how to write physics research paper

Physics and Astronomy

An overview of the discipline.

Physics is the study of phenomena that form the foundation of our nature and their applications. Physicists accomplish this lofty goal using theory grounded in mathematics as well as experiment. Penn has a combined Physics and Astronomy department, and sub-disciplines within the department include, but are not limited to:

• High energy physics
• Condensed matter physics
• Astrophysics and astronomy (two are usually different)
• Atomic physics
• Nuclear physics
• Optical physics
• Mathematical physics

Writing in the Discipline

The goal of physics is to advance understanding of how nature works through rigorous scientific methods. Typically, this consists of defining a problem and working towards a solution. Ultimately, physics aims to simplify complex problems, and oftentimes elegantly simple relationships emerge.

Physicists favor explanatory reasoning and place a heavy emphasis on logical clarity. Writers must explain how they reached their conclusion by synthesizing previous research and their own ideas.

Legitimate evidence consists of rigorous mathematical description and concrete evidence. New theories must also be consistent with previously proven ideas. Oftentimes, theoretical physicists use a mathematical proofs to draw logical conclusions. Models must be tested by experimental physicists and subsequent data analysis to be validated.

Physicists rely on both experimental data as well as the ideas of colleagues in their field. The most successful breakthroughs use new concepts, which are usually found through mathematics. It is very important to be connected to larger knowledge in the discipline.

Most theoretical papers are written as small collaborations, and some may be single-authored. Experimental papers may often involve bigger collaborations and an extensive list of authors.

Writing Tips

Important criteria for student writing, style preferences.

Most physics publications are featured in academic journals. Academic journals impose strict word limits and formatting on submitted articles, so writers must write clearly and effectively and select quantitative and visual evidence to support their arguments. While famous papers in the past included memorable metaphors, the current trend privileges clear and concise language over figurative language.

Common Errors

Most beginning students do not think clearly enough about the problem sets, which leads to errors in the process of justifying their answers to the solution the problem. Furthermore, in lab reports, some students forget that every paragraph should be in the service of supporting a claim. In higher-level physics, mistakes are usually technical.

Student Assignments

Professional writing, the writing process, a guide to writing physics papers, step one: start with a clear idea, step two: build an outline around the idea, step three: write the paper.

Initially, it is best to get just something written down. With a clear idea in mind, the thoughts will hopefully organize themselves. One must be well-versed in the field to know the technical language.

Step Four: Revise the ideas and paper

The revision process is long, as ideas may change, particularly if the work is evolving. Papers occasionally die, but this is a crucial step.

Additional Resources

Helpful books and articles, meet the professors.

Dr. Kane primarily studies quantum electronic phenomena in solids, a topic in condensed matter physics. His discovery of topological insulators has earned him numerous awards. Dr. Kane believes that writing is important no matter the discipline. More...

Dr. Cvetic works on theoretical physics involving fundamental interactions and high-energy theory. This special discipline aims at uncovering the basic forces of the universe and includes black holes and string theory. Although Dr. Cvetic is not a native English speaker, she is able to write effective papers due to the beauty and clarity of mathematical reasoning. More...

Dr. Goulian jokingly describes his writing process as a struggle that he overcomes. He typically does not use outlines, although he recommends that students should learn how to pre-write effectively. More...

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Physics: Writing a Literature Review

Literature reviews.

A  literature review  surveys scholarly articles, books and other sources (e.g. dissertations, conference proceedings) relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of each work. 

• Provide context for a research paper
• Explore the history and development of a topic
• Examine the scholarly conversation surrounding the topic
• Shows relationships between studies
• Examines gaps in research on the topic

Components 

Similar to primary research, development of the literature review requires four stages:

• Problem formulation—which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues?
• Literature search—finding materials relevant to the subject being explored
• Data evaluation—determining which literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic
• Analysis and interpretation—discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature

Conducting a Literature Review

1. choose a topic. define your research questions..

Your literature review should be guided by a central research question.  Remember, it is not a collection of loosely related studies in a field but instead represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
• Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
• If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor.

2. Decide on the scope of your review. 

• How many studies do you need to look at?
• How comprehensive should it be?
• How many years should it cover? 

Tip: This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.  

Make a list of the databases you will search.  

Where to find databases:

• Find Databases by Subject
• T he Find Articles tab of this guide

This page contains a list of the most relevant databases for most Physics research. 

4. Conduct your searches and find the literature. Keep track of your searches! 

• Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
• Write down the searches you conduct in each database so that you may duplicate them if you need to later (or avoid dead-end searches   that you'd forgotten you'd already tried).
• Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
• Ask your professor or a librarian if you are missing any key works in the field.

5. Review the Literature 

Some questions to help you analyze the research: 

• What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions. Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
• If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited?; if so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

• Again, review the abstracts carefully.  
• Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.

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Physical Review Letters

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Editorial: Successful Letters

Physicists borrowed the word “quark” from Finnegans Wake, but James Joyce had no obvious connection to physics. Writers do not necessarily study the sciences, although many do, if their work calls for it. However, all scientists, including physicists, must know how to write. With results in hand, physicists must take an additional step and communicate these results to others.

One hundred years ago, physicists were few and funding for physics was largely private. The writing style was formal, without personal pronouns and in the passive voice. It emphasized facts and played down evidence that people were involved in research. Data were taken or calculations undertaken, analyses were performed, discoveries were made, and science advanced. As the number of physicists grew, and funding for physics came more often from public sources, it became increasingly important for physicists to convey their findings to other physicists and to the public. Recently, the medium changed from paper to pdf, but the need to communicate remains, because physics becomes more specialized and competition from other disciplines for public funding grows. Thus it is worthwhile to consider the elements that enable a paper to get its ideas across to other physicists and other scientists, to science writers in the press, and to public servants. What makes a successful Letter?

A successful Letter of course begins with a valid result, one that is important and interesting. This is glib, however, because it lacks explanations of “important” and “interesting.” So, here are attempts to define each, in single sentences: An important result provides insight that changes the way others view and understand the topic, allows them to improve their own approaches, and thus leads to substantial progress. An interesting result will make readers glad to learn of it, because it is important to their own work or the work of others, or because it is science of uncommon beauty, aesthetically. In the context of a manuscript there is a third element: accessibility. Regardless of its content, a manuscript will be of lesser interest if it is impenetrable, and a manuscript that attracts fewer readers will be less important.

Present PRL policy incorporates these three concepts by seeking to publish work that should not be missed by researchers in the given field and also those in at least some related fields. Broader interest, in general, is better, as is greater importance, but the two are not independent. Work that is extremely important to a few might be as worthy as work that is moderately important to many, which again leads directly to presentation. A manuscript that can be understood only by a narrow audience will be less likely to be suitable for PRL, because it will lose its chance to be moderately important to a wide audience.

Physicists often explain their love of research on the basis of the excitement of discovery, but in writing they may revert to the older, formal style described above. When this style meets the volume of information common in present day research, the result can be difficult to read, not to mention understand. It is of course important that a manuscript present sufficient detail to make it convincing, and authors are motivated to include detail because it shows their hard work and thoroughness. They assume this will convince referees, and editors, that a paper should be published.

It is easy, however, to include too much information. Referees and editors do not differ from other readers: all prefer interesting and digestible manuscripts. Inclusion of too much detail may lead to unfavorable reviews, via the following logic: “A Letter must be accessible. This manuscript is dense and impenetrable. It is therefore not a Letter.” To avoid this, authors must make hard choices about what information to include and what to omit. Which pieces are crucial to the discussion, and which are not needed to keep the main message intact? It is counterproductive for authors to leave this sorting as an exercise for referees and other readers. Finally, authors should consider the possibility that the level of information necessary to convey a particular result may be more than will fit in a four-page Letter.

So, once authors determine the minimum amount of information required to communicate their message, what style should they use to communicate it? Part of the answer is straightforward: expository prose, which is simple and direct, with a minimum of adjectives and adverbs. In addition, a readable manuscript should have a logical structure similar to that in any narrative. A short story, for example, sets the scene and the characters, presents conflict, provides a resolution, and ends with an epilog. These same elements make up a well-constructed scientific article. It also should be an interesting narrative, although the terminology is different. To set the scene, a scientific narrative begins with an introduction, to explain where the field stands at present. Conflict appears in the form of an unsolved problem, and resolution as the solution to the problem: the result. The epilog becomes the summary, which discusses the meaning of the result, to give readers some idea of its repercussions.

It is interesting that contributors may adhere to a dense, impersonal style in their manuscripts, but have no difficulty using another style elsewhere. Cover letters that accompany initial submittals may contain descriptions of the results, including context and potential impact, that are clearer than those in the manuscript itself. In fact, some manuscripts include no plain explanation of why the work is of interest. Author responses to negative referee reports sometimes contain narratives reminiscent of short stories (perhaps by Kafka, with particular emphasis on description of conflict). This sometimes makes for interesting reading for us editors, but does not necessarily further the cause of publication.

My hope is that the above provides some useful hints about how to tackle the difficult task of presenting inherently detailed information in an accessible style within the limited space of a Letter. The most important requirements are (1) to include only the necessary information and (2) to organize it in a smooth narrative. This editorial represents my perhaps poor attempt to meet both of these requirements. The issue of sentence-level construction is less critical, and it will not surprise me if some writers still take comfort in the passive-voice style described above. Frankly, this comfort is a mystery to me.

Reinhardt Schuhmann Managing Editor

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American Journal of Physics ®

A publication of the american association of physics teachers ®.

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General Info | "); document.writeln(" Submissions |"); document.writeln(" Manuscript Format | "); document.writeln(" Figure Preparation | "); document.writeln(" Editorial Procedures

This page describes how to format a manuscript for submission to AJP. Be sure to also read the submission requirements and procedures .

Electronic File Formats

• For initial submissions we require a single .pdf file containing all text, endnotes, figures, and tables.  You may use any software you like to prepare this file, but to avoid extensive reworking later on, we strongly suggest that you use LaTeX/REVTeX or Microsoft Word, as described below.  The ability to create a .pdf file is built into the Macintosh operating system and is also available in most LaTeX processors and in recent versions of MSWord. For advice on creating a .pdf in older software environments, see https://editorialexpress.com/e-editor/pdftips.html .  If at all possible, your .pdf file should be no larger than one megabyte in size.
• The preferred editable format is LaTeX, using the REVTeX 4.1 style. For typical article submissions with many equations and/or endnotes, LaTeX/REVTeX is strongly recommended because it handles most of the formatting and numbering automatically.  It also handles equations extremely well, making them easy to enter and producing beautiful typeset output.  LaTeX is free software, available for all major operating systems.  See the LaTeX web site for links and downloading instructions. We recommend that you get a “complete TeX installation,” which will include the REVTeX 4.1 style and all needed fonts, packages, and GUI tools. Alternatively, you may wish to try a cloud-based LaTeX processor such as writeLaTeX or ShareLaTeX . For a tutorial on using LaTeX, see our sample manuscript file .
• The only acceptable alternative to LaTeX is Microsoft Word .docx format ( not .doc).  Authors using MSWord will have to pay especially careful attention to the detailed formatting instructions below.  Do not use the “track changes” feature of MSWord. Be sure to use only the built-in MSWord equation editor (do not, e.g., use MathType), and use only standard fonts.  We do not recommend MSWord for papers that contain many equations or long reference lists.  However, for manuscripts that are especially short and simple, MSWord may be more convenient than LaTeX.
• The appropriate format for figures depends on their content and on whether they are part of an initial submission or an editable package for production.  See our detailed instructions for figure preparation .

Sample Manuscript File

Authors are urged to use LaTeX to prepare their manuscripts, although MSWord is an acceptable alternative. The  sample manuscript pdf  and  sample manuscript files  are designed to provide a useful tutorial and template for LaTeX submissions for both new users and experts. The  sample manuscript files  are a .zip archive containing the LaTeX source file and two figure files that are required to produce the finished .pdf file.

General Style

The  Style Manual  of the American Institute of Physics, 4th ed. (1990) contains a wealth of information on the preparation of manuscripts, including advice on good writing and organization; rules for punctuation, capitalization, English usage, and using mathematical expressions; and lists of standard spellings and abbreviations. While advancing technology has made some parts of this document out of date, and a few of its rules are superseded by AJP's special style conventions, the Style Manual is still the authoritative reference unless there is a conflict with information appearing on the AJP website, in which case the latter takes precedence. Like other journals published in the U.S., AJP uses  American rather than British spellings : color rather than colour; analyze rather than analyse; and so on. Authors are encouraged to use SI units, but use of SI units is not mandatory if other units are more appropriate. Authors are expected to word their manuscripts in a manner consistent with the fact that the physicists, students, and teachers who read AJP include genders other than male; the use of "they" as a singular pronoun is acceptable.

Manuscripts can be single- or double-spaced and single- or double-column. Reviewers appreciate text that is formatted for easy reading. All manuscript pages should be numbered. You will be asked to upload a single pdf file containing all text, endnotes, figures, and tables, preferably with the figures and tables incorporated into the text rather than at the end. Ensure that your manuscript meets the requirements for anonymous review .

Authors should make every effort to be concise. Generally speaking, readership and length are inversely related. Longer manuscripts will be subject to higher expectations with respect to the interest and usefulness of their content during the review process. Additional examples, further implications, and longer derivations can be placed in the easily-accessible online supplementary material.

AJP papers should normally be 4000 to 6000 words, plus equations, tables, and figures if appropriate. As a rough rule, a double-spaced, 12-point manuscript of length x pages (including figures and equations) will require x/3 journal pages to print, and we aim for papers to be 6 pages or shorter.  Longer papers can be published, but their additional length should be justified by their high interest to readers.  Note that dividing a paper into two linked papers does not solve the problem of a too-long paper, since the length restrictions are aimed at limiting the total number of pages that are dedicated to a particular topic, in order to allow more breadth of coverage in the journal.

Manuscripts intended for the Notes and Discussions section should be considerably shorter, typically 1000 to 3000 words, and Letters should normally be 800 words or shorter.

The main elements of an AJP paper are: Title Authors and affiliations (these are omitted to allow anonymous review until the manuscript is conditionally accepted) Abstract (optional for the Notes and Discussions section) Introductory section Main body, divided into sections and subsections as appropriate Concluding section (optional – don't simply write a summary) Acknowledgments (optional, and omitted until acceptance to allow anonymous review) Author declarations section (conflict of interest, ethics approval, data availability statement) Appendices (optional) Endnotes Most papers also contain figures and/or tables (with captions) that "float" outside the sequential order of the main text so they can be placed at the top or bottom of a final printed page. In your initially submitted manuscript, place each figure or table near where it is first referenced, without assuming that it will stay in that exact location when the paper is published. --> To allow two-way anonymous review, you should omit author name(s), affiliation(s), and acknowledgements from your initially submitted manuscript. (You will still provide this information to the editor, via the manuscript submission form.) If and when your manuscript is conditionally accepted, be sure to include name(s) and affiliation(s) in your editable manuscript file. Changes to citations may also be necessary, but the submitted paper should allow reviewers to access all necessary information; please read  here  for more details. You may choose to have your Chinese, Japanese, or Korean names published in your own language alongside the English versions in the author list. For further information, please see AIPP’s  guidelines  for Chinese, Japanese, or Korean names. Please refer to the sample manuscript pdf for the correct typographical and numbering conventions for each of these elements. LaTeX/REVTeX will take care of these conventions automatically. If you use MSWord, following the right conventions is your responsibility. -->

The abstract should summarize the paper’s contents as concisely as possible. It should make the goals of the paper clear and state the main results or conclusions directly. The abstract should be written so that any physicist, regardless of area of specialization, can read and understand it. Abstracts must be self-contained. They may not contain references to endnotes. Abstracts are optional in the Notes and Discussions section, but are encouraged for Notes longer than 1000 words.

Introduction

A paper's introductory section must provide the background and context that a typical physicist, regardless of area of specialization, would need in order to understand the paper's purpose and importance. That is, it should motivate the paper, in a way that is both informative and inviting. Unlike the abstract, the introduction need not summarize the entire paper or state its main results. Often, however, the introduction ends with a paragraph that outlines how the rest of the paper is organized; this is especially useful for longer papers.

When an equation is important, large, or complicated, display it on a line by itself, with a number (in parentheses) at the right margin. (In LaTeX, just use the equation environment.) Every equation, whether displayed or not, must be part of a complete sentence, with correct punctuation before and after. See the  sample manuscript pdf  for examples. All displayed equations should be numbered. When referring to an equation by number, put the number in parentheses and abbreviate "Eq." unless it is at the beginning of a sentence: "Equation (5) follows from substituting Eqs. (2) and (3) into Eq. (4)." While the copy editors will correct issues of style, such as putting letters in italics and distinguishing minus signs from hyphens, reviewers will appreciate more professional formatting. LaTeX math mode takes care of this typography automatically, but MSWord users will have to make a special effort. For all but the simplest expressions, MSWord users should use MathType or the built-in MSWord equation editor. Do not use any other equation editor, and be sure to use only standard fonts.

Please refer to our  detailed instructions for figure preparation . Number figures in the order in which they are referred to in the text. Provide an appropriate and concise caption for each figure. When referring to a figure, abbreviate "Fig." unless it is at the beginning of a sentence: "Figure 5 shows the results of the new analysis in the same format as Fig. 4."

Number tables using Roman numerals, in the order in which they are referred to in the text. Provide an appropriate and concise caption for each table. Place each table as close as possible to the text that refers to it.

A concluding section is customary but not required.  A good conclusion provides additional insights; it is not a summary.  Summaries are not appropriate in AJP.

Supplementary Material

Authors can share additional material that is too long to fit in the published paper or may be interesting only to a subset of readers in the form of Supplementary Material. Examples of appropriate supplementary material include lengthy derivations, additional applications, large data tables, additional figures, computer programs, multimedia files, and curricular materials.

At initial submission, please upload your supplementary material either as a .zip file or as individual files. (The zip file is helpful for individual files whose format is not recognized by our manuscript system.) These materials should not contain any identifying information , although this can be added at acceptance. If it is difficult to remove personally identifiable information from the materials, please consult the editor in advance ( [email protected] ). In the body of your paper, you should use the phrase “supplementary material” to refer to these files, which will be available to reviewers.

AIP Publishing has partnered with Figshare—a general-purpose repository—to host all supplementary material for published papers. After your manuscript has been accepted for publication, AIP Publishing will deposit your supplementary material in Figshare on your behalf, where it will be assigned a digital object identifier (DOI) for citation and referencing. This increases the discoverability of your materials due to the searchable, user-friendly Figshare platform, which contains analytics and usage data to note the impact and influence of your work.

Additional information about Figshare can be found  here .

Once your paper containing supplementary material has been conditionally accepted, please create a new section of your paper entitles Supplementary Material and place it after the main text and before the acknowledgements. Sample text for that section is: “Please click on this link to access the supplementary material, which includes the Mathematica code and also works out the application of this theory to three objects. Print readers can see the supplementary material at [DOI to be inserted by AIPP].” You would, of course, modify the phrase "includes the Mathematica code and also works out the application of this theory to three objects” to match what you have uploaded.

In the body of your paper, wherever you have used the phrase “supplementary material” to refer to this material, the phrase will become a hyperlink that will take online readers directly to the supplementary material section of the paper.

You will maintain the rights to this material and may choose to share it under any of these open access licenses: CC-BY 4.0, CC-BY-NC 4.0, or CC0.

Note that all supplementary material must be approved by the editor as part of the acceptance process. Your supplementary materials will be shared exactly as provided; no text editing or formatting is performed.

Acknowledgments

Acknowledgments should be omitted until a paper is conditionally accepted to allow anonymous review. When submitting the accepted paper, be sure to acknowledge colleagues who contributed in a significant way to your paper, as well as any funding agencies that supported your work. While it is not appropriate to acknowledge the assistance of the editors, it is often appropriate to acknowledge specific help and advice from our generous, conscientious, and anonymous reviewers. Examples of specific help are suggestions for references, pointing out significant errors, and suggesting better ways of doing calculations or experiments.

Author Declarations Section

All articles (but not editorials, book reviews, notes, letters, comments, and responses) should contain a Conflict of Interest statement and a Data Availability statement.  Any paper that includes experiments using animals or humans needs to contain an ethics approval statement.  More information on these statements can be found here .

Use appendices for material that is less interesting than the rest of the paper but still needed for completeness. Examples might include a technical proof, or a detailed description of research protocols. If there is more than one appendix, label them with capital letters A, B, and so on.

Endnotes and Citations

AJP papers should not include a comprehensive listing of all the papers that have been published on a topic, or even the most important ones. Instead, the references should be a carefully curated list of resources that will be most useful to readers. Citations should (1) recognize when an idea was first developed in another source—in that case, give only the 1st occurrence; (2) give readers a place to find essential background that can’t be provided in this paper; (3) provide interested readers with places to find specific additional information. The paper should make it clear to readers exactly why each reference is cited and what readers will find there. For long references, such as textbooks, direct readers to the most useful sections. A note for authors of Physics Education Research papers: This citation policy conflicts with normal practice in PER, where authors are careful to cite all related work. AJP's primary goal is to serve the reader, not the researcher, so citations should be kept to a minimum even for these papers. AJP does not use footnotes, which appear at the bottom of a page; instead, AJP uses endnotes. Endnotes may include auxiliary author information, literature citations, and explanatory annotations. --> AJP uses endnotes for auxiliary author information, literature citations, and explanatory annotations.  Alternately, brief explanatory annotations can be included as footnotes.  These can be indicated using standard symbols such as *, †, ‡, §, ¶, #. Endnotes must be grouped together at the end of the manuscript, in the same sequence in which they are first referenced in the body of the manuscript. Citing websites should be done with care. AJP is an archival journal, and readers in 50 years (or 1 year!) may be disappointed to find that the website no longer exists.  For that reason, it is normally preferable to cite journals or textbooks that will be accessible indefinitely.  On the other hand, websites are sometimes the best source of information (such as product descriptions), and they will be accessible to readers who have limited library support.  Authors are encouraged to consult with the editor about the best sources to cite. To avoid  ambiguity , place superscripts where they won’t be mistaken for mathematical exponents. Within the body of the manuscript, citations to endnotes should appear as superscripts placed after any punctuation. Copy editors will normally correct the placement of citations with respect to punctuation, but they will not normally move them to a different position in the sentence; it is the author’s responsibility to place them where they minimize interruption (normally at the ends of sentences). References can also appear as "online citations," for example, ". . . as shown by Eq. (5) in Ref. 3, . . . " Endnotes may refer to each other (usually using an online citation as above), but may not introduce any new endnotes. The abstract may not contain citations to endnotes. Authors who use bibtex or other reference software must incorporate the references within the LaTeX file. Consult online sources such as  this one  for assistance. Literature References Copy editors will correct the format of references in accepted papers. However, reviewers will appreciate having them formatted in the AJP style described below. Endnote references to articles in periodicals should have the following form:

Freeman J. Dyson, "Feynman's proof of the Maxwell equations," Am. J. Phys. 58 (3), 209–211 (1990).

Note that unlike many journals, AJP requires that each article reference include the article title and its ending(as well as beginning) page number. Use of the issue number is encouraged but not required unless the periodical is paginated by issue (for example, Physics Today). See the AIP  Style Manual  for a list of standard periodical abbreviations.

An endnote reference to a book should have the following form (include page number or numbers when appropriate):

David J. Griffiths,  Introduction to Electrodynamics , 2nd Ed. (Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1989), pp. 331–334.

Example of an article in an edited volume:

M. R. Flannery, “Elastic scattering,” in Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physics Handbook,     edited by G. W. F. Drake (AIP Press, New York, 1996), p. 520.

In all book and article references, pay special attention to the use and placement of punctuation. Note that article titles are in quotes, while book titles are in italics. List authors' names in the format "Bradley W. Carroll and Dale A. Ostlie" when there are two authors, or "Harvey Gould, Jan Tobochnik, and Wolfgang Christian" when there are three or more.  If there are four or more authors  you may use the form "William H. Press et al."

References to online material should include a brief description and/or title.

For a reference to material that has not been published in print or online, provide as much information as possible and include "(unpublished)" in the citation.  See the AIP  Style Manual  for examples.

Authors are urged to consult recent articles published in AJP to find additional examples of correctly formatted references.

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How to write a paper in physics?

I really like to do research in physics and like to calculate to see what happen. However, I really find it hard to write a paper, to explain the results I obtained and to put them in order. One of the reasons is the lack of my vocabulary.

How do I write physics well? I think that writing physics is more dependent of an author's taste than writing mathematics is.

Are there any good reference I can consult when writing?

Or could you give me advice and tips on writing a paper?

What do you take into account when you start writing a paper?

What are your strategies on the process such as structuring the paper, writing a draft, polishing it, etc?

In addition, it is helpful to give me examples of great writing with the reason why you think it is good.

Do you have specific recommendations?

• soft-question
• resource-recommendations
• 3 $\begingroup$ A lot of people seem to appreciate Ed Witten's writing style. Maybe you'll pick up something if you read his papers. Other than just string theory, that is :-) $\endgroup$ –  Siva Commented Oct 23, 2011 at 1:41
• 4 $\begingroup$ There is a good link about technical writing given by Kip Thorne. Thanks, Jocelyn, for letting me know about it. physics.ubc.ca/computer/ksthorne-scientific-writing.pdf $\endgroup$ –  Satoshi Nawata Commented Oct 25, 2011 at 0:06
• $\begingroup$ Made this a community wiki, since many answers can be correct here. $\endgroup$ –  user566 Commented Dec 3, 2011 at 21:39
• 1 $\begingroup$ The link above no longer exists. One can find the article by Thorne lsc-group.phys.uwm.edu/~patrick/downloads/… $\endgroup$ –  Satoshi Nawata Commented Apr 13, 2012 at 21:17
• $\begingroup$ And the last re-link no longer exists. I suppose it was the same as this one , which Kip himself uploaded. $\endgroup$ –  Mike Commented Jun 20, 2023 at 20:26

6 Answers 6

I bought The Art of Scientific Writing by Ebel, Bliefert and Russey a few years ago, and it's pretty good. However there is a huge amount that you can't really learn from a book.

The first thing you need to do is to read a lot of papers. I can't stress how important this is. You need to know what is going on in the field and what problems are still open and which are closed. Even with the open problems you need to know what other people have been doing to try to tackle them. Ideally when writing your first few papers you would have an advisor or supervisor who is experienced in these things, and will help you in choosing problems, and with deciding how best to present the results. If you don't have this, then the importance of reading papers will be amplified again. So at first, read read read!

As you read papers you will start to get a good feeling for which papers are well written and which are not. It's fairly obvious, so you shouldn't really need us to tell you what we consider good writing. The style may vary from field to field as well, so giving you an unfiltered list is probably not very helpful. You really need to build up your own idea of what style seems most clear to you.

As regards actually writing a paper, the way I tend to approach it is to first write out the structure in terms of section titles (even for PRL type papers which don't actually use them, in which case I remove them later), then I try to break it down to the level of what I want to say in each paragraph or so. And then I start writing the actual content. This is just my personal approach, and is not going to suit everybody well. Then you proof read the paper, again and again to make sure that everything makes sense and that you have defined all the notation and ideas you are using before you use them, and you make sure the language flows ok, and that you haven't accidentally broken a proof (which is easy to do).

Personally I like a more didactic style, but that's not to everyone's tastes.

For your first few papers (and frankly any paper you consider very important) it is important to ask a few other people to proof read them. If you spend a lot of time on a paper, you become to close to the manuscript and often don't see errors or where it can be improved. If you are just starting out writing papers, this should be a more experienced colleague (someone who has written very many papers), and you should take their advice and/or criticism seriously. When starting out, at least, it is very easy to have a distorted view of your papers. You may also need advice on what type and level of journal you should submit to, and whether the preprint is yet of sufficient standard to upload to the arxiv (you also shouldn't be submitting to journals if the paper isn't good enough for the arxiv), and this isn't something you can learn via generic question on the internet. You need someone with experience in the area to read through the paper in detail, and give you unfiltered feedback on it. As you publish more papers, you are better able to judge these things for yourself, but at the start it is very easy to go wrong here.

Lastly, unless you end up writing everything on your own, which is extremely unlikely in physics (and not a good sign in my view) you will find that the style of the papers you write will often end up being some sort of mix or compromise of the styles of the various authors.

• $\begingroup$ Thank you very much for your elaborate suggestions. It is very helpful. $\endgroup$ –  Satoshi Nawata Commented Oct 24, 2011 at 23:39

In addition to the Joe's answer , a bunch of good advices is here:

• G. M. Whitesides, Whitesides' Group: Writing a Paper (Adv Mat 2004), doi:10.1002/adma.200400767

Its two main points are:

• Start writing a draft as soon as you have some results, not - when the research is complete (as the later may never come).
• Write in a way which is the most convenient to the reader, not - the writer.
• 1 $\begingroup$ Thank you very much. It is important to write a draft in parallel with the research progress. $\endgroup$ –  Satoshi Nawata Commented Oct 24, 2011 at 23:41

References:

[1]. Joe Fitzsimon's response to this thread.

[2]. Piotr Migdal's response to this thread.

[3]. arivero's response to this thread.

Writing papers is no different to writing anything else, although with scientific papers, that has less to do with vocabulary than writing a novel, so you are not in such a bad position. However, that still leaves style, content and substance to be addressed, let alone how to keep your reader/reviewer reading.

The key, as with all writing, is to keep your reader interested. The only difference with scientific papers is the context in which it is read, and the reasons.

Reformulating other Responses to this Question:

To reformulate other responses to this question [see the references], the phrase "keeping readers interested" means:

a. Relevance: Writing a paper that is relevant to other researcher's work. As JFitz says, make sure your topic is current and not on a subject that has been closed. [Ref: 1]

b. Standards: Figuring out what is the standard for scientific papers in your field. Hence JFitz's suggestion to read a lot of papers in your field. If your paper doesn't match current standards, it will look unprofessional. [Ref: 1]

c. Think Like a reader: communication is all about being able to put yourself in the shoes of your reader. You presumably know more about what you are writing than he does, so your reader is at a disadvantage. You need to make the structure of your paper march in step with the development of the ideas. [Ref: 2]

d. Language: The language of physics is mathematics, so you can rely on this to convey your results. However, the odd good analogy helps. Just be careful of metaphors, they are pointless and irritating unless you are addressing laymen.

e. Peer reviews: For learning to write novels, there are peer review sites, such as Authonomy.com. I have never seen one for polishing papers, but there's an idea. [Ref: 1]

f. References and summaries: put people in the picture. If you can't summarise what you are trying to achieve in a couple of short paragraphs there is something wrong. The references give your reviewer/reader a handle and places to look for background information if they don't get what you are on about. No paper is an island. [Ref: 3]

g. Brevity: Long paragraphs are boring unless you are Charles Dickens. But then you wouldn't be writing papers...

Conclusions:

The responses here say as much as they can to you. Most people would work as part of the scientific community, and therefore, they don't need to ask these questions: the institution they work for hammers it into them.

But even if, nay, especially if you are working for some such institution, I hail you for making the effort to improve your papers.

If, on the other hand, you are working in the patents office in Bern, we will all be grateful for any extra clarity in your writing, and I hope that we have helped.

Help yourself by helping others is what this site is all about.

Parting Shot:

The reason for writing this response (apart from the two original contributions) is to illustrate that structuring what you write adds clarity and makes it easy to look up external references, as well as to help the paper be used itself as a reference.

I will add, that nowadays the introductory part -and even the overall length of the paper- is more important that in classic times. This is because if you paper is too much specialist (and it will be) you must give the reviewers a hint that you have done your homework, that you known your field of study and that you can even give some pointers to guide the revision just in case that the reviewer is not working in your subfield.

• 3 $\begingroup$ You also want to give your readers a hint, since if it is an important result you get a wider range of readers, and many may not necessarily be familiar with all of the tools you use. $\endgroup$ –  Joe Fitzsimons Commented Oct 24, 2011 at 10:19

I never forgot my old lecturer Robert Barrass and his book Scientists Must Write . - He never stood a chance, with me.

I still use the basic, 'Theory, diagram, experiment, results and conclusions' approach, otherwise I am lost!

I find this one useful. http://theory.tifr.res.in/~sgupta/edu/write.pdf (Haven't read it in toto)

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How to Write a Physics Research Paper: Structure, Tips and Topics

Physics research paper format.

Physics is essentially an experimental science that forces individuals to deal with numerous empirical investigations and does not tolerate inaccuracies and mistakes. Physics research projects are created to model solutions, solve scientific problems, improve concepts, and prove the working methods. Today, we will plunge into the process of writing academic research papers, explaining all the details and giving you some useful tips.

Like any other academic writing, physics research papers comprise several standard parts that give important details about the topic, the conducted study, and its outcomes. There are three main sections: the introduction, the main (body) part, and the conclusion. Understanding what each section covers is essential for writing your paper well. Note also that these parts can be divided into chapters, determined by the institution’s requirements.

The introduction highlights the core problem and provides initial information to develop the topic.

• Explain why the study problem is significant.
• Outline the chosen topic and identify study questions.
• Describe the methods used to address the study questions.
• (Optionally) Discuss the scientific significance by comparing old and new ideas and their distinctions.
• (Optionally) Consider the practical importance of the physics research paper within current theoretical or practical limitations.

The main part is the largest and the most informative in the whole writing.

This part reveals all the key points of physics research projects.

• Review of relevant literature emphasizing recent research within the chosen field. It can be an informative analysis or a search for knowledge gaps.
• Study design where you reveal the data collection and analysis methods in detail. You should also explain your choice of methodology and connect it with your project’s expectations and outcomes.
• Chapters with analysis and results covering findings made during the research. You should analyze the situation behind the study problem within the limitations set.

The conclusion presents the results and recommendations.

• Provide theoretical and practical results obtained during the physics research without providing any new information to the readers.
• Emphasize the achievements, summarize findings, practical testing, and unresolved issues.
• Share recommendations for future researchers and mention possible implications.

Additional Parts of the Physics Research Papers

After composing the core components of the paper, you should add two more parts to the text: a list of literature and appendixes. The list of literature simply provides the sources used in the investigation. You must create it according to the established standards, giving all the sources in alphabetical order. This rule applies to the sources for illustrative materials as well.

Appendixes come right after the list of sources. This part of the physics research paper includes the supporting materials needed to understand the work fully. You add graphs, glossaries, tables, illustrations, and other materials. You don’t need to mark them with numbers. Use letters and mark them “Appendix A”, “Appendix B,” “Appendix C,” etc.

How to Write a Physics Research Paper Step by Step

We have selected some good recommendations on how to write a psychology research paper. They are also good because they are suitable for both quantitative and qualitative research.

• Define your paper’s topic.

Choose a specific knowledge area that interests you, meets your assignment’s requirements, and aligns with recent field developments.

• Conduct preliminary research.

Explore the background of your chosen topics by consulting textbooks, online resources, scientific journals, etc. This will help you understand the current state of knowledge, identify study gaps, and determine potential study areas.

• Narrow down a problem area to a manageable scope.

Focus on a specific aspect of the chosen study area. Ensure you have enough resources and the topic meets your paper’s requirements.

• Identify and select key sources.

Look for peer-reviewed journal articles, books, online periodicals, thematic academic works such as academic particle physics research papers, etc. Choose ones that provide in-depth information related to your topic. Pay attention to the credibility of the sources and the authors’s qualifications.

• Gather and assess the information.

Critically evaluate the collected information, making notes on key moments and arguments. Consider how the sources contribute to your understanding of the topic.

• Organize your research and define the following steps.

Prepare an outline to organize your ideas, sources, and plans. Identify the main sections of your paper and what you want to put into them.

• Get started with physics research paper writing.

Write the first draft, following the outline. Start with an engaging introduction with a strong thesis statement and presenting the topic. Develop the body part based on your investigations and available evidence. Conclude with a summary of your findings and their implications.

• Proofread and edit your writing.

Review your paper for clarity, coherence, and accuracy. Make sure your arguments are well-supported by evidence and that your writing is clear and concise. Edit paper to eliminate grammar, spelling & punctuation errors.

Note that you must revise the paper several times before and after making a bibliography. Ensure also this meets all requirements for physics research paper format and cites sources correctly.

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Areas to Look for Good Physics Topics to Research

The variety of areas and avenues of development available is a huge benefit of studying physics. By choosing a trend direction for your project, you guarantee yourself not only interesting physics research topics but also the opportunity to make an important discovery. Here are a few areas of particular interest to modern science:

• Quantum computing and information processing.
• Quantum materials and condensed matter physics.
• High-energy particle physics.
• Quantum optics and photonics.
• Astrophysics and cosmology.
• Plasma physics and fusion energy.
• Nanoscience and nanotechnology.
• Biophysics and complex systems.

It is also noteworthy that you can use both recent discoveries and try to refresh old ones. Perhaps your interpretation of Einstein’s theory will allow humanity to conquer the stars.

Physics Research Topics to Choose From

Many modern physics topics to research offer a wide range of opportunities for theoretical and experimental investigations. Just look at these ideas to find an inspiration.

• Exploring the interplay of magnetic fields and electricity.
• Harnessing electromagnetic waves: Exploring novel applications and optimization strategies.
• Multifaceted examination of mechanisms behind sunset color variation.
• How quantum mechanics can improve how we process and share information.
• Probing the dynamics of sound propagation: Inquiry into acoustic travel phenomena.
• Examining new materials and how they might be used in technology.
• Investigating super-small materials for electronics and medical devices.
• Comparative analysis of the Debye and Einstein models for advancing insights into molecular dynamics.
• Deciphering nuclear reactions at the coulomb barrier.
• Decoding the complexities of rocket propulsion components.

This is only a small list of physics research paper topics you can choose for your future writing. Depending on the field of study, you can choose topics from quantum physics, modern physics, astrophysics, theoretical physics, experimental physics, etc.

Get Professional Help With Your Physics Research Paper

Clear guidance is a step forward for those who want to know how to write a physics research paper correctly. However, sometimes, it may not be enough, as you may not feel confident or have enough time. That’s where professional writers can help. Each of our specialists has solid experience assisting students with their online physics research papers. It doesn’t matter what research stage you are at now, your topic, scope of work, and deadline. We are always ready to come to your aid and match you with the best topic-relevant writer who will make your job easier and your project outstanding.

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How To Write A Lab Report | Step-by-Step Guide & Examples

Published on May 20, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment. The main purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method by performing and evaluating a hands-on lab experiment. This type of assignment is usually shorter than a research paper .

Lab reports are commonly used in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. This article focuses on how to structure and write a lab report.

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Table of contents

Structuring a lab report, introduction, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about lab reports.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but they usually contain the purpose, methods, and findings of a lab experiment .

Each section of a lab report has its own purpose.

• Title: expresses the topic of your study
• Abstract : summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• Introduction: establishes the context needed to understand the topic
• Method: describes the materials and procedures used in the experiment
• Results: reports all descriptive and inferential statistical analyses
• Discussion: interprets and evaluates results and identifies limitations
• Conclusion: sums up the main findings of your experiment
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA )
• Appendices : contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

Although most lab reports contain these sections, some sections can be omitted or combined with others. For example, some lab reports contain a brief section on research aims instead of an introduction, and a separate conclusion is not always required.

If you’re not sure, it’s best to check your lab report requirements with your instructor.

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Your title provides the first impression of your lab report – effective titles communicate the topic and/or the findings of your study in specific terms.

Create a title that directly conveys the main focus or purpose of your study. It doesn’t need to be creative or thought-provoking, but it should be informative.

• The effects of varying nitrogen levels on tomato plant height.
• Testing the universality of the McGurk effect.
• Comparing the viscosity of common liquids found in kitchens.

An abstract condenses a lab report into a brief overview of about 150–300 words. It should provide readers with a compact version of the research aims, the methods and materials used, the main results, and the final conclusion.

Think of it as a way of giving readers a preview of your full lab report. Write the abstract last, in the past tense, after you’ve drafted all the other sections of your report, so you’ll be able to succinctly summarize each section.

To write a lab report abstract, use these guiding questions:

• What is the wider context of your study?
• What research question were you trying to answer?
• How did you perform the experiment?
• What did your results show?
• How did you interpret your results?
• What is the importance of your findings?

Nitrogen is a necessary nutrient for high quality plants. Tomatoes, one of the most consumed fruits worldwide, rely on nitrogen for healthy leaves and stems to grow fruit. This experiment tested whether nitrogen levels affected tomato plant height in a controlled setting. It was expected that higher levels of nitrogen fertilizer would yield taller tomato plants.

Levels of nitrogen fertilizer were varied between three groups of tomato plants. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer, while one experimental group received low levels of nitrogen fertilizer, and a second experimental group received high levels of nitrogen fertilizer. All plants were grown from seeds, and heights were measured 50 days into the experiment.

The effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were tested between groups using an ANOVA. The plants with the highest level of nitrogen fertilizer were the tallest, while the plants with low levels of nitrogen exceeded the control group plants in height. In line with expectations and previous findings, the effects of nitrogen levels on plant height were statistically significant. This study strengthens the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants.

Your lab report introduction should set the scene for your experiment. One way to write your introduction is with a funnel (an inverted triangle) structure:

• Start with the broad, general research topic
• Narrow your topic down your specific study focus
• End with a clear research question

Begin by providing background information on your research topic and explaining why it’s important in a broad real-world or theoretical context. Describe relevant previous research on your topic and note how your study may confirm it or expand it, or fill a gap in the research field.

This lab experiment builds on previous research from Haque, Paul, and Sarker (2011), who demonstrated that tomato plant yield increased at higher levels of nitrogen. However, the present research focuses on plant height as a growth indicator and uses a lab-controlled setting instead.

Next, go into detail on the theoretical basis for your study and describe any directly relevant laws or equations that you’ll be using. State your main research aims and expectations by outlining your hypotheses .

Based on the importance of nitrogen for tomato plants, the primary hypothesis was that the plants with the high levels of nitrogen would grow the tallest. The secondary hypothesis was that plants with low levels of nitrogen would grow taller than plants with no nitrogen.

Your introduction doesn’t need to be long, but you may need to organize it into a few paragraphs or with subheadings such as “Research Context” or “Research Aims.”

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A lab report Method section details the steps you took to gather and analyze data. Give enough detail so that others can follow or evaluate your procedures. Write this section in the past tense. If you need to include any long lists of procedural steps or materials, place them in the Appendices section but refer to them in the text here.

You should describe your experimental design, your subjects, materials, and specific procedures used for data collection and analysis.

Experimental design

Briefly note whether your experiment is a within-subjects  or between-subjects design, and describe how your sample units were assigned to conditions if relevant.

A between-subjects design with three groups of tomato plants was used. The control group did not receive any nitrogen fertilizer. The first experimental group received a low level of nitrogen fertilizer, while the second experimental group received a high level of nitrogen fertilizer.

Describe human subjects in terms of demographic characteristics, and animal or plant subjects in terms of genetic background. Note the total number of subjects as well as the number of subjects per condition or per group. You should also state how you recruited subjects for your study.

List the equipment or materials you used to gather data and state the model names for any specialized equipment.

List of materials

35 Tomato seeds

15 plant pots (15 cm tall)

Light lamps (50,000 lux)

Nitrogen fertilizer

Measuring tape

Describe your experimental settings and conditions in detail. You can provide labelled diagrams or images of the exact set-up necessary for experimental equipment. State how extraneous variables were controlled through restriction or by fixing them at a certain level (e.g., keeping the lab at room temperature).

Light levels were fixed throughout the experiment, and the plants were exposed to 12 hours of light a day. Temperature was restricted to between 23 and 25℃. The pH and carbon levels of the soil were also held constant throughout the experiment as these variables could influence plant height. The plants were grown in rooms free of insects or other pests, and they were spaced out adequately.

Your experimental procedure should describe the exact steps you took to gather data in chronological order. You’ll need to provide enough information so that someone else can replicate your procedure, but you should also be concise. Place detailed information in the appendices where appropriate.

In a lab experiment, you’ll often closely follow a lab manual to gather data. Some instructors will allow you to simply reference the manual and state whether you changed any steps based on practical considerations. Other instructors may want you to rewrite the lab manual procedures as complete sentences in coherent paragraphs, while noting any changes to the steps that you applied in practice.

If you’re performing extensive data analysis, be sure to state your planned analysis methods as well. This includes the types of tests you’ll perform and any programs or software you’ll use for calculations (if relevant).

First, tomato seeds were sown in wooden flats containing soil about 2 cm below the surface. Each seed was kept 3-5 cm apart. The flats were covered to keep the soil moist until germination. The seedlings were removed and transplanted to pots 8 days later, with a maximum of 2 plants to a pot. Each pot was watered once a day to keep the soil moist.

The nitrogen fertilizer treatment was applied to the plant pots 12 days after transplantation. The control group received no treatment, while the first experimental group received a low concentration, and the second experimental group received a high concentration. There were 5 pots in each group, and each plant pot was labelled to indicate the group the plants belonged to.

50 days after the start of the experiment, plant height was measured for all plants. A measuring tape was used to record the length of the plant from ground level to the top of the tallest leaf.

In your results section, you should report the results of any statistical analysis procedures that you undertook. You should clearly state how the results of statistical tests support or refute your initial hypotheses.

The main results to report include:

• any descriptive statistics
• statistical test results
• the significance of the test results
• estimates of standard error or confidence intervals

The mean heights of the plants in the control group, low nitrogen group, and high nitrogen groups were 20.3, 25.1, and 29.6 cm respectively. A one-way ANOVA was applied to calculate the effect of nitrogen fertilizer level on plant height. The results demonstrated statistically significant ( p = .03) height differences between groups.

Next, post-hoc tests were performed to assess the primary and secondary hypotheses. In support of the primary hypothesis, the high nitrogen group plants were significantly taller than the low nitrogen group and the control group plants. Similarly, the results supported the secondary hypothesis: the low nitrogen plants were taller than the control group plants.

These results can be reported in the text or in tables and figures. Use text for highlighting a few key results, but present large sets of numbers in tables, or show relationships between variables with graphs.

You should also include sample calculations in the Results section for complex experiments. For each sample calculation, provide a brief description of what it does and use clear symbols. Present your raw data in the Appendices section and refer to it to highlight any outliers or trends.

The Discussion section will help demonstrate your understanding of the experimental process and your critical thinking skills.

In this section, you can:

• Interpret your results
• Compare your findings with your expectations
• Identify any sources of experimental error
• Explain any unexpected results
• Suggest possible improvements for further studies

Interpreting your results involves clarifying how your results help you answer your main research question. Report whether your results support your hypotheses.

• Did you measure what you sought out to measure?
• Were your analysis procedures appropriate for this type of data?

Compare your findings with other research and explain any key differences in findings.

• Are your results in line with those from previous studies or your classmates’ results? Why or why not?

An effective Discussion section will also highlight the strengths and limitations of a study.

• Did you have high internal validity or reliability?
• How did you establish these aspects of your study?

When describing limitations, use specific examples. For example, if random error contributed substantially to the measurements in your study, state the particular sources of error (e.g., imprecise apparatus) and explain ways to improve them.

The results support the hypothesis that nitrogen levels affect plant height, with increasing levels producing taller plants. These statistically significant results are taken together with previous research to support the importance of nitrogen as a nutrient for tomato plant growth.

However, unlike previous studies, this study focused on plant height as an indicator of plant growth in the present experiment. Importantly, plant height may not always reflect plant health or fruit yield, so measuring other indicators would have strengthened the study findings.

Another limitation of the study is the plant height measurement technique, as the measuring tape was not suitable for plants with extreme curvature. Future studies may focus on measuring plant height in different ways.

The main strengths of this study were the controls for extraneous variables, such as pH and carbon levels of the soil. All other factors that could affect plant height were tightly controlled to isolate the effects of nitrogen levels, resulting in high internal validity for this study.

Your conclusion should be the final section of your lab report. Here, you’ll summarize the findings of your experiment, with a brief overview of the strengths and limitations, and implications of your study for further research.

Some lab reports may omit a Conclusion section because it overlaps with the Discussion section, but you should check with your instructor before doing so.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment . Lab reports are commonly assigned in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

The purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method with a hands-on lab experiment. Course instructors will often provide you with an experimental design and procedure. Your task is to write up how you actually performed the experiment and evaluate the outcome.

In contrast, a research paper requires you to independently develop an original argument. It involves more in-depth research and interpretation of sources and data.

A lab report is usually shorter than a research paper.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but it usually contains the following:

• Abstract: summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA)
• Appendices: contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

The results chapter or section simply and objectively reports what you found, without speculating on why you found these results. The discussion interprets the meaning of the results, puts them in context, and explains why they matter.

In qualitative research , results and discussion are sometimes combined. But in quantitative research , it’s considered important to separate the objective results from your interpretation of them.

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Home » 500+ Physics Research Topics

500+ Physics Research Topics

Table of Contents

Physics is the study of matter, energy, and the fundamental forces that govern the universe. It is a broad and fascinating field that has given us many of the greatest scientific discoveries in history , from the theory of relativity to the discovery of the Higgs boson. As a result, physics research is always at the forefront of scientific advancement, and there are countless exciting topics to explore. In this blog post, we will take a look at some of the most fascinating and cutting-edge physics research topics that are being explored by scientists today. Whether you are a student, researcher, or simply someone with a passion for science, there is sure to be something in this list that will pique your interest.

Physics Research Topics

Physics Research Topics are as follows:

Physics Research Topics for Grade 9

• Investigating the properties of waves: amplitude, frequency, wavelength, and speed.
• The effect of temperature on the expansion and contraction of materials.
• The relationship between mass, velocity, and momentum.
• The behavior of light in different mediums and the concept of refraction.
• The effect of gravity on objects and the concept of weight.
• The principles of electricity and magnetism and their applications.
• The concept of work, energy, and power and their relationship.
• The study of simple machines and their efficiency.
• The behavior of sound waves and the concept of resonance.
• The properties of gases and the concept of pressure.
• The principles of heat transfer and thermal energy.
• The study of motion, including speed, velocity, and acceleration.
• The behavior of fluids and the concept of viscosity.
• The concept of density and its applications.
• The study of electric circuits and their components.
• The principles of nuclear physics and their applications.
• The behavior of electromagnetic waves and the concept of radiation.
• The properties of solids and the concept of elasticity.
• The study of light and the electromagnetic spectrum.
• The concept of force and its relationship to motion.
• The behavior of waves in different mediums and the concept of interference.
• The principles of thermodynamics and their applications.
• The study of optics and the concept of lenses.
• The concept of waves and their characteristics.
• The study of atomic structure and the behavior of subatomic particles.
• The principles of quantum mechanics and their applications.
• The behavior of light and the concept of polarization.
• The study of the properties of matter and the concept of phase transitions.
• The concept of work done by a force and its relationship to energy.
• The study of motion in two dimensions, including projectile motion and circular motion.

Physics Research Topics for Grade 10

• Investigating the motion of objects on inclined planes
• Analyzing the effect of different variables on pendulum oscillations
• Understanding the properties of waves through the study of sound
• Investigating the behavior of light through refraction and reflection experiments
• Examining the laws of thermodynamics and their applications in real-life situations
• Analyzing the relationship between electric fields and electric charges
• Understanding the principles of magnetism and electromagnetism
• Investigating the properties of different materials and their conductivity
• Analyzing the concept of work, power, and energy in relation to mechanical systems
• Investigating the laws of motion and their application in real-life situations
• Understanding the principles of nuclear physics and radioactivity
• Analyzing the properties of gases and the behavior of ideal gases
• Investigating the concept of elasticity and Hooke’s law
• Understanding the properties of liquids and the concept of buoyancy
• Analyzing the behavior of simple harmonic motion and its applications
• Investigating the properties of electromagnetic waves and their applications
• Understanding the principles of wave-particle duality and quantum mechanics
• Analyzing the properties of electric circuits and their applications
• Investigating the concept of capacitance and its application in circuits
• Understanding the properties of waves in different media and their applications
• Analyzing the principles of optics and the behavior of lenses
• Investigating the properties of forces and their application in real-life situations
• Understanding the principles of energy conservation and its applications
• Analyzing the concept of momentum and its conservation in collisions
• Investigating the properties of sound waves and their applications
• Understanding the behavior of electric and magnetic fields in charged particles
• Analyzing the principles of thermodynamics and the behavior of gases
• Investigating the properties of electric generators and motors
• Understanding the principles of electromagnetism and electromagnetic induction
• Analyzing the behavior of waves and their interference patterns.

Physics Research Topics for Grade 11

• Investigating the effect of temperature on the resistance of a wire
• Determining the velocity of sound in different mediums
• Measuring the force required to move a mass on an inclined plane
• Examining the relationship between wavelength and frequency of electromagnetic waves
• Analyzing the reflection and refraction of light through various media
• Investigating the properties of simple harmonic motion
• Examining the efficiency of different types of motors
• Measuring the acceleration due to gravity using a pendulum
• Determining the index of refraction of a material using Snell’s law
• Investigating the behavior of waves in different mediums
• Analyzing the effect of temperature on the volume of a gas
• Examining the relationship between current, voltage, and resistance in a circuit
• Investigating the principles of Coulomb’s law and electric fields
• Analyzing the properties of electromagnetic radiation
• Investigating the properties of magnetic fields
• Examining the behavior of light in different types of lenses
• Measuring the speed of light using different methods
• Investigating the properties of capacitors and inductors in circuits
• Analyzing the principles of simple harmonic motion in springs
• Examining the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration
• Investigating the behavior of waves in different types of materials
• Determining the energy output of different types of batteries
• Analyzing the properties of electric circuits
• Investigating the properties of electric and magnetic fields
• Examining the principles of radioactivity
• Measuring the heat capacity of different materials
• Investigating the properties of thermal conduction
• Examining the behavior of light in different types of mirrors
• Analyzing the principles of electromagnetic induction
• Investigating the properties of waves in different types of strings.

Physics Research Topics for Grade 12

• Investigating the efficiency of solar panels in converting light energy to electrical energy.
• Studying the behavior of waves in different mediums.
• Analyzing the relationship between temperature and pressure in ideal gases.
• Investigating the properties of electromagnetic waves and their applications.
• Analyzing the behavior of light and its interaction with matter.
• Examining the principles of quantum mechanics and their applications.
• Investigating the properties of superconductors and their potential uses.
• Studying the properties of semiconductors and their applications in electronics.
• Analyzing the properties of magnetism and its applications.
• Investigating the properties of nuclear energy and its applications.
• Studying the principles of thermodynamics and their applications.
• Analyzing the properties of fluids and their behavior in different conditions.
• Investigating the principles of optics and their applications.
• Studying the properties of sound waves and their behavior in different mediums.
• Analyzing the properties of electricity and its applications in different devices.
• Investigating the principles of relativity and their applications.
• Studying the properties of black holes and their effect on the universe.
• Analyzing the properties of dark matter and its impact on the universe.
• Investigating the principles of particle physics and their applications.
• Studying the properties of antimatter and its potential uses.
• Analyzing the principles of astrophysics and their applications.
• Investigating the properties of gravity and its impact on the universe.
• Studying the properties of dark energy and its effect on the universe.
• Analyzing the principles of cosmology and their applications.
• Investigating the properties of time and its effect on the universe.
• Studying the properties of space and its relationship with time.
• Analyzing the principles of the Big Bang Theory and its implications.
• Investigating the properties of the Higgs boson and its impact on particle physics.
• Studying the properties of string theory and its implications.
• Analyzing the principles of chaos theory and its applications in physics.

Physics Research Topics for UnderGraduate

• Investigating the effects of temperature on the conductivity of different materials.
• Studying the behavior of light in different mediums.
• Analyzing the properties of superconductors and their potential applications.
• Examining the principles of thermodynamics and their practical applications.
• Investigating the behavior of sound waves in different environments.
• Studying the characteristics of magnetic fields and their applications.
• Analyzing the principles of optics and their role in modern technology.
• Examining the principles of quantum mechanics and their implications.
• Investigating the properties of semiconductors and their use in electronics.
• Studying the properties of gases and their behavior under different conditions.
• Analyzing the principles of nuclear physics and their practical applications.
• Examining the properties of waves and their applications in communication.
• Investigating the principles of relativity and their implications for the nature of space and time.
• Studying the behavior of particles in different environments, including accelerators and colliders.
• Analyzing the principles of chaos theory and their implications for complex systems.
• Examining the principles of fluid mechanics and their applications in engineering and science.
• Investigating the principles of solid-state physics and their applications in materials science.
• Studying the properties of electromagnetic waves and their use in modern technology.
• Analyzing the principles of gravitation and their role in the structure of the universe.
• Examining the principles of quantum field theory and their implications for the nature of particles and fields.
• Investigating the properties of black holes and their role in astrophysics.
• Studying the principles of string theory and their implications for the nature of matter and energy.
• Analyzing the properties of dark matter and its role in cosmology.
• Examining the principles of condensed matter physics and their applications in materials science.
• Investigating the principles of statistical mechanics and their implications for the behavior of large systems.
• Studying the properties of plasma and its applications in fusion energy research.
• Analyzing the principles of general relativity and their implications for the nature of space-time.
• Examining the principles of quantum computing and its potential applications.
• Investigating the principles of high energy physics and their role in understanding the fundamental laws of nature.
• Studying the principles of astrobiology and their implications for the search for life beyond Earth.

Physics Research Topics for Masters

• Investigating the principles and applications of quantum cryptography.
• Analyzing the behavior of Bose-Einstein condensates and their potential applications.
• Studying the principles of photonics and their role in modern technology.
• Examining the properties of topological materials and their potential applications.
• Investigating the principles and applications of graphene and other 2D materials.
• Studying the principles of quantum entanglement and their implications for information processing.
• Analyzing the principles of quantum field theory and their implications for particle physics.
• Examining the properties of quantum dots and their use in nanotechnology.
• Investigating the principles of quantum sensing and their potential applications.
• Studying the behavior of quantum many-body systems and their potential applications.
• Analyzing the principles of cosmology and their implications for the early universe.
• Examining the principles of dark energy and dark matter and their role in cosmology.
• Investigating the properties of gravitational waves and their detection.
• Studying the principles of quantum computing and their potential applications in solving complex problems.
• Analyzing the properties of topological insulators and their potential applications in quantum computing and electronics.
• Examining the principles of quantum simulations and their potential applications in studying complex systems.
• Investigating the principles of quantum error correction and their implications for quantum computing.
• Studying the behavior of quarks and gluons in high energy collisions.
• Analyzing the principles of quantum phase transitions and their implications for condensed matter physics.
• Examining the principles of quantum annealing and their potential applications in optimization problems.
• Investigating the properties of spintronics and their potential applications in electronics.
• Studying the behavior of non-linear systems and their applications in physics and engineering.
• Analyzing the principles of quantum metrology and their potential applications in precision measurement.
• Examining the principles of quantum teleportation and their implications for information processing.
• Investigating the properties of topological superconductors and their potential applications.
• Studying the principles of quantum chaos and their implications for complex systems.
• Analyzing the properties of magnetars and their role in astrophysics.
• Examining the principles of quantum thermodynamics and their implications for the behavior of small systems.
• Investigating the principles of quantum gravity and their implications for the structure of the universe.
• Studying the behavior of strongly correlated systems and their applications in condensed matter physics.

Physics Research Topics for PhD

• Quantum computing: theory and applications.
• Topological phases of matter and their applications in quantum information science.
• Quantum field theory and its applications to high-energy physics.
• Experimental investigations of the Higgs boson and other particles in the Standard Model.
• Theoretical and experimental study of dark matter and dark energy.
• Applications of quantum optics in quantum information science and quantum computing.
• Nanophotonics and nanomaterials for quantum technologies.
• Development of advanced laser sources for fundamental physics and engineering applications.
• Study of exotic states of matter and their properties using high energy physics techniques.
• Quantum information processing and communication using optical fibers and integrated waveguides.
• Advanced computational methods for modeling complex systems in physics.
• Development of novel materials with unique properties for energy applications.
• Magnetic and spintronic materials and their applications in computing and data storage.
• Quantum simulations and quantum annealing for solving complex optimization problems.
• Gravitational waves and their detection using interferometry techniques.
• Study of quantum coherence and entanglement in complex quantum systems.
• Development of novel imaging techniques for medical and biological applications.
• Nanoelectronics and quantum electronics for computing and communication.
• High-temperature superconductivity and its applications in power generation and storage.
• Quantum mechanics and its applications in condensed matter physics.
• Development of new methods for detecting and analyzing subatomic particles.
• Atomic, molecular, and optical physics for precision measurements and quantum technologies.
• Neutrino physics and its role in astrophysics and cosmology.
• Quantum information theory and its applications in cryptography and secure communication.
• Study of topological defects and their role in phase transitions and cosmology.
• Experimental study of strong and weak interactions in nuclear physics.
• Study of the properties of ultra-cold atomic gases and Bose-Einstein condensates.
• Theoretical and experimental study of non-equilibrium quantum systems and their dynamics.
• Development of new methods for ultrafast spectroscopy and imaging.
• Study of the properties of materials under extreme conditions of pressure and temperature.

Random Physics Research Topics

• Quantum entanglement and its applications
• Gravitational waves and their detection
• Dark matter and dark energy
• High-energy particle collisions and their outcomes
• Atomic and molecular physics
• Theoretical and experimental study of superconductivity
• Plasma physics and its applications
• Neutrino oscillations and their detection
• Quantum computing and information
• The physics of black holes and their properties
• Study of subatomic particles like quarks and gluons
• Investigation of the nature of time and space
• Topological phases in condensed matter systems
• Magnetic fields and their applications
• Nanotechnology and its impact on physics research
• Theory and observation of cosmic microwave background radiation
• Investigation of the origin and evolution of the universe
• Study of high-temperature superconductivity
• Quantum field theory and its applications
• Study of the properties of superfluids
• The physics of plasmonics and its applications
• Experimental and theoretical study of semiconductor materials
• Investigation of the quantum Hall effect
• The physics of superstring theory and its applications
• Theoretical study of the nature of dark matter
• Study of quantum chaos and its applications
• Investigation of the Casimir effect
• The physics of spintronics and its applications
• Study of the properties of topological insulators
• Investigation of the nature of the Higgs boson
• The physics of quantum dots and its applications
• Study of quantum many-body systems
• Investigation of the nature of the strong force
• Theoretical and experimental study of photonics
• Study of topological defects in condensed matter systems
• Investigation of the nature of the weak force
• The physics of plasmas in space
• Study of the properties of graphene
• Investigation of the nature of antimatter
• The physics of optical trapping and manipulation
• Study of the properties of Bose-Einstein condensates
• Investigation of the nature of the neutrino
• The physics of quantum thermodynamics
• Study of the properties of quantum dots
• Investigation of the nature of dark energy
• The physics of magnetic confinement fusion
• Study of the properties of topological quantum field theories
• Investigation of the nature of gravitational lensing
• The physics of laser cooling and trapping
• Study of the properties of quantum Hall states.
• The effects of dark energy on the expansion of the universe
• Quantum entanglement and its applications in cryptography
• The study of black holes and their event horizons
• The potential existence of parallel universes
• The relationship between dark matter and the formation of galaxies
• The impact of solar flares on the Earth’s magnetic field
• The effects of cosmic rays on human biology
• The development of quantum computing technology
• The properties of superconductors at high temperatures
• The search for a theory of everything
• The study of gravitational waves and their detection
• The behavior of particles in extreme environments such as neutron stars
• The relationship between relativity and quantum mechanics
• The development of new materials for solar cells
• The study of the early universe and cosmic microwave background radiation
• The physics of the human voice and speech production
• The behavior of matter in extreme conditions such as high pressure and temperature
• The properties of dark matter and its interactions with ordinary matter
• The potential for harnessing nuclear fusion as a clean energy source
• The study of high-energy particle collisions and the discovery of new particles
• The physics of biological systems such as the brain and DNA
• The behavior of fluids in microgravity environments
• The properties of graphene and its potential applications in electronics
• The physics of natural disasters such as earthquakes and tsunamis
• The development of new technologies for space exploration and travel
• The study of atmospheric physics and climate change
• The physics of sound and musical instruments
• The behavior of electrons in quantum dots
• The properties of superfluids and Bose-Einstein condensates
• The physics of animal locomotion and movement
• The development of new imaging techniques for medical applications
• The physics of renewable energy sources such as wind and hydroelectric power
• The properties of quantum materials and their potential for quantum computing
• The physics of sports and athletic performance
• The study of magnetism and magnetic materials
• The physics of earthquakes and the prediction of seismic activity
• The behavior of plasma in fusion reactors
• The properties of exotic states of matter such as quark-gluon plasma
• The development of new technologies for energy storage
• The physics of fluids in porous media
• The properties of quantum dots and their potential for new technologies
• The study of materials under extreme conditions such as extreme temperatures and pressures
• The physics of the human body and medical imaging
• The development of new materials for energy conversion and storage
• The study of cosmic rays and their effects on the atmosphere and human health
• The physics of friction and wear in materials
• The properties of topological materials and their potential for new technologies
• The physics of ocean waves and tides
• The behavior of particles in magnetic fields
• The properties of complex networks and their application in various fields

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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valuable writing tips for your papers

Physics Research Paper Writing: Step-by-Step Approach

In higher learning institutions, teachers use different academic papers to weigh students’ understanding of a given concept. Like other academic papers, a physics research paper also falls under the category of assignments requiring good research and development work to get a solution or an answer to a given topic. However, the research carried out on a physics research paper should match with the academic requirements of the teacher or the institution. Also, when writing such a paper, you need to provide a solution based on the research and prove to the reader that you can recognize problems and offer solutions in the physics field. So, if you have been searching for a perfect guide to help you craft the best physics research paper, read on to understand the best tips.

Top tips on writing the best physics research paper:

1. know how to begin a physics research paper.

You can easily know a perfect physics research paper by just looking at how the writer has begun the paper. A good physics research paper begins with the topic. Ensure you get a topic that is interesting to research and a topic that will make the reader eager to make discoveries through your paper. Avoid boring and frequently repeated topics. After the topic, craft a creative introduction that will hook the reader to your paper up to the end.

2. Ask professionals how to write a physics research paper

A professional can be your teacher or a student at a higher level who has already done a similar assignment. These are the people who will give you practical tips on the effective methods to use when researching and explain to you how you can arrange your ideas to match the ideal format for a physics research paper.

3. Read a physics research paper sample

Online platforms and libraries have plenty of already written physics research papers. Take time and go through different samples, and you analyze the similarities to get a clear idea of writing such papers.

4. Know the ideal physics research paper format

The approved format is a significant element in every academic paper. Don’t assume the structure of other essays is similar to a physics research paper. In any case, understand the instructions before you begin, or consult your tutor for clarity.

5. Get physics research paper ideas from a group discussion

Sometimes, relating with other students in the same field as you discuss physics research ideas can be the best move. Here, you will exchange concepts as you ask questions and get instant answers.

6. Write down physics topics for research paper

Before you start your research paper, don’t settle on any topic that comes into your mind. Instead, highlight as many topics as possible, then filter as you narrow down to your best topic. The goal is to have a unique topic with plenty of resources to explore when researching.

7. Embrace practicing a research paper on physics

Once in a while, set some time for extra practicing writing physics research papers. Get different topics, do the required research, and write a paper as you will submit. The consistent practice aims to help you master writing such papers with accuracy.

Examples of research paper topics in physics

Having explored tips for crafting a perfect physics research paper, you can consider the following physics topics for research purposes:

• Quantum information science & optical physics.
• Duality of wave-particle.
• The Uncertainty Principle of Heisenberg.
• Dark energy and Dark matter.
• Momentum in physics.
• Explain the different types of forces.
• What is your understanding of buoyancy?
• What causes surface tension?
• How does a ship float on water?
• Explain the three forms of thermodynamic processes.

Physics is a technical subject, and it can also be an interesting one when you need to conduct research. The secret is finding a researchable topic that interests you and makes the reader eager to make discoveries through your work.

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• DOI: 10.1088/2515-7647/ad3d19
• Corpus ID: 269045690

Atom-light interactions using optical nanofibres—a perspective

• Wenfang Li , Dylan Brown , +4 authors S. Nic Chormaic
• Published in Journal of Physics: Photonics 10 April 2024
• Physics, Materials Science
• Journal of Physics: Photonics

9 References

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