Five because they encompass a large portion of personality-related terms. The five factors are not necessarily traits in and of themselves, but factors in which many related traits and characteristics fit.

For example, the factor agreeableness encompasses terms like generosity, amiability, and warmth on the positive side and aggressiveness and temper on the negative side. All of these traits and characteristics (and many more) make up the broader factor of agreeableness.

Below, we’ll explain each factor in more detail and provide examples and related terms to help you get a sense of what aspects and quirks of personality these factors cover.

A popular acronym for the Big Five is OCEAN. The five factors are laid out in that order here.

1. Openness to Experience

Openness to experience has been described as the depth and complexity of an individual’s mental life and experiences (John & Srivastava, 1999). It is also sometimes called intellect or imagination.

Openness to experience concerns people’s willingness to try to new things, their ability to be vulnerable, and their capability to think outside the box.

Common traits related to openness to experience include:

• Imagination;
• Insightfulness;
• Varied interests;
• Originality;
• Daringness;
• Preference for variety;
• Cleverness;
• Creativity;
• Perceptiveness;
• Complexity/depth.

An individual who is high in openness to experience is likely someone who has a love of learning, enjoys the arts, engages in a creative career or hobby, and likes meeting new people (Lebowitz, 2016a).

An individual who is low in openness to experience probably prefers routine over variety, sticks to what he or she knows, and prefers less abstract arts and entertainment.

2. Conscientiousness

Conscientiousness is a trait that can be described as the tendency to control impulses and act in socially acceptable ways, behaviors that facilitate goal-directed behavior (John & Srivastava, 1999). Conscientious people excel in their ability to delay gratification, work within the rules, and plan and organize effectively.

Traits within the conscientiousness factor include:

• Persistence;
• Thoroughness;
• Self-discipline ;
• Consistency;
• Predictability;
• Reliability;
• Resourcefulness;
• Perseverance;

People high in conscientiousness are likely to be successful in school and in their careers, to excel in leadership positions, and to doggedly pursue their goals with determination and forethought (Lebowitz, 2016a).

People low in conscientiousness are much more likely to procrastinate and to be flighty, impetuous, and impulsive.

3. Extroversion

It concerns where an individual draws their energy from and how they interact with others. In general, extroverts draw energy from or recharge by interacting with others, while introverts get tired from interacting with others and replenish their energy with solitude.

• Sociableness;
• Assertiveness ;
• Outgoing nature;
• Talkativeness;
• Ability to be articulate;
• Fun-loving nature;
• Tendency for affection;
• Friendliness;
• Social confidence.

The traits associated with extroversion are:

People high in extroversion tend to seek out opportunities for social interaction, where they are often the “life of the party.” They are comfortable with others, are gregarious, and are prone to action rather than contemplation (Lebowitz, 2016a).

People low in extroversion are more likely to be people “of few words who are quiet, introspective, reserved, and thoughtful.

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4. Agreeableness

This factor concerns how well people get along with others. While extroversion concerns sources of energy and the pursuit of interactions with others, agreeableness concerns one’s orientation to others. It is a construct that rests on how an individual generally interacts with others.

The following traits fall under the umbrella of agreeableness:

• Humbleness;
• Moderation;
• Politeness;
• Unselfishness;
• Helpfulness;
• Sensitivity;
• Amiability;
• Cheerfulness;
• Consideration.

People high in agreeableness tend to be well-liked, respected, and sensitive to the needs of others. They likely have few enemies and are affectionate to their friends and loved ones, as well as sympathetic to the plights of strangers (Lebowitz, 2016a).

People on the low end of the agreeableness spectrum are less likely to be trusted and liked by others. They tend to be callous, blunt, rude, ill-tempered, antagonistic, and sarcastic. Although not all people who are low in agreeableness are cruel or abrasive, they are not likely to leave others with a warm fuzzy feeling.

5. Neuroticism

These traits are commonly associated with neuroticism:

• Awkwardness;
• Pessimism ;
• Nervousness;
• Self-criticism;
• Lack of confidence ;
• Insecurity;
• Instability;
• Oversensitivity.

Those high in neuroticism are generally prone to anxiety, sadness, worry, and low self-esteem. They may be temperamental or easily angered, and they tend to be self-conscious and unsure of themselves (Lebowitz, 2016a).

Individuals who score on the low end of neuroticism are more likely to feel confident, sure of themselves, and adventurous. They may also be brave and unencumbered by worry or self-doubt.

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Research has shown that these factors are interconnected, and also connect with many other aspects of one’s life.

Because the Big Five are so big, they encompass many other traits and bundle related characteristics into one cohesive factor.

Openness to Experience

Openness to experience has been found to contribute to one’s likelihood of obtaining a leadership position , likely due to the ability to entertain new ideas and think outside the box (Lebowitz, 2016a). Openness is also connected to universalism values, which include promoting peace and tolerance and seeing all people as equally deserving of justice and equality (Douglas, Bore, & Munro, 2016).

Further, research has linked openness to experience with broad intellectual skills and knowledge, and it may increase with age (Schretlen, van der Hulst, Pearlson, & Gordon, 2010). This indicates that openness to experience leads to gains in knowledge and skills, and it naturally increases as a person ages and has more experiences to learn from.

Not only has openness been linked to knowledge and skills, but it was also found to correlate positively with creativity, originality, and a tendency to explore their inner selves with a therapist or psychiatrist, and to correlate negatively with conservative political attitudes (Soldz & Vaillant, 1999).

Not only has openness been found to correlate with many traits, but it has also been found to be extremely stable over time—one study explored trait stability over 45 years and found participants’ openness to experience (along with extroversion and neuroticism) remained relatively stable over that period (Soldz & Vaillant, 1999)

Concerning the other Big Five factors, openness to experience is weakly related to neuroticism and extroversion and is mostly unrelated to agreeableness and conscientiousness (Ones, Viswesvaran, & Reiss, 1996).

Openness to experience is perhaps the trait that is least likely to change over time, and perhaps most likely to help an individual grow . Those high in openness to experience should capitalize on their advantage and explore the world, themselves, and their passions. These individuals make strong and creative leaders and are most likely to come up with the next big innovation.

In light of these correlations, it’s not surprising that conscientiousness is also strongly related to post-training learning (Woods, Patterson, Koczwara, & Sofat, 2016), effective job performance (Barrick & Mount, 1991), and intrinsic and extrinsic career success (Judge, Higgins, Thoresen, & Barrick, 1999).

The long-term study by Soldz and Vaillant (1999) found that conscientiousness was positively correlated with adjustment to life’s challenges and mature defensive responses, indicating that those high in conscientiousness are often well-prepared to tackle any obstacles that come their way.

Conscientiousness is negatively correlated with depression, smoking, substance abuse, and engagement in psychiatric treatment. The trait was also found to correlate somewhat negatively with neuroticism and somewhat positively with agreeableness, but it had no discernible relation to the other factors (Ones, Viswesvaran, & Reiss, 1996).

From these results, it’s clear that those gifted with high conscientiousness have a distinct advantage over those who are not. Those with high conscientiousness should attempt to use their strengths to the best of their abilities, including organization, planning, perseverance, and tendency towards high achievement.

As long as the highly conscientious do not fall prey to exaggerated perfectionism, they are likely to achieve many of the traditional markers of success.

Extroverts are often assertive, active, and sociable, shunning self-denial in favor of excitement and pleasure.

Considering these findings, it follows that high extroversion is a strong predictor of  leadership , and contributes to the success of managers and salespeople as well as the success of all job levels in training proficiency (Barrick & Mount, 1991).

Over a lifetime, high extroversion correlates positively with a high income, conservative political attitudes, early life adjustment to challenges, and social relationships (Soldz & Vaillant, 1999).

The same long-term study also found that extroversion was fairly stable across the years, indicating that extroverts and introverts do not often shift into the opposite state (Soldz & Vaillant, 1999).

Because of its ease of measurement and general stability over time, extroversion is an excellent predictor of effective functioning and general well-being (Ozer & Benet-Martinez, 2006), positive emotions (Verduyn & Brans, 2012), and overconfidence in task performance (Schaefer, Williams, Goodie, & Campbell, 2004).

When analyzed in relation to the other Big Five factors, extroversion correlated weakly and negatively with neuroticism and was somewhat positively related to openness to experience (Ones, Viswesvaran, & Reiss, 1996).

Those who score high in extroversion are likely to make friends easily and enjoy interacting with others, but they may want to pay extra attention to making well-thought-out decisions and considering the needs and sensitivities of others.

Agreeableness may be motivated by the desire to fulfill social obligations or follow established norms, or it may spring from a genuine concern for the welfare of others. Whatever the motivation, it is rarely accompanied by cruelty, ruthlessness, or selfishness (Roccas, Sagiv, Schwartz, & Knafo, 2002).

Those high in agreeableness are also more likely to have positive peer and family relationships, model  gratitude  and forgiveness , attain desired jobs, live long lives, experience relationship satisfaction, and volunteer in their communities (Ozer & Benet-Martinez, 2006).

Agreeableness affects many life outcomes because it influences any arena in which interactions with others are important—and that includes almost everything. In the long-term, high agreeableness is related to strong social support and healthy midlife adjustment but is slightly negatively correlated to creativity (Soldz & Vaillant, 1999).

Those who are friendly and endearing to others may find themselves without the motivation to achieve a traditional measure of success, and they might choose to focus on family and friends instead.

Agreeableness correlates weakly with extroversion and is somewhat negatively related to neuroticism and somewhat positively correlated to conscientiousness (Ones, Viswesvaran, & Reiss, 1996).

Individuals high in agreeableness are likely to have many close friends and a good relationship with family members, but there is a slight risk of consistently putting others before themselves and missing out on opportunities for success, learning, and development.

Those who are friendly and agreeable to others can leverage their strengths by turning to their social support networks for help when needed and finding fulfillment in positive engagement with their communities.

Neuroticism has been found to correlate negatively with self-esteem and general self-efficacy , as well as with an internal locus of control (feeling like one has control over his or her own life) (Judge, Erez, Bono, & Thoresen, 2002). In fact, these four traits are so closely related that they may fall under one umbrella construct.

In addition, neuroticism has been linked to poorer job performance and lower motivation, including motivation related to goal-setting and self-efficacy (Judge & Ilies, 2002). It likely comes as no surprise that instability and vulnerability to stress and anxiety do not support one’s best work.

The anxiety and self-consciousness components of neuroticism are also positively linked to more traditional values and are negatively correlated with achievement values.

The hostility and impulsiveness components of neuroticism relate positively to hedonism (or seeking pleasure without regards to the long-term and a disregard for right and wrong) and negatively relate to benevolence, tradition, and conformity (Roccas, Sagiv, Schwartz, & Knafo, 2002).

The 45-year-long study from researchers Soldz and Vaillant showed that neuroticism, over the course of the study, was negatively correlated with smoking cessation and healthy adjustment to life and correlated positively with drug usage, alcohol abuse, and mental health issues (1999).

Neuroticism was found to correlate somewhat negatively with agreeableness and conscientiousness, in addition to a weak, negative relationship with extroversion and openness to experience (Ones, Viswevaran, & Reiss, 1996).

Overall, high neuroticism is related to added difficulties in life, including addiction, poor job performance, and unhealthy adjustment to life’s changes. Scoring high on neuroticism is not an immediate sentence to a miserable life, but those in this group would benefit from investing in improvements to their self-confidence, building resources to draw on in times of difficulty, and avoiding any substances with addictive properties.

Big Five Inventory

This inventory was developed by Goldberg in 1993 to measure the five dimensions of the Big Five personality framework. It contains 44 items and measures each factor through its corresponding facets:

• Extroversion;
• Gregariousness;
• Assertiveness;
• Excitement-seeking;
• Positive emotions ;
• Agreeableness;
• Straightforwardness;
• Compliance;
• Tender-mindedness;
• Conscientiousness;
• Competence;
• Dutifulness;
• Achievement striving;
• Self-discipline;
• Deliberation;
• Neuroticism;
• Angry hostility;
• Depression;
• Self-consciousness;
• Impulsiveness;
• Vulnerability;
• Openness to experience;
• Aesthetics;

The responses to items concerning these facets are combined and summarized to produce a score on each factor. This inventory has been widely used in psychology research and is still quite popular, although the Revised NEO Personality Inventory has also gained much attention in recent years.

To learn more about the BFI or to see the items, click  here to find a PDF with more information.

Revised NEO Personality Inventory

The original NEO Personality Inventory was created by personality researchers Paul Costa Jr. and Robert McCrae in 1978. It was later revised several times to keep up with advancements (in 1990, 2005, and 2010). Initially, the NEO Personality Inventory was named for the three main domains as the researchers understood them at the time: neuroticism, extroversion, and openness.

This scale is also based on the six facets of each factor and includes 240 items rated on a 5-point scale. For a shorter scale, Costa and McCrae also offer the NEO Five-Factor Inventory, which contains only 60 items and measures just the overall domains instead of all facets.

The NEO PI-R requires only a 6th-grade reading level and can be self-administered without a scoring professional.

Access to the NEO PI-R isn’t as widely available as the BFI, so you will have to dig around to obtain it.

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Personality is a complex topic of research in psychology, and it has a long history of shifting philosophies and theories. While it’s easy to conceptualize personality on a day-to-day level, conducting valid scientific research on personality can be much more complex.

The Big Five can help you to learn more about your own personality and where to focus your energy and attention. The first step in effectively leveraging your strengths is to learn what your strengths are.

Whether you use the Big Five Inventory, the NEO PI-R, or something else entirely, we hope you’re able to learn where you fall on the OCEAN spectrums.

What do you think about the OCEAN model? Do you think the traits it describes apply to your personality? Let us know in the comments below.

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The most widely used Big Five personality test is the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R), which contains a total of 240 questions (Costa & McCrae, 1992).

Yes, the Big Five personality test is generally considered to be reliable, with research indicating that the five dimensions of personality are consistent across different cultures and can reliably predict a range of behaviors and outcomes (Costa & McCrae, 2008).

A quick example of a few personality questions includes:

• Do you prefer spending time alone or with a large group of people?
• How often do you take risks or try new things?
• When faced with a problem, do you rely more on your intuition or your logical thinking?
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What our readers think.

I’m grateful for this,although Meyers Briggs has helped me out too. I took a short sample test & think I may have been too high in Openess, because I’m also high in C,E, A, as well as low in N. I should take the 240 questions.

To me the problem with the OCEAN model is that the Big Five have long lists of “positive” traits while the opposite has short “negative” traits. (See for example extroversion compared to introversion). I have noticed this in books on the topic as well. This seems biased to me as if some traits are preferred more than others.

This overview of the Big Five is the easiest to follow and comprehend for the not-so-psychology-educated psychology-interested person… Love it…

I agree with Mr. Bakker. This article leads me to questions I didn’t know I had! Thanks very much indeed.

There seem to be areas of the brain that become inactive, or drugged or damaged. It seems to me this topic is still trying to address mind/consciousness/soul? from a collection of factors that may intersect, have unions that are not exclusive. (not well expressed, sorry).

What part of the big five or the big five inventory can’t be attributed to genetics? How much of our personalities are inherited?

Interesting question! Research on the heritability of Big Five traits has shown genetic influence varying from 41-61% for each respective facet. This article outlines these findings nicely. If you are interested to read about the role of genetics in the manifestation of Big Five traits and the Dark Triad traits, then this article is also quite interesting.

I hope this helps!

Kind regards, -Caroline | Community Manager

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You all are such a ray of sunshine in this world; I always come here to read your arguments, and after I do, I can’t help but grin because not many people have taken the time to write something that is interesting to the people who are reading it.

Thank you for all the love, positive thoughts, and best wishes that are being sent your way.

After nearly twenty years of reading blogs, this is the only one I continue to read (and I do it without fail each and every day). What a wonderful experience it has been to “get to know” about this platform and all of the excellent stuff that you guys are providing. Thank you. Weldon and I want to encourage you to keep up the fantastic effort.

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Psychology Discussion

Notes on types and traits theories of personality.

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Notes on Types and Traits Theories of Personality!

The earliest attempt to categories personality was made by Hippocrates (400 BC).

He categorised people on the basis of four body humours and prominent personality characteristics associated with them such as:

Recently, psychologists have attempted to study personality in their own way. They have formulated various theories to explain personality.

These are divided into two types, viz., types and traits theories. Both these theories of personality focus on people’s personal characteristics. However, ‘type’ theorists and ‘trait’ theorists differ in the ways they use characteristics to describe people.

Type Theories :

Type theorists have explained personality on the basis of physique and temperament. Temperament refers to emotional aspect of the personality like changes in mood, tensions, excitement, etc. A ‘type’ is simply a class of individuals said to share a common collection of characteristics.

Three important ‘Type theories’ of personality are explained here:

CG Jung’s Classification :

CG Jung has classified personality on the basis of sociability character as Introverts and Extraverts.

Introverts are described as people who share characteristics such as shyness, social withdrawal, and tendency to talk less. Because of these characteristics these people appear to be self-centered, unable to adjust easily in social situations. They are not easily suggestible. They are future oriented, very sensible and rigid in ideas.

Extraverts share a tendency to be outgoing, friendly, talkative, and social in nature. They prefer social contacts, generous, sportive, and courageous.

They are happy-go-lucky persons and show interest in present reality than future. They express their feelings openly. Take decisions quickly and act upon quickly. They are not affected easily by difficulties.

There are only few people who are pure introverts or pure extraverts. The remaining majority of people possess both the qualities of introverts and extraverts.

Such people are called as Ambiverts. This classification was made by psychologists who came after Jung.

Ernest Kretschmer’s Classification :

German psychologist Kretschmer has attempted to correlate physique and character. From his studies on mental patients, he found that certain body types are associated with particular types of mental disorders. He has classified personalities into four types:

a. Pyknic type:

These are people who are short and having round body. They will have personality traits of extraverts. These people are more prone to suffer from a mental disorder called Manic Depressive Psychosis (MDP).

b. Asthenic type:

These people will have a slender or slim body. They will have the personality traits of introverts. These people are more prone to suffer from a serious mental disorder called Schizophrenia.

c. Athletic type:

These people will have strong body. They are more energetic and aggressive. They will be strong enough, determined, adventurous and balanced. They are comparable with ambiverts. They are more prone to suffer from MDP.

d. Dysplastic type:

These people will have unproportionate body and do not belong to any of the three types mentioned above. This disproportion is due to hormonal imbalancement. Their behaviour and personality are also imbalanced.

William Sheldon’s Classification :

Sheldon has proposed a theory of personality correlating temperament and body type. He has divided people into three types:

a. Endomorph:

These people will have soft, fat and round body, having predominance of abdominal region. They are sociable and relaxed (can be compared to pyknic type).

b. Ectomorph:

These are the people who are tall, thin and flat chested, having the skin, bones and neural structure predominantly. They are shy, reserved and self-conscious (can be compared with asthenic type).

c. Mesomorph:

These people are well built with heavy and strong muscles appear predominantly. They are physically active, noisy, adventurous by nature (can be compared to athletic type).

Traits of Personality and Trait Theories :

Traits are tendencies to behave in relatively consistent and distinctive ways across situations. These are the measurable aspects of personality. The most common way to describe people is to list these traits or qualities possessed by them. For example, friendliness, social, honesty, perseverance, submissiveness, dominance, etc.

The groups of personality traits are known as personality factors or dimensions of personality. Allport and RB Cattell are famous for their work on personality studies using traits.

GW Allport was the first person to adopt the trait approach against the type approach for the description of personalities. According to him the traits are the basic units of personality. Every person develops a unique set of organised tendencies called traits.

Allport has identified three types of traits—cardinal, central and secondary. Cardinal traits are primary and they cover all aspects of an individual’s behaviour and attributes.

Central traits represent few characteristics which can be used to describe a person such as kindness, honesty, etc. Secondary traits appear in only a relatively small range of situations. These are not strong enough like cardinal traits and hence they are not regarded as integral parts of one’s personality.

RB Cattell has identified two types of traits. They are source traits and surface traits. Source traits are the underlying structures or sources that determine our behaviour. Surface traits are influenced by source traits and are manifested in our behaviour.

Cattell, by adopting a method called factor analysis has recognised 16 ‘Source traits’ as building blocks of our personality. The ‘Sixteen personality factor test’ developed by him includes these factors. This test is widely used, because these personality characteristics can be measured and described more objectively.

Development and Organisation of Personality :

As defined—the personality is a dynamic organisation of various qualities including physical and psychological aspects. Personality is something that grows and develops as a result of interplay of biological, sociocultural and psychological factors. Because of the developmental process, the personality is subjected to change. That is why there are individual differences. What causes these differences? The answer to this question lies in the factors influencing the development of personality. These factors are classified into three categories:

Biological Factors :

These are also called as physiological factors which include endocrine glands, blood sugar and other externally imposed biological conditions. There are many endocrine glands which are situated in different parts of the body.

These glands produce different hormones. Normal secretion of these hormones promotes healthy and normal personality. Abnormalities in secretion like over or under secretions lead to im-balancement.

In addition to the biological factors drug dependence, alcoholism also affects personality. Dietary problems like—semi- starvation, vitamin deficiencies, diseases which are acute as well as chronic—like toxic and bacterial infection due to syphilis, encephalitis or such other diseases cause very severe damage to the personality development and functioning.

Sociocultural Factors :

The society and culture play important role in the development of personality. Among the factors which influence the personality— the influence of home atmosphere is very crucial. Parental behaviour will have greater impact on children.

Parental attitude towards children, pattern of care like over protection, over indulgence, rejection, negligence, encouragement, discouragement, their attitude towards life, relationship with friends and relatives all will affect the development. Number of children in a family, order of birth, peer group, school atmosphere also influences personality development.

Psychological Factors :

The psychological factors like intelligence level, motives, different interests acquired by the person, attitudes developed, will and character, thinking and reasoning abilities, perceptual ability, emotional development and such other psychological factors also influence the formation, development and organisation of personality.

Theories of Personality :

There are number of theories developed by psychologists to explain personality and its development. Each theory is unique and explains personality development and functioning in its own way. Some of the prominent theories are explained here under:

Psychoanalytical Theory :

This theory was developed by famous psychologist Sigmund Freud. This theory has three major parts: (a) The personality structure which includes Id, Ego and Super ego (b) Topography of mind and (c) Psychosocial stages of development,

a. Personality structure:

Freud constructed a model of personality with three interlocking parts: the Id, the Ego and the Super ego.

This is the most primitive part, develops with the birth of the child. It can be thought of as a sort of store house of biologically based urges: the urge to eat, drink, eliminate and especially, to be sexually stimulated.

The sexual energy underlies these urges is called the libido. According to Freud the Id operates on a ‘pleasure principle’. That is-left to itself, the id would satisfy its fundamental urges immediately and reflexively as they arose without regard to rules, the realities of life or morals of any kind.

This part usually develops from the school year of life of the child—as a result of social contacts. The ego consists of elaborate ways of behaving and thinking which constitute the executive function of the person.

The ego delays motives of Id and channels behaviour into more socially acceptable outlets. It keeps a person working for a living, getting along with people and generally adjusting to the realities of life. Freud characterised the ego as working in the service on the ‘reality principle’.

That is, the ego tries to satisfy the id’s urge for pleasure, but only in realistic ways. The ongoing tension between insistent urges of the id and the constraints of reality helps the ego develop certain skills to safeguard the self-image. These skills are called ego defence mechanisms

The Super ego:

This part of personality corresponds closely to what we commonly call the conscience. It consists mainly of prohibitions learned from parents and other authorities. The super ego may condemn as ‘wrong’ certain things which the ego would otherwise do to satisfy the id.

However, super ego is guided by ‘ego ideal’- a set of values and moral ideals that are pursued because they are perceived to be worthy. In other words the super ego operates on the ‘moral principal’.

Freud believed that because of the diverse nature of these three parts, there will be constant conflicts between one another, which leads to three types of anxiety, viz.

(1) Reality anxiety-arising when the individual is confronted by dangers or threats in the external world.

(2) Neurotic anxiety-arising when the individual’s Id impulses threaten to break through his ego controls and result in behaviour that will lead to his punishment and

(3) Moral anxiety- arising when the individual does something or even contemplates doing something in conflict with his super ego or moral values and arouses guilt feelings.

b. Topography:

It is understood that there will be constant conflicts going on between id, ego and super ego. These conflicts may occur in the conscious, subconscious and unconscious levels of human psyche. Freud refers to the unconscious, the subconscious and the conscious as the ‘topographical’ aspects of the self, also called as the level of consciousness. The functioning of these levels is as follows:

The conscious:

According to Freud the conscious part of mind is that part which is ready to receive the stimuli from the external world. It helps to perform the functions like eating, drinking, reading, writing, talking, thinking and such other activities and also helps us to behave in an appropriate way.

It will be functioning only when the individual is in a wake up state. At the conscious level we will be aware of certain things around us and of certain thoughts.

The preconscious:

This is also known as subconscious. At this level are memories or thoughts that are easily available with a moment’s reflection. For example, what we had for breakfast or what class was held today morning.

Preconscious will be functioning between conscious and unconscious parts. In character it resembles conscious to greater extent and will have better adjustment with it. Its contents can be recalled easily. It prevents the suppressed thoughts and other prohibited motives in the unconscious from entering the conscious part. Hence, it is also called as ‘Censor’.

The unconscious:

This part of mind contains memories, thoughts and motives which we cannot easily call up. It is the largest and also the powerful part of mind. It contains the natural instincts, thoughts inappropriate desires, irrational motives and painful experiences. All the experiences suppressed by conscious part will remain here. These forces will be trying to come to conscious part for satisfaction. But their entry is prevented by preconscious.

Hence, they try to come out when preconscious part is at rest. They appear in the form of dreams, or in the form of slip of tongue, slip of pen, automatic writing, amnesia, etc.

Freud has developed certain techniques such as free association, dream analysis, analysis of transference, analysis of resistance, hypnosis and such other techniques in order to bring out the contents of unconscious which cause mental illness.

Freud has compared these three levels to an ‘Ice berg’ in water. The conscious part will be like tip of ice berg which is above the surface level. Although that is the part we can see, it is only a small part.

The subconscious part, as a thin layer is separating the conscious and unconscious. The major part of the mind that is unconscious will be like a submerged big part of ice berg. The Figure 5.1 shows the topography of mind.

c. Psychosexual stages of development:

In his theory of child development, Freud described a succession of stages around body zones. In his opinion, every child will have an innate tendency to seek pleasure especially through physical stimulation and particularly through stimulation of parts of the body that are sensitive to touch: the mouth, the anus and the genitals. Such a pleasure includes many psychological issues also. Hence, these stages are called as psychosexual stages. These are:

i. Oral stage (birth to age one):

According to Freud’s theory, the infant obtains sensual pleasure first by sucking and later by biting. A baby given too little or too much opportunity to suck, or made anxious about it may acquire oral fixations, leading to abnormal behaviour like over talkativeness, dependency, chain smoking, etc.

ii. Anal stage (age one to age three):

This is a period of toilet training by parents. The anus becomes highly sensitive area. The child finds pleasure in holding on and letting go of feces. Parents try to teach to avoid such prohibited behaviour connected with excretion.

This leads to fixation causing abnormal characteristics during adulthood such as messiness and disorders such as excessive compulsiveness, over conformity and exaggerated self-control.

iii. Phallic stage (age three to age five):

During this stage the child’s interest shifts toward genitals. The child enjoys stimulating the genital organs. Freud believed that it is at this time the children develop sensual feelings toward the parent of the opposite sex.

Boys develop ‘Oedipus complex’, i.e. develop affection towards mother and in turn develop castration anxiety. On the other side, girls develop affection towards father which is called as ‘Electra complex’.

iv. Latency stage (age six through puberty):

During this period the child’s interest is shifted towards learning more about the world, sexuality is largely repressed and the ego expands.

v. Genital stage (adolescence and beyond):

Mature heterosexual interests develop during this phase. The stage is set for responsible enjoyment of adult sexuality. During this stage the sexual interests will lie outside the family circle.

Adler’s Theory of Striving for Superiority :

Alfred Adler was the follower of Freud, but opposed his views and established his own school of thought called Individual Psychology. Adler stressed on the social, rather than biological determinants of personality and on the upward drive of the self. In his view the prime source of man’s motivation is the innate striving for superiority by attaining perfection.

According to Adler, every child will suffer from some weakness which results in development of inferiority. But every child will try to compensate one weakness through some other ability. For example, a bodily handicapped child may work hard and get a rank in the examination.

An ugly looking girl may gain social recognition by becoming a famous singer. Inferiority feelings are thus essential requirements of psychological growth. Adler thought that under optimal circumstances of development, striving for superiority take socially constructive forms having to do with co-operative relationships with people, identification with the group and efforts to bring about the ideal society.

Jung’s Theory of Personality :

C.G.Jung was the follower of Freud, but due to difference of opinion established his own school of thought called ‘Analytical Psychology’. Jung opposed the views of Freud about psychosexual development during childhood.

On the other hand, he stressed ‘adult adjustment’ aspect. Jung felt that the libido is not only sexual energy but it is ‘continuous life energy’, a striving to live and insure the survival of one’s species. He called unconscious as ‘Collective unconscious’ and divided it as ‘personal unconscious’ and ‘racial unconscious’.

The personal unconscious is developed out of any of the individual’s conscious experiences that had been repressed.

Collective unconscious grows out of the past experiences of the human race. He said, collective unconscious will be stored with primitive fundamental images, impressions or predispositions that were common to earlier members of the human race. He called these images, impressions or predispositions as ‘archetypes’. He said these archetypes will cause emotion generated, behaviour.

According to Jung, the self develops as a result of harmonisation of conscious and unconscious and leads to unique patterns of behaviour. He called this process as individuation, i.e. every individual is distinct from others.

Jung has also proposed two concepts to explain nature of personality, viz., extraversion and introversion. He has also introduced a concept called ‘complexes’ which he defined as a ‘network of ideas bound together by a common emotion or a set of feelings’.

Karen Horney and Basic Anxiety :

Karen Horney concentrates mainly on ‘Basic anxiety’ as a prime concept to understand human personality. Basic anxiety according to Horney—stems from anything that causes insecurity in the child, especially in relation to his/her parents.

That is being dominated by parents, being inconsistently treated, being given too much or too little responsibility, being treated with coldness or indifferences, being involved in parental conflicts and so on.

The child tries to cope with this anxiety by various adjective and largely irrational acts. But if the anxieties are intense and prolonged, it develops neurotic behaviour and requires treatment. Horney stresses that the main cause of basic anxiety and other personality problems is the social and culturally induced disturbances in the child’s developmental experiences.

Sullivan and Interpersonal Relations :

Harry Stack Sullivan describes personality as the relatively enduring pattern of recurrent interpersonal situations which characterise a human life. According to him there is no personality apart from its relations with other people; all that is distinctly human is a product of social interactions from birth onwards and every individual is motivated towards achieving social and interpersonal security.

Therefore, according to Sullivan the study of personality is really the study of the whole interpersonal situation and not an isolated individual.

Erickson and Psychosocial Crisis :

Erik Erickson’s theory is known as Ego psychology. According to Erickson, as the individual progresses through his developmental stages, meets with psychosocial crises peculiar to each stage. It is psychosocial because, society has developed social institutions specific to each stage in an attempt to mould and socialise the individual as he progresses through these stages.

In Erickson’s scheme, there are eight psychosocial stages extending through the life span from infancy to old age. Each stage will experience certain conflicts called crises.

Among all the crises the ‘search for identity’ during adolescence is most powerful motive. Erickson also states that the individual develops a healthy personality by mastering inner and outer crises with positive solutions to life’s problems.

Theory of Learning and Personality Development :

Learning and conditioning in classical, instrumental and cognitive forms are highly relevant to personality and its development. Dollard and Miller used animal experiments to test human conflicts and repressions thus advancing social learning theory.

Albert Bandura and Walters extended social learning theory into the domain of observational learning. They said that observational learning or imitation generally takes place in a social situation involving a model and an imitator.

The imitator observes the model and experiences the model’s behaviour and its consequences vicariously (observational learning).

This process is called vicarious learning. For example, seeing that one child is punished by teacher for talking in the class, other child may stop talking. The observer himself will not experience rewards or punishments that are imposed on the model, but vicariously experienced them.

Skinner developed a method called ‘Learning by conditioning’ in which the individuals as a result of their experiences establish an association or linkage between two events. He used Instrumental conditioning principles to explain the ways in which environmental conditions as reinforcements influence people’s behaviour.

Humanistic Theories :

These theories are developed by two psychologists—Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Humanistic theories emphasise the importance of people’s subjective attitudes, feelings and beliefs especially with regard to self. Roger’s theory focuses on the impact of disparity between a person’s perceived real self and his ideal self that is, ‘how I am and how I would like to be’. Maslow focuses on the significance of self-actualization.

Humanistic theories believe that each person is potential enough to be creative and responsible, he is free to choose his destiny and every individual strives to fulfill his need for self-actualization or realizing his/her fullest potential.

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Theories of Personality

Reviewed by Psychology Today Staff

From Aristotle to Sigmund Freud and Abraham Maslow, countless theories and concepts for understanding personality have been proposed. Throughout history, these and other great minds sought to answer questions not only about what personality is and how best to describe it, but also what causes personality differences, including those that make people more or less functional and resilient.

Some theories are still being tested, while others have fallen out of favor. Some compete while others complement one another. A look at some major ideas in personality psychology, both historical and recent, offers a sense of the many ways to think and talk about this complex subject.

On This Page

• Five-Factor Theory
• Social Investment Theory
• Cognitive-Affective Theory
• Narrative Identity
• Psychodynamic Theories
• Humanistic Theories

Using the Big Five traits (or five-factor model) as a foundation, Five-Factor Theory proposes that the development of common personality traits is largely determined by biological factors, especially genetics. This view was inspired in part by research indicating that ratings on measures of personality are influenced by one’s genes and that other, non-genetic developmental factors (such as adoptive parents) seem to play a surprisingly small role.

The theory’s creators distinguish enduring personality traits from “characteristic adaptations,” such as attitudes or strivings, that are shaped by one’s innate disposition as well as external forces.

The theory was first proposed in the 1990s by psychologists Robert McCrae and Paul Costa Jr. McCrae and Costa also created the NEO Personality Inventory in the 1970s

Though they have similar names, the model (which is embraced by many researchers) is a way of describing how personality traits are organized—that is, into the Big Five personality dimensions. The theory is a way of explaining how personality traits develop and change. 

While personality traits are clearly related to genetics, one’s inheritance does not account for all personality differences. The environmental influences shared by siblings, such as a certain kind of parenting or childhood household, appear to play a minor part. Other factors, potentially many, must be at work.

One view, sometimes called Social Investment Theory, proposes that individuals’ personal investment in new social roles, such as by becoming a spouse or starting a job, helps explain personality development and change over time. In new roles, people are exposed to costs and benefits of behaving in certain ways, potentially shifting a person’s way of being over time—even given that the person’s personality is influenced by genetics.

Multiple researchers have helped develop it. One proponent is psychologist Brent Roberts, who with colleagues in the ’00s, wrote about a “social investment principle." (They have also called their concept the Neo-Socioanalytic Model.)

In a new job, one may be rewarded for being punctual and putting in work to complete tasks, or incentivized to get along with others. Interpersonal or familial roles, such as being in a new relationship, may also affect personality traits.

Yes: The social investment view suggests that people with certain traits will be more drawn to and more likely to invest in certain kinds of roles. The experience of inhabiting those roles may in turn influence their personality, potentially by reinforcing existing tendencies—for example, a conscientious person might choose a career that ultimately makes her more conscientious. 

Even someone who shows certain tendencies—to act aggressively or passively compared to others, for example—won’t necessarily behave the same way in every situation or kind of social interaction. (The authority of the person one confronts, or whether one is in public, may make a difference.) Some personality theorists have sought to weave situational factors into how personality is conceived.

In one theory, the cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS), “cognitive-affective mediating units” are thought to interact with each other and with the characteristics of different situations to produce the patterns of behavior that distinguish individuals. These “units” may include psychological factors such as an individuals’ expectations and beliefs, goals and values, and emotional responses.

CAPS was developed by psychologists Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda in the 1990s. They sought to resolve an apparent conflict between findings of both a level of consistency in individual characteristics and variability in behavior across different situations.

No. A person may be more aggressive, reserved, or energetic in some situations and less so in others. But across many different situations, the person may still tend to be, generally speaking, more or less aggressive, reserved, or energetic than other people are.

While traits are widely accepted as fundamental to personality, theorists often combine them with other elements as part of a multi-level view. Narrative identity is one of these elements. In short, some propose that the particular narrative details of a person’s important life experiences—and how the person relates them to each other and derives meaning from them—fills out the complex portrait of who one is compared to others. While each person’s self-composed life story contains countless pieces of information, researchers have tried to identify common factors that differentiate these narratives.

The psychologist most associated with narrative identity is Dan McAdams. In the 1990s, he developed a view of personality in which three levels coexisted: dispositional traits relevant to general tendencies; how one deals with challenges and tasks in specific contexts; and an identity based on stories about the self.

In a recent study, proponents of the narrative identity view offered evidence for a tentative “Big Three” factors: autobiographical reasoning, or change in one’s understanding of one’s self or past; structural aspects, including overall coherence of the life story; and motivational and affective themes, encompassing aspects like positive or negativity and sense of agency.

In contrast to modern trait theories, those rooted in psychoanalytic ideas have tended to emphasize the potential role of early development in shaping personality. Sigmund Freud , the father of psychoanalysis, described personality, in part, as comprising three components: the instinct-driven “id,” the morality-bound “super-ego,” and the relatively temperate “ego.” The interactions between these elements were proposed to help explain an individual’s behavior. He also believed that childhood experiences have a major impact on a person’s personality.

Many theorists who followed Freud (and whose thinking is often described using the term psychodynamic rather than psychoanalytic) refined or branched out from his ideas. One of them was Carl Jung, who proposed psychological “types” that inspired the popular test known as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator .

While they have influenced popular understanding of personality, they generally lack the empirical support of contemporary theories and do not have a central place in current personality science. However, some researchers continue to work in areas informed by psychodynamic ideas—such as those who study attachment orientation and the extent to which it relates to childhood.

Traumatic events or internal conflicts during early development were proposed as influences on personality. Identification, or adopting characteristics of someone else in one’s life, was another factor thought to play a role.

Freud-inspired theorists have emphasized different proposed factors in personality formation. For example, “Neo-Freudians” such as Jung, Alfred Adler, and Karen Horney challenged Freud’s emphasis on sexual and aggressive impulses, focusing more on social and cultural factors.

Humanistic psychology, developed in the mid-20th century by figures such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, focused the spotlight on individuals and their positive qualities, including their drive to achieve their full potential.

Maslow is famously known for his hierarchy of needs, with basic needs, such as nourishment and safety, toward the bottom, and self-actualization at the top. He argued that people who reach self-actualization—activating their self-perceived human potential, exhibit what he called a “coherent personality syndrome.” Rogers framed a healthy personality as the result of a match between one’s perceived self and the self one should be.

Among other characteristics, Maslow proposed that self-actualized people tended to be creative, compassionate, realistic, and drawn to helping others. As he described it, self-actualization is a relatively rare achievement—he cited historical figures such as Lincoln and Einstein as examples of self-actualized people.

The ideas of humanistic psychologists bear similarities to existential psychologists (such as Viktor Frankl)—theorists in both fields share an interest in the capacity of individuals to shape their own lives. Humanistic psychology also helped inspire positive psychologists, who have sought to focus attention on individuals’ character strengths and virtues.

Research sheds light on shared personality traits of people with strong moral character.

People have three common modes of thinking, but a fourth one makes the first three more effective.

Curious about how your approach to ambiguity impacts your career? Discover how working with uncertainty can shape your success and help you thrive in the right work environment.

Research suggests that while introversion is a personality trait, social anxiety is a phobia. Not all people who are socially anxious are introverted.

Of course, humans differ from plants. But being aware of some similarities and making the best of our differences can help us live a good life.

Striving for perfection is more important to orthorexia than concerns over imperfection.

Patients beset by a need-fear dilemma have a simultaneous need for and fear of closeness in interpersonal relationships.

When extraversion becomes attention seeking, try this.

Introverts and extroverts resolve conflict in very different ways. Understanding these differences helps each get their needs met while improving the quality of the relationship.

The “anomalous-is-bad” stereotype assumes negative traits in people with facial anomalies. Faces with palsies and scars are seen as less warm and less competent and are dehumanized.

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What is personality?

Personality types, personality traits, how your personality develops, how your personality can impact your mental health, how different personality traits impact your mental health #1: neuroticism, 2: openness, 3: extraversion, 4: agreeableness, 5: conscientiousness, personality and personality disorders, personality tests, personality types, traits, and how it affects mental health.

Your personality can impact your health, mood, and relationships. Here's what you need to know about the psychology of personality, different personality traits and types, and what you can learn from personality tests.

Your personality describes how you think, feel, and behave as you interact with the world. Your unique approach to life forms a fairly consistent pattern that’s recognizable to others. You may have heard someone refer to you as “reserved” or “talkative”, perhaps, or say that you’re “passionate” or “calm.” They’re describing how they perceive your personality—your typical demeanor and actions.

Personality affects both thinking and behavior. Some people are dutiful, so they take their responsibilities in life seriously, and always show up prepared and on time. Others are more spontaneous and willing to “go with the flow.” They have a carefree approach to life, but sometimes that involves taking unnecessary risks or neglecting obligations.

Personality can also have a significant impact on your social life. You probably know a few people who are stubborn or argumentative, the type you may avoid because they always make you feel like you’re walking on eggshells. Then there are people who are just the opposite. They’re patient, understanding, and eager to help—the type of people you turn to for support.

Think about how your own personality plays into your social relationships. Are you the type of person to strike up a conversation with a stranger? Or do you take a more passive approach to interactions? The answer could have broad implications for your overall well-being.

To understand the many different ways personality affects your life, mental health, and relationships, it’s helpful to know the difference between personality types and personality traits.

Personality type models categorize people into different groups based on common behavioral patterns. One popular model lays out four personality types:

• Type A : highly motivated and organized, but competitive and perfectionistic.
• Type B : relaxed and flexible, but not as ambitious.
• Type C : very conscientious, but has difficulty with emotional expression.
• Type D : pessimistic, anxious , and prone to isolation and distress.

Myers-Briggs Personality Types

Another popular personality type model is the Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator (MBTI). It measures how you fall into several different categories:

• Introversion (I) or extraversion (E)
• Sensing (S) or intuition (N)
• Thinking (T) or feeling (F)
• Judging (J) or perceiving (P)

These results combine in multiple ways to form 16 personality types.

For example, if you’re an ENFJ personality type, you:

• Tend to be friendly and collaborative.
• Are creative and like to think about the “big picture”.
• Prioritize feelings and values in your decision-making.
• Prefer to follow a plan and be organized.

If you’re an ISTP personality type, you:

• Tend to be reserved and calm.
• Focus on concrete facts and actions.
• Prioritize objective information and logic in decision-making.
• Are flexible and enjoy spontaneity.

Some personality theories focus on individual traits rather than broad personality types. Each characteristic—such as extroversion or agreeableness—exists on a spectrum, and they come together to form a more complete picture of your personality.

The Five Factor Model (or Big Five) focuses on five personality traits:

• Openness to experience. People with high openness are more curious and look for novel experiences. People who are low on openness are more routine-oriented and conventional.
• Conscientiousness. Highly conscientious people are more organized, self-controlled, and focused on goals. People with low conscientiousness tend to be disorganized, laidback, and unpredictable.
• Extraversion. Highly extraverted people are outgoing, assertive, and expressive. Introverts are more reserved and private. However, people who are introverts are not necessarily shy .
• Agreeableness. People who are highly agreeable are altruistic, trusting, and cooperative. People on the other end of this spectrum are more critical and less trusting of others.
• Neuroticism. Highly neurotic people are more likely to experience negative emotions and are easily upset. People who have low neuroticism are more emotionally stable and secure.

Each of these five factors can be further broken down into more specific facets. For example, aspects of neuroticism include anxiety and self-consciousness, while aspects of agreeableness include modesty and compliance.

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There are many different theories on how personality develops. Some of them focus on the importance of early social interactions, environment, and experiences.

For example, according to attachment theory , your bonding experience with your primary caregiver during infancy affects your attachment style later in life. This concept can also relate to personality development. For example, if your caregiver made you feel safe and loved, you might be more self-confident and trusting of others. If your caregiver was neglectful, you might be anxious and clingy or withdrawn and untrusting.

[ Read: How Attachment Affects Adult Relationships ]

People other than your primary caregiver can also influence your personality. Peers, friends, family members, and even strangers can shape your outlook and behavior.

Social learning theory

Social learning theory suggests that you’re influenced by your observations of other people’s behavior and how you perceive the consequences of their attitudes and actions. If you see someone successfully use bullying to get their way, for example, you might feel encouraged to imitate their aggressive behavior. However, if you notice the bully being ostracized by his peers, you might decide that aggressive personality traits are punished, not rewarded. Similarly, you may model your behavior after a sibling who uses humor to gain attention and popularity.

Even people you only see on television, film, or social media, can also serve as personality role models. You may have adopted the bold but serious traits of a superhero you saw on a TV show as a kid. It all comes down to whether you believe the person you’re observing is being rewarded or punished for their behavior.

Flexibility of personality

Certain personality traits can seem stable over time. You might have always had a mild temperament, even as a baby, for example, or maybe you have friends who have always been outgoing.

However, studies have shown that some aspects of personality can change throughout life. Many people become more trusting later in life, for example. And we also tend to grow more emotionally stable, agreeable, and conscientious with age.

Big life events, such as having a child, moving away from home, or forming a serious relationship, can also lead to changes in personality traits. Getting a high-paying job could lead you to be more emotionally stable, for example, while moving to a new city could push you to become more extraverted.

The role of nature in personality development

Personality isn’t completely the result of the way you were raised or what you experienced throughout life. Somewhere between 20 and 60 percent of your temperament may be determined by genetic factors. Studies of identical twins raised in different environments show that both individuals end up with many similar personality traits.

Similarly, your genes may put you more at risk of developing certain personality disorders or conditions such as anxiety and depression .

Your personality type can have many cascading effects on both your mental and physical health. For example, while most people experience anxiety from time to time, some people experience it more often and more intensely than others. If you’re a worrier by nature, you’re more likely to fall into a cycle in which anxiety creates further problems, such as insomnia and mood swings.

If you have a type A personality, your ambitious traits may encourage you to regularly go to the gym. While this is healthy, if you’re too much of a perfectionist, you may overdo the workouts and cause injuries or burnout. With a relaxed, type B personality, on the other hand, you’re more likely to disregard your physical health altogether.

Specific personality traits can also work in tandem to affect your health. For instance, some researchers refer to the combination of high neuroticism, low extraversion, and low conscientiousness as the “vulnerable personality” or “Misery Triad.” People with these three traits tend to be easily stressed , and more likely to socially withdraw or turn to unhealthy coping mechanisms , such as alcohol abuse.

On the other hand, a very resilient person might have low neuroticism with high extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness. They tend to take things in their stride and can readily turn to loved ones for support. Additionally, a problem-solving approach to life helps them set and meet goals for self-improvement.

[ Read: Surviving Tough Times by Building Resilience ]

Certain traits can also balance out others. Neuroticism might increase your risk of burnout , but if you’re also a friendly, ongoing person, you can find the social support you need to weather life’s storms.

Concerned that your personality is affecting your well-being?

Although some characteristics are more fixed than others, you do have the power to change the way you think and behave. By understanding how specific personality traits can affect your well-being, you can explore ways to find greater balance in your life.

Research links high levels of neuroticism with an increased risk of certain mental health issues. If you’re highly neurotic—meaning you tend to experience a lot of negative feelings like fear, depression , and anger —you’re more likely to feel overwhelmed by stressful situations. While another person might take a parking ticket in their stride, for example, you may see it as a catastrophe that ruins your day. You’re also more likely to belittle yourself for minor mistakes that other people simply shrug off.

This emotional instability and the tendency to focus on the negative puts you at greater risk for mood disorders such as depression and anxiety , and even psychotic experiences such as delusions and hallucinations.

Neuroticism can also affect your relationships. You might feel upset and either withdraw or lash out at those around you for any perceived slights. This can create a downward spiral, as loved ones become frustrated with your negative attitude, leading to rifts in your relationships. As relationships deteriorate, you lose social support and become more vulnerable to stress , anxiety, and depression.

Coping with neuroticism

There are a variety of ways to manage neurotic tendencies.

Explore stress management practices. Making time for meditation , exercising regularly, and connecting with loved ones are just a few easy ways to manage stress levels . Findings from a 2019 study of young adults suggest that mindfulness training may also be an effective way to reduce neuroticism.

Shift from ruminating to active problem-solving. If you’re feeling pessimistic about an upcoming exam, for example, plan extra study sessions. If you’re feeling insecure about your partner, instead of internalizing your feelings, start an open dialogue .

Practice gratitude. When your mind tends to drift towards negative thoughts, it can help to cultivate gratefulness . Keep a daily gratitude journal and write about positive experiences, no matter how small they seem. Consider writing notes of appreciation to loved ones, even if you never send them.

Approaching the world with an openness to new experiences can be seen as a positive personality trait, unless that openness crosses over into excessive risk-taking. Acquiring knowledge, meeting new people, and trying out new hobbies are also great ways to keep your brain active and maintain healthy cognitive functioning as you age.

People who remain open to new experiences may also benefit from higher social well-being. If you’re closed-minded, you might shy away from making new friends , or overlook opportunities to bond with your loved ones in new ways, such as traveling together.

Cultivating healthy levels of openness

Challenge yourself to learn a new skill. Try out a new recipe, practice a new language, or learn a new musical instrument. Don’t worry about mastering the craft. Focus on experimenting, being creative, and enjoying yourself.

Mix it up. If you tend to stick to a rigid daily schedule, leave room for small changes. Take an unfamiliar route to work, or invite a friend to a new restaurant for lunch.

Weigh the risks. If you’re already a naturally curious person, remember the importance of looking before you leap. For example, some research connects high openness with illicit drug use . As you seek out and enjoy novel experiences, consider the physical, mental, and legal consequences of your actions.

Being a social butterfly can come with many benefits. If you’re an extravert, you likely have higher self-esteem, find it easier to adapt to life’s changes, and enjoy a greater overall sense of well-being. Part of this may be because extraverts often have more social support and are more likely to seek help from others.

There’s nothing wrong with being an introvert, though. In fact, introverts are often considered more introspective, empathetic , and better listeners. Additionally, both extraverts and introverts can suffer from conditions like social anxiety and depression, although the latter may be harder to notice in outgoing individuals.

Still, it’s important to recognize that too much solitude can leave you more vulnerable to loneliness and mental health problems. Staying silent on your needs can also make it hard for loved ones to know how to help you.

Finding balance

If you’re an extravert: Be sure to surround yourself with people who reflect your values. You might feel pressure to engage in unhealthy behavior, such as heavy drinking, in order to stay social . Check-in with yourself internally. Spend a little time alone, journaling , meditating , or going for walks. Take time to be reflective and cultivate self-awareness. This is especially important when you’re feeling isolated and unable to confide in others.

If you’re an introvert: When you’re feeling down, try behaving like an extravert, even just for a short period of time, to help boost your mood and self-esteem. Start a conversation with a stranger, be proactive in reaching out to friends. Don’t burn yourself out though. Recognize when you’re feeling socially fatigued and need alone time.

As with extraversion, people with high agreeableness tend to enjoy a greater sense of social well-being. If you’re agreeable, friends may gravitate toward your generous and trusting personality. Those very friends form a social support network that helps you navigate life’s challenges and better cope with stress.

Research from 2022 connects agreeableness with general life success. Cooperative people tend to be more tolerant of others’ shortcomings and feel motivated to nurture positive relationships. It’s a useful trait to build on, whether you need to improve a romantic relationship or get on better with coworkers.

Of course, an affable nature can come with its downsides. To avoid conflict, you might not stand up for yourself during disagreements, or hold back on voicing an opinion that could ruffle feathers.

Finding healthy levels of agreeableness

Aim to balance your desire for harmony with a healthy level of assertiveness.

Practice empathy. Some people seem naturally more empathic than others. However, empathy is like a muscle that can be strengthened by developing listening skills, becoming more aware of body language , and allowing yourself to be more vulnerable.

[ Read: Empathy: How to Feel and Respond to the Emotions of Others ]

Practice setting boundaries and being assertive. If you’re too agreeable, some people may take advantage of you. Learning to assert boundaries is important, but remember that assertiveness isn’t about being rude to others. You can be direct about what you want while still being respectful.

The more conscientious you are, the more likely you are to take a responsible approach to life. This can have implications for mental and physical health, as well as overall success. You’re more likely to take your physical health seriously, by regularly exercising and seeing your doctor. And you’re likely a diligent employee or student, with an achievement-oriented mindset.

Research links higher levels of conscientiousness with better health, including a reduced risk of conditions like heart disease and Alzheimer’s . Perhaps unsurprisingly, people who are self-disciplined tend to live longer.

If you have high conscientiousness, you’re also more likely to cope with stress by problem-solving and challenging negative thought patterns.

If you have lower conscientiousness, there’s more chance you’ll neglect your health, make impulsive decisions, or pick up risky habits, such as substance abuse , which can impact both your physical and mental health.

Increasing conscientiousness

Focus on one thing at a time. Put your phone on silent and turn off the TV when you’re reading, studying, or talking to others. This allows you to be present and handle whatever you’re doing with more care.

Use tools to organize your day and set goals. Use daily planners and calendars to stay on top of responsibilities like bill payments or work meetings. To avoid procrastination and stay focused, try setting a 40-minute timer before a study or work session. When the timer goes off, set a new timer to give yourself a 10-minute break.

Slow down to tame impulsiveness. See an expensive item you want to buy? Or feel unsure about ordering another drink in the bar? Rather than feel rushed to act, delay your decision. Weigh your other options and give yourself time to reflect on the consequences.

Distinguishing conscientiousness from perfectionism

Although being organized, ambitious, and self-controlled are generally positive traits, it’s possible to go to an extreme. While conscientious people desire success, perfectionists are motivated by fear of failure. People who are perfectionists set unrealistic expectations for themselves and others. And because their goals are unattainable, they may struggle with depression and anxiety.

To curb perfectionism:

Allow room for imperfections and failure. Expose yourself to activities that you’re not good at. Play games with friends even if you know you’ll lose. Sketch or paint, even if you don’t have an eye for details. Learn to find lessons within failures.

Ask yourself if a goal is reasonable. Aiming to learn a new language within days? Hoping to see workout results within a week? Try to recognize unrealistic goals, be patient with yourself, and acknowledge your limitations.

Focus on the bigger picture. If you missed a deadline at work, for example, or didn’t score the highest grade on an exam, ask yourself how much these perceived failures will matter in the long run. Sometimes, it’s more important to learn from a mistake.

Remember to celebrate your successes. There’s always room for improvement, but don’t forget to acknowledge progress and victories. Even if you didn’t come in first place during that 5K, you can still be proud of your effort.

Personality disorders involve unhealthy ways of acting, thinking, and feeling. People with personality disorders often struggle with extreme personality traits, such as intense mistrust, lack of empathy, poor self-control, or social avoidance. In each case, these personality traits can impact your well-being and relationships.

Emotional instability. High neuroticism is associated with personality disorders that involve impulsive behavior, intense negative emotions, and difficulty maintaining relationships with others. These include paranoid , antisocial, and borderline personality disorders.

Conscientiousness. Some researchers consider obsessive-compulsive personality disorder (OCPD) an unhealthy variation of conscientiousness, where you obsess about order, tidiness, and perfection. Similarly, having low conscientiousness, unpredictability, and impulsiveness are associated with antisocial and borderline personality disorders .

Empathy and agreeableness. Low agreeableness involves a great mistrust of others, so it’s linked with paranoid personality disorder. However, people with conditions like narcissistic and antisocial personality disorders also tend to be less cooperative and compassionate towards others. Conversely, high agreeableness can be a trait in people with dependent personality disorder.

Sociability. People with histrionic personality disorder have a constant desire for attention, so are often outgoing. Grandiose narcissists can appear highly assertive and socially confident, while avoidant and schizoid personality disorders are characterized by more reclusive habits.

Personality tests can be a fun way to get to know yourself or your loved ones. Sometimes they’re used in workplace settings as screening tools or to assess the strengths and weaknesses of employees. As well as the Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator (MBTI) and the Big Five Personality Test, other popular assessments include:

The Eysenck Personality Inventory. This focuses on three core personality traits: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism.

The HEXACO Personality Inventory assesses six personality dimensions: honesty/humility, emotionality, extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.

The DiSC personality test lets you discover which of the four behavioral styles you lean toward most: dominance, influence, steadiness, and conscientiousness.

The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) measures a wide range of traits from warmth, reasoning, and emotional stability to dominance, liveliness, and perfectionism.

Taking a personality test

When taking any of these tests, it’s important to remember that human personalities are complex and personality tests may not be able to capture the sheer diversity of characteristics. Here are a few things to keep in mind:

Consider taking the same test multiple times. Are the results inconsistent? If not, the test may be unreliable. You can also ask someone you know if the results seem to match their perception of you.

Take different types of tests. If two tests claim to measure emotional stability, for example, but return wildly different results, one of them may not be measuring what it claims. Taking different tests may give you a greater insight.

Be honest and self-aware. Many tests require you to self-report. You can skew the results by answering in a way that doesn’t truly reflect your thoughts or behavior.

Personality tests are not perfect tools, and you shouldn’t take their results as the absolute truth. However, they can sometimes help you reflect on the complexities of personality and perhaps even gain a better understanding of yourself or others.

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How Personality Impacts Our Daily Lives

Verywell / Emily Roberts

Personality Characteristics

How personality develops, impact of personality, personality disorders.

Personality describes the unique patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish a person from others. A product of both biology and environment, it remains fairly consistent throughout life.

Examples of personality can be found in how we describe other people's traits. For instance, "She is generous, caring, and a bit of a perfectionist," or "They are loyal and protective of their friends."

The word "personality" stems from the Latin word persona , which refers to a theatrical mask worn by performers to play roles or disguise their identities.

Although there are many definitions of personality, most focus on the pattern of behaviors and characteristics that can help predict and explain a person's behavior.

Explanations for personality can focus on a variety of influences, ranging from genetic effects to the role of the environment and experience in shaping an individual's personality.

What exactly makes up a personality? Traits and patterns of thought and emotion play important roles, and so do these fundamental characteristics of personality:

• Consistency : There is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. Essentially, people act in the same way or in similar ways in a variety of situations.
• Both psychological and physiological : Personality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.
• Affects behaviors and actions : Personality not only influences how we move and respond in our environment, but it also causes us to act in certain ways.
• Multiple expressions : Personality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships, and other social interactions.

There are a number of theories about personality , and different schools of thought in psychology influence many of these theories. Some theories describe how personalities are expressed, and others focus more on how personality develops.

Type theories suggest that there are a limited number of personality types that are related to biological influences.

One theory suggests there are four types of personality. They are:

• Type A : Perfectionist, impatient, competitive, work-obsessed, achievement-oriented, aggressive, stressed
• Type B : Low stress, even- tempered , flexible, creative, adaptable to change, patient, tendency to procrastinate
• Type C : Highly conscientious, perfectionist, struggles to reveal emotions (positive and negative)
• Type D : Worrying, sad, irritable, pessimistic, negative self-talk, avoidance of social situations, lack of self-confidence, fear of rejection, appears gloomy, hopeless

There are other popular theories of personality types such as the Myers-Briggs theory. The Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator identifies a personality based on where someone is on four continuums: introversion-extraversion, sensing-intuition, thinking-feeling, and judging-perceiving.

After taking a Myers-Briggs personality test, you are assigned one of 16 personality types. Examples of these personality types are:

• ISTJ : Introverted, sensing, thinking, and judging. People with this personality type are logical and organized; they also tend to be judgmental.
• INFP : Introverted, intuitive, feeling, and perceiving. They tend to be idealists and sensitive to their feelings.
• ESTJ : Extroverted, sensing, thinking, and judging. They tend to be assertive and concerned with following the rules.
• ENFJ : Extroverted, intuitive, feeling, and judging. They are known as "givers" for being warm and loyal; they may also be overprotective.

Personality Tests

In addition to the MBTI, some of the most well-known personality inventories are:

• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
• HEXACO Personality Inventory
• Caddell's 16PF Personality Questionnaire
• Enneagram Typology

Personality Traits

Trait theories tend to view personality as the result of internal characteristics that are genetically based and include:

• Agreeable : Cares about others, feels empathy, enjoys helping others
• Conscientiousness : High levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, goal-directed behaviors
• Eager-to-please : Accommodating, passive, and  conforming
• Extraversion : Excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high amounts of emotional expressiveness
• Introversion : Quiet, reserved
• Neuroticism : Experiences stress and dramatic shifts in mood, feels anxious, worries about different things, gets upset easily, struggles to bounce back after stressful events
• Openness : Very creative , open to trying new things, focuses on tackling new challenges

Try Our Free Personality Test

Our fast and free personality test can help give you an idea of your dominant personality traits and how they may influence your behaviors.

Psychodynamic Theories

Psychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud and emphasize the influence of the unconscious  mind on personality. Psychodynamic theories include Sigmund Freud’s psychosexual stage theory and Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development .

Behavioral Theories

Behavioral theories suggest that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, often ignoring the role of internal thoughts and feelings. Behavioral theorists include B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson .

Humanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual experience in developing ​a personality. Humanist theorists include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow .

Research on personality can yield fascinating insights into how personality develops and changes over the course of a lifetime. This research can also have important practical applications in the real world.

For example, people can use a personality assessment (also called a personality test or personality quiz) to learn more about themselves and their unique strengths, weaknesses, and preferences. Some assessments might look at how people rank on specific traits, such as whether they are high in extroversion , conscientiousness, or openness.

Other assessments might measure how specific aspects of personality change over time. Some assessments give people insight into how their personality affects many areas of their lives, including career, relationships, personal growth, and more.

Understanding your personality type can help you determine what career you might enjoy, how well you might perform in certain job roles, or how effective a form of psychotherapy could be for you.

Personality type can also have an impact on your health, including how often you visit the doctor and how you cope with stress. Researchers have found that certain personality characteristics may be linked to illness and health behaviors.

While personality determines what you think and how you behave, personality disorders are marked by thoughts and behavior that are disruptive and distressing in everyday life. Someone with a personality disorder may have trouble recognizing their condition because their symptoms are ingrained in their personality.

Personality disorders include paranoid personality disorder , schizoid personality disorder , antisocial personality disorder , borderline personality disorder (BPD), and narcissistic personality disorder (NPD).

While the symptoms of personality disorders vary based on the condition, some common signs include:

• Aggressive behavior
• Delusional thinking
• Distrust of others
• Flat emotions (no emotional range)
• Lack of interest in relationships
• Violating others' boundaries

Some people with BPD experience suicidal thoughts or behavior as well.

If you are having suicidal thoughts, contact the  National Suicide Prevention Lifeline  at  988  for support and assistance from a trained counselor. If you or a loved one are in immediate danger, call 911. 

For more mental health resources, see our  National Helpline Database .

If you are concerned that elements of your personality are contributing to stress, anxiety, confusion, or depression, it's important to talk to a doctor or mental health professional. They can help you understand any underlying conditions you may have.

It is often challenging to live with a personality disorder, but there are treatment options such as therapy and medication that can help.

Understanding the psychology of personality is much more than simply an academic exercise. The findings from personality research can have important applications in the world of medicine, health, business, economics, technology, among others. By building a better understanding of how personality works, we can look for new ways to improve both personal and public health.

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By Kendra Cherry, MSEd Kendra Cherry, MS, is a psychosocial rehabilitation specialist, psychology educator, and author of the "Everything Psychology Book."