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Getting to Know Plants CBSE Class 6 Science Revision Notes Chapter 7

As we all know, Earth is the only planet in our solar system that has the viable conditions for life to exist. While the presence of water and oxygen is the main reason, we must also recognize that life would not have been possible if it weren’t for the oxygen-emitting plants, life would not have been able to take shape on Earth. These plants are not only our source of oxygen but also the major source of the food that we eat.

Herbs, Shrubs and Trees

We can classify plants on the basis of the thickness of their stems and the place of origin of their branches, into three broad categories:

Herb: These are plants that have green and frail stems. Usually, these are small plants with not many branches.

Some common examples of herbs are Basil, Coriander, Mint, Oregano, Thyme, Parsley, Rosemary etc.

Herbs: Small plants with tender stems

Common herb examples

Shrubs: These are plants with hard but not exactly thick stems. Their branches generally originate from the base of their stems. These are much taller than herbs but usually shorter than trees.

Some common examples of shrubs are Aloe Vera, Rose plant, Jasmine plant, Blackberry plant etc.

Common shrub examples

Trees: These are plants which are very tall and have a thick and hard stem. The branches originate from the upper part of the tree and are very high above the ground.

Some common examples of trees are neem, peepal, coconut tree, mango tree etc.

Some common examples of trees

There are two other kinds of plants which are:

Creepers: These are plants which have soft, weak and green stems and hence cannot stand straight and instead spread on the ground.

Some common examples are sweet potato, watermelon, pumpkin etc.

Some common examples of creepers

Climbers: These are also plants with soft and weak stems but instead of spreading on the ground they take support with a nearby object to climb up.

Some common examples of creepers are cucumber, bean, grapevine, money-plant etc.

Some common examples of climbers

Let us observe and study each part of a plant step by step:

Growth cycle of a common stem

The Stem is the part of a plant which is responsible for supplying water to all parts of the plant. It is the stem which bears branches, flowers, leaves, fruits and buds. The root sucks the water and minerals from the soil and it is the stem’s function to push this water upward to other parts of the plant.

We can observe this by soaking the stem of a plant in a glass with water. On adding coloured ink to the water, we observe that after a while the stem and leaves of the plant start to turn the colour of the ink, which is proof that the stem carries the water to the different parts of the plant.

The experiment helps demonstrate how stems are responsible for carrying water to different plant parts

The leaves of plants are majorly responsible for performing two essential functions for the plant’s survival and growth. These two functions are called transpiration and photosynthesis.

Transpiration: Transpiration is the process through which plants release the excess amount of water in the air. When the water travels via the stem to the leaves, some of it gets used up to prepare food, while the excess water is converted to water vapour due to the presence of the sun. Transpiration is important for the plants as it helps the plants to cool down. In the absence of transpiration, the temperature of the leaf becomes unregulated which may lead to the eventual death of the plant.

We can observe transpiration by enclosing a leafy part of a plant in a closed polythene bag and keeping it in the sun. After a while, we see tiny droplets of water on the inside of polythene bags, which are proof that the leaves have performed transpiration.

The process of transpiration

Photosynthesis: Photosynthesis is defined as the process that helps leaves prepare food for the plant with the help of carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis occurs in the presence of sun and is aided by the presence of a green pigment in leaves called chlorophyll. Plants also release oxygen in the process. The food prepared is stored in various parts of the plant. In absence of photosynthesis, the plant is unable to utilise the water and minerals to prepare food for its nourishment and gradually dies.

In order to see if leaves really do perform photosynthesis, we take a leaf and immerse it in a test tube filled with spirit. Placing this test tube in a beaker filled with water, we heat the beaker. After the leaf loses its color, we wash it and pour iodine solution on it, as can be seen below, which shows the presence of starch thus disproving our doubts.

Parts of a Leaf

Petiole: This is the stalk via which the leaf is joined to the plant.

Lamina: This is the expanded part or the green portion of any leaf which is responsible for photosynthesis.

Veins: The many lines that run through the surface of the leaf are called veins and the design made by them is called leaf venation. They transport water and minerals.

Midrib: This is the central, prominent thick structure right in the middle of the leaf that helps support the leaf and prevent it from breaking.

A labelled diagram of a leaf

We distinguish between two major types of leaf venation.

Reticulate venation is said to exist when the veins form a net-like shape on either side of the midrib. This type of venation is seen to exist in dicots like guava and mango.

Parallel venation is said to exist when the veins run parallel to one another. This type of venation is seen to exist in monocots like banana, wheat, coconut etc.

Parallel and reticulate venation

The root is a very important component of the plant system, as, without the presence of roots the plant ceases to exist. This is because the roots perform three major functions essential to the growth and survival of the plant which are:

Roots are responsible for absorbing minerals and water from the soil and transferring them to the stem. It’s only after root has transported water and minerals to stem that the stem becomes capable of transporting these to all parts of the plant.

Another important function of roots is to firmly anchor the plant in the ground. This is essential to support the upright position of the plants.

Roots also perform the function of storing important nutrients and food for growth.

There are two major types of roots that exist in plants and these are:

The flowers are the colourful, seed-bearing parts of the plant that grows at the end of the stem. A typical flower exhibits the following structure:

Petals: These are bright, colourful and broad parts of the flower. Taken together, the petals of the flower form what is called a Corolla.

Sepal: This is the green, leaf-like structure of the flower that encloses the petals and is responsible for protecting the flower when it is in its bud form and supporting it when it is in its bloom stage.

Stamen: These are the long and slender parts of the flower that become visible upon removing the petals and sepal of a flower. Typically, a stamen consists of an anther i.e. the head of the stamen and a filament i.e. the long cream-colored stick. The stamen is also known as the male reproductive part of the plant.

Pistil: This is the innermost part of the flower, typically consisting of a stigma i.e. the head of the pistil, a style, which is the long sticky part that attaches the stigma to the ovary i.e. the small and swollen sphere at the base of the pistil. Pistil is the female reproductive part of any flower. The ovary contains small bead-like structures which are called ovules.

The structure of a flower

Important Definitions

Stomata: These are the small microscopic pores present on the leaf through which exchange of gases and transpiration takes place.

Annuals: These are plants like wheat and maize that complete their life cycle in one season and then die. They are usually herbs.

Biennials: These are plants like carrots and radishes that complete their life cycle in two seasons.

Perennials: These are plants guava and palm that continue their life cycle for more than two seasons, i.e. they manage to re-grow every spring.

Aerial roots: These are roots of plants and trees that grow above the ground instead of under the ground as shown in the image below.

Aerial Roots

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• Photosynthesis Equation, Process and Stages of Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis Equation

Photosynthesis is the process through which plants, some bacteria, and some protistans use the energy from sunlight to produce glucose . This process also produces carbon dioxide and water as by-products. It releases adenosine triphosphate i.e. ATP by cellular respiration. Also, it forms oxygen. In this topic, we will explain the photosynthesis equation will be explained.

Photosynthesis

Plants generally receive credit for being the base of food chains. Plant-like protists and one-celled organisms containing chloroplasts, hence they make their own contribution to the food chain and the conversion of carbon dioxide to oxygen.

They all perform photosynthesis. The word photosynthesis literally breaks down into photos, which means light and synthesis means composition.

So, photosynthesis means to put together using light. In addition, plants, algae and plant-like protists use sunlight to put together carbon dioxide and water to make sugar.

The Process of Photosynthesis

This process uses the energy of the sun to make the reaction of carbon dioxide and water to form glucose. Carbon dioxide enters the plants through tiny pores in the bottoms of leaves.

Water enters by various means, usually roots, but also by osmosis. The energy of the sun, absorbed by the green chemical chlorophyll, fuels the chemical reaction.

Then it combines the carbon dioxide molecules with the water molecules to form glucose. The glucose can be stored in fruits, roots, and stems of plants.

It can be released through the reverse process of respiration , where oxygen is used to break down the glucose into carbon dioxide and water, and releasing the stored energy.

Stages of Photosynthesis

When chlorophyll absorbs light energy, an electron gains energy and is then excited. The excited electron is transferred to another molecule i.e. acceptor.

The chlorophyll molecule is oxidized further and has a positive charge. Photoactivation of chlorophyll, as a result, split the water molecules and transfer the energy to ATP.

Photosynthesis comprises of two stages. These are a light-dependent reaction and light-independent reactions. The light-dependent reaction uses energy captured from sunlight by the chloroplasts in plant leaves.

It then produces a supply of electrons for the light-independent reactions. The light-independent reactions use energy from the supply of electrons to reduce carbon dioxide and finally produce glucose.

Photosynthesis is a process in which green plants use light energy, carbon dioxide, and water. And it produces glucose, oxygen, and water. Therefore it converts light energy into chemical energy i.e. the glucose for use in the plants.

The reaction for photosynthesis is as given as follows:

\(6CO_{2} + 12H_{2}O \overset{Light}{\rightarrow} 6O_{2} + C_{6}H_{12}O_{6} + 6H_{2}O\)

The reaction is often reduced to:

\(6CO_{2} + 6H_{2}O \overset{Light}{\rightarrow} 6O_{2} + C_{6}H_{12}O_{6}\)

Now, we can break down each piece of the photosynthesis equation.

On the reactants side, we have:

6CO 2 has six molecules of carbon dioxide

12H 2 O has twelve molecules of water

Light Energy has Light from the sun

On the products side, we have:

C 6 H 12 O 6 is glucose

6O 2 is six molecules of oxygen

6H 2 O is six molecules of water

The plant uses Glucose as energy. It releases oxygen and water back into the atmosphere to help other living things. During photosynthesis, plants use light energy to combine carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose, oxygen, and water.

Photosynthesis is very important because it provides plants with the energy they need to survive. It also provides needed oxygen and water back into the atmosphere.

Products of Photosynthesis

Through cellular respiration, it converts the glucose into adenosine triphosphate i.e. ATP. In addition to glucose, this reaction also produces oxygen that the plants release into the atmosphere.

Solved Question for You

Q: Why Photosynthesis is important?

Ans: Photosynthesis is plants taking in water, carbon dioxide, and light to make glucose and oxygen. This is important because each and every living thing needs oxygen to survive. All producers make oxygen and glucose for the secondary consumers and then the carnivores eat animals that eat the plants.

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• 1.1 Plants and food
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• 4.1 Why do we need food processing?
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Photosynthesis

• Why can a plant make its own food but an animal cannot?
• What is needed for photosynthesis to happen?
• How do plants make food and store food?
• Why do plants need so much water?
• Can plants live in the dark?
• Why are plants mostly green?

Teachers are encouraged to make a large circle on the wall using large arrows that can be cut from blue or even black plastic bags. Then cut out white letters to say "Photosynthesis" in the centre of the circle and stick large posters on the arrows to say:

• Plants absorb carbon dioxide
• Plants release oxygen
• Animals breathe in oxygen
• Animals breathe out carbon dioxide

Perhaps cut out pictures of plants or get learners to make plants and animals in Art and stick them next to the specific labels they illustrate. Create a glossary by placing words relating to the topic around the classroom. Tell the learners that they are going to be plant investigators, and that their job is to find out what the words mean, and how they relate to plants and photosynthesis.

When introducing this topic remind them of the work on interdependence they covered in Gr. 5. Discuss how animals and plants are interdependent upon each other - plants produce food and oxygen for animals, while animals - when they die - decay, replacing nutrients in the soil for plants, and releasing carbon into the air to continue the carbon cycle.

Plants and food

Green plants are just like factories! They make food for themselves and every animal on earth using sunlight energy, water and the gas carbon dioxide. They also recycle the air and make oxygen for us to breathe.

Scientists have found out exactly how plants are able to do all all these things. Let's take a closer look at how scientists did this and see how plants make food for themselves and us.

What happens in a factory? Why do you think we can say plants are like factories?

A factory is a place where goods or products are made/assembled/manufactured and then delivered to other places to be used. Plants are therefore like factories as they use raw products to make new products (food).

Plants make food for themselves and plants are the beginning of the food chain, therefore all other animals, whether herbivores which eat plants directly, or carnivores which eat the herbivores, depend on plants for food.

The process of photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process that plants use to change the energy from sunlight into energy for food. Plants change light energy from the sun into food energy. Photosynthesis happens in all green parts of a plant. Leaves are usually the greenest parts. So plants do this mostly in their leaves.

There are some important requirements for photosynthesis to happen:

1. Chlorophyll : Chlorophyll is a green substance that plants use to capture light energy from the sun. Chlorophyll is very important. Without chlorophyll plants cannot use the sunlight energy to make food. Also, oxygen levels in the air will go down. If that happens plants and animals will suffocate.

As a fun activity, take learners outside to see if there are other colours found in leaves, and not just the green pigment chlorophyll. Although green chlorophyll is predominant, there are also yellow, orange and purple pigments found in leaves, especially in autumn when the leaves change colour. In the body, the pigment melanin, is the main determinant of skin colour and it is also found in hair and the iris in the eye.

2. Sunlight: Sunlight has energy. Plants use this energy to make sugars from water and carbon dioxide.

3. Water : The roots of a plant absorb water and nutrients from the soil. Water is a solvent in all living things. Dissolved substances are moved around the body to where they are needed. Just like you, plants have veins for this movement. They move minerals from the roots upwards. They move sugars from the leaves downwards. Photosynthesis can only happen in a water solution. Water is also important because it provides support to the plant to keep it upright. Like you, plants have skeletons. But unlike you many plants have water skeletons!

In the second term in Matter and Materials, learners will do more on mixtures, solutions and dissolving, and this will therefore make sense. Refer back to this section when you are doing solutions and discussing water as a solvent.

4. Carbon dioxide: The plant absorbs or takes in carbon dioxide from the air through little holes. These holes are found all over the plant, mostly under the leaves.

5. Soil : The soil provides mineral nutrients and water for the plant that are necessary during photosynthesis. Soil also provides anchorage to the plant, otherwise the plant cannot stand up straight.

A really good website on photosynthesis http://www.realtrees4kids.org/sixeight/letseat.htm

How does photosynthesis occur?

Plants use chlorophyll, sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to make food. Here is a simple illustration to show how this process occurs:

• Chlorophyll captures the sunlight energy.
• This energy splits the water into hydrogen and oxygen.
• The oxygen is released into the air.
• The hydrogen is used with the carbon dioxide to make glucose (sugars).
• The sugars are moved from the leaves to other parts of the plants where they are stored.
• The water in the plant veins carries the sugars. When the sugars reach the storage parts they are changed into starch.
• leaves (cabbage, spinach, lettuce)
• fruit (apples, banana, peaches)
• stem (sugar cane)
• seeds (wheat or mealies)
• flowers (nasturtiums, broccoli and cauliflower)
• roots (carrots or beetroot)

Starch is insoluble in water which is why plants store starch and not glucose, which is soluble in water. Refer back to this section when doing soluble and insoluble substances in the second term.

Dramatise the process of photosynthesis

Prepare beforehand by collecting the different materials needed. The characters need different colours to identify themselves as what they are, possibly some t-shirts that they can pull over their clothes, or else a scarf or ribbon or coloured piece of paper to pin onto their front. You will also need tin foil, glitter and string for the roots. For the animals, you can make masks out of paper plates with the eyes cut out, and tied around the head with a piece of string. Learners can draw animal faces on the front.

INSTRUCTIONS:

• Your teacher will explain to you how to act out the process of photosynthesis.
• Characters needed for this dramatisation:
• Narrator to describe the process. This can be a teacher or a learner. It might be a good idea to make short notes from the information above to remember in what order everything is happening.
• Sun - this learner can dress in yellow and perhaps get some old tin foil or shiny paper to decorate their head or body to show the light and heat energy that the sun produces.
• Plants - a few learners can dress in green and perhaps tie a few strings to their feet to represent roots. They need to hold some rice or shiny glitter in their hands or their pockets to show that the water evaporates after photosynthesis.
• Rain / water - a few learners can dress in blue and perhaps have some rice, shiny glitter, small pieces of tin foil or something similar to represent the rain falling.
• Carbon dioxide - attach signs to the learner's chests that say 'Carbon dioxide' and dress in purple.
• Oxygen - attach signs to the learner's chests that say 'Oxygen' and dress in orange.
• Glucose energy as fruit and vegetables - dress up or make posters from scrap cardboard to show large carrots, apples, potatoes, or something similar.
• Some learners need to be animals who breathe out carbon dioxide and eat the plants. You can make masks out of paper plates with eyes cut out.

The dramatisation: When the dramatisation starts, the glucose and oxygen actors sit quietly in small groups around the plants with their heads down, not looking at the audience.

The narrator introduces the play and explains the different processes as these occur.

The sun shines in the centre of the stage and can turn and/or raise their arms to show the sunlight radiating from it.

The plants stand away from the sun and the rainwater actors can 'water' them by gently throwing the rice or similar little objects over their heads. Then sit down around the plants.

The carbon dioxide actors run from the animals and circle the plants, and then sit down around the plants.

Now the oxygen and glucose actors rise and run around the plants, and then run to the animals to show they are receiving oxygen and food.

You might want to repeat this a few times to show that this cycle continues.

Why do plants die when there is a drought?

There are many processes which shut down without water, photosynthesis being one of them. Plants cannot photosynthesise sunlight without water. If they cannot photosynthesise they cannot create glucose to support life processes within the plant. If the plant cannot support its own life processes it dies. The plant also loses its support from the water in the veins acting as a 'skeleton'.

• Design a poster for your Gr. 4 friends to explain the process of photosynthesis to them. You can use sentences and short paragraphs but make sure you use many illustrations.

Soil was looked at in Gr. 5 Earth and Beyond, especially the particles of soil and which types of soil plants grow best in. However, it would be useful to also emphasise soil in this section and have a discussion on what makes up soil, namely organic and inorganic material, water, air, rocks and sand. Where possible, bring examples of different soil types to class (such as loam soil, clay, beach sand) and get the learners to touch and feel the soil and explore what makes up soil.

Food from photosynthesis

Photosynthesis is the process inside plants that changes the energy from the sun's light into a form of energy that animals can eat and use to carry out their life processes.

Plants changes the glucose into starch, for example mealies (mealies and maize flour), rice (rice flour and rice) and wheat (flour).

Plants then store this food in different parts of the plant that an animal will eat. They can store it in their leaves, stems or roots, flowers, fruits or seeds.

Look at the images below of different plant products. For each image, identify which part of that plant we eat (for example: When we eat an apple, are we eating the leaf, the stem, the root, the fruit or the seed of the plant?) Use the space below to draw a table for your answers.

We know that plants make glucose (a sugar) but they store starch. Let's now find out what the difference is.

Difference between a starch and a sugar

Prepare beforehand: Prepare at least 10 different plant products in advance of this lesson and mark each item from 1 - 10. Cut up fruit/potato/sweets into bite-sized cubes. Place flour/cooked rice/etc. into bowls. Use teaspoons to taste the flour/cooked rice/etc.

IMPORTANT: Before doing this activity find out if any of the learners have any allergies to these foods and if learners with diabetes are allowed to eat/taste the fruit/sweets.

• mealie flour
• cooked rice, potato, bread
• glucose sweets
• sugar cane, if possible
• fresh fruit
• Work in pairs.
• One partner must be blindfolded.
• On a piece of paper list the numbers 1 - 10.
• The other partner must let the blindfolded partner taste each of the foods marked 1 - 10. If it is a flour, use a teaspoon to spoon the flour into your partner's mouth. If it is a kernel like a rice or mealie kernel, or a cube of fruit, put it in the palm of their hand and let them eat it themselves.
• After each taste your blindfolded partner must guess if it is a sugar or a starch based on the taste.
• Record your partners answers on the piece of paper containing the numbers 1 - 10.
• Swap with your partner and repeat the test.

While learners are swapping with their blindfolded partners, rearrange the foods with the numbers to ensure fairness. The aim of the test is not to establish the exact name of the fruits and foods but to establish that taste is not a suitable method to test for sugar or starch. Generally sugars are sweet and starches are not, but not always.

Was it easy to distinguish between the sugar and the starch each time? Which foods did you find difficult to classify?

What can you say about the difference between a starch and a sugar based on taste?

Sugars are sweet, starches are not.

Using TASTE to check if a food is a sugar or a starch is not very reliable.

There is a special test that scientists use to see if a food product is a starch or not. It is called the iodine starch test .

Iodine solution is a special solution that is normally a brown liquid .

Iodine is what we call an indicator .

When iodine solution is dropped on starch, the iodine and starch combine and produce a blue colour. We use this to test whether there is starch in a food product.

Let's see how this works!

The iodine starch test

Note: There will be NO tasting in this activity.

• the same foods used in the taste test (they should be marked 1 - 10 )
• include some other foods such as cheese and a boiled egg
• Write the food or plant product that you chose in the first column below.
• You are going to test whether this food product is a starch or not. When the iodine solution turns blue-black you will know it is a starch.

Explanation for starch turning blue-black when iodine is placed on it: Starch is composed of polymers of glucose. Long linear chains are amylose. Amylose coils into a structure resembling a tube with a hollow core. Certain molecules, including iodine, can lodge inside the core. The complex of iodine stuck inside the amylose coil produces a characteristic blue-black colour. The starch itself is not altered. NB: This explanation is not necessary for learners, but do say that the iodine reacts with the starch to form a blue-black colour.

• Use a dropper and drop iodine solution onto each food group.
• Put a tick next to the food product that turns blue-black - this is a starch. Put a cross next to the food product that stays brown - this is not a starch.

QUESTI ONS:

Which test do you think is more accurate to test for starch - the taste test or the iodine starch test?

Did the animal products, such as cheese and boiled egg, contain starch? Why do you think so?

Animals do not produce or store starch. Starch is only stored in plant products.

Animals do store carbohydrates, but not in the form of starch. Only plants produce and store starch. Animals store glucose in the form of glycogen.

Plants and air

All animals and plants need oxygen to live and carry out their life processes.

Animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide, all through the day and the night. Oxygen is used to release energy from food inside the body, which is used for the life processes.

Do you remember what the seven life processes of living things are? Write them down below.

Movement, reproducing, sensing, feeding, excreting, breathing, growing.

Just like animals, plants also use oxygen throughout the day and the night. Oxygen is necessary for plant growth and the development of new plants, seeds, leaves and shoots for example. Plants, therefore, also produce carbon dioxide as a 'waste product' once the oxygen has been used.

Plants do not photosynthesise through the night because there is no sunlight energy available to do that. This means that plants only need carbon dioxide during the day, for photosynthesis.

This cycle of using and producing both oxygen and carbon dioxide is very important to life on Earth.

The oxygen and carbon dioxide cycle

• Carefully study the following illustration.
• Answer the questions that follow.

Make a list of living organisms that produce both oxygen and carbon dioxide in this picture.

Tree, reeds, water plants, and shrubs on the bank

Identify three living organisms that cannot produce oxygen in this picture.

Fish, duiker (buck), squirrel, dragonfly

Predict what you think would happen if all the animals were removed from this habitat.

Probably not much would change as the leaves that decay would still give off carbon dioxide for the plants to use, as well as the carbon dioxide that the plants produce themselves.

What two life processes are involved in the carbon dioxide/oxygen cycle?

breathing in oxygen and giving off carbon dioxide

Complete this cycle by filling in the missing information for the two arrows on the left hand side of the illustration. Supply the labels for arrows 1 and 2.

• Arrow 1: Plants produce oxygen
• Arrow 2: Animals breathe out carbon dioxide

Explain why animals would not survive if all the plants on earth were to suddenly die.

• Animals need oxygen for their cells to work and to carry out life processes.
• If animals do not have oxygen they cannot carry out the life processes and will die.
• Plants also produce food from the sun that animals need to eat for energy to carry out the life processes.

Why do we say the oxygen and carbon dioxide are in a cycle?

For life on Earth to continue, there needs to be an unlimited supply of carbon dioxide and oxygen. It is in a cycle to ensure that similar amounts of both are produced.

• Plants produce their own food (glucose) by a process called photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis takes place mainly in the leaves.
• During photosynthesis the plant uses chlorophyll, sunlight energy, carbon dioxide (from the atmosphere) and water to make glucose.
• Plants change some of the glucose (sugar) into starch which they store in their leaves, stems and roots, flowers, fruits and seeds.
• Animals take in oxygen from the air and produce carbon dioxide when they breathe.
• Plants recycle carbon dioxide and make oxygen during the process of photosynthesis.

List the four things that are vitally important for plants and photosynthesis.

Sunlight energy, water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll

• The process when the green parts of plants make food is named _____.
• Water and minerals are absorbed by the _____ of plants.

Soil is made up of _____, _____, _____, _____.

• The process when the green parts of plants make food is named photosynthesis.
• Water and minerals are absorbed by the roots of plants.
• Soil is made up of organic and inorganic material, water, air, sand and rocks .

The seedlings that were planted in the newspaper cuttings or cotton wool did not grow very well at all, even though they had sunlight and water. What could they not get from the newspaper or cotton wool that plants normally get from soil?

Nutrients and minerals

Where does photosynthesis usually take place? Explain your answer.

Photosynthesis usually takes place in the leaves. The leaves are green as they contain chlorophyll. Leaves also face the sunlight and are exposed to the most sun to drive the process of photosynthesis.

Do you think photosynthesis takes place at night? Explain your answer.

No, it will not take place. At night there is no sunlight energy to drive the process of photosynthesis.

What is the name given to the sugar that plants produce during photosynthesis?

What do plants store glucose as? List some places where it is stored.

Starch, stored in leaves, stems, roots, flowers, seeds, fruits.

• Getting To Know Plants
• Active page
• Introduction

Getting To Know Plants of Class 6

There are wide varieties of plant around us. We observe so many plants, some are very small, and some are very big. There are different types of leaves and flowers with different shapes, colours and sizes. It is estimated that there are about 2,50,000 types of plants. You must have observed that some plants are flowering and some are non flowering.

Although plants are living things (or living organisms), they grow in the soil and remain fixed at a place through their roots. Plants do not move around like animals do. Plants also do not take food like animals. The plants make their own food by the process of photosynthesis.

Flowering Plants: Most of the plants bear flowers. They are called flowering plants. Rose, Mango, Neem, Bougainvillea.

Non– Flowering Plants: Some of the plants, however, do not bear flowers. They are called non-flowering plants. Example: Ferns, Moss, Algae.

Illustration 1: Name some flowering plants.

Solutions: Rose, Sunflower and Mango

Illustration 2: Name some non flowering plants.

Solutions: Mosses and ferns.

Types of Plants

Herbs - These are plants with green and tender stem. They are generally shorter in height and do not branch much, for example, tomato.

Shrubs - Plants with hard stem which branches near the base (soil surface) are known as shrubs. Their stem is harder than herbs but not as thick as in trees. Also, they are taller than herbs, but much smaller than trees, for example, lemon and rose.

Trees - Plants with tall, hard and thick brown stems are commonly known as trees. Their stems branch much above the ground in the upper parts. For example, mango.

Climbers - some of plants climb up with the help of support. For example, grapevine and gourd.

Creepers - some of plants spread out on the ground are called creepers. For example, pumpkin, water melon.

Illustration 3: What are perennials plants?

Solutions: Some plants live for many years and show the phenomenon of flowering and fruiting throughout the life are called perennials eg. Canna .

• Plant System
• Stem and Leaf
• Subjective Questions For Getting To Know Plants

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Photosynthesis - Science for Grade 6 - Grade 6 - Notes, Videos & Tests

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Microbe Notes

Photosynthesis: Equation, Steps, Process, Diagram

Photosynthesis is defined as the process, utilized by green plants and photosynthetic bacteria, where electromagnetic radiation is converted into chemical energy and uses light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into carbohydrates and oxygen.

• The carbohydrates formed from photosynthesis provide not only the necessary energy form the energy transfer within ecosystems, but also the carbon molecules to make a wide array of biomolecules.
• Photosynthesis is a light-driven oxidation-reduction reaction where the energy from the light is used to oxidize water, releasing oxygen gas and hydrogen ions, followed by the transfer of electrons to carbon dioxide, reducing it to organic molecules.
• Photosynthetic organisms are called autotrophs because they can synthesize chemical fuels such as glucose from carbon dioxide and water by utilizing sunlight as an energy source.
• Other organisms that obtain energy from other organisms also ultimately depend on autotrophs for energy.
• One of the essential requirements for photosynthesis is the green pigment ‘chlorophyll’ which is present in the chloroplasts of green plants and some bacteria.
• The pigment is essential for ‘capturing’ sunlight which then drives the overall process of photosynthesis.

Table of Contents

Interesting Science Videos

Photosynthesis equations/reactions/formula

• The process of photosynthesis differs in green plants and sulfur bacteria.
• In plants, water is utilized along with carbon dioxide to release glucose and oxygen molecules.
• In the case of sulfur bacteria, hydrogen sulfide is utilized along with carbon dioxide to release carbohydrates, sulfur, and water molecules.

Oxygenic Photosynthesis

The overall reaction of photosynthesis in plants is as follows:

Carbon dioxide + Water  + solar energy → Glucose + Oxygen

6CO 2 + 6H 2 O  +  solar energy   →   C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2

Carbon dioxide + Water  + solar energy → Glucose + Oxygen + Water

6CO 2 + 12H 2 O+ solar energy    →    C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 + 6H 2 O

Anoxygenic Photosynthesis

The overall reaction of photosynthesis in sulfur bacteria is as follows:

CO 2 + 2H 2 S + light energy   →    (CH 2 O)  + H 2 O  + 2S

Video Animation: Photosynthesis (Crash Course)

Photosynthetic pigments

• Photosynthetic pigments are the molecules involved in absorbing electromagnetic radiation, transferring the energy of the absorbed photons to the reaction center, resulting in photochemical reactions in the organisms capable of photosynthesis.
• The molecules of photosynthetic pigments are quite ubiquitous and are always composed of chlorophylls and carotenoids.
• In addition to chlorophyll, photosynthetic systems also contain another pigment, pheophytin (bacteriopheophytin in bacteria), which plays a crucial role in the transfer of electrons in photosynthetic systems.
• Moreover, other pigments can be found in particular photosynthetic systems, such as xanthophylls in plants.

Image Source: Simply Science .

Chlorophyll

• Chlorophyll is the pigment molecule, which is the principal photoreceptor in the chloroplasts of most green plants.
• Chlorophylls consist of a porphyrin ring, which is bounded to an ion Mg 2+ , attached to a phytol chain.
• Chlorophylls are very effective photoreceptors because they contain networks of alternating single and double bonds.
• In chlorophyll, the electrons are not localized to a particular atomic nucleus and consequently can more readily absorb light energy.
• In addition, chlorophylls also have solid absorption bands in the visible region of the spectrum.
• Chlorophylls are found either in the cytoplasmic membranes of photosynthetic bacteria, or thylakoid membranes inside plant chloroplasts.

Bacteriorhodopsin

• Bacteriorhodopsin is another class of photosynthetic pigment that exists only in halobacteria.
• It is composed of a protein attached to a retinal prosthetic group.
• This pigment is responsible for the absorption of light photons, leading to a conformational change in the protein, which results in the expulsion of the protons from the cell.

Phycobilins

• Cyanobacteria and red algae employ phycobilins such as phycoerythrobilin and phycocyanobilin as their light-harvesting pigments.
• These open-chain tetrapyrroles have the extended polyene system found in chlorophylls, but not their cyclic structure or central Mg 2+ .
• Phycobilins are covalently linked to specific binding proteins, forming phycobiliproteins, which associate in highly ordered complexes called phycobilisomes that constitute the primary light-harvesting structures in these microorganisms.

Carotenoids

• In addition to chlorophylls, thylakoid membranes contain secondary light-absorbing pigments, or accessory pigments, called carotenoids.
• Carotenoids may be yellow, red, or purple. The most important are β -carotene, which is a red-orange isoprenoid, and the yellow carotenoid lutein.
• The carotenoid pigments absorb light at wavelengths not absorbed by the chlorophylls and thus are supplementary light receptors.

Factors affecting photosynthesis

Blackman formulated the Law of limiting factors while studying the factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis. This Law states that the rate of a physiological process will be limited by the factor which is in the shortest supply. In the same way, the rate of photosynthesis is also affected by a number of factors, which are namely;

• As the intensity of light increases, the rate of light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis and in turn, the rate of photosynthesis increases.
• With increased light intensity, the number of photons falling on a leaf also increases. As a result, more chlorophyll molecules are ionized, and more ATPs and NADH are generated.
• After a point, however, the rate of photosynthesis remains constant as the light intensity increases. At this point, photosynthesis is limited by some other factors.
• Besides, the wavelength of light also affects the rate of photosynthesis.
• Different photosynthetic systems absorb light energy more effectively at different wavelengths.

Carbon dioxide

• An increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide increases the rate at which carbon is incorporated into carbohydrates in the light-independent reactions of photosynthesis.
• Thus, increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere rapidly increases the rate of photosynthesis up to a point after which it is limited by some other factors.

Temperature

• The light-independent reactions of photosynthesis are affected by changes in temperature as they are catalyzed by enzymes, whereas the light-dependent reactions are not.
• The rate of the reactions increases as the enzymes reach their optimum temperature, after which the rate begins to decrease as the enzymes tend to denature.

Process/ Steps of Photosynthesis

The overall process of photosynthesis can be objectively divided into four steps/ process:

1. Absorption of light

• The first step in photosynthesis is the absorption of light by chlorophylls that are attached to the proteins in the thylakoids of chloroplasts.
• The light energy absorbed is then used to remove electrons from an electron donor like water, forming oxygen.
• The electrons are further transferred to a primary electron acceptor, quinine (Q) which is similar to CoQ in the electron transfer chain.

2. Electron Transfer

• The electrons are now further transferred from the primary electron acceptor through a chain of electron transfer molecules present in the thylakoid membrane to the final electron acceptor, which is usually NADP + .
• As the electrons are transferred through the membrane, protons are pumped out of the membrane, resulting in the proton gradient across the membrane.

3. Generation of ATP

• The movement of protons from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma through the F 0 F 1 complex results in the generation of ATP from ADP and Pi.
• This step is identical to the step of the generation of ATP in the electron transport chain .

4. Carbon Fixation

• The NADP and ATP generated in steps 2 and 3 provide energy, and the electrons drive the process of reducing carbon into six-carbon sugar molecules.
• The first three steps of photosynthesis are directly dependent on light energy and are thus, called light reactions, whereas the reactions in this step are independent of light and thus are termed dark reactions.

Types/ Stages/ Parts of photosynthesis

Figure: Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle. Light-dependent reactions, which take place in the thylakoid membrane, use light energy to make ATP and NADPH. The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, uses energy derived from these compounds to make GA3P from CO 2 . Image Source: OpenStax (Rice University) .

Photosynthesis is divided into two stages based on the utilization of light energy:

1. Light-dependent reactions

• The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis only take place when the plants/ bacteria are illuminated.
• In the light-dependent reactions, chlorophyll and other pigments of photosynthetic cells absorb light energy and conserve it as ATP and NADPH while simultaneously, evolving O 2 gas.
• In the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis, the chlorophyll absorbs high energy, short-wavelength light, which excites the electrons present inside the thylakoid membrane.
• The excitation of electrons now initiates the transformation of light energy into chemical energy.
• The light reactions take in two photosystems that are present in the thylakoid of chloroplasts.

Figure: Light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in the thylakoid membrane of plant cells. Image Source: Wikipedia (Somepics) .

Photosystem II

• Photosystem II is a group of proteins and pigments that work together to absorb light energy and transfer electrons through a chain of molecules until it finally reaches an electron acceptor.
• Photosystem II has a pair of chlorophyll molecules, also known as P680 as the molecules best absorb light of the wavelength 680 nm.
• The P680 donates a pair of electrons after absorbing light energy, resulting in an oxidized form of P680.
• Finally, an enzyme catalyzes the splitting of a water molecule into two electrons, two hydrogen ion, and oxygen molecules.
• This pair of electrons then are transferred to P680, causing it to return to its initial stage.

Photosystem I

• Photosystem I is a similar complex like photosystem II except for that photosystem I have a pair of chlorophyll molecules known as P700 as they best absorb the wavelength of 700 nm.
• As photosystem I absorb light energy, it also becomes excited and transfers electrons.
• The now oxidized form of P700 then accepts an electron from photosystem II, restring back to its initial stage.
• The electrons from photosystem I are then passed in a series of redox reactions through the protein ferredoxin.
• The electrons finally reach NADP + , reducing them to NADPH.

2 H 2 O + 2 NADP +  + 3 ADP + 3 P i  + light → 2 NADPH + 2 H +  + 3 ATP + O 2

Video Animation: The Light Reactions of Photosynthesis (Ricochet Science)

2. Light independent reactions (Calvin cycle)

Light independent reactions of photosynthesis are anabolic reactions that lead to the formation of a sex-carbon compound, glucose in plants. The reactions in this stage are also termed dark reactions as they are not directly dependent on the light energy but do require the products formed from the light reactions.

Figure: Overview of the Calvin cycle pathway. Image Source: Wikipedia (Mike Jones) .

This stage consists of 3 further steps that lead to carbon fixation/ assimilation.

Step 1: Fixation of CO 2 into 3-phosphoglycerate

• In this step, one CO 2 molecule is covalently attached to the five-carbon compound ribulose 1,5-biphosphate catalyzed by the enzyme ribulose 1,5-biphosphate carboxylase, also called rubisco.
• The attachment results in the formation of an unstable six-carbon compound that is then cleaved to form two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate.

Step 2: Conversion of 3-phosphoglycerate to glyceraldehydes 3-phosphate

• The 3-phosphoglycerate formed in step 1 is converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by two separate reactions.
• At first, enzyme 3-phosphoglycerate kinase present in the stroma catalyzes the transfer of a phosphoryl group from ATP to 3-phosphoglycerate, yielding 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
• Next, NADPH donates electrons in a reaction catalyzed by the chloroplast-specific isozyme of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase, producing glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and phosphate (Pi).
• Most of the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate thus produced is used to regenerate ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate.
• The rest of the glyceraldehyde is either converted to starch in the chloroplast and stored for later use or is exported to the cytosol and converted to sucrose for transport to growing regions of the plant.

Step 3: Regeneration of ribulose 1,5-biphosphate from triose phosphates

• The three-carbon compounds formed in the previous steps are then converted into the five-carbon compound, ribulose 1,5-biphosphate through a series of transformations with intermediates of three-, four,-, five-, six-, and seven-carbon sugar.
• As the first molecules in the process, if regenerated, this stage of photosynthesis results in a cycle (Calvin cycle).

3 CO 2 + 9 ATP + 6 NADPH + 6 H +     →     glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) + 9 ADP + 8 P i  + 6 NADP +  + 3 H 2 O

A G3P molecule contains three fixed carbon atoms, so it takes two G3Ps to build a six-carbon glucose molecule. It would take six turns of the cycle to produce one molecule of glucose.

Video Animation: The Calvin Cycle (Ricochet Science)

Products of Photosynthesis

The outcomes of light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis are:

The products of light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle) of photosynthesis are:

• glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) / Glucose (carbohydrates)

The overall products of photosynthesis are:

• Glucose (carbohydrates)
• Sulfur (in photosynthetic sulfur bacteria)

Photosynthesis Examples

Photosynthesis in green plants or oxygenic bacteria.

• In plants and oxygenic bacteria like cyanobacteria, photosynthesis takes place in the presence of green pigment, chlorophyll.
• It takes place in the thylakoids of the chloroplasts, resulting in products like oxygen gas, glucose, and water molecules.
• Most of the glucose units in plants are linked to form starch or fructose or even sucrose.

Photosynthesis in sulfur bacteria

• In purple sulfur bacteria, photosynthesis takes place in the presence of hydrogen sulfur rather than water.
• Some of these bacteria like green sulfur bacteria have chlorophyll whereas other purple sulfur bacteria have carotenoids as photosynthetic pigments.
• The result of photosynthesis in these bacteria are carbohydrates (not necessarily glucose), sulfur gas, and water molecules.

Importance of photosynthesis

• Photosynthesis is the primary source of energy in autotrophs where they make their food by utilizing carbon dioxide, sunlight, and photosynthetic pigments.
• Photosynthesis is equally essential for heterotrophs, as they derive their energy from the autotrophs.
• Photosynthesis in plants is necessary to maintain the oxygen levels in the atmosphere.
• Besides, the products of photosynthesis contribute to the carbon cycle occurring in the oceans, land, plants, and animals.
• Similarly, it also helps maintain a symbiotic relationship between plants, animals, and humans.
• Sunlight or solar energy is the primary source of all other forms of energy on earth, which is utilized through the process of photosynthesis.

Artificial photosynthesis

Artificial photosynthesis is a chemical process that mimics the biological process of utilization of sunlight, water and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and carbohydrates.

Image Source: Phys .

• In artificial photosynthesis, photocatalysts are utilized that are capable of replicating the oxidation-reduction reactions taking place during natural photosynthesis.
• The main function of artificial photosynthesis is to produce solar fuel from sunlight that can be stored and used under conditions, where sunlight is not available.
• As solar fuels are prepared, artificial photosynthesis can be used to produce just oxygen from water and sunlight, resulting in clean energy production.
• The most important part of artificial photosynthesis is the photocatalytic splitting of a water molecule, resulting in oxygen and large quantities of hydrogen gas.
• Further, light-driven carbon reduction can also be performed to replicate the process of natural carbon fixation, resulting in carbohydrates molecules.
• Thus, artificial photosynthesis has applications in the production of solar fuels, photoelectrochemistry, engineering of enzymes, and photoautotrophic microorganisms for the production of microbial biofuel and biohydrogen from sunlight.

Video Animation: Learning from leaves: Going green with artificial photosynthesis

Photosynthesis vs. Cellular respiration

Image Source: Khan Academy .

Video Animation: Photosynthesis vs. Cellular Respiration Comparison (BOGObiology)

FAQs (Revision Questions)

Where does photosynthesis occur? Photosynthesis occurs in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplasts.

What are the products of photosynthesis? The products of photosynthesis are carbohydrates (glucose), oxygen, and water molecules.

What are the reactants of photosynthesis? The reactants of photosynthesis are carbon dioxide, water, photosynthetic pigments, and sunlight.

How are photosynthesis and cellular respiration related? Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are essentially the reverses of one another where photosynthesis is an anabolic process resulting in the formation of organic molecules. In contrast, cellular respiration is a catabolic process resulting in the breaking down of organic molecules to release energy.

• Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L. Biochemistry. 5th edition. New York: W H Freeman; 2002. Section 17.2, Entry to the Citric Acid Cycle and Metabolism Through It Are Controlled.Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK22347/
• Nelson DL and Cox MM. Lehninger Principles of Biochemistry. Fourth Edition.
• Montero F. (2011) Photosynthetic Pigments. In: Gargaud M. et al. (eds) Encyclopedia of Astrobiology. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg
• Lodish H, Berk A, Zipursky SL, et al. Molecular Cell Biology. 4th edition. New York: W. H. Freeman; 2000. Section 16.3, Photosynthetic Stages and Light-Absorbing Pigments.Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21598/

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Anupama Sapkota

1 thought on “Photosynthesis: Equation, Steps, Process, Diagram”

How can we say that 6 calvin cycles are needed to produce 1 glucose molecule why not 2?

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NCERT Solutions for Class 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12

CBSE Biology Revision Notes for Class 6 to 12 Chapterwise Pdf Free Download

July 3, 2020 by Veerendra

Biology Quick Revision Notes Pdf for Class 12th to 6th CBSE: Biology is one of the most essential subjects out of the three science subjects. It helps students to know the physiology of all living creatures among other things. Biology subject is very important for Class 11 and 12 students as it acts as a foundation for their science career. So, to ace up your board exam preparation, we have provided up to date biology notes for class 6th to 12th which are prepared after scrutinizing the previous years’ question papers and the latest CBSE syllabus.

Our Biology Revision Notes for class 12th to 6th free PDF download is made by subject experts with the best interests of the students in mind. Students should pay attention to these CBSE biology chapter-wise revision notes and make sure that you study in a smart way to score more marks in the exam by attempting all the questions. However, our subject teachers have added small tips and tricks in these CBSE Class 6 to 12 Biology Notes Pdf to ensure that you score what exactly you are looking for. So, go through with the below modules and download Chapterwise Biology Key Notes Pdf for Class 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12.

CBSE Class 6th to 12th Biology Notes Pdf for Quick Revision

Biology notes preparation is mandatory for the students for the preparation of CBSE class 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12 exams. The students who have learned the biology subject with the help of NCER books and Biology Notes can score more marks in the board exams as well as competitive exams. You can also make use of these handwritten notes & revision notes of biology for home assignments that are given by subject teachers before the preboard exams.

These notes are designed by subject experts as per the latest academic year CBSE Syllabus 2020. Experts covered all the chapters in detail based on the NCERT textbook and prepared these biology notes by including important questions and answers along with neat and labelled diagrams. These biology quick revision notes are available in pdf format from 6th to 12th Class students for better preparation and high scores in the exam.

Download Chapterwise Biology Revision Notes Pdf for Class 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12

By studying these notes you will definitely gain an edge over your friends. And if you practice them on a regular basis then you will become a master of Biology. So, download chapter-wise biology notes pdf prepared by expertise biology teachers and score good marks in your final CBSE examinations.

You can utilize these class 6 th to 12 th Biology handwritten notes and keynotes for both board exams and competitive exams like NEET. Hence, students of class 12 to class 6 are advised to click on the links available over here and download biology notes chapter-wise Pdf for free.

Chapter-wise Biology Notes For Class 12

• Chapter 1  Reproduction in Organism Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 2  Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 3  Human Reproduction Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 4  Reproductive Health Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 5  Principles of Inheritance and Variation Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 6  Molecular Basis of Inheritance Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 7  Evolution Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 8  Human Health and Disease Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 9  Strategies for Enhancement in Food Production Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 10  Microbes in Human Welfare Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 11  Biotechnology: Principles and Processes Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 12  Biotechnology and its Applications Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 13  Organisms and Populations Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 14  Ecosystem Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 15  Biodiversity and Conservation Class 12 Notes
• Chapter 16  Environmental Issues Class 12 Notes

CBSE Notes for Class 11 Biology

Unit 1 – diversity of living organism.

1.  The Living World 2.  Biological Classification 3.  Plant Kingdom 4.  Animal Kingdom

Unit 2 – Structural Organisation ion Plants and Animals

5.  Morphology of Flowering Plants 6.  Anatomy of Flowering Plants 7.  Structural Organisation in Animals

Unit 3 – Cell Structure and Function

8.  Cell The Unit of Life 9.  Biomolecules 10.  Cell Cycle and Cell Division

Unit 4 – Plant Physiology

11.  Transport in Plants 12.  Mineral Nutrition 13.  Photosynthesis in Higher Plants 14.  Respiration in Plants 15.  Plant Growth and Development

Unit 5 – Human Physiology (A)

16.  Digestion and Absorption 17.  Breathing and Exchange of Gases 18.  Body Fluids and Circulation

Human Physiology (B)

19.  Excretory Products and their Elimination 20.  Locomotion and Movement 21.  Neural Control and Coordination 22.  Chemical Coordination and Integration

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Tips for Preparing Biology Subject for Class 6th to 12th CBSE Board Exams

Students of class 12th to 6th must follow a few tips which are given below during your biology exam preparation for the board examinations:

• Revise the handwritten notes or experts prepared biology notes
• Practice biology previous year question papers and try to attempt biology mock tests papers regularly.
• Improve your speed by solving or practicing questions as much as you can from study materials compiled in biology notes.
• Prefer focusing on Class 6 to 12 NCERT Biology Books at first while preparing for the exam and solve important questions and sample papers given in these books after the completion of every chapter.
• Keep all your concentration while preparation and make a quick revision notes for biology for revising the key points of all chapters before the exam.
• Put all your hard work and put your best foot ahead for a bright future in the Science stream.

How to Prepare Biology Handwritten Notes for Class 6th to 12th CBSE?

Preparing Biology Notes is necessary for the exams because it helps you to revise all key points chapter wise quickly and make you be confident while appearing the board examination. So, follow the below given important steps to prepare the biology revision notes for CBSE classes 6th to 12th:

• At first, pay more attention to facts and ideas
• Prepare notes by paying attention to the important points of all topics
• Refer to the NCERT books along with the best books & study materials suggested by biology subject teachers to prepare the notes.
• Follow the Biology handwritten notes properly and answer more questions in the exam correctly.
• While preparing the biology notes, you should highlight the key points and explain the concepts, in short, to recall it again at the time of revision before the exam.

H3: FAQs on Biology Key Notes for CBSE Class 6 to 12

1. where can i get detailed notes for biology to learn for classes 6 to 12 boards exams.

Students can find the detailed chapter-wise Biology Notes for Class 12th to Class 6th CBSE from our site @ learnCBSE.in to view and download for free. These Biology Revision Notes & Key Notes are designed by subject experts, so use them to ace up your exam preparation.

• How do I make biology notes for Exam preparation?

Making accurate biology notes is a must for scoring good marks in the final CBSE Class 6 to 12 Biology examinations. Well, it aids you to save a lot of time during revision. The detailed steps to make biology revision notes for class 12th to 6th CBSE students are provided on this page. Follow them, and prepare precise biology keynotes for the exam preparation.

• Should I make notes of biology from NCERT books?

Yes, you can make your handwritten notes for biology by using Class 6 to 12 Biology NCERT Books as they are prepared by subject experts and as per the instructions given by the CBSE board. Prepare them in a precise way and make use of the Biology Notes for Quick revision before the exam and score more marks in the exam.

• How can I download NCERT CBSE Class 6 to 12 Biology Handwritten Notes & Revision Notes in Pdf for free?

By clicking on the available direct links, you can easily download chapter wise biology Notes from class 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th in Pdf format. These quick revision notes for Biology is free of charge for CBSE students & other students who are preparing for competitive exams from our website @ learnCBSE.in

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photosynthesis

Photosynthesis requires sunlight, chlorophyll, water, and carbon dioxide gas. Chlorophyll is a substance in all green plants, especially in the leaves. Plants take in water from the soil and carbon dioxide from the air.

Photosynthesis starts when chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight. Green plants use this light energy to change water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and nutrients called sugars. The plants use some of the sugars and store the rest. The oxygen is released into the air.

Photosynthesis is very important because almost all living things depend on plants for food. Photosynthesis is also important because of the oxygen it produces. Humans and other animals need to breathe in oxygen to survive.

Some living things other than plants also make their own food through photosynthesis. They include certain types of bacteria and algae.

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Class Notes

Free Class Notes & Study Material

Root, Stem and Leaf

Last Updated on July 3, 2023 By Mrs Shilpi Nagpal

Question 1 Define the term photosynthesis?

Question 2 Name the parts of plant?

Question 3 Name the green coloured pigment present in the leaves of plant. Also state its function?

Question 4 Explain the process of photosynthesis?

Question 5 Name the gas used and produced in photosynthesis?

Question 6 What is transpiration. Explain with the help of an activity to show that transpiration take place in plants?

Question 7 What are tap roots. Give example?

Question 8 What are fibrous roots. Give example?

Question 9 Why photosynthesis is essential for plants?

Question 10 What is leaf. What are the functions of leaves. Explain the main parts of leaf with diagram?

Question 11 State the main functions of stem?

Question 12 What is root. What are the main functions of root?

Question 13 Give an activity to show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis.

Also Read   NCERT Solutions for Chapter 7 Getting to know Plants

• 1 Parts of Plant
• 3.1 Tap Root
• 3.2 Fibrous Root
• 4.2 Tubes in stem
• 6 Structure of leaf
• 7 Function of chlorophyll
• 8 Process of photosynthesis
• 9 Transpiration
• 10 Activity:  Leaves make food by photosynthesis
• 11 Activity:  To show that sunlight is necessary for Photosynthesis
• 12 Activity : Transpiration in plants

Parts of Plant

The main parts of plants are : Root, Stem and leaves.

That part of the plant which is below the ground (in the soil), is called root.

The main functions of root are:

(1) Roots anchor the plant to the soil . It means that root fix the plant firmly to the soil or ground. This prevents the plant from being pulled out easily or blown away by the wind.

(2) Roots absorb water and mineral from the soil . These are needed for the manufacture of food by plant leaves.

(3)   Roots that help in holding the soil together. In this way, roots prevent the soil from being blown away by wind or washed away by water and help in the conversation of soil.

Types of Root

Roots are primarily of two types:-

(1) Tap roots, and

(2) Fibrous roots

Tap root is the main root and and the smaller, side roots are called lateral roots.

Tap root itself is a quite thick but its branches are much thinner.

Some examples are Pea Plant, Neem tree, mango tree, Marigold, Tulsi, Gram, Carrot, Radish, Beet and Turnip.

Fibrous Root

The fibrous roots spread out in the soil and give a firm support to the plant.

Some of the plants which have fibrous roots are Sweet potato, Paddy (rice), Grass, Maize, Millet (Bajra), Sugarcane and Bamboo.

Food stored in roots

The Minerals present in soil get dissolved in this water. The roots absorb water and minerals from the soil and the stem carries them to the leaves. The leaves prepare food. The food prepared in leaves is carried by the stem to all the parts of the plant, which includes roots. Some of the plants store food in their roots. We eat such roots as food. For example radish, carrot, sweet potato, turnip and tapioca. which we eat as food are the roots of the respective plants.

The part of a plant which rises vertically up from the ground is called stem.

The Stems of the plants are, however, weak and cannot stand erect. The stem of the tree is the strongest part of the tree and is know as trunk . Most of the tree trunks are covered with a tough layer called “ bark “.

The main functions of the stem of a plant are as follows :

(1) The stem holds the plant upright (or erect).

(2) The stem of a plant carries water and minerals from the roots to the leaves and other parts of the plant.

(3) The stem carries the prepared food from leaves to other parts of the plant .

(4) The stem hold the leaves in such a way that the leaves are able to get plenty of sunlight for preparing food by photosynthesis.

Tubes in stem

The stem of a plant has a large number of narrow tubes inside it.

(1) One type of tubes in the stem carry water and dissolved minerals from the roots to the leaves and other parts. The leaves of the plant make food by photosynthesis.

(2) Another types of tubes present in the stem carry food from the leaves to all other parts of the plants, including roots.

The leaf is a thin, broad, flat and green part of a plant which is attached to the stem or branch.

A plant has large number of leaves. Leaves of different plants have different shapes and sizes, but all of them have same basic structure.

Structure of leaf

(1) A leaf consists mainly of two parts lamina and petiole.

Lamina is commonly as leaf blade and petiole is commonly known as leaf stalk .

The broad green part of the leaf is called lamina.

The thin stalk with which leaf is attached to the stem is called “petiole”.

(2) There is a mid-rib or main vein in the centre of lamina. A large number of veins spread out from the mid-rib to all the parts of the leaf. The mid-rib and veins consist of bundles of tiny tubes some of which carry water into the leaf, and other carry away the food from the leaf.

(3) There are minute pores on the surface of a leaf which are called stomata   which

(i) allows the gases to move in and out of the leaf

(ii) also allow excess water vapours to go out of the leaf.

The leaves of plants contain a green coloured pigment called chlorophyll.

Function of chlorophyll

(1) Chlorophyll impart green colour to the leaves.

(2) Chlorophyll can absorb energy from sunlight.

The leaves has three main functions

(1) The leaves make food for the plant by photosynthesis.

(2) The leaves get rid of excess water from the plant through transpiration.

(3) The leaves carry out the process of respiration in plants.

The leaves make food for the plant by the process of photosynthesis.

In photosynthesis the green leaves of plant combine carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight to make food and Oxygen gas.

Process of photosynthesis

(1) Carbon dioxide gas needed for making food is taken by the leaves from air and water is carried into leaves from the soil through the stem.

(2) Sunlight provides the energy for making food.

(3) Chlorophyll present in the green leaves helps in tracking energy from sunlight.

(4) Oxygen gas is produced in the leaves during photosynthesis. This oxygen goes into air.

(5) The simplest food prepared by the leaves by photosynthesis is glucose. Some of the glucose is converted into starch. This starch is stored as food in various parts of the plant.

The process by which green plants use sunlight to make food from carbon dioxide and water is called photosynthesis .

Transpiration

Plants keeps on absorbing water from the soil all the time through its roots due to this a lot of water collects in the body of the plant. Some of the water is used by the plant in making food . The extra water present in the body of plant is given out constantly as water vapours through the tiny pores of the leaves. The evaporation of water from the leaves of plant is called transpiration.

During transpiration the excess water present in the plant is lost into the air as water vapours. Plants release a lot of water vapour into the air through the process of transpiration. This water vapour in air helps in bringing rain.

Activity:  Leaves make food by photosynthesis

(1) Pluck a green leaf from a potted plant which has been kept in sunlight.

(2) Put the green leaf in a small beaker and cover it completely by adding alcohol.

(3) Place the beaker containing leaf and alcohol in a bigger beaker containing water.

Heat the water in biggest beaker over a burner. The hot water will then heat alcohol in small beaker. The hot alcohol removes the green colour from the leaf.

(4) Keep heating till all the green colour of the leaf is removed. The leaf becomes almost colourless and the alcohol becomes green.

(5) Take out the decolourised  leaf from alcohol and wash it thoroughly with water to remove chlorophyll.

(6) Place the decolourised leaf in a petri-dish. Pour dilute iodine solution over the decolourised leaf with the help of a dropper.

(7) The leaf  turns blue black showing the presence of starch in it. The starch is the food which has been prepared by the leaf by photosynthesis.

Activity:  To show that sunlight is necessary for Photosynthesis

(1) Take a potted plant having green leaves and place it in completely dark place for 2 to 3 days to destarch its leaves.

(2) Take a thin strip of aluminium foil and wrap it in the centre of one leaf on both the sides, while the leaf is still attached to the plant. The aluminium foil should be fixed tightly to the leaf so that sunlight may not enter it from the side. Only the middle part of the leaf is covered with aluminium foil. The remaining part of leaf remains uncovered.

(3) Keep the potted plant in bright sunlight for 3 to 4 days.

(4) Pluck the partially covered leaf from the plant and remove the aluminium foil.

(5) Remove chlorophyll from this leaf by heating in alcohol. The leaf becomes colourless.Wash it with water.

(6) Place the decolourised leaf in a petri-dish. Pour dilute iodine solution over the decolorised leaf with the help of a dropper.

(7) The middle part of leaf which was covered by aluminium foil, does not turn blue black on adding iodine solution, showing that no starch is present in the middle part of the leaf. This means that the middle part of the leaf which does not get sunlight, could not make starch food by photosynthesis.

(8) The uncovered parts of leaf which were exposed to sunlight, turn blue black on adding iodine solution, showing that starch is present in the outer parts of the leaf.This means that the outer parts of leaf which got sunlight, could make starch food  by photosynthesis.

Activity : Transpiration in plants

(1) Take a well-watered potted plant having big leaves.

(2) Enclose a leafy stem of the plant in a clean polythene bag and seal the mouth of bag properly.

(3) keep this potted plant in sunlight for 2 to 3 hrs.

(4) We will see a number of water droplets on the inner side of the polythene bag.

(5) The leaves of plant give out water vapour.Since the leaves are enclosed in polythene bag, the water vapours cannot escape into air.

(6) The water vapour given out by the covered leaves keeps on  collecting inside the polythene bag.

(7) Some of this water vapour condenses to form tiny drops of water.

(8) This activity shows that the leaves of plant lose water through transpiration.

About Mrs Shilpi Nagpal

Author of this website, Mrs. Shilpi Nagpal is MSc (Hons, Chemistry) and BSc (Hons, Chemistry) from Delhi University, B.Ed. (I. P. University) and has many years of experience in teaching. She has started this educational website with the mindset of spreading free education to everyone.

Reader Interactions

December 29, 2018 at 11:04 am

this is very good

January 5, 2019 at 8:15 pm

This is a well explained presentation of this topic and will always help students in school topics and for general knowledge

January 5, 2019 at 8:19 pm

children can always get more knowledge by seeing websites like this and focus when they are board of looking at the books they get from school

September 11, 2019 at 4:14 pm

Very much interesting and informative

February 9, 2020 at 9:19 am

It was very informative

May 7, 2020 at 11:22 pm

Very well covered in simple ,easy to understand steps

May 14, 2020 at 10:28 pm

Lovely information helps in making project thanks u so much dear teacher it’s has been great help

October 11, 2020 at 12:12 pm

Indeed very good efforts and service to students. Thanks a lot.

May 5, 2021 at 5:41 pm

Such beautiful notes…..No need of downloading apps if you can find such amazing notes on google itself…..Really..your efforts are great.As a parent of 6th std child,no need of books also.

August 9, 2021 at 12:04 am

This is superb It’s very helped me

October 4, 2021 at 10:05 am

This was helpful for writing notes and the diagrams are clear. I could revise 2-3 chapters here and this is very helpful

I recommended this to my classmates and they study here in this site.

May 28, 2022 at 10:53 am

Thank you for this knowledge. would request for some Quizzes so that we can test our child’s knowledge

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CBSE Class 12 Biology Competency-Based Questions With Answer Key 2024-25: Chapter 6 Human Reproduction FREE PDF Download!

Cbse class 12 maths chapter 6 human reproduction practice questions 2024-25: this article will give you insights on competency-based questions along with the answer key for chapter 6 human reproduction. you can download the pdf for free..

CBSE 2024-25 Competency-Based Questions With Answers: Assessment plays a vital role in education by reinforcing the knowledge that students acquire throughout the course. Competency-based questions are designed to assess how well the students can understand a particular topic or a subject. 

The Central Board Of Secondary Education (CBSE) Board has made available the competency-based questions for class 12 for the academic year 2024-25. Students who want to excel in their exams can review these questions, which will also include the answers to help the students with better preparation. 

Meiotic arrest is a phenomenon noticed during oogenesis in human females where oocytes are arrested in the primary oocyte stage.

(a) What is the chromosomal count of these primary oocytes?

(a) 46 

(b) 0.5 marks for each step: - each primary oocyte is converted to primary follicle - primary follicles further develop to form secondary and tertiary follicles - the tertiary follicles are converted to secondary oocytes- initiated by the action of FSH at puberty. 

Now, that we have provided the questions and answers for CBSE Class 12 Biology Chapter- 6 Human Reproduction, we are also providing the Free PDF to download the file from the given link below. 

Tips To Prepare For CBSE Class 12 Board Exams

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• Frequent revision is a must.
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• The main syllabus book is important.
• Stay healthy and eat healthy.

It is also important to stay healthy and eat healthy while preparing for the exam to prevent exhaustion and relieve exam stress. 

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• CBSE Notes For Class 6
• Class 6 Science Notes
• Chapter 9: The Living Organisms Characteristics And Habitats

The Living Organisms-Characteristics and Habitats Class 6 Notes - Chapter 9

According to the CBSE Syllabus 2023-24, this chapter has been renumbered as Chapter 6.

We all are surrounded by plants, trees, animals, birds, microbes, and other living and nonliving things based on certain parameters, Scientists were able to differentiate between living and nonliving things.

An organism is simply defined as any living thing, ranging from microscopic bacteria to large elephants and everything in between.

• Different types of plants and animals are found in different areas.
• E.g. deserts have camel and cacti as plants.
• Beaches show coconut trees and crabs.
• Fishes and other marine animals inhabit the sea.

Characteristics of Living Organisms

• Plants are living things, but they do not appear to move like a dog or a pigeon.
• On the other hand, a car or a bus can move, yet we consider them as non-living.
• So there are certain characteristics that differentiate living from nonliving-
• Living beings are made of cells.
• Living beings obtain and use energy.
• Living beings grow and develop.
• Living beings reproduce.
• Living beings adapt to their environment.
• Living beings respond to their environment or stimuli.

Let’s explore the important characteristics of living organisms one by one.

• The process by which animals obtain food and utilize it for all activities is called nutrition.
• Every organism requires nutrition to obtain energy.
• All living organisms grow and exhibit growth in different ways.
• Their body cells divide and grow, and thus overall growth is attained.

Respiration

• Respiration is necessary for all living organisms.
• It is through respiration that the body finally obtains energy from the food it takes.
• Some animals may have different mechanisms for the exchange of gases, which is a part of the respiration process.
• E.g. earthworms breathe through their skin, and fish have gills for using oxygen dissolved in water.
• In humans, we respire by breathing in oxygen and breathing out carbon dioxide.

Response to Stimulus

• Changes in our surroundings that makes us respond to them are called stimuli.
• All living beings react to changes in their surroundings.
• E.g. In response to increased temperatures in summer, we use fans to cool our homes.
• All living things take food.
• Not all the food that is eaten is really used. Only a part of it is utilised by the body.
• Unused/remaining food becomes waste and needs to be excreted.
• Our body also produces some waste, like urea, in other life processes.
• Living organisms get rid of all this waste material, and the process is known as excretion.

Reproduction

• All living organisms give rise to a new organism of their own kind by a process called reproduction.
• The mode of reproduction may be different in different animals and plants.
• Some animals produce their young through eggs.
• Some animals give birth to young ones.
• Plants produce seeds which germinate into new plants.
• Some plants also reproduce through parts other than seeds.
• E.g, a part of a potato with a bud grows into a new plant
• Animals move from one place to another and also show other body movements.
• Plants are generally anchored in the soil so they do not move from one place to another.
• However, various substances like water, minerals and the food synthesised by the plants move from one part to other.
• Plants also show other kinds of movement, like the opening and closing of flower buds.

To know more about Characteristics of Organisms, visit the link below;

Characteristic of Organisms

Animal Adaptation

The presence of specific features or certain habits, which enable a plant or an animal to live in its surroundings, is called adaptation.

• Different animals are adapted to their surroundings in different ways.
• For example, Fish have slippery scales on their bodies.
• These scales protect the fish and also help in easy movement through the water.

To know more about Adaptation, visit the link below;

Surroundings

• The different surroundings or areas have different organisms that live in them.
• E.g., The deserts have camels, the mountains have goats and yak.

The surrounding where living organisms survive is known as the habitat.

• The organisms depend on their habitat for their food, water, air, shelter and other needs.
• Habitat means a dwelling place (a home).
• Several kinds of plants and animals may share the same habitat.

Biotic Components

• The living components of a habitat are called biotic components.
• For example, plants and animals

Abiotic Components

• The non-living components of a habitat are called abiotic components.
• For example, rocks, soil, air, water etc

Terrestrial Habitats

• The plants and animals that live on land are said to live in terrestrial habitats.
• For example, forests, grasslands, deserts, coastal and mountain regions.

Aquatic Habitats

• The habitats of plants and animals that live in water are called aquatic habitats.
• For example, ponds, swamps, lakes, rivers and oceans.
• Aquatic habitats could be freshwater (river, pond) or marine (sea) or even estuarine (delta of river meeting with the sea)

Learn more about the Characteristics and Habitats of Living Organisms from the topics given below:

Frequently Asked Questions on CBSE Class 6 Science Notes Chapter 9 The Living Organisms Characteristics and Habitats

What is a response to stimuli.

Any process that results in a change in the state or activity of a cell or an organism (in terms of movement, secretion, enzyme production, gene expression, etc.) as a result of a stimulus.

What are biotic components?

Biotic components include plants, animals, and decomposers. Nonliving components include air, water, and land.

What are aquatic habitats?

An aquatic habitat is a habitat with water. It includes areas that are permanently covered by water and surrounding areas that are occasionally covered by water.

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