research paper on water chemistry

The Chemistry of Water: Aqueous Solutions and Their Properties

• First Online: 19 March 2023

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• Michael Mosher 3 &
• Paul Kelter 4  

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Our focus in this chapter is water as a “universal solvent,” that is, a substance in which so many things can dissolve. That property is critical to life on Earth as we think of how water-based (aqueous) solutions support life in the seas and on land. We will discuss the energy changes that allow substances that accompany solution formation, and the effect of temperature and pressure on dissolution. We will look at measures of solution concentration, including molarity and parts per million. We will also consider colligative properties, which are based on the amount, not the type, of dissolved substances.

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Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, USA

Michael Mosher

Longmont, CO, USA

Paul Kelter

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Mosher, M., Kelter, P. (2023). The Chemistry of Water: Aqueous Solutions and Their Properties. In: An Introduction to Chemistry. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-90267-4_12

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Journal of Water Chemistry and Technology   focuses on water and wastewater treatment, water pollution monitoring, water purification, and similar topics. The journal publishes original scientific theoretical and experimental articles in the following sections: new developments in the science of water; theoretical principles of water treatment and technology; physical chemistry of water treatment processes; analytical water chemistry; analysis of natural and waste waters; water treatment technology and demineralization of water; biological methods of water treatment; and also solicited critical reviews summarizing the latest findings. The journal welcomes manuscripts from all countries in the English or Ukrainian language. All manuscripts are peer-reviewed.  

PEER REVIEW Journal of Water Chemistry and Technology is a peer reviewed journal. We use a single blind peer review format. The average period from submission to first decision is 60 days. The average rejection rate for submitted manuscripts is 20%. The final decision on the acceptance of an article for publication is made by the Editorial Board and the Editor-in-Chief. Any invited reviewer who feels unqualified or unable to review the manuscript due to the conflict of interests should promptly notify the editors and decline the invitation. Reviewers should formulate their statements clearly in a sound and reasoned way so that authors can use reviewer’s arguments to improve the manuscript. Personal criticism of the authors must be avoided. Reviewers should indicate in a review (i) any relevant published work that has not been cited by the authors, (ii) anything that has been reported in previous publications and not given appropriate reference or citation, (ii) any substantial similarity or overlap with any other manuscript (published or unpublished) of which they have personal knowledge.

Current Issue

Vol 41, No 6 (2019)

• Articles: 9
• URL: https://journals.rcsi.science/1063-455X/issue/view/11532

New in Water Science

Water is everywhere. it holds everything, even a key to understanding the universe. d. i. mendeleev’s law is the prototype of the universe constitution.

Principles of the world origin and structure in relation to the Mendeleev’s periodic law are presented in this paper. Our Universe consisting of hydrogen (88.6%), helium (11.3%), and other chemical elements (0.1%) has created very favorable conditions for life on the Earth, including the much-needed water—a unique substance with all its anomalies. Special attention is given to hydrogen, the first element of the periodic table, from which the formation of our solar system began. Moreover, hydrogen is a basic building material for all the other elements. It is shown that a fundamentally important fact implies that all the worlds consist of the same chemical elements of the periodic table; today the total number of the known elements in this table amounts to 118, including the artificially produced ones. There are no new elements in the Universe. And herein lies the genius of Mendeleev as the author of the periodic law and the whole grandeur of the law of understanding the world, in which the humanity lives, making it possible to predict the existence of new planets and the existence of unknown chemical elements in the periodic table that were not discovered earlier. The second unique substance on planet Earth is water, because it can simultaneously exist in three phase states: liquid, solid and gaseous with a multitude of various physical, biological and other anomalies violating the generally accepted laws of nature, but owing to which life exists on our planet. Indeed, it is just the entropy changes of the process that make a decisive contribution to all energy characteristics of transformation of some substances into others. The essence of all chemical processes occurring on earth in accordance with the laws of non-equilibrium thermodynamics consists in an infinite sequence of self-organization processes. Due to these laws, new types of structures can spontaneously arise that are characterized by a transition from chaos and disorder to the order and strict organization. Despite an enormous progress in the study of the Universe, its structure remains to be no less mysterious. It remains to find scientific evidence that there is a Supreme Being that generates the intellect inherent only to Human Being.

Physical Chemistry of Water Treatment Processes

Kinetic and isotherm study of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol’s fast adsorption from aqueous solutions by synthesized magnetite-bentonite nanocomposite.

Organic pollutants in water have been the main contaminations of concern for man. 2,4,6-Trichlorophenol (TCP), is a toxic carcinogen phenolic derivative which exists in effluents of chemical industries and the removal of this pollutant is critical. As the removal of TCP from industrial effluents is important, various techniques have been applied such as adsorption, chemical oxidation, chemical coagulation, and anaerobic biodegradation. In adsorption technique, nanobentonite is considered as a suitable adsorbent due to the low cost, small size of particles, large surface area, naturally available, and intense adsorption capacity. To separate adsorbent particles easily through an external magnetic field, magnetic nanomaterials, such as Fe 3 O 4 , can be fixed on nanobentonite. In this research, magnetized bentonite nanocomposite was synthesized for fast adsorption of TCP from aqueous solutions. The adsorbent was characterized by a Vibrating-Sample magnetometer (VSM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-Ray diffraction (XRD) and Zetasizer Nanoparticle analyzer and the effect of adsorbent dose; pH and contact time parameters on the adsorption process of TCP were evaluated. Moreover, the isotherms and adsorption kinetics were studied. The pH 5 was considered as the optimal pH. The results of kinetic experiments showed that by increasing the contact time, the adsorption efficiency was increased and the equilibrium contact time was found to be about 60 minutes. In optimal pH and equilibrium time (60 min) conditions with the adsorbent dose of 1 g/L, the percentage of adsorption by magnetized nanobentonite was achieved 96.777% while unmodified bentonite adsorbed 68.25% of TCP in equilibrium time of 3 h. The experimental data of adsorption indicated more conformity with the pseudo-second-order and Langmuir isotherm models. As a deduction, nanobentonite with high adsorption capacity was prepared from bentonite mines of Iran and magnetized by Fe 3 O 4 leading to easy and fast separation of nanocomposite TCP from the solution.

Preparation of Economical and Environmentaly Friendly Modified Clay and Its Application for Copper Removal

Copper is toxic and is considered as the hazardous pollutant due to his stability in the environment. Current technologies used for its removal involve materials which can be difficult to synthesize, are expensive or are themselves potentially toxic. Natural clays are abundant worldwide, relatively cheap, possess sorption and ion exchange properties, are candidates as adsorbents. While the Cu(II) sorption capacity of raw bentonite is relatively low, modified bentonites represent a new class of sorbents for effective Cu(II) removal from wastewater. The present study investigates the influence of Algerian clay modification on the capacity of copper removal from water. This montmorillonite, which is a clay mineral of the smectite group, possesses silica tetrahedral sheets layered between alumina octahedral sheets. Several adsorbents were prepared from this bentonite by saturation with sodium, calcium and treatment with sulphuric acid to produce three adsorbents, ARS, ARC and ARH, respectively. The three materials obtained were tested for the Cu(II) adsorption from aqueous solutions. The adsorbents and metal interactions were studied under different conditions of interaction time, pH, concentration of metal ions and amount of clay. It was found that the interactions were dependent on pH, the uptake of pollutant was controlled by the amount of clay and the initial copper concentration. Langmuir and Freundlich models were fitted to experimental isotherms. The Langmuir model shows a better fit to the Cu ions adsorption isotherm for all systems. The largest adsorption capacity is observed for sodium homoionic clay. The Langmuir maximum sorption capacity of Cu(II) ions on ARH, ARC and ARS was found to be 17.241, 18.181 and 24.390 mg/g, respectively. The three adsorbents also showed a high efficiency in the Cu(II) adsorption from much diluted solutions. This work suggested that the modified clays can be promising candidates for the removal of copper ions from aqueous solutions.

Novel Immobilization of Pseudomonas Aeruginosa on Graphene Oxide and Its Applications to Biodegradation of Phenol Existing in Industrial Wastewaters

A new biodegradtion method for removal of phenol and its derivatives has been considered. In this study the biochemical pathway involved in degradation of phenol through Pseudomonas aeruginosa bacterial cells which are immobilized on graphene oxide (GO) has been investigated. Since phenol is a toxic substance and eliminating it through a biological method is difficult, the phenol removal ability of the bacterial cells of P. aeruginosa has been considered in comparison with phenol adsorption on graphene oxide as a nanostructured adsorbent and P. aeruginosa supported on GO as a new biochemical adsorbent. For this purpose, graphene oxide was initially synthesized using the modified Hummer’s method and the bacterial strain was supported on GO. Scanning electron microscopy was employed to identify their morphology and structure. Also surface functional groups were initially analyzed by FTIR. The variables involved in the phenol removal process including phenol initial concentration, adsorbent dosage, temperature. The best removal efficiency of the bacteria was carried out at optimum conditions of pH 7, biosorbent dose of 0.01 g and phenol initial concentration of 3 ppm after 45 min of contact time at 25°C and up to 55% of phenol was removed. Using 0.01 g of GO and using 0.01 g of P. aeruginosa /GO attained to this removal efficiency at pH 7 after 60 and 45 min. of contact time, respectively, whereas the removal efficiency of the modified biochemical adsorbent of P. aeruginosa /GO was up to 92% at pH 3 after 45 min. of contact time. At the same condition phenol degradation using free cells of P. aeruginosa and using GO nanoparticles were 10.15 and 88.63%, respectively. Pseudo-second order kinetics described the biodegradation of phenol by P. aeruginosa supported on GO.

Water Treatment and Demineralization Technology

Water purification from hydroxo-compounds of iron by ceramic membranes based on clay minerals.

The high efficiency of the process of water purification from Fe(III) hydroxo-compounds by microfiltration tubular ceramic membrane based on clay minerals has been shown. This water purification process was developed by Dumanskii Institute of Colloid and Water Chemistry (ICWC), National Academy of Science of Ukraine. The effect of the initial solution concentration, its pH, working pressure, the process duration, and the presence of Cl, SO 4 2− HCO 3 − , Ca 2+ and Na + ions on the separation properties of membrane was studied. The total salt content of the solution did not exceed the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of the total mineralization of drinking water. It was established that Fe(III) solutions with Fe(III) initial concentration of up to ∼170 mg/dm 3 could be purified to the Fe(III) MPC level in drinking water at pH ini 5.0–7.5 and P = 1.0 MPa during the whole process when the membrane specific performance varied in the range 0.28–0.43 m 3 /(m 2 ·h). As a result of dynamic modification by Fe(III) hydroxo-compounds at the minimum solution pH ini 2.8, the membrane retained 33.8% of Ca 2+ ions, i.e. acquired the ultrafiltration properties. The presence in solution of Cl − , SO 4 2− , and HCO 3 − ions, each in the amount of 200 mg/dm 3 , and Ca 2+ and Na + ions in the amount of 150 and 236 mg/dm 3 , respectively, practically did not affect the retention of Fe(III) hydroxo-compounds by ceramic membrane. Since such membranes are cheaper than similar membranes based on oxide ceramics and not inferior to them in terms of the efficiency and can work in most severe conditions, they can be used in practice for the purification of the surface and underground natural waters from Fe(III) hydroxo-compounds, including compounds of various classes, such as chloride, sulfate, hydrocarbonate (carbonate), and mixed type. In addition, they can be applied in local installations for pretreatment of drinking water.

Evaluation of Novel Nanodemulsifier Based on Colloidal and Non-Colloidal Surfactants for the Removal of Hydrocarbons from Wastewater

The separation of oil-water emulsion, in general, is a major problem in oil production and refining processes. The authors performed targeted laboratory and field studies on wastewater cleaning from hydrocarbons in the conditions of oil preprocessing on the ZhetybayMunayGaz oil field, Republic of Kazakhstan. The field pilot-scale tests (FPST) have been performed with a novel nanodemulsifier IKHLAS-1 based on colloidal and non-colloidal surfactants. IKHLAS-1 was selected after conducting the laboratory tests with 42 other components of similar molecular composition. The data also demonstrate how the degree of wastewater purification from oil depends on the specific consumption of demulsifier, demulsification temperature, the volume of hard destructible water-in-oil emulsions, settling time and the demulsifier pH. The results of FPST have revealed the significant advantage of using IKHLAS-1 in comparison with the standard demulsifier Randem-2219, since the obtained degree of wastewater purification (oil concentration was below 50 mg/dm 3 ) corresponds to the requirements of the technology of water re-injection to maintain reservoir pressure.

The Effect of Physicochemical Parameters on the Process of Water Disinfection Using Chitosan

Increasing demands to the quality of drinking water necessitate the search for environmentally friendly and effective methods of its disinfection and purification. The purpose of this work was to study the disinfecting activity of chitosan (ChTS) obtained from natural polymer chitine in relation to E. coli and C. albicans depending on the physicochemical parameters of medium. It has been established that the degree of inactivation of E. coli culture does not depend on the type of ChTS used in this study: high-molecular ChTS 1 (molecular weight (Mw) = 100–300 kDa) and low-molecular ChTS 2 (Mw = 50–60 kDa) with the deacetylation degree of 95 and 75–85%, respectively. In the case of C. albicans , high-molecular weight ChTS with deacetylation degree of 95% is a more effective disinfecting agent. The highest degree of C. albicans inactivation by using ChTS 1 is achieved in a weak acid medium (pH 5.0), while at pH 8.5 the disinfecting effect is negligible. For the first time, a significant contribution of the process of flocculation of microorganisms by chitosan to the total effect of water disinfection has been shown that is especially pronounced at relatively short contact periods ( C. albicans is a more reliable test object of disinfection processes as compared to E. coli that is of practical importance.

Natural Waters

Characteristics of sea water self-purification processes in the black sea based on the results of biotesting.

The dynamics of sea water self-purification processes in the water area of the Karadag Nature Reserve during five years after the emergency discharges of sulfur and oil products to the Black Sea has been studied. The toxicity of aquatic environment was estimated by the biotesting method based on using saltwater crustaceans: Artemia salina species from the Branchiopoda order. The rate of self-purification processes in surface and deep levels of sea water was established. The ecological significance of self-purification for restoring the quality of marine aquatic environment was specified. The sea water self-purification mechanisms occurring as a result of mechanical, physicochemical and biological processes are studied. It has been revealed that the incoming pollutants are diluted by marine water of the Black Sea, suspended substances gradually settle down to the bottom, while the organic substances are subjected to oxidation at the expense of oxygen dissolved in water. These processes result in organic substances gradually being mineralized by their disintegration into simpler substances. It must be underlined that a complex of biocenoses formed by different hydrobionts takes part in self-purification processes. The majority of them are also directly involved in decontamination of sea from bacterial contaminants, including pathogenic microbes. The mechanism of antibacterial action of hydrobionts is sufficiently diversified. Some of them absorb bacteria for feeding, others cause the cell lysis, and the third release the antibacterial agents into environment. Different type relationships are formed between the bacterial population and other hydrobionts. The predominant types, besides trophic, are metabiosis and antagonism. The biochemical activity of hydrobionts is a dominant process in self-purification of marine ecosystem. The conclusions are made about the need of monitoring the sea water quality by using the methods of biotesting on animal and plant test-organisms of different trophic levels.

Biological Methods of Water Treatment

Purification performance of typha latifolia , juncus effusus and papyrus cyperus in arid climate: influence of seasonal variation.

The purification of wastewater through the use of the plants (phytoepuration) was used in different areas and under various climates; it was tested successfully for organic pollution, for the elimination of phosphorus pollution, nitrogen pollution, metals, and for the destruction of the pathogenic germs. This study reports the monitoring of purifying performances of three plants, which show a good acclimatization in arid climate: Typha latifolia , Juncus effusus and Cyperus papyrus . The monitoring was carried out during one year from December to November in the southern Algeria. The experimental pilot set-up consists of four plastic barrels capacity of 130 L, filled from the bottom upwards to 45 cm thickness by gravel and 10 cm by sand, with opening located at 5 cm below the sand to avoid any overflow of water. Three barrels were planted with young stems of the studied species with the coverage of 36 stems/m 2 , and the fourth barrel remained unplanted to serve as reference object. 30 L of wastewater which have undergone primary treatment at the purification station of Kouinine (north the town of El-Oued) was supplied to each barrel once a week. The flow occurred by percolation through the substrate. The residence time of water is 5 days. Treated water is recovered by a tap placed in bottom of the barrel. With the three tested plants, very satisfactory outputs were obtained for particulate and organic pollution, where the decrease rates of reached 96% for suspended matter (SM), 89% for the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and 87% for the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD 5 ). The elimination of nitrogen and phosphorous pollution resulted in decreasing rates of 94% for nitrates and 95% for orthophosphates. The planted bed of Juncus effusus gives the best outputs for the elimination of organic and nitrogen pollution. However, the planted bed of Cyperus papyrus is the most appropriate for the phosphorous pollution. In addition, the elimination of the organic pollutants decreases in summer; never the less the output of purification remains higher than 68% for all seasons.

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Recent advancements in water treatment

For immediate release, acs news service weekly presspac: january 19, 2022.

Generating clean, safe water is becoming increasingly difficult. Water sources themselves can be contaminated, but in addition, some purification methods can cause unintended harmful byproducts to form. And not all treatment processes are created equal with regard to their ability to remove impurities or pollutants. Below are some recent papers published in ACS journals that report insights into how well water treatment methods work and the quality of the resulting water. Reporters can request free access to these papers by emailing  newsroom@acs.org .

“Drivers of Disinfection Byproduct Cytotoxicity in U.S. Drinking Water: Should Other DBPs Be Considered for Regulation?” Environmental Science & Technology Dec.15, 2021

In this paper, researchers surveyed both conventional and advanced disinfection processes in the U.S., testing the quality of their drinking waters. Treatment plants with advanced removal technologies, such as activated carbon, formed fewer types and lower levels of harmful disinfection byproducts (known as DBPs) in their water. Based on the prevalence and cytotoxicity of haloacetonitriles and iodoacetic acids within some of the treated waters, the researchers recommend that these two groups be considered when forming future water quality regulations.

“Complete System to Generate Clean Water from a Contaminated Water Body by a Handmade Flower-like Light Absorber” ACS Omega Dec. 9, 2021 As a step toward a low-cost water purification technology, researchers crocheted a coated black yarn into a flower-like pattern. When the flower was placed in dirty or salty water, the water wicked up the yarn. Sunlight caused the water to evaporate, leaving the contaminants in the yarn, and a clean vapor condensed and was collected. People in rural locations could easily make this material for desalination or cleaning polluted water, the researchers say.

“Data Analytics Determines Co-occurrence of Odorants in Raw Water and Evaluates Drinking Water Treatment Removal Strategies” Environmental Science & Technology Dec. 2, 2021

Sometimes drinking water smells foul or “off,” even after treatment. In this first-of-its-kind study, researchers identified the major odorants in raw water. They also report that treatment plants using a combination of ozonation and activated carbon remove more of the odor compounds responsible for the stink compared to a conventional process. However, both methods generated some odorants not originally present in the water.

“Self-Powered Water Flow-Triggered Piezocatalytic Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species for Water Purification in Simulated Water Drainage” ACS ES&T Engineering Nov. 23, 2021

Here, researchers harvested energy from the movement of water to break down chemical contaminants. As microscopic sheets of molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) swirled inside a spiral tube filled with dirty water, the MoS2 particles generated electric charges. The charges reacted with water and created reactive oxygen species, which decomposed pollutant compounds, including benzotriazole and antibiotics. The researchers say these self-powered catalysts are a “green” energy resource for water purification.

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A REVIEW OF WATER QUALITY RESPONSES TO AIR TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION CHANGES 1: FLOW, WATER TEMPERATURE, SALTWATER INTRUSION

Associated data.

Anticipated future increases in air temperature and regionally variable changes in precipitation will have direct and cascading effects on U.S. water quality. In this paper, and a companion paper by Coffey et al. (2019) , we review technical literature addressing the responses of different water quality attributes to historical and potential future changes in air temperature and precipitation. The goal is to document how different attributes of water quality are sensitive to these drivers, to characterize future risk to inform management responses and to identify research needs to fill gaps in our understanding. Here we focus on potential changes in streamflow, water temperature, and salt water intrusion (SWI). Projected changes in the volume and timing of streamflow vary regionally, with general increases in northern and eastern regions of the U.S., and decreases in the southern Plains, interior Southwest and parts of the Southeast. Water temperatures have increased throughout the U.S. and are expected to continue to increase in the future, with the greatest changes in locations where high summer air temperatures occur together with low streamflow volumes. In coastal areas, especially the mid-Atlantic and Gulf coasts, SWI to rivers and aquifers could be exacerbated by sea level rise, storm surges, and altered freshwater runoff. Management responses for reducing risks to water quality should consider strategies and practices robust to a range of potential future conditions.

INTRODUCTION

Anticipated warming air temperatures, changing precipitation patterns and rising sea levels are expected to alter watershed hydrologic and biogeochemical processes, with direct and cascading effects on water quality ( Fant et al., 2017 ; Murdoch et al., 2000 ; Worrall et al., 2003 ; Senhorst and Zwolsman, 2005 ; Kundzewicz et al., 2007 ). U.S. air temperatures increased, on average, 0.7 to 1°C from 1986 to 2016. By the end of this century, air temperatures are projected to increase an additional 1.6°C to 6.6°C ( USGCRP 2017 ). Increases are projected to be greatest for higher latitudes and inland, and smaller increases are projected along coastal areas ( USGCRP 2017 ). Warming air temperatures have been linked to intensification of the hydrological cycle (e.g., atmospheric water content and changing precipitation patterns) and altered biogeochemical processes – key drivers of water quality ( Watts et al., 2015 ; USGCRP 2017 ). Increased air temperatures are also linked to sea level rise ( USGCRP 2017 ), which together with storm surge (movement of seawater landwards due to low pressure and wind associated with storms) can exacerbate salt water intrusion (SWI, movement of saline water into freshwater aquifers) and salinization of coastal rivers, estuaries, and wetlands.

Changes in the amount and timing of precipitation drive watershed hydrologic processes that mobilize and transport pollutants to water bodies. Annual precipitation in the continental U.S. has increased, on average, 4% since 1901. Increases in annual precipitation have been more prevalent in the northern and eastern U.S., while decreases have been observed in parts of the West, Southwest and parts of the Southeast ( USGCRP 2017 ). Heavy precipitation events have increased in intensity and frequency in most locations. In the western U.S, extreme snowfall years, spring snow cover extent, maximum snow depth, and snow water equivalent have decreased; however, extreme snowfall years in parts of the northern U.S. have increased ( USGCRP 2017 ). These trends are expected to continue this century ( USGCRP 2017 ).

In this paper, and a companion paper in this volume ( Coffey et al., 2019 ), we review the scientific literature addressing water quality responses to air temperature and precipitation in the U.S. The objectives are to document how different attributes of water quality are sensitive to climate change, to characterize future risk to inform management responses and to identify research needs to fill gaps in our understanding. This information is useful to identify key vulnerabilities in different regional and watershed settings, and to guide the development of effective management responses to reduce the risk of harmful impacts. This paper focuses on the potential future responses of streamflow, water temperature, and SWI to coastal rivers and aquifers. The companion paper by Coffey et al. (2019) discusses nutrients, algal blooms, sediment, and microbial pathogens.

Water quality changes are complex, with high spatial and temporal variability within and among waterbodies, and influenced by multiple, interacting climatic, watershed (e.g., physiographic setting, land use) and human (e.g., water management infrastructure) factors ( Poole and Berman 2001 ; Caissie 2006 ; Webb et al. 2008 ). The focus of this review is sensitivity to changes in air temperature and precipitation. Discussion of changes in land use, water management and other factors affecting water quality is outside the scope of this review.

Relevant studies were identified through a search of recently published peer-reviewed and gray literature (post 2000) examining water quality responses to historic or projected future changes in air temperature and precipitation. Literature searches were conducted in common scientific databases (e.g., PubMed) using appropriate search terms. Our search identified studies that evaluated either observed streamflow, water temperature and SWI/salinity responses to climate drivers, or simulations of potential future responses using hydrological models driven by future climate change scenarios. Studies about responses to observed weather and climatic variability document sensitivity to air temperature and precipitation. In this context, climatic variability refers to the inherent heterogeneity or fluctuation in air temperature, precipitation, etc. over the short-term, days to years. Modeling studies suggest potential changes in response to alternative futures conditions. To the extent possible, we synthesize information from each type of study to make inferences about the risk presented by future changes. Where possible, regional differences are noted. Note that modeling studies typically provide an “ensemble” range of outcomes in response to different future scenarios and time periods etc. In such cases, we make the simplifying assumption that the ensemble mean or median suggests a “more likely” direction of change for the purposes of risk management.

Observed Sensitivity.

Streamflow is a principal driver of changes in water quality ( Murdoch et al. 2000 ; Howarth et al. 2006 ; Kaushal et al. 2008 ; Kundzewicz et al. 2008 ; Ficklin et al. 2010 ; Wilson and Weng 2011 ; Joyner and Rohli 2013 ; Jiang et al. 2014 ). Changes in streamflow are highly correlated with changes in precipitation ( USGS 2005 ; Zhu and Day 2005 ; Krakauer and Fung 2008 ; Dai et al. 2009 ; WICCI 2009 , Patterson et al. 2012 ; Bassiouni and Oki 2013 ; Ge et al. 2013 ; Simpson et al. 2013 ; Ryberg et al. 2014 ; Berton et al. 2016 ). Changes in air temperature also affect streamflow via drivers like evapotranspiration (ET), soil moisture, snow accumulation and snowmelt ( Zhu and Day 2005 ; Fu et al. 2007 ; Krakauer and Fung 2008 ).

Streamflow in the U.S. has broadly increased over the past century, but the increase has not been uniform and can be characterized by both short- and long-term variations in precipitation ( USGS 2005 ). Increases in streamflow, particularly for low flow (i.e., baseflow) and average annual flow conditions, have been most prevalent in the Northeast, Southeast, Midwest and Alaska (e.g., Huntington et al. 2009 , Marion et al. 2014 ). Other regions show no consistent trend in average annual streamflow ( USGS 2005 ), however changes in seasonal flows have occurred including, for example, increases in spring and decreases in summer and fall flows in the Central Rockies (e.g., Clark 2010 ; Leppi et al. 2012 ) and mountainous Southwest, and Pacific Northwest ( USEPA 2017 ). Observed changes are also likely to have been influenced by human activities (e.g., urban and agricultural land use, dams and other water management infrastructure), which interact with precipitation ( Paul and Meyer 2001 ; Vogel et al. 2011 ; Jones et al. 2012 ; Creed et al. 2014 ; Ford et al. 2011 ). This can make attribution of observed streamflow trends to specific drivers difficult to distinguish ( Ficklin et al. 2018 ; Fu et al. 2007 ; Vogel et al. 2011 ; Jones et al. 2012 ; Hatcher and Jones 2013 ).

Decreases in low-flow (baseflow) conditions, which typically occur in late summer or early fall, have been associated with increases in ET associated with warming ( Regonda et al. 2005 ; Stewart et al. 2005 ; Brabets and Walvoord 2009 ; Clark 2010 ; Coats 2010 ; Hatcher and Jones 2013 ). Over the past century, changes in low-flow volumes have generally correlated with regional trends in precipitation ( USGS 2005 ; Bassiouni and Oki 2013 ). Trends in peak streamflow (floods) from 1940 to 2014 show no consistent pattern on a national scale ( Villarini et al. 2009 , USEPA 2016a ), but regional patterns are apparent. In the southern U.S., especially the Southwest, decreases in peak streamflow have been observed, potentially attributable to warmer and drier conditions ( Hirsch and Ryberg 2012 ). In parts of the Northeast and Midwest, the frequency and magnitude of floods have increased in response to increases in precipitation, especially heavy precipitation ( USGS 2005 ; Kalra et al. 2008 ; Huntington et al. 2009 ; Kim et al. 2010a ; Melillo et al. 2014 ; Ryberg et al. 2014 , USEPA 2016a ; Usinowicz et al. 2017 ).

In snow-dominated watersheds, air temperature affects the annual timing (seasonal distribution) of streamflow through changes in the proportion of precipitation that falls as rain versus snow, snowpack accumulation, the rate and seasonal timing of snow melt ( Knowles and Cayan 2002 ; Coats 2010 ; Sahoo et al. 2011 ; Hatcher and Jones 2013 ). Western mountain regions have experienced shifts in the seasonal timing and distribution of streamflow to earlier in the year, resulting in increased spring discharge volumes and decreased discharge in summer-early fall ( Lins and Slack 1999 ; Maurer 2007 ; Neiman et al. 2008 ; Clark 2010 ; Kim and Jain 2010 ; Mayer and Naman 2011 ; Hunsaker et al. 2012 ; Leppi et al. 2012 ; Dittmer 2013 ; Ficklin et al. 2013a ; Hatcher and Jones 2013 ; Null et al. 2013 ; Melillo et al. 2014 ; USEPA 2017 ; CalEPA 2018 ). Similar trends have also been observed in the Northeast ( Huntington et al. 2009 ; Hamburg et al. 2013 ). In contrast to snow dominated watersheds, many glaciated basins have experienced increased summer flows due to increased glacial melting as a direct effect of increased temperatures (e.g., Alaska) ( Brabets and Walvoord 2009 ; Hodgkins 2009 ; Ge et al. 2013 ).

Decadal oscillations [e.g., El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Atlantic Multidecadal Oscillation (AMO)] can also influence streamflow. The AMO, which shifted abruptly in the 1970s, was linked to changes in precipitation and temperature over the Midwest and northeastern U.S., causing changes in streamflow ( McCabe and Wolock 2002 ; Krakauer and Fung 2008 ; Villarini et al. 2009 ; Zhang et al. 2010 ). In the western U.S. and Alaska, the North Atlantic Oscillation and Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) have also been linked to sudden changes in weather which altered streamflow ( Woo and Thorne 2008 ; Coats 2010 ; Coleman and Budikova 2013 ). In the southeastern US, complex patterns linking different decadal oscillations to seasonal differences in flow have been described, emphasizing the important link between climate and streamflow ( Sheldon and Burd 2014 ).

Projected future changes.

Compared to water quality, a relatively extensive literature exists addressing potential future streamflow changes in the U.S. Studies include local watershed scale monitoring and modeling, to gridded, continental scale water budget simulations using global climate and land surface models (e.g., USGCRP 2017 , Marion et al. 2014 , Sun et al. 2015 ). In this review, we limit our scope to local, watershed scale studies that illustrate the breadth of expected streamflow changes at spatial and temporal scales relevant to water quality. The aim is not a comprehensive review of all literature addressing streamflow response, but rather to provide appropriate hydrologic context for discussions about water quality responses in this and the companion paper by Coffey et al. (2019) . See Georgakakos et al. (2014) or USGCRP (2017) for more extensive, national scale review of projected streamflow changes.

Decreases in average annual streamflow are suggested for many watersheds in the interior Southwest, central Rockies, and parts of the Southeast mainly in response to potential decreases in summer-fall precipitation and increases in ET ( Figure 1 ). Potential increases in average annual streamflow are more prevalent for watersheds in the Northeast, Midwest, Pacific Northwest, Northern Plains, and Alaska. There is, however, variability amongst watersheds in all regions. Future streamflow responses will reflect the balance between drying associated with warming air temperature and ET, and regionally variable changes in the amount and direction of future changes in precipitation. Local changes will also be influenced by other factors such as watershed setting (e.g., geology, topography, soil type, and vegetation) and human activities (e.g., land use and water management infrastructure).

Location of watershed modeling studies in this review assessing streamflow responses to future climate change scenarios. Symbols indicate the suggested direction of change (based on ensemble median, annual loads). Studies not reporting an ensemble median (e.g., a range, or sensitivity) are shown as “Direction indeterminate”. Detailed information about each study are provided in the supplemental materials .

Increases in air temperature are expected to continue to alter the timing and magnitude of seasonal high flows in colder/mountainous areas influenced by snow (e.g., the northern, northeastern, mountain west and pacific northwest areas). Rain-on-snow events are expected to become more frequent, increasing the risk of flooding ( Musselman et al. 2018 ). Some locations could shift from currently snow-dominated systems to either transient systems, which receive a mixture of snow and rain, or rain-dominated systems ( Christensen and Lettenmaier 2007 ; Elsner et al. 2010 ; Chang et al. 2010 ). In transient systems, which are near the rain-snow threshold, slight temperature changes can have large effects on the form of precipitation and snow accumulation ( Mote and Salathe 2010 ; Chang et al. 2010 ). Future changes in these system types will be important for regions and watersheds that depend on snowfall and melt to sustain late summer-fall streamflow as a water supply. Generally, northern and eastern parts of the U.S. are anticipated to experience lower summer flow volumes due to increased winter rainfall and earlier snowmelt ( Birsan et al. 2005 ; Jefferson et al. 2008 ; Ficklin et al. 2013c , USEPA 2016a ).

The risk of water quality degradation can be greater during extreme high and low flow events ( Kundzewicz et al., 2008 ; Watts et al., 2015 ; Pathak et al., 2016; Fant et al., 2017 ). Climate change is expected to generally increase flow variability, including a greater proportion of annual precipitation occurring in heavy events, and longer dry periods between events ( USGCRP 2017 ; Naz et al. 2018 ; Salathé and Mauger 2018 ). Uncertainty remains, however, concerning specific future changes in distinct locations. In many locations, longer summer dry periods together with increases in air temperature and ET could exacerbate low flow conditions (e.g., Wei et al. 2012 , Caldwell et al. 2016 ), concentrating pollutant inputs. At the same time, warmer temperatures are expected to drive more frequent heavy precipitation events that increase the risk of high-flow and flooding throughout the U.S. ( Prein et al. 2016 ; USGCRP 2017 ; Wing et al. 2018 ). Excessive in-stream pollutant loading is commonly associated with such events.

Ecosystem Level Impacts.

Changes in streamflow can have direct and indirect effects on water quality and aquatic ecosystems ( Poff et al. 1997 ). Aquatic organisms are adapted to and depend on natural variability in streamflow; as a result, changes in the natural streamflow regime can alter physical habitat, water quality, food and energy inputs, and aquatic community interactions such as predator-prey dynamics, reproduction, and dispersal ( Poff et al. 1997 ; Lytle and Poff 2004 ). Figure 2 summarizes how changes in streamflow can affect aquatic communities. In estuaries and coastal systems, freshwater discharge is similarly a major factor determining habitat availability and quality, with shifts in freshwater inflows having a major impact on estuarine species (Sheldon and Burd 2013; Wieşki and Pennings 2013; Beighley et al. 2008 ).

A summary of flow alteration effects on aquatic communities. Source: Novak et al. 2016 .

Pollutant fluxes within waterbodies typically correlate with changes in streamflow ( Murdoch et al. 2000 ; Howarth et al. 2006 ; Kaushal et al. 2008 ; Kundzewicz et al. 2008 ; Ficklin et al. 2010 ; Wilson and Weng 2011 ; Joyner and Rohli 2013 ; Jiang et al. 2014 ). In-stream pollutant loads generally increase with streamflow and associated precipitation events which drive non-point source loading. During periods of low flow volume, reduced dilution can in some instances result in higher pollutant concentrations (e.g., downstream of point source discharges). Increased flow residence times together with reduced mixing can also contribute to the formation of algal blooms. These relationships are developed in greater detail in the companion paper by Coffey et al. (2019) . Finally, changes in flow volume also affect water body thermal capacity and are a contributing factor to increasing or decreasing water temperatures ( Mantua et al. 2010 ; Wu et al. 2012 ; Null et al. 2013 ; Ficklin et al. 2013b ; Luo et al. 2013 , Butcher et al. 2016 ).

Water Temperature

Solar radiation is the primary driver affecting air and water temperature ( Sinokrot and Stefan 1993 , Webb and Zhang 1997 ). Because solar radiation affects both air and water temperature, and sensible heat is transferred between air and water, the two parameters are typically closely correlated. Accordingly, many statistical models use changes in air temperature to predict water temperatures ( Caissie 2006 ). Increases in annual and seasonal water temperatures have been broadly observed throughout the U.S. over the past century, coincident with increases in air temperature over the same time ( Figure 3 ) ( Johnson and Stefan 2006 ; Kaushal et al. 2010 ; Seekell and Pace 2011 , Isaak et al. 2012 ; USGCRP 2017 ; Winslow et al. 2017 ). While many U.S. waterbodies have exhibited warming trends, the magnitude of changes often vary depending on site characteristics, human activities, the thermal metric being evaluated and the time period being analyzed ( Arismendi et al. 2012 ).

Location of watersheds identified in this review assessing observed historic trends in annual average water temperature. Symbols indicate direction of trends. Direction indeterminate sites did not exhibit a significant trend over time (p>0.05).

In a long-term national scale assessment, increases in annual average water temperature were reported at 33 out of 40 sites scattered across the U.S. ( Kaushal et al. 2010 ). Statistically significant increases were evident at 20 of these sites, with water temperatures rising by +0.009 to +0.077 °C per year. The largest rate of increase was observed at a Delaware River site near Chester, Pennsylvania ( Kaushal et al. 2010 ). In the Northeast, Midwest and Great Lakes, increases in water temperature, decreases in ice cover and earlier ice melt have been observed, corresponding with increases in regional air temperature over the past 30 years ( Assel 2005 ; Austin and Colman 2007 ; Dobiesz and Lester 2009 ; Huntington et al. 2009 ; Magee and Wu 2017 ; Winslow et al. 2017 ). Reduced winter ice cover is also causing an earlier onset of lake stratification in the Great Lakes ( Austin and Colman 2007 ) and stronger stratification in Wisconsin ( Winslow et al. 2017 ). Summer water temperatures have increased at a faster rate than regional air temperatures ( Dobiesz and Lester 2009 ). Similar observations have been noted for lakes in other parts of the U.S. (e.g., Lake Tahoe, California – see Coats 2010 ).

Precipitation driven changes in hydrology also have major effects on water temperature. The effects of precipitation include the direct transfer of thermal energy in runoff (related to air temperature) and changes in hydrology that influence the thermal capacity and energy balance of waterbodies (e.g., streamflow volume, groundwater contribution) ( Webb and Zhang, 1997 ; Mohseni and Stefan 1999 ). During dry seasons, low streamflow volumes are associated with reduced thermal capacity and longer residence time, which contribute to diurnal increases in water temperature ( van Vliet et al. 2011 , Butcher et al. 2016 ). In the northern and mountainous western U.S., reduced snowpack and earlier snow melt associated with warming have shifted the timing of runoff to earlier in the year, resulting in extended summer-fall low flows. These conditions have been linked to high summer water temperatures in many streams ( Stewart et al. 2005 ; Fritze et al. 2011 , Isaak et al. 2012 ).

Conversely, increases in precipitation and runoff can have a buffering effect on water temperature by diluting thermal loads, increasing thermal capacity, and shortening residence time ( Webb et al. 2003 ). In some snow-dominated systems, decreases in spring water temperatures have occurred because of increased cool water inputs and flow volume associated with earlier snowmelt ( Isaak et al. 2012 ). Relatively cool groundwater inputs can also make stream temperatures less sensitive to changes in air temperatures and streamflow, particularly in smaller, shaded streams ( Tague et al. 2007 ; Nichols et al. 2014 ; Brown 1969 ; Smith and Lavis 1975 ; Constantz and Essaid 2007 ; Sridhar et al. 2004 ).

Decadal oscillations have been shown to affect water temperature as well. For example, in the western U.S., Bartholow (2005) suggested that warming of the lower main-stem Klamath River might be related to the cyclic PDO, while Coats et al. (2006) found that warming trends in monthly and annual water temperatures in Lake Tahoe were correlated to the PDO, and to a lesser extent, ENSO.

Anticipated future changes in water temperature are better studied than other aspects of water quality. Most studies reviewed suggest future increases in annual and seasonal water temperature in response to warmer air temperatures ( Figure 4 ) ( van Vliet et al. 2013 ; Hill et al. 2014 ; Mantua et al. 2010 ; Wu et al. 2012 ; Ficklin et al. 2013b ; Caldwell et al. 2015 ; Fant et al., 2017 ). Increases are largely attributed to warming air temperatures, and, in some locations, lower streamflow volumes which reduce thermal capacity. Some studies suggest up to 26 percent of the increases in high water temperature (95th percentile) can be indirectly attributed to low flow changes ( van Vliet et al. 2013 ).

Location of watersheds identified in this review assessing water temperature responses (relative rate of increase in ºC per annum) to future climate change scenarios. Symbols indicate the suggested direction of change (based on ensemble median, annual change). Symbol size reflects relative rates in 3 categories; lower (<0.024 ºC per annum), middle (0.024 to 0.038 ºC per annum), and upper (>0.038 ºC per annum). Detailed information about each study are provided in the supplemental materials .

A national assessment of 569 reference-condition sites by the U.S. Geological Survey suggested average warming of 2.2 °C (ranges were from 0 to +6.2 °C) for summer stream temperature by 2090 ( Hill et al. 2014 ). More than half of the sites (52 percent) are projected to warm by greater than or equal to +2 °C (assuming a high greenhouse gas emission scenario, SRES A2). Water temperatures in mountainous regions especially in the Northwest (Cascades) and Northeast (Appalachian Mountains) are projected to be most responsive, while sites in the Southeast may be least responsive ( Hill et al. 2014 ).

Warmer lake temperatures are expected to initiate an earlier onset and extended duration of stratification. In the Great Lakes, for example, increases in maximum summer lake temperatures and the duration of summer stratification have been projected ( Trumpickas et al. 2009 ). Simulated changes in late century summer plateau temperatures (i.e., the 20 th highest daily water temperatures observed in a year) range from +2.4 o C to +3.3 o C; in Lake Ontario range from +3.2 o C to +4.8 o C; in Lake Huron range from +2.6 o C to +3.9 o C; and in Lake Superior, from +4.6 o C to +6.7 o C ( Trumpickas et al. 2009 ).

Future changes in water temperature could have wide ranging effects on water chemistry, aquatic life and suitability for human use ( Hynes 1970 ; Vannote and Sweeney 1980 ; Brown et al. 2004 ). At the ecosystem-level, water temperature influences processes such as primary production, metabolism, and decomposition ( Brown et al. 2004 ; Bott et al. 2006 ). In some cases, warmer temperatures may favor nuisance taxa, such as toxin-producing cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria gain a competitive advantage over other phytoplankton groups in warmer temperatures through a variety of adaptations ( Jöhnk et al. 2008 ; Paerl and Huisman 2008 ; Paerl and Paul 2012 ). Warmer surface waters strengthen vertical water column stratification which, in combination with nutrient enrichment and other factors, can promote the development cyanobacterial blooms ( King et al. 2007 ; Funari et al. 2012 ; Paerl and Paul 2012 ). Increasing water temperatures also decrease dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations by reducing oxygen solubility and increasing respiration ( Ficke et al. 2007 ). Waterborne pathogen survival rates ( Coffey et al. 2014 ) and the toxicity of many environmental contaminants, such as ammonia, are some of the other water quality attributes affected by water temperature ( Rehwoldt et al. 1972 ; Langford 1990 ; Emerson et al. 1975 ). Interactions with nutrients, cyanobacterial blooms and waterborne pathogens are described in greater detail in the companion paper by Coffey et al. (2019) .

At the organism-level, temperature affects growth, metabolism, reproduction and behavior ( Hynes 1970 ; Magnuson et al. 1979 ; Vannote and Sweeney 1980 ). Most species have a specific range of temperatures they can tolerate, and changes in temperature can result in the loss of suitable habitat for those species ( Beechie et al. 2012 ). Increased water temperatures are expected to reduce suitable habitat for cold- and cool-water fish taxa and increase it for warm-water species ( Missaghi et al. 2017 ; Mohseni et al. 2003 ; Fang et al. 2004a , 2004b , 2004c ).

Salt Water Intrusion and Salinity

Sea level rise (SLR) can contribute to SWI and salinization of coastal water bodies. Many U.S. coastal zones have experienced increased SWI (e.g., Long Island, New York; Cape May County, New Jersey; Brunswick, Georgia; Northwest Florida; Fernandina Beach, Florida; Miami-Dade County, Florida; areas along the Louisiana and Texas coasts; Los Angeles, California; and the Salinas and Pajaro Valleys, California), or are considered vulnerable to saltwater intrusion from SLR ( Vitousek and Howarth 1991 ; Childers et al. 2011 ; Maloney and Preston 2014 ). Absolute sea level refers to changes in the volume of the ocean due to melting ice or warming seas, while relative SLR (RSLR) (sometimes referred to as local SLR) incorporates changes in local or regional sea level due to vertical land movement [e.g., due to glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA), land subsidence, or tectonic activity] and other local factors ( Figure 5 ). At a global scale, absolute SLR is averaging +3.3 mm yr −1 , and observed SLR in the U.S. is generally consistent with this rate.

Processes influencing sea level rise. Ocean properties refer to ocean temperature, salinity, and density. Source: Church et al. 2013 .

Vertical land movement can moderate or amplify SLR and in turn, saltwater intrusion, at the local level. Much of the mid-Atlantic and central Gulf coasts of the U.S., for example, have already experienced rates of RSLR greater than SLR due to a combination of GIA (mid-Atlantic) and regional subsidence, while parts of the Pacific coast and Alaska have observed negative RSLR due, in part, to tectonic uplift ( Penland and Ramsey 1990 ; Morton et al. 2006 ; Engelhart et al. 2009 ; Kolker et al. 2011 ; Ezer and Corlett 2012 ; Parris et al. 2012 ; Sallenger et al. 2012 ). High tides and increasing storm surge also increase the movement, albeit episodic, of saline water landward, exacerbating SLR related salinization of surface and ground waters. Tidal amplitudes in Key West, for example, have increased 57% over pre-1993 levels ( Wahl et al. 2014 ), and storm surges have increased ( Melillo et al. 2014 ).

Local groundwater extraction strongly affects rates of SWI and interacts with the effects of SLR ( Ferguson and Gleeson 2012 , Uddameri et al. 2014 , Sawyer et al. 2016 ). Some have argued that coastal aquifers are made more susceptible to SWI from groundwater extraction and that SLR is more likely to lead to saltwater inundation (surface movement of saline water) than intrusion (subsurface movement of saline water) ( Ferguson and Gleeson 2012 ).

Increasing sea levels will amplify the risk of saltwater inundation of coastal areas and intrusion to rivers and coastal aquifers. Projected future SLR estimates (from global mean SLR projections) generally follow historic trends and increases are expected along most U.S. coastlines ( Figure 6 ). The U.S. Sea Level Rise and Coastal Flood Hazard Scenarios and Tools Interagency Task Force recently projected late century global mean SLR of +0.3m to +2.5m. Regional factors (e.g., vertical land movement, changes in ocean circulation, gravitational changes, etc.) will add to these estimates in some coastal locations. For example, a late century global mean SLR of +1.5 m is projected to result in RSLR of +1.9 to +2.2 m along the East Coast, +1.7 to +2.5 m along the Gulf Coast, and +1.7 to +1.8 m along the West Coast ( Sweet et al. 2017 ). The effects of groundwater pumping on subsidence and hydraulic gradients could exacerbate these estimates. Moreover, groundwater demand is likely to increase in coastal areas where recharge declines, further increasing intrusion ( Ferguson and Gleeson 2012 , Uddameri et al. 2014 , Sawyer et al. 2016 ).

U.S. coastal locations and associated projected future sea level rise (relative rate of increase in mm per annum). Symbols indicate the suggested direction of change (based on ensemble median, annual change). Symbol size reflects relative rates in 3 categories; lower (<5.1 mm per annum), middle (5.1 to 8.3 mm per annum), and upper (>8.3 mm per annum) categories. Studies not reporting an ensemble median (e.g., a range, or sensitivity) are shown as “Direction indeterminate”. Detailed information about each study are provided in the supplemental materials .

The effects of SWI are expected to be most pronounced in low elevation, low gradient coastal areas and in areas with high projected RSLR, such as the Mid-Atlantic, central Gulf, Southern California, northern Alaska, and Hawai’i ( Burkett and Davidson 2012 , Sweet et al. 2017 ). For example, hydrodynamic simulations driven by different sea level scenarios (from +0.3 to +1.0 m) were used to assess changes in the position of the saline wedge for the James and Chickahominy Rivers in Virginia for a dry and typical flow year ( Rice et al. 2012 ). In the James River, simulations using a +1.0 m SLR scenario moved the 10 parts per thousand (ppt) salt wedge 18 km upstream during dry periods (due to reduced riverine freshwater pushing downstream) and 9 km upstream during periods of typical riverine flow. At Walker’s Dam in the Chickahominy, simulations of the same SLR scenario suggested increases in the number of days with salinity > 0.1 parts per thousand (ppt) from 2 days to over 100 days in a typical year. The 0.1 ppt threshold considered in the study is indicative of a threat to the drinking water standard ( Rice et al. 2012 ). Other modeling work for the Savannah River, Georgia and the Grand Strand region, South Carolina based on 14-year simulations of historic flow data with imposed SLR suggests that the number of days with salinities above 0.5 ppt were likely to increase under various SLR and riverine flow scenarios ( Roehl et al. 2013 ). Projected SLR in the Chesapeake Bay is suggested to increase salinity by 0.5 to 2.0 ppt by late century and to extend saltwater 11 km farther up the Bay during low flow periods (July-October) and 7 km during high flow periods ( Hong and Shen 2012 ). The tidal range is also projected to increase 20 percent by late century and the residence time to increase by 20 days. Other studies in the San Francisco Bay Delta similarly project increases in salinity due to SLR by late century ( Cloern et al. 2011 ; Kibel 2015 ).

Saltwater inundation and intrusion to coastal rivers, wetlands and aquifers, threatens infrastructure and coastal ecosystems ( Melillo et al. 2014 ; Herbert et al. 2015 ; Wieşki et al. 2010 ). Shifts in the position of the freshwater-saltwater margin in coastal rivers and aquifers due to SLR, as well as episodic storm surges, are expected to present a risk to sources of drinking water ( Vitousek and Howarth 1991 ; Maloney and Preston 2014 ). Water utilities relying on near-shore potable freshwater or groundwater sources could experience increases in salinization associated with inundation and intrusion as well as from increased tidal amplitudes and storm surge ( Melillo et al. 2014 ; Blanco et al. 2013 ). In Florida, for example, a decline in the availability of drinking-quality groundwater has been reported in some locations due the effects of SLR driven saltwater intrusion into aquifers ( Blanco et al. 2013 ). Wastewater, stormwater and drinking water infrastructure could also be vulnerable to storm surges and coastal flooding and increased pollutant loading from coastal storm runoff.

Changes in the salinity, hydrodynamics and mixing of estuaries are anticipated to alter habitat conditions (e.g., dissolved oxygen, salinity, food availability) away from the optima of existing species, including commercially important taxa, resulting in local decreases or extirpation. In the Chesapeake Bay, the pycnocline depth, which separates the oxygenated, less saline, upper water stratum from the lower, more saline stratum where hypoxia occurs, could become shallower, increasing the volume of oxygen stressed habitat ( Hong and Shen 2012 ).

Habitat degradation and decreases in coastal wetlands extent are expected in some locations due to erosion (wave action associated with higher sea levels) and saltwater inundation and intrusion ( Michener et al. 1997 , Scavia et al. 2002 , FitzGerald et al. 2006 , USEPA 2011a , 2011b ; Thorne et al. 2018 ; Wieşki and Pennings 2014 ; Craft et al. 2016 ; Jun et al. 2013 ). Increased salinity is likely to increase organic matter mineralization and decrease productivity, which can alter the balance between marsh erosion and accretion, as well as the quality of the habitat. Debates exist as to the extent to which wetland migration and accretion might be able to keep pace with RSLR, with most existing evidence suggesting likely future loss ( Michener et al. 1997 , Scavia et al. 2002 , FitzGerald et al. 2006 , USEPA 2011a , 2011b ; Thorne et al. 2018 ). Others, however, suggest some resilience due to accretion or inland migration ( Kirwan and Megonigal 2013 ; Hopkinson et al. 2018 ). In either case, impacts could be exacerbated by coastal development, which constrains wetland migration ( Torio and Chmura 2013 ; Thorne et al. 2018 ).

FUTURE RESEARCH

Addressing the hydrologic and water quality challenges outlined in this review requires further assessment of vulnerabilities in different regional and watershed settings, and the development of management strategies to reduce risks. Several research needs are outlined here that can help to improve our knowledge about potential responses to future climate conditions and inform adaptation strategies:

• Understanding future water quality responses is particularly challenging due to uncertainty about local scale, long-term changes in precipitation, and interactions with local land use, water management infrastructure and other human activities in different watershed settings. Water temperature projections, for example, are currently sparse in north central and northeastern regions of the U.S. Additional studies aimed at improving our spatial and temporal knowledge of potential changes can help decision makers in different regional and watershed settings prepare for future risks and develop targeted management strategies.
• Observational (monitoring) data are essential to understanding the current water quality trends. This data can inform studies that assess the relationship between water quality trends and climate change. Observational data are also a key component in calibrating hydrologic and water quality models, particularly process-based models, which can subsequently extrapolate responses beyond current conditions when forced by future climate change scenarios. Long-term, continuous observational monitoring should, therefore, be preserved and expanded, potentially contributing to new insights ( Webb et al. 2008 ; Kaushal et al. 2010 ; Isaak et al. 2012 ; Arismendi et al. 2012 , 2013 ). Adopting new monitoring advancements, such as sensor technology, can provide more efficient means of collecting year-round, continuous data (e.g., at 15-minute intervals) and help fill spatial/temporal data gaps.
• Sampling of biological data along with water quality at long-term monitoring sites could improve understanding about potential future impacts on aquatic ecosystems, including ecologically meaningful thresholds or tipping points. A small number of studies have collected long-term contemporaneous biological, temperature, and hydrologic data ( USEPA 2016b ; USEPA 2014 ), but long-term freshwater biological data sets useful for assessing the effects of climate variability (e.g., longer than 10 years) are not common, particularly for sites minimally disturbed by humans ( Jackson and Füreder 2006 ).
• Improving our ability to simulate watershed hydrologic and water quality responses is also important in advancing our understanding of effects. Model-based assessments of water quality are subject to a cascade of uncertainty associated with future climate change scenarios (particularly changes in precipitation), and hydrologic/water quality simulation models. For example, global climate models are currently not capable of accurately predicting long term, local scale changes in the frequency and amount of precipitation falling in intense events or represent processes that lead to the persistence of extended dry periods ( Randall et al. 2007 ; Watts et al. 2015 ; Salathé and Mauger 2018 ). Additionally, hydrologic modeling of associated extreme low and high-flow events is particularly difficult ( Benham et al. 2006 ; Beckers et al. 2009 ; Kim et al. 2010b ). Abilities to simulate groundwater also vary, and often include very basic representations of subsurface hydrologic processes. Groundwater contributions to streamflow are known to moderate water temperatures and affect pollutant transport ( Tague et al. 2007 ; Snyder et al. 2015 ).
• The relationship between human activities and hydrology or water quality (e.g., water withdrawals and water management infrastructure including dams and reservoirs) has been documented in numerous studies ( Poole and Berman 2001 , Kaushal et al. 2010 ; Daraio and Bales 2014 ); however, water quality responses to the combined effects of future climate, land use, and water management infrastructure are yet to be fully integrated in many modeling studies. Additional modeling studies that integrate future land use, management and weather extremes would broaden our knowledge about potential hydrologic and water quality responses. This information could be used by decision makers to quantify contributions from specific drivers (e.g., climate or land use), assess relative vulnerabilities, and identify robust solutions.
• This review suggests an increased risk of water quality and ecosystem degradation in the future for many U.S. locations. Ultimately, however, incorporating information about the ability to manage anticipated impacts would provide a more complete assessment of where and how watersheds are most vulnerable. Relatively little is known about the sensitivity of water quality best management practice (BMP) performance to future changes in climate and environmental conditions. In some locations it may be relatively easy to compensate for the anticipated effects of climate change with existing BMPs. In other locations, projected changes will be more difficult to address. Studies addressing BMP resilience to climate change, and the type and scope of management practices necessary to offset the impacts of climate change in different regional, watershed and site-scale settings are therefore necessary to inform adaptation strategies.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Anticipated warming air temperatures, changing precipitation patterns and rising sea levels are expected to have direct and cascading effects on U.S. water quality. In this paper, we review the technical literature addressing the responses of streamflow, water temperature and SWI/salinity (in coastal rivers and aquifers) to potential future changes in air temperature and precipitation. A companion paper by Coffey et al. (2019) reviews the responses of nutrients, algal blooms, sediment and pathogens.

Responses to climate change vary regionally and in different watershed settings in response to different future scenarios and interactions with other watershed (e.g., physiographic setting, land use) and human (e.g., water management infrastructure) factors. Northern and eastern regions are generally projected to experience higher winter precipitation and earlier snowmelt (in areas of accumulating snowfall) that lead to increased winter-spring and decreased summer-fall streamflow. In the southern Plains, interior Southwest and parts of the Southeast, potential decreases in summer-fall precipitation and increases in ET, are expected to contribute to lower annual streamflow volumes. An increased frequency of heavy precipitation events over much of the U.S. also presents an increased risk of high flow and flooding. Changes in streamflow have a major influence on pollutant transport, thermal regimes, ecosystem function and many other water quality factors.

Increases in water temperature are already observed, and are expected to continue throughout this century, driven by warming air temperatures. Impacts are likely to be greatest during summer, and in locations where warming air temperatures occur together with lower streamflow volumes (e.g., Southwest and parts of the mountain west). The projected water temperature increases could have major effects on water chemistry, aquatic life and suitability for human use.

In coastal areas, sea level rise, storm surges, and changes in the volume and timing of freshwater runoff are anticipated to increase the risk of SWI to estuaries and aquifers, altering spatial and temporal patterns of salinity and presenting a risk to water quality and aquatic life. Impacts from SLR and SWI are expected to be greatest in the mid-Atlantic, Gulf, and southern Pacific coasts.

To date, there has been very little effort to synthesize what is known about future water quality implications of shifts in climate drivers on the national scale. The results of this review suggest many US locations could experience substantial changes in flow, water temperature, and SWI, the impacts of which will vary depending on the magnitude of climate change, together with the effectiveness of management responses. Reviewing such impacts on a national scale is important because they have implications for water quality management including 1) where practical and readily implementable solutions are going to be necessary, 2) for which variables are solutions going to be necessary, and 3) for what potential magnitude of water quality response will management be necessary. Unless we continue to improve our ability to understand and answer such needs, we risk under or overpreparing communities, both of which have substantial implications. Understanding these on a national scale is important for guiding decision makers in selecting effective, readily implementable solutions (e.g., water quality BMPs and other approaches) to reduce the risk to water quality management goals and for managing resources and bringing appropriate research and management efforts to bear where needs are likely going to be greatest. For these reasons, reviews like this one are going to be an ongoing and integral part of the adaptation and solution effort.

Research Impact Statement:

Climate change effects on water quality will vary in different regional and watershed settings and could present a risk to human health and the environment.

Supplementary Material

Acknowledgements.

The study could not have been completed without the help of many individuals. The authors thank the entire project team at Tetra Tech, Inc., together with our numerous colleagues at U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development, Office of Water, and Regional Offices whose thoughtful comments and feedback were invaluable to planning and completing this project. The authors also wish to thank three anonymous reviewers whose edits improved this manuscript. This research was supported in part by an appointment for Coffey to the Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education Research Participation Program supported by an interagency agreement between the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) and the U.S. Department of Energy. The views expressed represent those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Additional supporting information may be found online under the Supporting Information tab for this article: Tables describing the models, scenarios, and range of projected water quality changes for specific watersheds and specific time periods.

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Chemistry is a branch of science that involves the study of the composition, structure and properties of matter. Often known as the central science, it is a creative discipline chiefly concerned with atomic and molecular structure and its change, for instance through chemical reactions.

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A dynamic metal–organic framework photocatalyst

Photocatalytic overall water splitting (OWS) is highly desirable for hydrogen production but challenging owing to rapid charge recombination. We demonstrate a dynamic metal–organic framework (MOF) photocatalyst that achieves OWS via one-step photoexcitation. Upon excitation by light, the MOF undergoes a structural twist that suppresses charge recombination and achieves OWS.

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Supporting the chemical science community to help provide clean water to all

Three children a minute die globally due to water related diseases.  The amount of freshwater available globally is only 1% . In a growing world we need not only drinking water, but water for agriculture, sanitation and industrial uses. Water is essential for life, yet the World Health Organisation estimate that at least 2 billion people use a drinking water source that is contaminated with faeces. 

Goal 6 of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN SDG6) aims to ‘Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all’. We have engaged with our chemical sciences community and representatives from across the water sector to identify the key priorities and challenges that must be addressed to achieve clean and plentiful water for all, and outlined the actions needed to do this.in our policy position ‘Sustainable Water for All’ .

Sustainable water is a global issue, as water forms part of a constantly repeating global life cycle and takes no notice of national boundares boundaries.

Treating water can be an expensive and energy-intensive process and in some places water is needlessly wasted due to inadequate infrastructure.

The chemical sciences will help by:

• developing new methods for water treatment
• developing new materials for applications such as purification membranes and pipework
• using analytical chemistry to create ways to rapidly test water quality

We will only tackle the issues and reach the goal of SDG6 through conversation, collaboration and knowledge sharing. It is important to connect researchers, policy makers and industry, so that the scientific expertise is available to decision makers and industries at the right time. Science informs decision-making and can be used by those working in the broader water sector to prioritise areas in particular need of research to meet SDG6.

We work with our community to demonstrate the role of chemical sciences in ensuring that globally we all have sufficient water of the right standard for all of our needs. We do this through preparing reports and materials that highlight the role of chemistry in providing safe water.

We have an interest group, the Water Science Forum who focuses upon the application of chemical sciences in the management of the water cycle and the impact of these activities on the natural environment. The group organises several events open to all in the water science community.

We publish cutting-edge research on water science and technology; learn more through our journal Environmental Science: Water Research and Technology .

Water quality

In order to ensure that we can provide access to water for all with our limited global resources, we need to think carefully about the quality of the water we use for different purposes. Read more about the complexities of water quality in this article on the concept of ‘ Water Purity ’ by Kevin Prior, the Chair of our Water Science Forum.

Water quality is a topic where the challenges are constantly evolving and changing. In some parts of the world, such as Africa, water quality issues include excess salinity, metal waste and bio-contamination, whilst, emerging water quality issues in the UK include the contamination of water by pharmaceutical substances.

Over 70% of the earth’s surface is covered with water. However, much of it needs treatment using chemical technologies before it is drinkable. Options for treatment are diverse and can include filtration through different types of membrane or the addition of chemicals that remove specific impurities. Learn more about ' The quest for a clean drink ' in this lecture from scientist Phil Souter.

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RSC Advances

A comprehensive review on sustainable surfactants from cnsl: chemistry, key applications and research perspectives.

* Corresponding authors

a Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science and Technology, Kookmin University, 77 Jeongneung-ro, Sungbuk-Gu, Seoul 02707, Republic of Korea E-mail: [email protected] , [email protected]

Surfactants, a group of amphiphilic molecules ( i.e. with hydrophobic(water insoluble) as well as hydrophilic(water soluble) properties) can modulate interfacial tension. Currently, the majority of surfactants depend on petrochemical feedstocks (such as oil and gas). However, deployment of these petrochemical surfactants produces high toxicity and also has poor biodegradability which can cause more environmental issues. To address these concerns, the current research is moving toward natural resources to produce sustainable surfactants. Among the available natural resources, Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) is the preferred choice for industrial scenarios to meet their goals of sustainability. CNSL is an oil extracted from non-edible cashew nut shells, which doesn't affect the food supply chain. The unique structural properties and diverse range of use cases of CNSL are key to developing eco-friendly surfactants that replace petro-based surfactants. Against this backdrop, this article discusses various state-of-the-art developments in key cardanol-based surfactants such as anionic, cationic, non-ionic, and zwitterionic. In addition to this, the efficiency and characteristics of these surfactants are also analyzed and compared with those of the synthetic surfactants (petro-based). Furthermore, the present paper also focuses on various market aspects and different applications in various industries. Finally, this article describes various future research perspectives including Artificial Intelligence technology which, of late, is having a huge impact on society.

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How human activities and ventilation systems impact indoor air composition and chemistry in buildings

As people in the U.S. spend 90% of their time indoors, their exposure to indoor air pollutants released during the use of household consumer products cannot be overlooked. Studies have shown that consumer products such as disinfectants, cleaning agents, and personal care products (PCPs) contain complex mixtures of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Monoterpenes, added as active ingredients in cleaning agents and fragrances, are commonly detected in these products. Monoterpenes can react with ozone (O 3 ) and initiate the formation of secondary organic aerosol (SOA). Siloxanes, another category of compounds commonly found in PCPs, can bioaccumulate and may adversely impact the environment and human health.

Most prior studies have evaluated chemical emissions from these products using offline techniques, such as sorbent tube sampling followed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Few studies have been conducted during real-life use of these products in indoor environments. Considering that many indoor activities are often transient, the composition of indoor air can be rapidly altered. Real-time monitoring of indoor VOCs and aerosols is necessary to capture the temporal variations in emissions during indoor activities and to evaluate their impact on indoor air chemistry, human exposure, and outdoor air quality. In addition, O 3 also plays an important role in indoor chemistry. Indoor O 3 concentrations are strongly linked to ventilation system operation and occupancy patterns, as the ventilation from outdoors is the major source of indoor O 3 and occupants are a major sink of indoor O 3 . However, studies on how ventilation modes and occupancy impact spatiotemporal distributions of indoor O 3 are limited.

Hazardous chemical incidents can potentially be another unexpected source of indoor pollutants, releasing volatile chemicals which can be transported to indoor environments via building ventilation. Evaluation of air, water, and soil contamination and human exposure risks is critical in the emergency response to hazardous chemical incidents, to develop effective remediation strategies. An effective and reliable approach to assess air, water, and soil contamination, and subsequent human exposures, is urgently needed.

To fill these research gaps, this dissertation aims to: (1.) characterize gas- and particle-phase emissions in real-time during common indoor activities, including surface disinfection, cleaning, and hair styling; (2.) evaluate the impact of indoor emissions on human health and the atmospheric environment; (3.) map the spatiotemporal distribution of O 3 and CO 2 concentrations throughout a building ventilation system; (4.) develop a methodology for rapid screening of VOCs in surface water samples collected from a chemical disaster site.

To achieve research goals (1.) and (2.), a field campaign was conducted at the Indiana University Research and Teaching Preserve (IURTP) field laboratory in summer 2019 and two field campaigns were conducted at the Purdue zero Energy Design Guidance for Engineers (zEDGE) Tiny House in fall 2020 and summer 2021 to characterize emissions from the use of cleaning agents, disinfectants, and hair care products in indoor environments, respectively. A proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer (PTR-TOF-MS) was used to monitor the mixing ratios of VOCs in real-time. To achieve research goal (3.), a multi-point sampling system was created at the Herrick Living Laboratories and its ventilation system in spring and summer 2019 to monitor spatiotemporal trends in O 3 concentrations. To achieve goal (4.), a controlled static headspace sampling system, in conjunction with a high-resolution PTR-TOF-MS was developed to analyze surface water samples collected from East Palestine, Ohio, U.S. in the weeks after a train derailment and subsequent chemical spill and burn.

To examine radical concentrations and associated aerosol production in indoor environments

Alfred P. Sloan Foundation

Adhesion and Resuspension of Biological Particulate Matter in Early-Childhood Indoor Microenvironments

Directorate for Engineering

CAREER: Formation, Growth, and Phase State of Organic Nanoaerosols in Indoor Environments

Rapid: elucidating the fate of vocs and svocs in drinking water wells and household water plumbing systems following the east palestine chemical accident, degree type.

• Doctor of Philosophy
• Civil Engineering

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