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Research can be the thing that makes or breaks a project. Whether it's an essay, a presentation, or an important scientific endeavor, without thorough research, it's likely that the work will fall flat. With that in mind, how do we ensure that our research process is effective? 

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• Cell Biology

Is it possible to use both qualitative and quantitative research methods during the research process, or do you need to choose only one type?

Which of these is NOT an example of a research question?

Why is the research process important?

Which of these descriptions best fits the term “research process”?

Which of these research methods can be found in both qualitative and quantitative research?

What type of research do these research methods belong to?surveyspollsscientific experimentationquestionnairesstatistical analysis

Why is it important to record collected data in an organized and orderly way?

True or false, it's a problem if your findings don't support your hypothesis.

What could lead to you being accused of plagiarism?

Why do you think it would be pointless to Google "Fishing" if the information you wanted to find out was actually about the best kind of bait to use for a specific type of fish?

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In this explanation, we'll cover the research process from top to bottom, learning all the details about implementing effective and carefully considered research. By the end of this article, you'll have the tools necessary to smash any research project!

Research Process Definition

Before we dive head-first into the details, let's start with a definition of the research process :

The r esearch process is a set of ordered steps a researcher takes to ensure that all parts of an investigation are completed to a high standard. Following the research process allows the researcher to cover all angles and ensure that the information they gather is reliable and effectively presented.

Once a researcher has completed all the research process steps, they can write up their findings appropriately.

Research Process Steps

We know that the research process is about ensuring research is completed effectively and appropriately. But how can you make sure you don't forget any important aspects of the research process?

The key steps to think about are as follows:

• Identify the purpose or research question
• Design a research plan
• Collect the required data
• Interpret the collected data
• Present the research findings

By following these five ordered research process steps, you'll ensure your research is complete.

Research Writing Process

In this section, we'll delve deeper into each step of the research writing process listed above. We'll also look at some tips for how to approach writing your research project.

Identify Your Purpose

Before researching a topic, you need to know what information you want to find out. There's no point simply Googling "Ernest Hemingway" when what you're specifically interested in is the effects of the narrative perspective used in his novel For Whom the Bell Tolls .

Identifying your brief or devising a research question is vital to ensure you are looking for the right information and not being too broad. This will also help you find information that is relevant and helpful for your investigation.

A research question is a targeted and specific question that sets the basis for your research.

How has the development of technology impacted our language use?

A hypothesis is an idea or proposition used as a basis for research, which sets a foundation for further investigation. A hypothesis is an idea that is not necessarily assumed to be correct but is simply used as a basis for further exploration.

For example: "Younger people are more likely to use acronyms when communicating using social media than older people."

Not all types of research will require a hypothesis – for example, literature-based research. However, things like scientific research or other kinds of primary research (research where you are contributing your own ideas to the field) may require one.

Design a Research Plan

It's now time to design your research plan. Before you begin your research, you'll need to consider the type of research you'll undertake, i.e., qualitative or quantitative, and whether you'll create new research (primary) or conduct research by analyzing the research of others (secondary). You must also decide what types of sources you might use. We'll also discuss ethical research processes.

Research Types

There are two key types of research: Qualitative and Quantitative:

Qualitative research is concerned with investigating opinions, values, or characteristics that cannot be counted or quantified. Qualitative research is generally holistic in approach and provides more descriptive data.

• Observations
• Focus groups
• Questionnaires (with open-ended questions)
• Literature reviews

On the other hand,

Quantitative research is concerned with statistics, facts, and values that can be counted or quantified. Quantitative data is often numerical and often used to map correlations and patterns or make predictions.

• Scientific experimentation
• Questionnaires (with closed-ended questions)

Research methods are not only qualitative or quantitative but also primary or secondary. What do these terms mean?

Primary research is research that you, yourself, conduct. This could include conducting a survey or questionnaire or carrying out an observation on a participant group. Primary research produces information that can add to the existing resources on that topic.

Secondary research is when you conduct research by analyzing the research of others - this is sometimes called "desk-based" research. A literature review is an example of secondary research.

We've seen the word "source" pop up a few times, but what are these?

You'll need to consider what sources you will use in your research. The majority of research projects will require you to use a combination of primary sources and secondary sources:

Primary sources are directly linked to an event or topic – for example, photographs, artifacts, diaries, or journals. Primary sources are directly connected to an event/situation, so they're less likely to be biased.

Secondary sources are interpretations of events or topics – for example, textbooks, journal articles, and research papers. Secondary sources add context to primary sources.

Ethical Considerations of Research

Regardless of the type of research you conduct, you'll need to ensure your research is carried out ethically. Here are some considerations you should take into account:

Consent : If you involve participants in your research (such as conducting an interview or observation), you'll need their consent to participate in your study. You must also ensure their identifying information is kept confidential.

Intent : You must make the intent of your research clear. Participants should have the chance to make informed decisions about their input, and readers of your research should not be misled about its purpose.

Relevance : Your research methods should be necessary and relevant. There is no point wasting time and resources conducting research that does not further your study.

Bias : When researching, you should remain impartial and should look for secondary resources that are impartial too. Using materials that are biased can lead to skewed results and unsubstantiated arguments.

Referencing: ALWAYS reference your research to avoid plagiarism and give proper credit to the original writers of your secondary sources. You should use the proper in-text citations and should include a bibliography or reference list at the end of your paper.

Collect the Required Data

The data collection process can be split into two sub-categories.

Firstly, you must collect secondary research data by conducting your own research based on primary and secondary sources that already exist. These existing sources could include journal articles, news articles, textbooks, and literary works.

In some cases, your data collection may end here, and you could move on to interpreting your findings. However, you may need to conduct primary research as well.

Your primary research could include conducting surveys , interviews, or questionnaires, among other qualitative and quantitative research methods. When conducting primary research, you must remain ethical and keep clear records of your data for analysis.

Interpret the Collected Data

To interpret your findings, you should organize them so that the data relates to a certain point or argument. By doing this, you'll be able to see how your collected data supports, disproves or influences the research question or hypothesis made in the beginning.

Your evidence might show something different from what your research question or hypothesis suggested – that's ok.

You can analyze the data to see what conclusions can be drawn. In other words, explore the data you collected to understand what it means or suggests.

Suppose you were investigating the impact of social media on language use. In that case, you might have conducted a range of surveys and questionnaires to gain data on how your participants use language via social media. These surveys and questionnaires are your primary sources. You might also have researched the effects of social media on language use using secondary sources such as existing articles and research papers on the subject. By collating this collected data, you could pick out patterns across your participant group (such as people using more acronyms such as LOL and BRB when instant messaging). You could then use your secondary research to suggest reasons for these patterns.

Present Findings

It's finally time to create your final report or presentation on your findings. Whether your project is an essay or a visual presentation, you need to carefully consider how to portray your results and conclusion so that they are easy to follow.

Think about what you want your reader or audience to understand from the research and how the data you collected supports this. Make sure your conclusion is decisive and backed up with appropriate evidence.

A good way to ensure you have supported your argument or investigation sufficiently is to use the PEEL method in each paragraph:

Point : Make the point, or state the argument you want to discuss.

Evidence : Provide evidence to support your argument or point.

Explanation : Explain how and why the evidence backs up what you are saying.

Link : Provide a link to your next paragraph, where you make your next point.

An effective way of presenting visual data is with charts and graphs.

For example, out of 100 participants, 40 said they use more acronyms on social media than when using other forms of written communication.

Referencing

References and citations are so important. You must reference and cite your work correctly and fully. Some standard referencing formats include MLA, Chicago, and APA, but you should check with your teacher which one to use.

Referencing is essential as it gives credit to the people who have written the secondary resources you use in your research and acknowledges when you've used an idea that isn't your own. It also contextualizes your work and shows how extensive your research has been. Finally, referencing will stop you from being pulled up for plagiarism.

Research Process Example

Now you have a good idea of how the research process works, let's look at an example:

1.) Identify the research question.

How does language use differ between 18-26-year-olds and 45-60-year-olds using social media?

2.) Formulate a hypothesis (this step will only be necessary for primary research or scientific research).

Younger people are more likely to use social media for communication and are more likely to use short-form language such as abbreviations and acronyms.

3.) Design a research plan.

A research plan for this investigation could include:

• Selecting two groups of participants that match the research criteria, gaining their consent to be included in the study
• Use qualitative research methods, such as interviews, to gather data on different variables.
• Consider how to record the data (e.g., detailed notes from secondary research and collating questionnaire and survey answers).

4.) Collect the required data.

Use a range of primary and secondary sources to conduct secondary research and conduct a semi-structured interview to gain primary qualitative data. Record this data in an organized and meaningful way.

5.) Interpret the data.

Use your secondary research knowledge to help analyze the results gained from your primary research. Link your analysis back to your research question and hypothesis, drawing a conclusion that is backed up by evidence found during your investigation.

6.) Present your findings.

This research could be reported in an essay or turned into a visual presentation using graphs and images to illustrate different points.

Research Process - Key Takeaways

• The research process is a set of ordered steps that can help you to ensure your research is complete.
• The research process is comprised of 5 steps: identifying the purpose, designing a research plan, collecting the data, interpreting the data, and reporting the findings.
• There are two key types of research with their own research methods: qualitative and quantitative research.
• A research question demonstrates the aim of the research.

Flashcards in Research Process 10

It is possible to use both.

Onions create fumes that make you cry when you cut them. 

All of these answers.

The research process is a set of ordered steps taken by a researcher to ensure that all parts of an investigation into a subject are completed to a high standard.

Questionnaires

What type of research do these research methods belong to?

• scientific experimentation
• questionnaires
• statistical analysis

Quantitative

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Frequently Asked Questions about Research Process

What are the steps of the research process?

The steps of the research process are: 

Identify the problem or research question.

Formulate a hypothesis.

Design a research plan.

Collect the required data.

Interpret and analyze the collected data.

Report or present the research findings.

What is the purpose of the research process?

The purpose of the research process is to ensure that all necessary steps are completed in order to gather the most accurate, reliable, and helpful information. The research process helps to focus research and make sure that all important aspects of the research are covered. 

The research process is important because it can help to bring your research to the highest possible standard. The research process allows you to see all the steps you need to complete in order for your research to be effective, allowing you to work more efficiently and in a more focused way.

What is a research question in the research process?

A research question is a carefully considered question that targets the information you want to find out during your research. This is an important part of the research process as it will help you to decide what research methods to use and what information you're specifically looking for. 

How to begin the research process?

To begin the research process, you first need to decide what information you want to find out. This is called identifying the problem or creating a research question. This will form the foundation for your research and ensure that you remain on target. 

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The Research Process | Steps, How to Start & Tips

Introduction

Basic steps in the research process, conducting a literature review, designing the research project, collecting and analyzing data.

• Interpretation, conclusion and presentation of findings

Key principles for conducting research

The research process is a systematic method used to gather information and answer specific questions. The process ensures the findings are credible, high-quality, and applicable to a broader context. It can vary slightly between disciplines but typically follows a structured pathway from initial inquiry to final presentation of results.

What is the research process?

At its core, the research process involves several fundamental activities: identifying a topic that needs further investigation, reviewing existing knowledge on the subject, forming a precise research question , and designing a method to investigate it. This is followed by collecting and analyzing data , interpreting the results, and reporting the findings. Each step is crucial and builds upon the previous one, requiring meticulous attention to detail and rigorous methodology.

The research process is important because it provides a scientific basis for decision-making. Whether in academic, scientific, or commercial fields, research helps us understand complex issues, develop new tools or products, and improve existing practices. By adhering to a structured research process , researchers can produce results that are not only insightful but also transparent so that others can understand how the findings were developed and build on them in future studies. The integrity of the research process is essential for advancing knowledge and making informed decisions that can have significant social, economic, and scientific impacts.

The research process fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills. It demands a clear articulation of a problem, thorough investigation, and thoughtful interpretation of data, all of which are valuable skills in any professional field. By following this process, researchers are better equipped to tackle complex questions and contribute meaningful solutions to real-world problems.

From finding the key theoretical concepts to presenting the research findings in a report, every step in the research process forms a cohesive pathway that supports researchers in systematically uncovering deep insights and generating meaningful knowledge, which is crucial for the success of any qualitative investigation.

Identifying key theoretical concepts

The first step in the research process involves finding the key theoretical concepts or words that specify the research topic and are always included in the title of the investigation. Without a definition, these words have no sense or meaning (Daft, 1995). To identify these concepts, a researcher must ask which theoretical keywords are implicit in the investigation. To answer this question a researcher should identify the logical relationships among the two words that catch the focus of the investigation. It is also crucial that researchers provide clear definitions for their theoretical keywords. The title of the research can then include these theoretical keywords and signal how they are being studied.

A piece of useful advice is to draw a conceptual map to visualize the direct or indirect relationships between the key theoretical words and choose a relationship between them as the focus of the investigation.

Developing a research question

One of the most important steps in the research endeavor is identifying a research question. Research questions answer aspects of the topic that need more knowledge or shed light on information that has to be prioritized before others. It is the first step in identifying which participants or type of data collection methods. Research questions put into practice the conceptual framework and make the initial theoretical concepts more explicit.

A research question carries a different implicit meaning depending on how it is framed. Questions starting with what, who, and where usually identify a phenomenon or elements of one, while how, why, when and how much describe, explain, predict or control a phenomenon.

Overall, research questions must be clear, focused and complex. They must also generate knowledge relevant to society and the answers must pose a comprehensive understanding that contributes to the scientific community.

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A literature review is the synthesis of the existing body of research relevant to a research topic . It allows researchers to identify the current state of the art of knowledge of a particular topic. When conducting research, it is the foundation and guides the researcher to the knowledge gaps that need to be covered to best contribute to the scientific community.

Common methodologies include miniaturized or complete reviews, descriptive or integrated reviews, narrative reviews, theoretical reviews, methodological reviews and systematic reviews.

When navigating through the literature, researchers must try to answer their research question with the most current peer-reviewed research when finding relevant data for a research project. It is important to use the existing literature in at least two different databases and adapt the key concepts to amplify their search. Researchers also pay attention to the titles, summaries and references of each article. It is recommended to have a research diary for useful previous research as it could be the researcher´s go-to source when writing the final report.

A good research design involves data analysis methods suited to the research question, and where data collection generates appropriate data for the analysis method (Willig, 2001).

Designing a qualitative study is a critical step in the research process, serving as the blueprint for the research study. This phase is a fundamental part of the planning process, ensuring that the chosen research methods align perfectly with the research's purpose. During this stage, a researcher decides on a specific approach—such as narrative , phenomenological , grounded theory , ethnographic , or case study —tailoring the design to the unique research problem and needs of the research project. By carefully selecting the research method and planning how to approach the data, researchers can ensure that their work remains focused and relevant to the intended study area.

A well-constructed research design is vital for maintaining the integrity and credibility of the study. It guides the researcher through the research process steps, from data collection to analysis, helping to manage and mitigate potential interpretations and errors. This detailed planning is crucial, particularly in qualitative studies, where the depth of understanding and interpretive nature of analysis can significantly influence outcomes.

The design of a qualitative study is more than a procedural formality; it is a strategic component of the research that enhances the quality of the results. It requires thoughtful consideration of the research question, ensuring that every aspect of the methodology contributes effectively to the overarching goals of the project.

Collecting data

Gathering data can involve various methods tailored to the study's specific needs. To collect data , techniques may include interviews , focus groups, surveys and observations , each chosen for its ability to target a specific group relevant to the research population. For example, focus groups might explore attitudes within a specific age group, while observations might analyze behaviours in a community for population research projects. Data may also come from secondary sources with quantitative and qualitative approaches such as library resources, market research, customer feedback or employee evaluations.

Effective data management is crucial, ensuring that primary data from direct collection and secondary data from sources like public health records are organized and maintained properly. This step is vital for maintaining the integrity of the data throughout the research process steps, supporting the overall goal of conducting thorough and coherent research.

Analyzing data

Once research data has been collected, the next critical step is to analyze the data. This phase is crucial for transforming raw data into high-quality information for meaningful research findings.

Analyzing qualitative data often involves coding and thematic analysis , which helps identify patterns and themes within the data. While qualitative research typically does not focus on drawing statistical conclusions, integrating basic statistical methods can sometimes add depth to the data interpretation, especially in mixed-methods research where quantitative data complements qualitative insights.

In each of the research process steps, researchers utilize various research tools and techniques to conduct research and analyze the data systematically. This may include computer-assisted qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS) such as ATLAS.ti, which assists in organizing, sorting, and coding the data efficiently. It can also host the research diary and apply analysis methods such as word frequencies and network visualizations.

Interpretation, conclusion and presentation of research findings

Interpreting research findings.

By meticulously following systematic procedures and working through the data, researchers can ensure that their interpretations are grounded in the actual data collected, enhancing the trustworthiness and credibility of the research findings.

The interpretation of data is not merely about extracting information but also involves making sense of the data in the context of the existing literature and research objectives. This step is not only about what the data is, but what it means in the broader context of the study, enabling researchers to draw insightful conclusions that contribute to the academic and practical understanding of the field.

Concluding and presenting research findings

The final step is concluding and presenting the research data which are crucial for transforming analyzed data into meaningful insights and credible findings.

The results are typically shared in a research report or academic paper, detailing the findings and contextualizing them within the broader field. This document outlines how the insights contribute to existing knowledge, suggests areas for future research, and may propose practical applications.

Effective presentation is key to ensuring that these findings reach and impact the intended audience. This involves not just articulating the conclusions clearly but also using engaging formats and visual aids to enhance comprehension and engagement with the research.

The research process is a dynamic journey, characterized by a series of systematic research process steps designed to guide researchers successfully from inception to conclusion. Each step—from designing the study and collecting data to analyzing results and drawing conclusions—plays a critical role in ensuring the integrity and credibility of the research.

Qualitative research is guided by key principles designed to ensure the rigour and depth of the research study. Credibility is crucial, achieved through accurate representations of participant experiences, often verified by peer-review revision. Transferability is addressed by providing rich context, allowing others to evaluate the applicability of findings to similar settings. Dependability emphasizes the stability and consistency of data, maintained through detailed documentation of the research process (such as in a research diary), facilitating an audit trail. This aligns with confirmability, where the neutrality of the data is safeguarded by documenting researcher interpretations and decisions, ensuring findings are shaped by participants and not researcher predispositions.

Ethical integrity is paramount, upholding standards like informed consent and confidentiality to protect participant rights throughout the research journey. Qualitative research also strives for a richness and depth of data that captures the complex nature of human experiences and interactions, often exploring these phenomena through an iterative learning process. This involves cycles of data collection and analysis, allowing for ongoing adjustments based on emerging insights. Lastly, a holistic perspective is adopted to view phenomena in their entirety, considering all aspects of the context and environment, which enriches the understanding and relevance of the research outcomes. Together, these principles ensure qualitative research is both profound and ethically conducted, yielding meaningful and applicable insights.

Daft, R. L. (1995). Organization Theory and Design. West Publishing Company.

Willig, C. (2001). Introducing Qualitative Research in Psychology: Adventures in Theory and Method. McGraw-Hill Companies, Incorporated.

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3 The research process

In Chapter 1, we saw that scientific research is the process of acquiring scientific knowledge using the scientific method. But how is such research conducted? This chapter delves into the process of scientific research, and the assumptions and outcomes of the research process.

Paradigms of social research

Our design and conduct of research is shaped by our mental models, or frames of reference that we use to organise our reasoning and observations. These mental models or frames (belief systems) are called paradigms . The word ‘paradigm’ was popularised by Thomas Kuhn (1962) [1] in his book The structure of scientific r evolutions , where he examined the history of the natural sciences to identify patterns of activities that shape the progress of science. Similar ideas are applicable to social sciences as well, where a social reality can be viewed by different people in different ways, which may constrain their thinking and reasoning about the observed phenomenon. For instance, conservatives and liberals tend to have very different perceptions of the role of government in people’s lives, and hence, have different opinions on how to solve social problems. Conservatives may believe that lowering taxes is the best way to stimulate a stagnant economy because it increases people’s disposable income and spending, which in turn expands business output and employment. In contrast, liberals may believe that governments should invest more directly in job creation programs such as public works and infrastructure projects, which will increase employment and people’s ability to consume and drive the economy. Likewise, Western societies place greater emphasis on individual rights, such as one’s right to privacy, right of free speech, and right to bear arms. In contrast, Asian societies tend to balance the rights of individuals against the rights of families, organisations, and the government, and therefore tend to be more communal and less individualistic in their policies. Such differences in perspective often lead Westerners to criticise Asian governments for being autocratic, while Asians criticise Western societies for being greedy, having high crime rates, and creating a ‘cult of the individual’. Our personal paradigms are like ‘coloured glasses’ that govern how we view the world and how we structure our thoughts about what we see in the world.

Paradigms are often hard to recognise, because they are implicit, assumed, and taken for granted. However, recognising these paradigms is key to making sense of and reconciling differences in people’s perceptions of the same social phenomenon. For instance, why do liberals believe that the best way to improve secondary education is to hire more teachers, while conservatives believe that privatising education (using such means as school vouchers) is more effective in achieving the same goal? Conservatives place more faith in competitive markets (i.e., in free competition between schools competing for education dollars), while liberals believe more in labour (i.e., in having more teachers and schools). Likewise, in social science research, to understand why a certain technology was successfully implemented in one organisation, but failed miserably in another, a researcher looking at the world through a ‘rational lens’ will look for rational explanations of the problem, such as inadequate technology or poor fit between technology and the task context where it is being utilised. Another researcher looking at the same problem through a ‘social lens’ may seek out social deficiencies such as inadequate user training or lack of management support. Those seeing it through a ‘political lens’ will look for instances of organisational politics that may subvert the technology implementation process. Hence, subconscious paradigms often constrain the concepts that researchers attempt to measure, their observations, and their subsequent interpretations of a phenomenon. However, given the complex nature of social phenomena, it is possible that all of the above paradigms are partially correct, and that a fuller understanding of the problem may require an understanding and application of multiple paradigms.

Two popular paradigms today among social science researchers are positivism and post-positivism. Positivism , based on the works of French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857), was the dominant scientific paradigm until the mid-twentieth century. It holds that science or knowledge creation should be restricted to what can be observed and measured. Positivism tends to rely exclusively on theories that can be directly tested. Though positivism was originally an attempt to separate scientific inquiry from religion (where the precepts could not be objectively observed), positivism led to empiricism or a blind faith in observed data and a rejection of any attempt to extend or reason beyond observable facts. Since human thoughts and emotions could not be directly measured, they were not considered to be legitimate topics for scientific research. Frustrations with the strictly empirical nature of positivist philosophy led to the development of post-positivism (or postmodernism) during the mid-late twentieth century. Post-positivism argues that one can make reasonable inferences about a phenomenon by combining empirical observations with logical reasoning. Post-positivists view science as not certain but probabilistic (i.e., based on many contingencies), and often seek to explore these contingencies to understand social reality better. The post-positivist camp has further fragmented into subjectivists , who view the world as a subjective construction of our subjective minds rather than as an objective reality, and critical realists , who believe that there is an external reality that is independent of a person’s thinking but we can never know such reality with any degree of certainty.

Burrell and Morgan (1979), [2] in their seminal book Sociological p aradigms and organizational a nalysis , suggested that the way social science researchers view and study social phenomena is shaped by two fundamental sets of philosophical assumptions: ontology and epistemology. Ontology refers to our assumptions about how we see the world (e.g., does the world consist mostly of social order or constant change?). Epistemology refers to our assumptions about the best way to study the world (e.g., should we use an objective or subjective approach to study social reality?). Using these two sets of assumptions, we can categorise social science research as belonging to one of four categories (see Figure 3.1).

If researchers view the world as consisting mostly of social order (ontology) and hence seek to study patterns of ordered events or behaviours, and believe that the best way to study such a world is using an objective approach (epistemology) that is independent of the person conducting the observation or interpretation, such as by using standardised data collection tools like surveys, then they are adopting a paradigm of functionalism . However, if they believe that the best way to study social order is though the subjective interpretation of participants, such as by interviewing different participants and reconciling differences among their responses using their own subjective perspectives, then they are employing an interpretivism paradigm. If researchers believe that the world consists of radical change and seek to understand or enact change using an objectivist approach, then they are employing a radical structuralism paradigm. If they wish to understand social change using the subjective perspectives of the participants involved, then they are following a radical humanism paradigm.

To date, the majority of social science research has emulated the natural sciences, and followed the functionalist paradigm. Functionalists believe that social order or patterns can be understood in terms of their functional components, and therefore attempt to break down a problem into small components and studying one or more components in detail using objectivist techniques such as surveys and experimental research. However, with the emergence of post-positivist thinking, a small but growing number of social science researchers are attempting to understand social order using subjectivist techniques such as interviews and ethnographic studies. Radical humanism and radical structuralism continues to represent a negligible proportion of social science research, because scientists are primarily concerned with understanding generalisable patterns of behaviour, events, or phenomena, rather than idiosyncratic or changing events. Nevertheless, if you wish to study social change, such as why democratic movements are increasingly emerging in Middle Eastern countries, or why this movement was successful in Tunisia, took a longer path to success in Libya, and is still not successful in Syria, then perhaps radical humanism is the right approach for such a study. Social and organisational phenomena generally consist of elements of both order and change. For instance, organisational success depends on formalised business processes, work procedures, and job responsibilities, while being simultaneously constrained by a constantly changing mix of competitors, competing products, suppliers, and customer base in the business environment. Hence, a holistic and more complete understanding of social phenomena such as why some organisations are more successful than others, requires an appreciation and application of a multi-paradigmatic approach to research.

Overview of the research process

So how do our mental paradigms shape social science research? At its core, all scientific research is an iterative process of observation, rationalisation, and validation. In the observation phase, we observe a natural or social phenomenon, event, or behaviour that interests us. In the rationalisation phase, we try to make sense of the observed phenomenon, event, or behaviour by logically connecting the different pieces of the puzzle that we observe, which in some cases, may lead to the construction of a theory. Finally, in the validation phase, we test our theories using a scientific method through a process of data collection and analysis, and in doing so, possibly modify or extend our initial theory. However, research designs vary based on whether the researcher starts at observation and attempts to rationalise the observations (inductive research), or whether the researcher starts at an ex ante rationalisation or a theory and attempts to validate the theory (deductive research). Hence, the observation-rationalisation-validation cycle is very similar to the induction-deduction cycle of research discussed in Chapter 1.

Most traditional research tends to be deductive and functionalistic in nature. Figure 3.2 provides a schematic view of such a research project. This figure depicts a series of activities to be performed in functionalist research, categorised into three phases: exploration, research design, and research execution. Note that this generalised design is not a roadmap or flowchart for all research. It applies only to functionalistic research, and it can and should be modified to fit the needs of a specific project.

The first phase of research is exploration . This phase includes exploring and selecting research questions for further investigation, examining the published literature in the area of inquiry to understand the current state of knowledge in that area, and identifying theories that may help answer the research questions of interest.

The first step in the exploration phase is identifying one or more research questions dealing with a specific behaviour, event, or phenomena of interest. Research questions are specific questions about a behaviour, event, or phenomena of interest that you wish to seek answers for in your research. Examples include determining which factors motivate consumers to purchase goods and services online without knowing the vendors of these goods or services, how can we make high school students more creative, and why some people commit terrorist acts. Research questions can delve into issues of what, why, how, when, and so forth. More interesting research questions are those that appeal to a broader population (e.g., ‘how can firms innovate?’ is a more interesting research question than ‘how can Chinese firms innovate in the service-sector?’), address real and complex problems (in contrast to hypothetical or ‘toy’ problems), and where the answers are not obvious. Narrowly focused research questions (often with a binary yes/no answer) tend to be less useful and less interesting and less suited to capturing the subtle nuances of social phenomena. Uninteresting research questions generally lead to uninteresting and unpublishable research findings.

The next step is to conduct a literature review of the domain of interest. The purpose of a literature review is three-fold: one, to survey the current state of knowledge in the area of inquiry, two, to identify key authors, articles, theories, and findings in that area, and three, to identify gaps in knowledge in that research area. Literature review is commonly done today using computerised keyword searches in online databases. Keywords can be combined using Boolean operators such as ‘and’ and ‘or’ to narrow down or expand the search results. Once a shortlist of relevant articles is generated from the keyword search, the researcher must then manually browse through each article, or at least its abstract, to determine the suitability of that article for a detailed review. Literature reviews should be reasonably complete, and not restricted to a few journals, a few years, or a specific methodology. Reviewed articles may be summarised in the form of tables, and can be further structured using organising frameworks such as a concept matrix. A well-conducted literature review should indicate whether the initial research questions have already been addressed in the literature (which would obviate the need to study them again), whether there are newer or more interesting research questions available, and whether the original research questions should be modified or changed in light of the findings of the literature review. The review can also provide some intuitions or potential answers to the questions of interest and/or help identify theories that have previously been used to address similar questions.

Since functionalist (deductive) research involves theory-testing, the third step is to identify one or more theories can help address the desired research questions. While the literature review may uncover a wide range of concepts or constructs potentially related to the phenomenon of interest, a theory will help identify which of these constructs is logically relevant to the target phenomenon and how. Forgoing theories may result in measuring a wide range of less relevant, marginally relevant, or irrelevant constructs, while also minimising the chances of obtaining results that are meaningful and not by pure chance. In functionalist research, theories can be used as the logical basis for postulating hypotheses for empirical testing. Obviously, not all theories are well-suited for studying all social phenomena. Theories must be carefully selected based on their fit with the target problem and the extent to which their assumptions are consistent with that of the target problem. We will examine theories and the process of theorising in detail in the next chapter.

The next phase in the research process is research design . This process is concerned with creating a blueprint of the actions to take in order to satisfactorily answer the research questions identified in the exploration phase. This includes selecting a research method, operationalising constructs of interest, and devising an appropriate sampling strategy.

Operationalisation is the process of designing precise measures for abstract theoretical constructs. This is a major problem in social science research, given that many of the constructs, such as prejudice, alienation, and liberalism are hard to define, let alone measure accurately. Operationalisation starts with specifying an ‘operational definition’ (or ‘conceptualization’) of the constructs of interest. Next, the researcher can search the literature to see if there are existing pre-validated measures matching their operational definition that can be used directly or modified to measure their constructs of interest. If such measures are not available or if existing measures are poor or reflect a different conceptualisation than that intended by the researcher, new instruments may have to be designed for measuring those constructs. This means specifying exactly how exactly the desired construct will be measured (e.g., how many items, what items, and so forth). This can easily be a long and laborious process, with multiple rounds of pre-tests and modifications before the newly designed instrument can be accepted as ‘scientifically valid’. We will discuss operationalisation of constructs in a future chapter on measurement.

Simultaneously with operationalisation, the researcher must also decide what research method they wish to employ for collecting data to address their research questions of interest. Such methods may include quantitative methods such as experiments or survey research or qualitative methods such as case research or action research, or possibly a combination of both. If an experiment is desired, then what is the experimental design? If this is a survey, do you plan a mail survey, telephone survey, web survey, or a combination? For complex, uncertain, and multifaceted social phenomena, multi-method approaches may be more suitable, which may help leverage the unique strengths of each research method and generate insights that may not be obtained using a single method.

Researchers must also carefully choose the target population from which they wish to collect data, and a sampling strategy to select a sample from that population. For instance, should they survey individuals or firms or workgroups within firms? What types of individuals or firms do they wish to target? Sampling strategy is closely related to the unit of analysis in a research problem. While selecting a sample, reasonable care should be taken to avoid a biased sample (e.g., sample based on convenience) that may generate biased observations. Sampling is covered in depth in a later chapter.

At this stage, it is often a good idea to write a research proposal detailing all of the decisions made in the preceding stages of the research process and the rationale behind each decision. This multi-part proposal should address what research questions you wish to study and why, the prior state of knowledge in this area, theories you wish to employ along with hypotheses to be tested, how you intend to measure constructs, what research method is to be employed and why, and desired sampling strategy. Funding agencies typically require such a proposal in order to select the best proposals for funding. Even if funding is not sought for a research project, a proposal may serve as a useful vehicle for seeking feedback from other researchers and identifying potential problems with the research project (e.g., whether some important constructs were missing from the study) before starting data collection. This initial feedback is invaluable because it is often too late to correct critical problems after data is collected in a research study.

Having decided who to study (subjects), what to measure (concepts), and how to collect data (research method), the researcher is now ready to proceed to the research execution phase. This includes pilot testing the measurement instruments, data collection, and data analysis.

Pilot testing is an often overlooked but extremely important part of the research process. It helps detect potential problems in your research design and/or instrumentation (e.g., whether the questions asked are intelligible to the targeted sample), and to ensure that the measurement instruments used in the study are reliable and valid measures of the constructs of interest. The pilot sample is usually a small subset of the target population. After successful pilot testing, the researcher may then proceed with data collection using the sampled population. The data collected may be quantitative or qualitative, depending on the research method employed.

Following data collection, the data is analysed and interpreted for the purpose of drawing conclusions regarding the research questions of interest. Depending on the type of data collected (quantitative or qualitative), data analysis may be quantitative (e.g., employ statistical techniques such as regression or structural equation modelling) or qualitative (e.g., coding or content analysis).

The final phase of research involves preparing the final research report documenting the entire research process and its findings in the form of a research paper, dissertation, or monograph. This report should outline in detail all the choices made during the research process (e.g., theory used, constructs selected, measures used, research methods, sampling, etc.) and why, as well as the outcomes of each phase of the research process. The research process must be described in sufficient detail so as to allow other researchers to replicate your study, test the findings, or assess whether the inferences derived are scientifically acceptable. Of course, having a ready research proposal will greatly simplify and quicken the process of writing the finished report. Note that research is of no value unless the research process and outcomes are documented for future generations—such documentation is essential for the incremental progress of science.

Common mistakes in research

The research process is fraught with problems and pitfalls, and novice researchers often find, after investing substantial amounts of time and effort into a research project, that their research questions were not sufficiently answered, or that the findings were not interesting enough, or that the research was not of ‘acceptable’ scientific quality. Such problems typically result in research papers being rejected by journals. Some of the more frequent mistakes are described below.

Insufficiently motivated research questions. Often times, we choose our ‘pet’ problems that are interesting to us but not to the scientific community at large, i.e., it does not generate new knowledge or insight about the phenomenon being investigated. Because the research process involves a significant investment of time and effort on the researcher’s part, the researcher must be certain—and be able to convince others—that the research questions they seek to answer deal with real—and not hypothetical—problems that affect a substantial portion of a population and have not been adequately addressed in prior research.

Pursuing research fads. Another common mistake is pursuing ‘popular’ topics with limited shelf life. A typical example is studying technologies or practices that are popular today. Because research takes several years to complete and publish, it is possible that popular interest in these fads may die down by the time the research is completed and submitted for publication. A better strategy may be to study ‘timeless’ topics that have always persisted through the years.

Unresearchable problems. Some research problems may not be answered adequately based on observed evidence alone, or using currently accepted methods and procedures. Such problems are best avoided. However, some unresearchable, ambiguously defined problems may be modified or fine tuned into well-defined and useful researchable problems.

Favoured research methods. Many researchers have a tendency to recast a research problem so that it is amenable to their favourite research method (e.g., survey research). This is an unfortunate trend. Research methods should be chosen to best fit a research problem, and not the other way around.

Blind data mining. Some researchers have the tendency to collect data first (using instruments that are already available), and then figure out what to do with it. Note that data collection is only one step in a long and elaborate process of planning, designing, and executing research. In fact, a series of other activities are needed in a research process prior to data collection. If researchers jump into data collection without such elaborate planning, the data collected will likely be irrelevant, imperfect, or useless, and their data collection efforts may be entirely wasted. An abundance of data cannot make up for deficits in research planning and design, and particularly, for the lack of interesting research questions.

• Kuhn, T. (1962). The structure of scientific revolutions . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ↵
• Burrell, G. & Morgan, G. (1979). Sociological paradigms and organisational analysis: elements of the sociology of corporate life . London: Heinemann Educational. ↵

Social Science Research: Principles, Methods and Practices (Revised edition) Copyright © 2019 by Anol Bhattacherjee is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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