how to write the ethics section of a dissertation

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A Guide to Logistical/Ethical Considerations in Thesis/Dissertation Writing

4-minute read

• 14th May 2023

Why include a section on logistical/ethical considerations in your thesis/dissertation?

Ethical and logistical considerations are the guidelines that marshal your research practices and activities. With so many necessary steps to planning your dissertation , it may be tempting to dash off your logistical and ethical considerations section. However, don’t make that mistake! Including a thorough section on logistical and ethical considerations in your thesis shows that you have carefully considered your research plan, from the ethical implications of your research findings to the impact of performing the study itself.

And above all else, not providing well-thought-out ethical and logistical considerations in your research plan could derail your entire dissertation and have other grave consequences . But not to worry! Here, we offer a step-by-step guide to writing your logistical and ethical considerations section so that you can tick another essential item off your thesis checklist .

Steps for creating a logistical/ethical considerations section

• Clarify your ethical and logistical principles.

Your ethical and logistical principles will depend on many factors, such as research topic, fieldwork, and the possibility of direct interaction with vulnerable populations.

However, several overarching research principles are always helpful to remember. For example, the Belmont Report lists three often invoked principles: respect for persons, beneficence (i.e., maximize potential benefits to research subjects and minimize potential harm), and justice (i.e., people should be treated fairly). However, many other principles exist (and we offer a few other frequently cited principles below that might apply to your research).

If you haven’t done so already, discuss the ramifications of your dissertation work from an ethical standpoint with your adviser, who may bring up concerns that you’ve overlooked. You should also check with your organization’s Institutional Review Board (IRB) to confirm that there are no policies you need to be aware of.

• Evaluate each step of your research plan, as well as its potential risks and implications, and plan how you will ensure the ethical treatment of all persons involved.

Now that you have clarified your ethical and logistical principles, go through each stage of your research plan and consider the ethical impact of each step. Come up with a systematic plan to make sure that you’re protecting the ethical standards you’ve laid out for each one of the people affected by your research.

• Record your practices thoroughly and carefully during your research.

During the course of your study, keep detailed records of how you made sure the practices that address the ethical and logistical considerations were completed.

For example, if you should be obtaining verbal consent before conducting an interview, maintain a system to record that the consent was received.

Or, if it’s necessary to keep your digital data secure, be sure to make a note of the hardware and software you use. Plenty of online templates can help you keep these details organized.

• Write the ethical and logistical considerations section.

If you’ve kept detailed records, writing up your ethical and logistical considerations should be a straightforward process. It’s more common these days to see a section devoted to research ethics in dissertation structures .

Once again, check with your adviser to make sure you follow the proper protocol when you add your section on ethical and logistical considerations to your dissertation.

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Potential ethical and logistical considerations

This is not a comprehensive list, but here are a few more common ethical and logistical considerations that may apply to your research work:

●  Informed consent : Participants should be able to voluntarily join the study and know what the study is about and what the implications of the work are.

●  Anonymity, confidentiality, and data protection : Participants should have a reasonable expectation that their confidential data will remain private.

●  Nondiscrimination : You should avoid discrimination on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or any other factor.

●  Social responsibility : Research should contribute to the common good.

Following the four steps outlined in this post will help you write an ethical and logistical considerations section in your dissertation:

1. Define your principles

2. Evaluate the risks and implications of each stage of your research

3. Record your practices carefully

4. Write up your considerations in the appropriate format for the dissertation.

Although ethical considerations vary from study to study, our guide should get you through another step in writing your thesis! Remember to include enough time for editing and proofreading your dissertation , and if you’re interested in some help from us, you can try a sample of our services for free . Good luck writing your dissertation!

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Methodology

• Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Published on October 18, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on May 9, 2024.

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from people.

The goals of human research often include understanding real-life phenomena, studying effective treatments, investigating behaviors, and improving lives in other ways. What you decide to research and how you conduct that research involve key ethical considerations.

These considerations work to

• protect the rights of research participants
• enhance research validity
• maintain scientific or academic integrity

Table of contents

Why do research ethics matter, getting ethical approval for your study, types of ethical issues, voluntary participation, informed consent, confidentiality, potential for harm, results communication, examples of ethical failures, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research ethics.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe for research subjects.

You’ll balance pursuing important research objectives with using ethical research methods and procedures. It’s always necessary to prevent permanent or excessive harm to participants, whether inadvertent or not.

Defying research ethics will also lower the credibility of your research because it’s hard for others to trust your data if your methods are morally questionable.

Even if a research idea is valuable to society, it doesn’t justify violating the human rights or dignity of your study participants.

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Before you start any study involving data collection with people, you’ll submit your research proposal to an institutional review board (IRB) .

An IRB is a committee that checks whether your research aims and research design are ethically acceptable and follow your institution’s code of conduct. They check that your research materials and procedures are up to code.

If successful, you’ll receive IRB approval, and you can begin collecting data according to the approved procedures. If you want to make any changes to your procedures or materials, you’ll need to submit a modification application to the IRB for approval.

If unsuccessful, you may be asked to re-submit with modifications or your research proposal may receive a rejection. To get IRB approval, it’s important to explicitly note how you’ll tackle each of the ethical issues that may arise in your study.

There are several ethical issues you should always pay attention to in your research design, and these issues can overlap with each other.

You’ll usually outline ways you’ll deal with each issue in your research proposal if you plan to collect data from participants.

Voluntary participation means that all research subjects are free to choose to participate without any pressure or coercion.

All participants are able to withdraw from, or leave, the study at any point without feeling an obligation to continue. Your participants don’t need to provide a reason for leaving the study.

It’s important to make it clear to participants that there are no negative consequences or repercussions to their refusal to participate. After all, they’re taking the time to help you in the research process , so you should respect their decisions without trying to change their minds.

Voluntary participation is an ethical principle protected by international law and many scientific codes of conduct.

Take special care to ensure there’s no pressure on participants when you’re working with vulnerable groups of people who may find it hard to stop the study even when they want to.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

Informed consent refers to a situation in which all potential participants receive and understand all the information they need to decide whether they want to participate. This includes information about the study’s benefits, risks, funding, and institutional approval.

You make sure to provide all potential participants with all the relevant information about

• what the study is about
• the risks and benefits of taking part
• how long the study will take
• your supervisor’s contact information and the institution’s approval number

Usually, you’ll provide participants with a text for them to read and ask them if they have any questions. If they agree to participate, they can sign or initial the consent form. Note that this may not be sufficient for informed consent when you work with particularly vulnerable groups of people.

If you’re collecting data from people with low literacy, make sure to verbally explain the consent form to them before they agree to participate.

For participants with very limited English proficiency, you should always translate the study materials or work with an interpreter so they have all the information in their first language.

In research with children, you’ll often need informed permission for their participation from their parents or guardians. Although children cannot give informed consent, it’s best to also ask for their assent (agreement) to participate, depending on their age and maturity level.

Anonymity means that you don’t know who the participants are and you can’t link any individual participant to their data.

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information—for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, and videos.

In many cases, it may be impossible to truly anonymize data collection . For example, data collected in person or by phone cannot be considered fully anonymous because some personal identifiers (demographic information or phone numbers) are impossible to hide.

You’ll also need to collect some identifying information if you give your participants the option to withdraw their data at a later stage.

Data pseudonymization is an alternative method where you replace identifying information about participants with pseudonymous, or fake, identifiers. The data can still be linked to participants but it’s harder to do so because you separate personal information from the study data.

Confidentiality means that you know who the participants are, but you remove all identifying information from your report.

All participants have a right to privacy, so you should protect their personal data for as long as you store or use it. Even when you can’t collect data anonymously, you should secure confidentiality whenever you can.

Some research designs aren’t conducive to confidentiality, but it’s important to make all attempts and inform participants of the risks involved.

As a researcher, you have to consider all possible sources of harm to participants. Harm can come in many different forms.

• Psychological harm: Sensitive questions or tasks may trigger negative emotions such as shame or anxiety.
• Social harm: Participation can involve social risks, public embarrassment, or stigma.
• Physical harm: Pain or injury can result from the study procedures.
• Legal harm: Reporting sensitive data could lead to legal risks or a breach of privacy.

It’s best to consider every possible source of harm in your study as well as concrete ways to mitigate them. Involve your supervisor to discuss steps for harm reduction.

Make sure to disclose all possible risks of harm to participants before the study to get informed consent. If there is a risk of harm, prepare to provide participants with resources or counseling or medical services if needed.

Some of these questions may bring up negative emotions, so you inform participants about the sensitive nature of the survey and assure them that their responses will be confidential.

The way you communicate your research results can sometimes involve ethical issues. Good science communication is honest, reliable, and credible. It’s best to make your results as transparent as possible.

Take steps to actively avoid plagiarism and research misconduct wherever possible.

Plagiarism means submitting others’ works as your own. Although it can be unintentional, copying someone else’s work without proper credit amounts to stealing. It’s an ethical problem in research communication because you may benefit by harming other researchers.

Self-plagiarism is when you republish or re-submit parts of your own papers or reports without properly citing your original work.

This is problematic because you may benefit from presenting your ideas as new and original even though they’ve already been published elsewhere in the past. You may also be infringing on your previous publisher’s copyright, violating an ethical code, or wasting time and resources by doing so.

In extreme cases of self-plagiarism, entire datasets or papers are sometimes duplicated. These are major ethical violations because they can skew research findings if taken as original data.

You notice that two published studies have similar characteristics even though they are from different years. Their sample sizes, locations, treatments, and results are highly similar, and the studies share one author in common.

Research misconduct

Research misconduct means making up or falsifying data, manipulating data analyses, or misrepresenting results in research reports. It’s a form of academic fraud.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement about data analyses.

Research misconduct is a serious ethical issue because it can undermine academic integrity and institutional credibility. It leads to a waste of funding and resources that could have been used for alternative research.

Later investigations revealed that they fabricated and manipulated their data to show a nonexistent link between vaccines and autism. Wakefield also neglected to disclose important conflicts of interest, and his medical license was taken away.

This fraudulent work sparked vaccine hesitancy among parents and caregivers. The rate of MMR vaccinations in children fell sharply, and measles outbreaks became more common due to a lack of herd immunity.

Research scandals with ethical failures are littered throughout history, but some took place not that long ago.

Some scientists in positions of power have historically mistreated or even abused research participants to investigate research problems at any cost. These participants were prisoners, under their care, or otherwise trusted them to treat them with dignity.

To demonstrate the importance of research ethics, we’ll briefly review two research studies that violated human rights in modern history.

These experiments were inhumane and resulted in trauma, permanent disabilities, or death in many cases.

After some Nazi doctors were put on trial for their crimes, the Nuremberg Code of research ethics for human experimentation was developed in 1947 to establish a new standard for human experimentation in medical research.

In reality, the actual goal was to study the effects of the disease when left untreated, and the researchers never informed participants about their diagnoses or the research aims.

Although participants experienced severe health problems, including blindness and other complications, the researchers only pretended to provide medical care.

When treatment became possible in 1943, 11 years after the study began, none of the participants were offered it, despite their health conditions and high risk of death.

Ethical failures like these resulted in severe harm to participants, wasted resources, and lower trust in science and scientists. This is why all research institutions have strict ethical guidelines for performing research.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Thematic analysis
• Cohort study
• Peer review
• Ethnography

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Conformity bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Availability heuristic
• Attrition bias
• Social desirability bias

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. These principles include voluntary participation, informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, potential for harm, and results communication.

Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from others .

These considerations protect the rights of research participants, enhance research validity , and maintain scientific integrity.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe.

Anonymity means you don’t know who the participants are, while confidentiality means you know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report. Both are important ethical considerations .

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information—for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, or videos.

You can keep data confidential by using aggregate information in your research report, so that you only refer to groups of participants rather than individuals.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement but a serious ethical failure.

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Library Guides

Dissertations 4: methodology: ethics.

• Introduction & Philosophy
• Methodology

Research Ethics

In the research context, ethics can be defined as "the standards of behaviour that guide your conduct in relation to the rights of those who become the subject of your work, or are affected by it" (Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill 2015, p239).  

The University itself is guided by the fundamental principle that research involving humans and /or animals and/or the environment should involve no more than minimal risk of harm to physical and psychological wellbeing.  

Thus, ethics relates to many aspects of your research, including the conduct towards: 

The participants  of your primary research (experiments, interviews etc). You will need to explain that participation is voluntary, and they have the right to withdraw at any time. You will need the participants' informed consent. You will need to avoid harming the participants, physically as well as mentally. You will need to respect the participants’ privacy and offer the right to anonymity. You will need to manage their personal data confidentially, also according to legislation such as the Data Protection Act 2018. You will need to be truthful and accurate when using the information provided by the participants.  

The authors you have used as secondary sources. You will need to acknowledge their work and avoid plagiarism by doing the proper citing and referencing. 

The readers of your research. You will need to exercise the utmost integrity, honesty, accuracy and objectivity in the writing of your work.   

The researcher . You will need to ensure that the research will be safe for you to undertake. 

Your research may entail some risk, but risk has to be analysed and minimised through risk  assessment. Depending on the type of your research, your research proposal may need to  be approved by an Ethics Committee, which will assess your research proposal in light of the  elements mentioned above. Again, you are advised to use a research methods book for further guidance.  

Research Ethics Online Course

Introduction to Research Ethics: Working with People  

Find out how to conduct ethical research when working with people by studying this online course for university students. Course developed by the University of Leeds. 

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• URL: https://libguides.westminster.ac.uk/methodology-for-dissertations

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Ethical Considerations in Dissertation Writing: Best Practices

Writing a dissertation is a significant milestone in an academic journey. It's a testament to your research skills, critical thinking, and ability to contribute to your field of study. However, amidst the rigorous research and writing process, it's crucial not to overlook the ethical considerations that underpin academic work. Upholding ethical principles in dissertation writing is not just a formality; it's a fundamental aspect of maintaining the integrity and credibility of your research. In this article, we'll explore some best practices for ensuring ethical conduct in your dissertation writing.

Research Ethics and Compliance:

Ethical considerations are the foundation of sound research practices. Ensuring that your dissertation adheres to ethical principles and guidelines is not just a formality; it's a fundamental aspect of maintaining the integrity and credibility of your research.

Understanding Research Ethics:

Research ethics encompass a set of principles and values that guide researchers in conducting their studies ethically and responsibly. These principles are particularly critical when your research involves human subjects, animals, or sensitive data. The following are key aspects of research ethics that every dissertation writer should be aware of:

1. Informed Consent:  When your research involves human participants, obtaining informed consent is paramount. Informed consent means that participants are fully aware of the nature of the study, their involvement, potential risks, and their rights. It is essential to provide participants with clear and understandable information and allow them to voluntarily consent or decline participation.

2. Protecting Privacy:  Respect for participants' privacy is another crucial ethical consideration. Ensure that you take measures to protect the confidentiality of individuals involved in your research. Anonymize data by removing any identifying information or use pseudonyms to safeguard participants' identities.

3. Honesty and Transparency:  Transparency and honesty are fundamental to research ethics. Be honest about your research objectives, methodologies, and sources of data. Report your findings truthfully, even if they do not align with your initial hypotheses. Avoid any form of data manipulation or selective reporting that could compromise the integrity of your research.

4. Data Management:  Implement robust data management practices from the start of your research. Keep comprehensive records of data collection, analysis, and storage. Ensure that your data is securely stored and properly backed up. Ethical data management helps ensure the accuracy and reproducibility of your findings.

5. Ethical Review Boards:  Many institutions require that research involving human subjects undergo ethical review by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) or ethics committee. These boards assess research proposals to ensure that they comply with ethical standards and safeguard the well-being and rights of research participants. If your dissertation involves human subjects, it's essential to seek IRB approval.

6. Animal Research Ethics:  For research involving animals, adherence to ethical guidelines is crucial. Ensure that your research complies with the "Three Rs" principles: Replacement (using alternatives to animals), Reduction (minimizing the number of animals used), and Refinement (enhancing animal welfare and minimizing harm). Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs) oversee ethical considerations in animal research.

7. Conflicts of Interest:  Declare any potential conflicts of interest that could compromise the objectivity of your research. Conflicts of interest might include financial interests, personal relationships, or any factors that could influence your work's integrity. Transparency is vital in maintaining ethical research practices.

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Transparency and honesty.

Transparency and honesty are foundational ethical principles that must guide every aspect of your dissertation research and writing process. These principles ensure that your work is credible, reliable, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge with integrity.

Clear Research Objectives:  Begin by articulating your research objectives with clarity and precision. Your dissertation's introduction should provide a transparent overview of the goals and intentions of your study. Clearly state the questions you seek to answer and the hypotheses you aim to test. By doing so, you set the stage for an honest and focused investigation.

Open Methodology:  Transparency extends to your research methodology. Describe your research methods in detail, outlining how data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted. Readers should be able to understand the steps you've taken to arrive at your conclusions. Be open about any limitations or constraints that might affect the validity of your research.

Honest Reporting of Findings:  Honesty is especially critical when it comes to reporting your research findings. Regardless of whether your results align with your initial hypotheses, it's essential to present them accurately. Avoid the temptation to selectively report data or manipulate results to fit preconceived notions. Dishonest reporting erodes the trustworthiness of your work.

Ethical Consideration of Data:  Ethical treatment of data is an integral aspect of transparency. Ensure that your data collection and analysis processes are free from bias or manipulation. Handle data with care, maintaining its integrity throughout the research process. If you encounter unexpected results or data that challenges your initial assumptions, address these findings honestly.

Citing Sources and Avoiding Plagiarism:  Citing sources properly is a non-negotiable aspect of transparency and honesty. Whenever you use someone else's work, ideas, or words, provide appropriate citations and references. Plagiarism, whether intentional or unintentional, is a breach of academic integrity and can have serious consequences. Use citation styles recommended by your institution or field.

Acknowledging Limitations:  Every research project has limitations, and it's essential to acknowledge them openly. Whether limitations relate to sample size, data availability, or methodological constraints, recognizing these factors demonstrates transparency. Discuss how these limitations may have influenced your results and interpretations.

Reproducibility and Replicability:  In the spirit of transparency, aim to make your research reproducible and replicable. Clearly document your research processes, including data collection instruments and analysis procedures. Share your data and methodology whenever possible, allowing others to verify and build upon your work.

Ethical Dilemmas and Challenges:  In some cases, you may encounter ethical dilemmas during your research. It's vital to address these challenges honestly and seek guidance from ethical review boards or mentors when necessary. Being transparent about how you navigated ethical complexities showcases your commitment to ethical research conduct.

Transparency and honesty are non-negotiable ethical principles in dissertation writing. They underpin the credibility of your research and demonstrate your commitment to responsible scholarship. By consistently upholding these principles, you contribute to the integrity of academic research and ensure that your dissertation is a trustworthy source of knowledge in your field.

Proper Citation and Avoiding Plagiarism

Proper citation and the avoidance of plagiarism are not just matters of academic etiquette; they are ethical imperatives that uphold the integrity of your dissertation. In the world of research and academia, giving credit where it's due is paramount.

Understanding Plagiarism:  Plagiarism involves using someone else's work, ideas, or words without proper attribution. It is considered a severe breach of academic integrity and can have far-reaching consequences, including academic penalties and damage to your reputation. To avoid plagiarism, follow these essential guidelines:

1. Cite Sources Accurately:

Whenever you incorporate information, ideas, or text from a source, whether it's a book, journal article, website, or any other medium, cite it appropriately. Different academic disciplines use specific citation styles (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago), so be sure to follow the style recommended by your institution or field.

2. Quoting and Paraphrasing:  When using direct quotes from a source, enclose the text in quotation marks and provide a citation to the source. For paraphrased content (putting someone else's ideas into your own words), you must still acknowledge the original source with a citation. Paraphrasing does not make the information your own; it's essential to credit the original author.

3. Common Knowledge vs. Specific Information:  Not all information requires citation. Common knowledge, which includes widely accepted facts and information that is widely known and undisputed, does not need to be cited. However, if you are in doubt about whether something qualifies as common knowledge, it's better to provide a citation.

4. Self-Plagiarism:  Beware of self-plagiarism, which occurs when you reuse your previously published work without proper citation. While it's acceptable to build on your previous research, you must clearly indicate that you are referencing your earlier work and provide appropriate citations.

5. Citation Management Tools:  Consider using citation management tools like EndNote, Zotero, or Mendeley to help you organize your sources, create citations, and maintain proper records of your references. These tools can significantly streamline the citation process and reduce the risk of errors.

6. Plagiarism Detection Software:  Many institutions use plagiarism detection software to scan academic papers for potential plagiarism. Before submitting your dissertation, consider running it through such software to identify and rectify any unintentional instances of plagiarism.

7. Ethical Paraphrasing:  When paraphrasing, ensure that you are not merely rearranging words or sentence structure but genuinely reinterpreting the content in your own words. Ethical paraphrasing respects the original author's ideas while presenting them from your perspective.

8. Academic Integrity Workshops:  Some universities offer academic integrity workshops or courses that can help you better understand plagiarism and proper citation practices. Taking advantage of these resources can enhance your awareness and skills in this area.

Proper citation and avoiding plagiarism are not just technical aspects of dissertation writing but critical ethical considerations. By consistently citing sources accurately and respecting the intellectual property of others, you not only uphold academic integrity but also contribute to the trustworthiness of your research and the broader academic community.

Informed Consent and Privacy

When conducting research that involves human participants, whether through surveys, interviews, or experiments, it is essential to prioritize informed consent and safeguard the privacy of individuals. These ethical considerations are not only a moral obligation but also a legal and academic requirement in many cases.

Informed Consent:

Informed consent is the cornerstone of ethical research involving human subjects. It refers to the process of ensuring that participants fully understand the nature of the study, their role in it, potential risks, benefits, and their rights before they agree to participate. Here are key principles to keep in mind:

Clear Communication: Provide clear and comprehensive information about your research. This includes the purpose of the study, what participants will be asked to do, how their data will be used, and any potential risks or discomforts involved.

Voluntary Participation: Participation should be entirely voluntary. Participants should not feel coerced, pressured, or obligated to take part in your research. They should be free to decline or withdraw at any time without consequences.

Informed Decision-Making: Ensure that participants have the capacity to make an informed decision. This means they must have the cognitive ability to understand the information provided. If your study involves vulnerable populations, such as children or individuals with cognitive impairments, additional safeguards may be required.

Documentation: Always obtain written informed consent from participants, unless a waiver has been approved by an ethics review board. This written record should include all relevant information about the study and should be signed and dated by the participant.

Privacy Protection:

Respecting the privacy of research participants is another critical ethical consideration. Protecting their personal information and data is not just an ethical obligation but also a legal requirement in many jurisdictions. Here's how you can uphold privacy:

Anonymity and Confidentiality: When collecting data, take measures to ensure that participants' identities remain anonymous or confidential. Use participant codes or pseudonyms instead of real names, and store sensitive data securely.

Data Security: Implement robust data security practices to safeguard participant data. This includes encrypting electronic data, using secure storage methods, and restricting access to authorized personnel only.

Data Sharing: If you plan to share or publish your research data, do so in a way that protects participants' privacy. Avoid disclosing any information that could potentially identify individuals.

Ethical Review Boards: In many cases, research involving human subjects must undergo ethical review by an Institutional Review Board (IRB) or ethics committee. These bodies assess the ethical aspects of your research, including informed consent and privacy protections.

Data Retention: Develop clear data retention and disposal policies. Determine how long you will retain participant data and when it will be securely deleted or destroyed.

Participant Debriefing: After the study is completed, provide participants with a debriefing that explains the purpose and outcomes of the research. This ensures that participants leave the study with a clear understanding of their contribution.

Data Management and Retention

Effective data management and retention practices are essential for maintaining the integrity and credibility of your research. Properly handling and preserving research data not only ensures the accuracy and reliability of your findings but also aligns with ethical and legal requirements.

Data Management Principles:

Organized Data Collection: Start with organized data collection. Design clear data collection protocols, including data entry forms, surveys, or experimental procedures. Ensure that data are collected consistently and accurately.

Secure Data Storage: Store your research data securely. Whether your data is in digital or physical form, protect it from unauthorized access, loss, or damage. Use encryption for digital files and implement physical security measures for hard copies.

Data Backups: Regularly back up your data to prevent loss due to technical failures or unforeseen events. Maintain multiple copies of your data, both on-site and off-site, to safeguard against data loss.

Version Control: If you make changes to your data during the research process, use version control to track modifications. This ensures transparency and allows you to revert to previous versions if needed.

Metadata Documentation: Document metadata – information about your data – comprehensively. Metadata should include details about data sources, variables, data collection dates, and any data transformations or cleaning processes.

Data Cleaning and Validation: Perform thorough data cleaning and validation to identify and correct errors or inconsistencies in your dataset. Transparently document any data cleaning steps you take.

Data Ownership and Access: Clarify data ownership and access rights from the beginning of your research. If you are working with collaborators or collecting data from external sources, establish agreements regarding data ownership and sharing.

Data Retention Practices:

Retention Policies: Develop clear data retention policies that outline how long you will retain research data after the completion of your project. These policies should consider legal requirements, funding agency guidelines, and the value of the data.

Anonymization and De-identification: If you plan to share your research data with others, consider anonymizing or de-identifying the data to protect participants' privacy. Remove any identifying information that could link data to specific individuals.

Secure Archiving: For long-term data retention, consider using secure data archiving services or repositories that comply with data preservation standards. These repositories can ensure the long-term accessibility and integrity of your data.

Data Destruction: If you no longer require your research data or have exceeded the designated retention period, follow proper data destruction procedures. Shred physical documents, securely delete digital files, and ensure that no residual copies exist.

Documentation of Retention and Destruction: Maintain detailed records of data retention and destruction activities. This documentation serves as evidence that you have followed appropriate data management and retention practices.

Compliance with Regulations: Be aware of any legal or regulatory requirements related to data retention in your field or jurisdiction. Compliance with these regulations is crucial to avoid legal complications.

Ethical Considerations: Uphold ethical considerations when retaining or disposing of data. Ensure that data containing sensitive or personally identifiable information are treated with utmost care and respect for privacy.

Effective data management and retention practices not only protect your research but also facilitate data sharing and transparency within the academic community. By adhering to these principles, you contribute to the responsible conduct of research and enhance the credibility of your work.

In conclusion, ethical considerations are the bedrock of rigorous and credible dissertation writing. By following these best practices, you not only demonstrate your commitment to ethical research but also contribute to the advancement of knowledge with integrity and responsibility. Your dissertation should not only be a testament to your academic prowess but also a reflection of your ethical values as a scholar.

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Scientific ethics and research ethics

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Scientific ethics is defined as commitment to the ideals of science: integrity, openness and critical inquiry. Every member of the scientific community, from the student beginning their Bachelor’s thesis to the world famous academic, follows the same rules and guidelines of ethical scientific practice.

The ethics of science is not new, and it is not based on vague, obscure principles. The demands of scientific ethics are these common values: truth, credibility and integrity. As in human society, so in the ethics of science, it is forbidden to steal, lie or cheat.

Ethical ideals have very little meaning unless they are cherished and promoted. Their implementation must be safeguarded, and any infraction must be investigated. In Finland, the Finnish National Board on Research Integrity (TENK) has drawn up a guide for research ethics called Responsible conduct of research and procedures for handling allegations of misconduct in Finland (2012). This guide was created in collaboration with the scientific community, including feedback and comments from several universities.

Research ethics is not primarily about avoiding ethical infractions. Rather, research ethics promotes commitment to procedures and practices that enable a high level of reliability and quality in research.

The Finnish Advisory Board on Research Integrity has divided morally significant violations of the responsible conduct of research into two groups: disregard for the responsible conduct of research and research misconduct. Both violations decrease the reliability of results and may invalidate the research itself. However, violations may vary as regards their degree of severity. The researcher who disregards or is negligent of the principles of responsible research conduct may not have understood that their shortcomings are not only damaging to the quality of their work but are also morally questionable practices. In contrast, research misconduct is an intentional choice, and not accidental or due to negligence.

Violations of research ethics in all disciplines

• Plagiarism, misappropriation of research ideas, - materials, or results
• Falsification i.e. modifying or distorting research results
• Concealing significant results, especially risks
• Appropriation of the research to one or only some researchers when others have made significant contributions
• Unequal treatment of members of a research group, e.g., in dividing tasks or hiring
• Sexual harassment and racism
• Morally questionable research subjects, such as eugenics.

Literature review

• Plagiarism or improper citation of sources
• Disregard of proper citation practices
• Quotations taken out of context, misrepresentation of the source text
• Falsified sources

Research interviews

• Asking leading questions, manipulation or other forms of mistreatment of the interview subjects
• Misleading the interview subjects about the purpose of the interview
• Distorting the interview responses
• Violating the anonymity or confidentiality of the interview subjects
• Using or publishing the interviews, recordings or images without the express permission of the parties involved

Medical and biological research

• Mistreatment of lab animals
• Painful experiments
• Unnecessary experiments

Technological and scientific research

• Negligent or unprotected tests; experiments carried out without simulations or training, which pose a threat to those conducting the experiment or to outsiders. (Unacceptable risk: dangerous to all)
• Experiments which pose a risk to the researcher’s health and safety (e.g., exposure to toxins or radiation, test flights) (High risk: dangerous for researchers or experiment participants).
• Unnecessary creation of dangerous products, substance compounds or devices
• Releasing inadequately tested products, such as pharmaceutical drugs, to the market
• Potentially dangerous or risky applications of research results (e.g., nuclear power, weapons technology)

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Principles of research ethics

There are a number of ethical principles that should be taken into account when performing undergraduate and master's level dissertation research. At the core, these ethical principles stress the need to (a) do good (known as beneficence ) and (b) do no harm (known as non-malfeasance ). In practice, these ethical principles mean that as a researcher, you need to: (a) obtain informed consent from potential research participants; (b) minimise the risk of harm to participants; (c) protect their anonymity and confidentiality ; (d) avoid using deceptive practices ; and (e) give participants the right to withdraw from your research. This article discusses these five ethical principles and their practical implications when carrying out dissertation research.

When you look at these five basic ethical principles, it may appear obvious that your dissertation should include these. However, there are many instances where it is not possible or desirable to obtain informed consent from research participants. Similarly, there may be instances where you seek permission from participants not to protect their anonymity . More often than not, such choices should reflect the research strategy that you adopt to guide your dissertation.

Broadly speaking, your dissertation research should not only aim to do good (i.e., beneficence ), but also avoid doing any harm (i.e., non-malfeasance ). Whilst ethical requirements in research can vary across countries, these are the basic principles of research ethics. This is important not only for ethical reasons , but also practical ones, since a failure to meet such basic principles may lead to your research being (a) criticised, potentially leading to a lower mark, and/or (b) rejected by your supervisor or Ethics Committee , costing you valuable time. In the sections that follow, we discuss the five of the main practical ethical principles that stem from these basic principles. Each of these basic principles of research ethics is discussed in turn:

• PRINCIPLE ONE: Minimising the risk of harm
• PRINCIPLE TWO: Obtaining informed consent
• PRINCIPLE THREE: Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
• PRINCIPLE FOUR: Avoiding deceptive practices
• PRINCIPLE FIVE: Providing the right to withdraw

PRINCIPLE ONE Minimising the risk of harm

Dissertation research should not harm participants. Where there is the possibility that participants could be harmed or put in a position of discomfort, there must be strong justifications for this. Such scenarios will also require (a) additional planning to illustrate how participant harm (or discomfort) will be reduced, (b) informed consent, and (c) detailed debriefing.

There are a number of types of harm that participants can be subjected to. These include:

Physical harm to participants.

Psychological distress and discomfort.

Social disadvantage.

Harm to participants? financial status.

An invasion of participants? privacy and anonymity.

Typically, it is not harm that we need to think about since a researcher does not intentionally go out to cause harm. Rather, it is the risk of harm that you should try to minimise. In order to minimising the risk of harm you should think about:

Obtaining informed consent from participants.

Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of participants.

Avoiding deceptive practices when designing your research.

Providing participants with the right to withdraw from your research at any time.

We discuss each of these ethical principles in the sections that follow, explaining (a) what they mean and (b) instances where they should (and should not) be followed.

PRINCIPLE TWO Obtaining informed consent

One of the foundations of research ethics is the idea of informed consent . Simply put, informed consent means that participants should understand that (a) they are taking part in research and (b) what the research requires of them. Such information may include the purpose of the research, the methods being used, the possible outcomes of the research, as well as associated demands, discomforts, inconveniences and risks that the participants may face. Whilst is it not possible to know exactly what information a potential participant would (or would not) want to know, you should aim not to leave out any material information ; that is, information that you feel would influence whether consent would (or would not) be granted.

Another component of informed consent is the principle that participants should be volunteers , taking part without having been coerced and deceived . Where informed consent cannot be obtained from participants, you must explain why this is the case. You should also be aware that there are instances informed consent is not necessarily needed or needs to be relaxed. These include certain educational , organisational and naturalistic research settings. We discuss these in more detail under the section: Avoiding deceptive practices .

PRINCIPLE THREE Protecting anonymity and confidentiality

Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of research participants is another practical component of research ethics. After all, participants will typically only be willing to volunteer information, especially information of a private or sensitive nature, if the researcher agrees to hold such information in confidence. Whilst it is possible that research participants may be hurt in some way if the data collection methods used are somehow insensitive , there is perhaps a greater danger that harm can be caused once data has been collected. This occurs when data is not treated confidentially, whether in terms of the storage of data, its analysis, or during the publication process (i.e., when submitting your dissertation to be marked). However, this does not mean that all data collected from research participants needs to be kept confidential or anonymous. It may be possible to disclose the identity and views of individuals at various stages of the research process (from data collection through to publication of your dissertation). Nonetheless, permissions should be sought before such confidential information is disclosed.

An alternative is to remove identifiers (e.g., vernacular terms, names, geographical cues, etc.) or provide proxies when writing up. However, such a stripping of identifiable information may not always be possible to anticipate at the outset of your dissertation when thinking about issues of research ethics. This is not only a consideration for dissertations following a qualitative research design , but also a quantitative research design [for more information, see the article: Research strategy and research ethics ].

For example: Imagine that your dissertation used a quantitative research design and a survey as your main research method . In the process of analysing your data, it is possible that when examining relationships between variables (i.e., questions in your survey), a person's identity and responses could be inferred. For instance, imagine that you were comparing responses amongst employees within an organisation based on specific age groups. There may only be a small group (or just one employee) within a particular age group (e.g., over 70 years old), which could enable others to identify the responses of this individual (or small group of employees).

Therefore, you need to consider ways of overcoming such problems, such as: (a) aggregating data in tables and (b) setting rules that ensure a minimum number of units are present before data/information can be presented.

A further alternative is to seek permission for access to data and analysis to be restricted to the published material, perhaps only allowing it to be viewed by those individuals marking your work. If the work is later published, adjustments would then need to be made to protect the confidentiality of participants.

There are also a wide range of potential legal protections that may affect what research you can and cannot perform, how you must treated the data of research participants, and so forth. In other words, you don?t simply have a duty to protect the data you collect from participants; you may also have (in some cases) a legal responsibility to do so. Since this varies from country-to-country, you should ask your dissertation supervisor or Ethics Committee for advice (or a legal professional).

PRINCIPLE FOUR Avoiding deceptive practices

At first sight, deceptive practices fly in the face of informed consent . After all, how can participants know (a) that they are taking part in research and (b) what the research requires of them if they are being deceived ? This is part of what makes the use of deceptive practices controversial. For this reason, in most circumstances, dissertation research should avoid any kinds of deceptive practices. However, this is not always the case.

Deception is sometimes a necessary component of covert research , which can be justified in some cases. Covert research reflects research where (a) the identity of the observer and/or (b) the purpose of the research is not known to participants. Cases where you may choose to engage in covert research may include instances where:

It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are doing.

Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the particular phenomenon that is being studied.

Let's take each of these in turn:

It is not feasible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are doing

By feasibility , we are not talking about the cost of doing research. Instead, we mean that it is not practically possible to let everyone in a particular research setting know what you are doing. This is most likely to be the case where research involves observation , rather than direct contact with participants, especially in a public or online setting . There are a number of obvious instances where this may be the case:

Observing what users are doing in an Internet chat room.

Observing individuals going about their business (e.g., shopping, going to work, etc.).

Clearly, in these cases, where individuals are coming and going, it may simply be impossible to let everyone known what you are doing. You may not be intentionally trying to engage in deceptive practices , but clearly participants are not giving you their informed consent .

Overt observation or knowledge of the purpose of the research may alter the particular phenomenon that is being studied

Where observations or a participants? knowledge of the true purpose of the research have the potential to alter the particular phenomenon that you are interested in, this is a major concern in terms of the quality of your findings .

Therefore, when you think about whether to engage in covert research and possibly deceptive practices , you should think about the extent to which this could be beneficial in your dissertation, not research in general; that is, everything from the research paradigm that guides your dissertation through to the data analysis techniques you choose affect issues of research ethics in your dissertation [see the article: Research strategy and research ethics ].

Imagine some of the following scenarios where covert research may be considered justifiable:

You are conducting a piece of research looking at prejudice . Whilst participants are given a questionnaire to complete that measures their prejudice, it is not obvious from the questions that this is the case. Furthermore, participants are not told that the research is about prejudice because it is felt that this could alter their responses. After all, few people would be happy if other people thought they were prejudice. As a result, if participants knew that this is the purpose of the study, they may well provide responses that they think will make them appear less prejudice.

You are interested in understanding the organisational culture in a single firm. You feel that observation would be an appropriate research method in such a naturalistic setting . However, you feel that if employees knew that you were monitoring them, they may behave in a different way. Therefore, you may have received permission to go undercover or provide a story to explain why you are there, which is not the truth.

Whilst such covert research and deceptive practices, especially where used intentionally , can be viewed as controversial, it can be argued that they have a place in research.

PRINCIPLE FIVE Providing the right to withdraw

With the exception of those instances of covert observation where is not feasible to let everyone that is being observed know what you are doing, research participants should always have the right to withdraw from the research process. Furthermore, participants should have the right to withdraw at any stage in the research process. When a participant chooses to withdraw from the research process, they should not be pressured or coerced in any way to try and stop them from withdrawing.

If your supervisor and/or Ethics Committee expect you to complete an Ethics Consent Form , it is likely that you will have to let participants know that they have the right to withdraw at any time [see the article: Ethics consent form ].

Now that you have read these basic principles of research ethics , you may want to understand how the research strategy you have chosen affects your approach to research ethic s [see the article: Research strategy and research ethics ]. You will need to understand the impact of your research strategy on your approach to research ethics when writing up the Research Ethics section of your Research Strategy chapter (usually Chapter Three: Research Strategy ).

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Dissertation Ethics in a Nutshell

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Social science studies (including your dissertation), are about individuals, communities and societies. Even though you’re not carrying out a case study, questionnaire or interview when doing your research for your dissertation, you’re bound to be looking at an issue that involves people – and before starting off you need to sort out any ethical matters connected with your research.

You have to make sure that the interests and rights of anyone affected by your work are safeguarded and you must ensure that you keep to the following:

Obeying the legislation on human rights and data protection

Maintaining good quality research (data collection, storage analysis, dissemination of information)

Gaining the informed consent of your subjects

Thinking through the consequences of your work

Most undergraduate dissertations are fairly straightforward because the sample group you’re researching is usually fairly small and the context is known to the supervisor and the student. This scenario (of knowing your subjects and there being minimal risk and concern) is recommended because it makes the whole process manageable and more feasible in the timescale that you’re given for your dissertation.

If your research causes you to fall into any of the following categories, you need to ask your supervisor for advice on what you should do:

Your study involves vulnerable participants and/or those unable to give informed consent (such as children or people with learning difficulties or disabilities).

Some of your subjects may be feeling under pressure to take part (friends, colleagues, family members).

Your research means discussing issues that may upset people or cause stress, such as health matters, personal experiences or something the person knows to be illegal such as drug use.

Your study involves communicating with a ‘gatekeeper’ in order for you to have access to the subjects (for example, you need to obtain the agreement of the teacher and the parents to access the children in her class).

Your participants may be taking part without their knowledge (for example, carrying out observation of children in a playground).

You may be at risk when carrying out observations or interviews.

Dissertation ethics: Check your compliance with university regulations

Universities have specific regulations about getting ethical clearance for any part of a study that may breach ethical guidelines. You’re going to have to comply with particular permissions if you’re carrying out observations or interviews.

Your university may ask you to complete a form to get ethical clearance for your research. This is the norm for higher level studies and research projects but less common for undergraduate dissertations. If you do need to fill in a form addressing ethical concerns, the questions you’re likely to be asked are:

Aim of study.

Background (naming some of the literature and other studies in a similar area).

Research methodologies and methods.

Potential problems for subjects (such as discussing sensitive issues).

Potential problems for the researcher (such as travel following interviews carried out in the evening).

Methods of recruiting subjects (including declaration of inducements – that is, whether or not you paid them).

Evidence of having informed consent.

Data protection (including the security of your data storage and anonymity of subjects).

Look through the list and have an answer in mind for each question in case ethical concerns and obligations come up during supervision.

Dissertation ethics: Know what’s appropriate

A group of first year undergraduate students were interested in looking at teenagers’ views about how sexual content is used to boost sales of magazines. The students put together an interview schedule for a focus group but didn’t run the questions by a tutor first. Using university headed notepaper so that the questions looked official the students presented the group of 13- and 14-year-olds with the questions.

The first question asked: ‘Have you had sex?’ and the questions moved onto others including ‘Do you think that all your friends are sexually active?’ and ‘How does it feel to be the only one in your group of friends who’s still a virgin?’ Clearly these questions wouldn’t have been approved by the tutor, but the students were genuinely surprised when the university staff expressed their shock.

Dissertation ethics: Gain informed consent

You must have the consent of people taking part in your research. In most cases you’re required to have written consent and your course tutor or department may well have a standard form for you to use. Consent forms are designed to comply with Government requirements, which exist to protect vulnerable people from any poor research practices. One example of this is the Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) check that you’re going to need if your research involves children.

Your responsibility to your subjects doesn’t end once you’ve collected the data. It’s up to you to be frank and honest when interpreting your subjects’ words and actions. You’re not allowed to twist words or alter what people have said or done.

Dissertation ethics: Respect other people’s ideas and views

When you’re doing interviews and carrying out questionnaires it’s important to keep your thoughts to yourself. Hiding your feelings can be hard, but if you disagree violently with someone you can end up stopping the person from expressing his views for fear of ‘getting something wrong’.

Don’t be a robot though – you can express mild surprise if someone says something really strange (you may find some subjects are after a reaction so you sometimes need to oblige), but try not to let other people’s views faze you. After all, you’re asking for the person’s opinion, so you need to let him express his opinion without feeling stupid.

Strike the right balance between modesty and arrogance. Don’t be so self-deprecating that people think that your research is a waste of time: ‘Oh, it’s just a little project, it’s not that interesting, it’s not a big deal’. Also avoid sounding self-important as this is equally off-putting: ‘Yes, I’m dealing with some really vital issues here – I want to expose the problems and find a solution to these continual low standards.’

Dissertation ethics: Keep your subjects’ anonymity

When you’re writing about the people in your research project you need to disguise the person’s real identity, making sure that the person can’t be identified and traced. Some of your subjects may say that you don’t need to hide their identity, but although that can seem like a good idea at the time, you don't yet know where you research is going to take you and you may later regret choosing that option.

A parent, (not just the institution where the child is living, studying, or staying), must agree on behalf of a child.

Speak to your dissertation tutor about the legal aspects of your work. Generally a ‘child’ is 16 years old or under, but if someone is 17 and still studying in school, for example, you need to follow different guidelines than if you were asking your college peers who are over 18, or a 17-year-old with a full-time job.

The onus is on you to check the legality of what want to pursue. Consult your tutor if in doubt.

Changing the names of your research subjects when you’re writing about them is a good idea, but you need to do this with care and make it clear that you’ve changed the person’s names to preserve their privacy by simply saying: ‘In this dissertation, the names of subjects have been changed to preserve their anonymity’.

Give some thought to what the alternative names are going to be. Changing ‘Kelly’ to ‘Kerry’ or ‘Ian’ to ‘Iain’ isn’t going to do a good job of hiding anything much, and also be sure that you don’t change genders by mistake.

Although it can be a good idea to find a name that reflects the cultural background of your research subjects, if this is relevant to the study – take care here that you don’t slip into stereotype.

Researchers often refer to their subjects as ‘Child X’ or ‘Mrs Y’ and this does the job perfectly well. Some readers are not keen on dissertations that use this method because it seems very impersonal and makes for a jerky read.

Plus, if the examiner is marking a large number of dissertations that use the same convention, like other examiners, she may tend to forget which ‘Child A’ is which because there’s no personality linked to a person labelled by an initial letter of the alphabet (except for ‘Mr T’ of course).

Your rule of thumb is to use recognisable names that aren’t too outlandish and that are distinct from one another (don’t call your three subjects ‘Emily’, ‘Emma’ and ‘Emmie’ for example). Remember to be consistent throughout your dissertation.

Keep the real and ‘code’ names of your subjects in your dissertation notebook so that you don’t get confused.

Also remember to hide the names of schools, hospitals, specific departments or organisations you’ve been allowed to review where there are any potentially sensitive issues. Don't try to anonymise organisations such as governments or government departments, even if you’re being critical.

In your appendices and additional material you have to make sure that you anonymise any letter headings, delete logos from policy documents and change names or delete them from personal reports. It’s a fairly common error in dissertations to find that students give away their subjects’ identities in the additional material – probably because students leave dealing with the appendices and additional material until the last moment.

When you’ve finished writing up your dissertation, do a Word ‘Find’ search through the text, looking for the real names of your subjects in case you’ve slipped up somewhere.

Dissertation ethics: Acknowledge the people who help you

Your acknowledgements are more about courtesy than being a fixed requirement in your dissertation, but it’s good manners to acknowledge people who’ve helped you by being subjects in your research, or by making it easy for you find your subjects.

For example, if you’ve interviewed budget holders about how they forecast their annual spend and your gatekeeper contact at the department was a research officer or someone in human resources, be sure to thank your contact as well as the subjects you interviewed.

You can make your acknowledgements without revealing the person’s identity. Use the person’s job title and if they evenutally see a copy of your dissertation they’re going to know who they are and recognise and appreciate your gratitude. All you need to say is: ‘With sincere thanks to all those people who helped me by giving up their valuable time and sharing their considered views’.

About This Article

This article is from the book:.

• Writing a Dissertation For Dummies ,

About the book author:

Dr Carrie Winstanley is a Principal Lecturer in Education at Roehampton University, London, where she works with both undergraduate and postgraduate students. Carrie was recently named one of the Top 50 university teachers in the UK by the Higher Education Academy, for which she was awarded a national teaching fellowship.

This article can be found in the category:

• Essential Networking when Writing a Dissertation
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• Optimising Your Dissertation Writing
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What is it?

An ethics form is a document that prompts you to provide information about your research to ensure you are meeting set standards. Readers usually expect to see ethics in a research proposal, or mentioned in your writing, even if there doesn't appear to be any problematic ethical issues to be addressed. 

Why do I need to do it?

When someone embarks on a piece of research there is a chance of doing harm, even if harm isn't intended. Setting ethical guidelines ensures there are set standards for conducting research to ensure the research will not harm people physically or emotionally. 

How do I do it?

You can find more information about completing your ethics form from the research ethics page of the university website ( click here ).

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Addressing ethical issues in your research proposal

This article explores the ethical issues that may arise in your proposed study during your doctoral research degree.

What ethical principles apply when planning and conducting research?

Research ethics are the moral principles that govern how researchers conduct their studies (Wellcome Trust, 2014). As there are elements of uncertainty and risk involved in any study, every researcher has to consider how they can uphold these ethical principles and conduct the research in a way that protects the interests and welfare of participants and other stakeholders (such as organisations).  

You will need to consider the ethical issues that might arise in your proposed study. Consideration of the fundamental ethical principles that underpin all research will help you to identify the key issues and how these could be addressed. As you are probably a practitioner who wants to undertake research within your workplace, consider how your role as an ‘insider’ influences how you will conduct your study. Think about the ethical issues that might arise when you become an insider researcher (for example, relating to trust, confidentiality and anonymity).  

What key ethical principles do you think will be important when planning or conducting your research, particularly as an insider? Principles that come to mind might include autonomy, respect, dignity, privacy, informed consent and confidentiality. You may also have identified principles such as competence, integrity, wellbeing, justice and non-discrimination.  

Key ethical issues that you will address as an insider researcher include:

• Gaining trust
• Avoiding coercion when recruiting colleagues or other participants (such as students or service users)
• Practical challenges relating to ensuring the confidentiality and anonymity of organisations and staff or other participants.

(Heslop et al, 2018)

A fuller discussion of ethical principles is available from the British Psychological Society’s Code of Human Research Ethics (BPS, 2021).

You can also refer to guidance from the British Educational Research Association and the British Association for Applied Linguistics .

Ethical principles are essential for protecting the interests of research participants, including maximising the benefits and minimising any risks associated with taking part in a study. These principles describe ethical conduct which reflects the integrity of the researcher, promotes the wellbeing of participants and ensures high-quality research is conducted (Health Research Authority, 2022).  

Research ethics is therefore not simply about gaining ethical approval for your study to be conducted. Research ethics relates to your moral conduct as a doctoral researcher and will apply throughout your study from design to dissemination (British Psychological Society, 2021). When you apply to undertake a doctorate, you will need to clearly indicate in your proposal that you understand these ethical principles and are committed to upholding them.  

Where can I find ethical guidance and resources? 

Professional bodies, learned societies, health and social care authorities, academic publications, Research Ethics Committees and research organisations provide a range of ethical guidance and resources. International codes such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights underpin ethical frameworks (United Nations, 1948).  

You may be aware of key legislation in your own country or the country where you plan to undertake the research, including laws relating to consent, data protection and decision-making capacity, for example, the Data Protection Act, 2018 (UK).  If you want to find out more about becoming an ethical researcher, check out this Open University short course: Becoming an ethical researcher: Introduction and guidance: What is a badged course? - OpenLearn - Open University  

You should be able to justify the research decisions you make. Utilising these resources will guide your ethical judgements when writing your proposal and ultimately when designing and conducting your research study. The Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research (British Educational Research Association, 2018) identifies the key responsibilities you will have when you conduct your research, including the range of stakeholders that you will have responsibilities to, as follows:   

• to your participants (e.g. to appropriately inform them, facilitate their participation and support them)
• clients, stakeholders and sponsors
• the community of educational or health and social care researchers
• for publication and dissemination
• your wellbeing and development

The National Institute for Health and Care Research (no date) has emphasised the need to promote equality, diversity and inclusion when undertaking research, particularly to address long-standing social and health inequalities. Research should be informed by the diversity of people’s experiences and insights, so that it will lead to the development of practice that addresses genuine need. A commitment to equality, diversity and inclusion aims to eradicate prejudice and discrimination on the basis of an individual or group of individuals' protected characteristics such as sex (gender), disability, race, sexual orientation, in line with the Equality Act 2010.  

The NIHR has produced guidance for enhancing the inclusion of ‘under-served groups’ when designing a research study (2020). Although the guidance refers to clinical research it is relevant to research more broadly.  

You should consider how you will promote equality and diversity in your planned study, including through aspects such as your research topic or question, the methodology you will use, the participants you plan to recruit and how you will analyse and interpret your data.    

What ethical issues do I need to consider when writing my research proposal?

You might be planning to undertake research in a health, social care, educational or other setting, including observations and interviews. The following prompts should help you to identify key ethical issues that you need to bear in mind when undertaking research in such settings.  

1.     Imagine you are a potential participant. Think about the questions and concerns that you might have:

• How would you feel if a researcher sat in your space and took notes, completed a checklist, or made an audio or film recording?
• What harm might a researcher cause by observing or interviewing you and others?
• What would you want to know about the researcher and ask them about the study before giving consent?
• When imagining you are the participant, how could the researcher make you feel more comfortable to be observed or interviewed? 

2.     Having considered the perspective of your potential participant, how would you take account of concerns such as privacy, consent, wellbeing and power in your research proposal?  

[Adapted from OpenLearn course: Becoming an ethical researcher, Week 2 Activity 3: Becoming an ethical researcher - OpenLearn - Open University ]  

The ethical issues to be considered will vary depending on your organisational context/role, the types of participants you plan to recruit (for example, children, adults with mental health problems), the research methods you will use, and the types of data you will collect. You will need to decide how to recruit your participants so you do not inappropriately exclude anyone.  Consider what methods may be necessary to facilitate their voice and how you can obtain their consent to taking part or ensure that consent is obtained from someone else as necessary, for example, a parent in the case of a child. 

You should also think about how to avoid imposing an unnecessary burden or costs on your participants. For example, by minimising the length of time they will have to commit to the study and by providing travel or other expenses. Identify the measures that you will take to store your participants’ data safely and maintain their confidentiality and anonymity when you report your findings. You could do this by storing interview and video recordings in a secure server and anonymising their names and those of their organisations using pseudonyms.  

Professional codes such as the Code of Human Research Ethics (BPS, 2021) provide guidance on undertaking research with children. Being an ‘insider’ researching within your own organisation has advantages. However, you should also consider how this might impact on your research, such as power dynamics, consent, potential bias and any conflict of interest between your professional and researcher roles (Sapiro and Matthews, 2020).  

How have other researchers addressed any ethical challenges?

The literature provides researchers’ accounts explaining how they addressed ethical challenges when undertaking studies. For example, Turcotte-Tremblay and McSween-Cadieux (2018) discuss strategies for protecting participants’ confidentiality when disseminating findings locally, such as undertaking fieldwork in multiple sites and providing findings in a generalised form. In addition, professional guidance includes case studies illustrating how ethical issues can be addressed, including when researching online forums (British Sociological Association, no date).

Watch the videos below and consider what insights the postgraduate researcher and supervisor provide  regarding issues such as being an ‘insider researcher’, power relations, avoiding intrusion, maintaining participant anonymity and complying with research ethics and professional standards. How might their experiences inform the design and conduct of your own study?

Postgraduate researcher and supervisor talk about ethical considerations

Your thoughtful consideration of the ethical issues that might arise and how you would address these should enable you to propose an ethically informed study and conduct it in a responsible, fair and sensitive manner. 

British Educational Research Association (2018)  Ethical Guidelines for Educational Research.  Available at:  https://www.bera.ac.uk/publication/ethical-guidelines-for-educational-research-2018  (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

British Psychological Society (2021)  Code of Human Research Ethics . Available at:  https://cms.bps.org.uk/sites/default/files/2022-06/BPS%20Code%20of%20Human%20Research%20Ethics%20%281%29.pdf  (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

British Sociological Association (2016)  Researching online forums . Available at:  https://www.britsoc.co.uk/media/24834/j000208_researching_online_forums_-cs1-_v3.pdf  (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

Health Research Authority (2022)  UK Policy Framework for Health and Social Care Research . Available at:  https://www.hra.nhs.uk/planning-and-improving-research/policies-standards-legislation/uk-policy-framework-health-social-care-research/uk-policy-framework-health-and-social-care-research/#chiefinvestigators  (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

Heslop, C., Burns, S., Lobo, R. (2018) ‘Managing qualitative research as insider-research in small rural communities’,  Rural and Remote Health , 18: pp. 4576.

Equality Act 2010, c. 15.  Available at:   https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/introduction   (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

National Institute for Health and Care Research (no date)  Equality, Diversity and Inclusion (EDI) . Available at:  https://arc-kss.nihr.ac.uk/public-and-community-involvement/pcie-guide/how-to-do-pcie/equality-diversity-and-inclusion-edi  (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

National Institute for Health and Care Research (2020)  Improving inclusion of under-served groups in clinical research: Guidance from INCLUDE project.  Available at:   https://www.nihr.ac.uk/documents/improving-inclusion-of-under-served-groups-in-clinical-research-guidance-from-include-project/25435  (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

Sapiro, B. and Matthews, E. (2020) ‘Both Insider and Outsider. On Conducting Social Work Research in Mental Health Settings’,  Advances in Social Work , 20(3). Available at:  https://doi.org/10.18060/23926

Turcotte-Tremblay, A. and McSween-Cadieux, E. (2018) ‘A reflection on the challenge of protecting confidentiality of participants when disseminating research results locally’,  BMC Medical Ethics,  19(supplement 1), no. 45. Available at:   https://bmcmedethics.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12910-018-0279-0

United Nations General Assembly (1948)  The Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Resolution A/RES/217/A. Available at:  https://www.un.org/en/about-us/universal-declaration-of-human-rights#:~:text=Drafted%20by%20representatives%20with%20different,all%20peoples%20and%20all%20nations . (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

Wellcome Trust (2014)  Ensuring your research is ethical: A guide for Extended Project Qualification students . Available at:  https://wellcome.org/sites/default/files/wtp057673_0.pdf  (Accessed: 9 June 2023).

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Ethical Considerations

Ethical Considerations can be specified as one of the most important parts of the research. Dissertations may even be doomed to failure if this part is missing.

According to Bryman and Bell (2007) [1] the following ten points represent the most important principles related to ethical considerations in dissertations:

• Research participants should not be subjected to harm in any ways whatsoever.
• Respect for the dignity of research participants should be prioritised.
• Full consent should be obtained from the participants prior to the study.
• The protection of the privacy of research participants has to be ensured.
• Adequate level of confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.
• Anonymity of individuals and organisations participating in the research has to be ensured.
• Any deception or exaggeration about the aims and objectives of the research must be avoided.
• Affiliations in any forms, sources of funding, as well as any possible conflicts of interests have to be declared.
• Any type of communication in relation to the research should be done with honesty and transparency.
• Any type of misleading information, as well as representation of primary data findings in a biased way must be avoided.

In order to address ethical considerations aspect of your dissertation in an effective manner, you will need to expand discussions of each of the following points to at least one paragraph:

1. Voluntary participation of respondents in the research is important. Moreover, participants have rights to withdraw from the study at any stage if they wish to do so.

2. Respondents should participate on the basis of informed consent. The principle of informed consent involves researchers providing sufficient information and assurances about taking part to allow individuals to understand the implications of participation and to reach a fully informed, considered and freely given decision about whether or not to do so, without the exercise of any pressure or coercion. [2]

3. The use of offensive, discriminatory, or other unacceptable language needs to be avoided in the formulation of Questionnaire/Interview/Focus group questions.

4. Privacy and anonymity or respondents is of a paramount importance.

5. Acknowledgement of works of other authors used in any part of the dissertation with the use of Harvard/APA/Vancouver referencing system according to the Dissertation Handbook

6. Maintenance of the highest level of objectivity in discussions and analyses throughout the research

7. Adherence to Data Protection Act (1998) if you are studying in the UK

In studies that do not involve primary data collection, on the other hand, ethical issues are going to be limited to the points d) and e) above.

Most universities have their own Code of Ethical Practice. It is critically important for you to thoroughly adhere to this code in every aspect of your research and declare your adherence in ethical considerations part of your dissertation.

My e-book,  The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: a step by step assistance  offers practical assistance to complete a dissertation with minimum or no stress. The e-book covers all stages of writing a dissertation starting from the selection to the research area to submitting the completed version of the work within the deadline. John Dudovskiy

[1] Bryman, A. &  Bell, E. (2007) “Business Research Methods”, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press.

[2] Saunders, M., Lewis, P. & Thornhill, A. (2012) “Research Methods for Business Students” 6th edition, Pearson Education Limited.

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• Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Ethical Considerations in Research | Types & Examples

Published on 7 May 2022 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on 6 July 2024.

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from people.

The goals of human research often include understanding real-life phenomena, studying effective treatments, investigating behaviours, and improving lives in other ways. What you decide to research and how you conduct that research involve key ethical considerations.

These considerations work to:

• Protect the rights of research participants
• Enhance research validity
• Maintain scientific integrity

Table of contents

Why do research ethics matter, getting ethical approval for your study, types of ethical issues, voluntary participation, informed consent, confidentiality, potential for harm, results communication, examples of ethical failures, frequently asked questions about research ethics.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe for research subjects.

You’ll balance pursuing important research aims with using ethical research methods and procedures. It’s always necessary to prevent permanent or excessive harm to participants, whether inadvertent or not.

Defying research ethics will also lower the credibility of your research because it’s hard for others to trust your data if your methods are morally questionable.

Even if a research idea is valuable to society, it doesn’t justify violating the human rights or dignity of your study participants.

Prevent plagiarism, run a free check.

Before you start any study involving data collection with people, you’ll submit your research proposal to an institutional review board (IRB) .

An IRB is a committee that checks whether your research aims and research design are ethically acceptable and follow your institution’s code of conduct. They check that your research materials and procedures are up to code.

If successful, you’ll receive IRB approval, and you can begin collecting data according to the approved procedures. If you want to make any changes to your procedures or materials, you’ll need to submit a modification application to the IRB for approval.

If unsuccessful, you may be asked to re-submit with modifications or your research proposal may receive a rejection. To get IRB approval, it’s important to explicitly note how you’ll tackle each of the ethical issues that may arise in your study.

There are several ethical issues you should always pay attention to in your research design, and these issues can overlap with each other.

You’ll usually outline ways you’ll deal with each issue in your research proposal if you plan to collect data from participants.

Voluntary participation means that all research subjects are free to choose to participate without any pressure or coercion.

All participants are able to withdraw from, or leave, the study at any point without feeling an obligation to continue. Your participants don’t need to provide a reason for leaving the study.

It’s important to make it clear to participants that there are no negative consequences or repercussions to their refusal to participate. After all, they’re taking the time to help you in the research process, so you should respect their decisions without trying to change their minds.

Voluntary participation is an ethical principle protected by international law and many scientific codes of conduct.

Take special care to ensure there’s no pressure on participants when you’re working with vulnerable groups of people who may find it hard to stop the study even when they want to.

Informed consent refers to a situation in which all potential participants receive and understand all the information they need to decide whether they want to participate. This includes information about the study’s benefits, risks, funding, and institutional approval.

• What the study is about
• The risks and benefits of taking part
• How long the study will take
• Your supervisor’s contact information and the institution’s approval number

Usually, you’ll provide participants with a text for them to read and ask them if they have any questions. If they agree to participate, they can sign or initial the consent form. Note that this may not be sufficient for informed consent when you work with particularly vulnerable groups of people.

If you’re collecting data from people with low literacy, make sure to verbally explain the consent form to them before they agree to participate.

For participants with very limited English proficiency, you should always translate the study materials or work with an interpreter so they have all the information in their first language.

In research with children, you’ll often need informed permission for their participation from their parents or guardians. Although children cannot give informed consent, it’s best to also ask for their assent (agreement) to participate, depending on their age and maturity level.

Anonymity means that you don’t know who the participants are and you can’t link any individual participant to their data.

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information – for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, and videos.

In many cases, it may be impossible to truly anonymise data collection. For example, data collected in person or by phone cannot be considered fully anonymous because some personal identifiers (demographic information or phone numbers) are impossible to hide.

You’ll also need to collect some identifying information if you give your participants the option to withdraw their data at a later stage.

Data pseudonymisation is an alternative method where you replace identifying information about participants with pseudonymous, or fake, identifiers. The data can still be linked to participants, but it’s harder to do so because you separate personal information from the study data.

Confidentiality means that you know who the participants are, but you remove all identifying information from your report.

All participants have a right to privacy, so you should protect their personal data for as long as you store or use it. Even when you can’t collect data anonymously, you should secure confidentiality whenever you can.

Some research designs aren’t conducive to confidentiality, but it’s important to make all attempts and inform participants of the risks involved.

As a researcher, you have to consider all possible sources of harm to participants. Harm can come in many different forms.

• Psychological harm: Sensitive questions or tasks may trigger negative emotions such as shame or anxiety.
• Social harm: Participation can involve social risks, public embarrassment, or stigma.
• Physical harm: Pain or injury can result from the study procedures.
• Legal harm: Reporting sensitive data could lead to legal risks or a breach of privacy.

It’s best to consider every possible source of harm in your study, as well as concrete ways to mitigate them. Involve your supervisor to discuss steps for harm reduction.

Make sure to disclose all possible risks of harm to participants before the study to get informed consent. If there is a risk of harm, prepare to provide participants with resources, counselling, or medical services if needed.

Some of these questions may bring up negative emotions, so you inform participants about the sensitive nature of the survey and assure them that their responses will be confidential.

The way you communicate your research results can sometimes involve ethical issues. Good science communication is honest, reliable, and credible. It’s best to make your results as transparent as possible.

Take steps to actively avoid plagiarism and research misconduct wherever possible.

Plagiarism means submitting others’ works as your own. Although it can be unintentional, copying someone else’s work without proper credit amounts to stealing. It’s an ethical problem in research communication because you may benefit by harming other researchers.

Self-plagiarism is when you republish or re-submit parts of your own papers or reports without properly citing your original work.

This is problematic because you may benefit from presenting your ideas as new and original even though they’ve already been published elsewhere in the past. You may also be infringing on your previous publisher’s copyright, violating an ethical code, or wasting time and resources by doing so.

In extreme cases of self-plagiarism, entire datasets or papers are sometimes duplicated. These are major ethical violations because they can skew research findings if taken as original data.

You notice that two published studies have similar characteristics even though they are from different years. Their sample sizes, locations, treatments, and results are highly similar, and the studies share one author in common.

Research misconduct

Research misconduct means making up or falsifying data, manipulating data analyses, or misrepresenting results in research reports. It’s a form of academic fraud.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement about data analyses.

Research misconduct is a serious ethical issue because it can undermine scientific integrity and institutional credibility. It leads to a waste of funding and resources that could have been used for alternative research.

Later investigations revealed that they fabricated and manipulated their data to show a nonexistent link between vaccines and autism. Wakefield also neglected to disclose important conflicts of interest, and his medical license was taken away.

This fraudulent work sparked vaccine hesitancy among parents and caregivers. The rate of MMR vaccinations in children fell sharply, and measles outbreaks became more common due to a lack of herd immunity.

Research scandals with ethical failures are littered throughout history, but some took place not that long ago.

Some scientists in positions of power have historically mistreated or even abused research participants to investigate research problems at any cost. These participants were prisoners, under their care, or otherwise trusted them to treat them with dignity.

To demonstrate the importance of research ethics, we’ll briefly review two research studies that violated human rights in modern history.

These experiments were inhumane and resulted in trauma, permanent disabilities, or death in many cases.

After some Nazi doctors were put on trial for their crimes, the Nuremberg Code of research ethics for human experimentation was developed in 1947 to establish a new standard for human experimentation in medical research.

In reality, the actual goal was to study the effects of the disease when left untreated, and the researchers never informed participants about their diagnoses or the research aims.

Although participants experienced severe health problems, including blindness and other complications, the researchers only pretended to provide medical care.

When treatment became possible in 1943, 11 years after the study began, none of the participants were offered it, despite their health conditions and high risk of death.

Ethical failures like these resulted in severe harm to participants, wasted resources, and lower trust in science and scientists. This is why all research institutions have strict ethical guidelines for performing research.

Ethical considerations in research are a set of principles that guide your research designs and practices. These principles include voluntary participation, informed consent, anonymity, confidentiality, potential for harm, and results communication.

Scientists and researchers must always adhere to a certain code of conduct when collecting data from others .

These considerations protect the rights of research participants, enhance research validity , and maintain scientific integrity.

Research ethics matter for scientific integrity, human rights and dignity, and collaboration between science and society. These principles make sure that participation in studies is voluntary, informed, and safe.

Anonymity means you don’t know who the participants are, while confidentiality means you know who they are but remove identifying information from your research report. Both are important ethical considerations .

You can only guarantee anonymity by not collecting any personally identifying information – for example, names, phone numbers, email addresses, IP addresses, physical characteristics, photos, or videos.

You can keep data confidential by using aggregate information in your research report, so that you only refer to groups of participants rather than individuals.

These actions are committed intentionally and can have serious consequences; research misconduct is not a simple mistake or a point of disagreement but a serious ethical failure.

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Ethical considerations in research: Best practices and examples

To conduct responsible research, you’ve got to think about ethics. They protect participants’ rights and their well-being - and they ensure your findings are valid and reliable. This isn’t just a box for you to tick. It’s a crucial consideration that can make all the difference to the outcome of your research.

In this article, we'll explore the meaning and importance of research ethics in today's research landscape. You'll learn best practices to conduct ethical and impactful research.

Examples of ethical considerations in research

As a researcher, you're responsible for ethical research alongside your organization. Fulfilling ethical guidelines is critical. Organizations must ensure employees follow best practices to protect participants' rights and well-being.

Keep these things in mind when it comes to ethical considerations in research:

Voluntary participation

Voluntary participation is key. Nobody should feel like they're being forced to participate or pressured into doing anything they don't want to. That means giving people a choice and the ability to opt out at any time, even if they've already agreed to take part in the study.

Informed consent

Informed consent isn't just an ethical consideration. It's a legal requirement as well. Participants must fully understand what they're agreeing to, including potential risks and benefits.

The best way to go about this is by using a consent form. Make sure you include:

• A brief description of the study and research methods.
• The potential benefits and risks of participating.
• The length of the study.
• Contact information for the researcher and/or sponsor.
• Reiteration of the participant’s right to withdraw from the research project at any time without penalty.

Anonymity means that participants aren't identifiable in any way. This includes:

• Email address
• Photographs
• Video footage

You need a way to anonymize research data so that it can't be traced back to individual participants. This may involve creating a new digital ID for participants that can’t be linked back to their original identity using numerical codes.

Confidentiality

Information gathered during a study must be kept confidential. Confidentiality helps to protect the privacy of research participants. It also ensures that their information isn't disclosed to unauthorized individuals.

Some ways to ensure confidentiality include:

• Using a secure server to store data.
• Removing identifying information from databases that contain sensitive data.
• Using a third-party company to process and manage research participant data.
• Not keeping participant records for longer than necessary.
• Avoiding discussion of research findings in public forums.

Potential for harm

​​The potential for harm is a crucial factor in deciding whether a research study should proceed. It can manifest in various forms, such as:

• Psychological harm
• Social harm
• Physical harm

Conduct an ethical review to identify possible harms. Be prepared to explain how you’ll minimize these harms and what support is available in case they do happen.

Fair payment

One of the most crucial aspects of setting up a research study is deciding on fair compensation for your participants. Underpayment is a common ethical issue that shouldn't be overlooked. Properly rewarding participants' time is critical for boosting engagement and obtaining high-quality data. While Prolific requires a minimum payment of £6.00 / $8.00 per hour, there are other factors you need to consider when deciding on a fair payment.

First, check your institution's reimbursement guidelines to see if they already have a minimum or maximum hourly rate. You can also use the national minimum wage as a reference point.

Next, think about the amount of work you're asking participants to do. The level of effort required for a task, such as producing a video recording versus a short survey, should correspond with the reward offered.

You also need to consider the population you're targeting. To attract research subjects with specific characteristics or high-paying jobs, you may need to offer more as an incentive.

We recommend a minimum payment of £9.00 / $12.00 per hour, but we understand that payment rates can vary depending on a range of factors. Whatever payment you choose should reflect the amount of effort participants are required to put in and be fair to everyone involved.

Ethical research made easy with Prolific

At Prolific, we believe in making ethical research easy and accessible. The findings from the Fairwork Cloudwork report speak for themselves. Prolific was given the top score out of all competitors for minimum standards of fair work.

With over 25,000 researchers in our community, we're leading the way in revolutionizing the research industry. If you're interested in learning more about how we can support your research journey, sign up to get started now.

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The Research Whisperer

Just like the thesis whisperer – but with more money, how to write a successful ethics application.

She has a particular interest in tuberculosis, viral hepatitis, adolescent health, and the health of people in criminal justice settings.

Kat advises colleagues from diverse backgrounds on research ethics, study design, and data analysis.

She tweets from @epi_punk .

The word “ethics” strikes fear into the hearts of most early career researchers.

Some of the reasons are beyond our control, but there’s actually a lot we can do to make our own experiences of the ethics approval process less painful.

I’m writing this from two perspectives: as an early career researcher (I finished my PhD in 2019), and as a committee member (I’ve sat on an ethics advisory group since the start of my PhD in 2014).

The job of ethics committees is to identify the possible risks in a project, and then assess whether the research team:

• are aware of the risks.
• are taking appropriate steps to minimise them.
• have a plan to handle anything that does go wrong.

To do this, ethics committees need information. If you want your ethics application to get through the process as quickly as possible, you need to give the committee enough detail so that they understand your project and how you are managing any risks.

Getting your application as right as possible the first time makes the whole process go more quickly. If you don’t provide enough information, the committee will come back with questions. You may need to resubmit your application to the next meeting, which could be a month or two away.

Spending more time on your application for the first meeting can save you months later on!

Here are the main questions ethics committees will ask themselves when they assess your project:

• Are there any risks to the researchers? (e.g. Injuries in the lab, safety risks  travelling to study sites, exposure to distressing topics during interviews or data analysis.)
• Are there any risks to the study participants? (From the study procedures themselves; risks to their privacy; risks of distress if they are asked about or exposed to upsetting content)
• Are there any risks to third parties? (i.e. people who aren’t directly participating)
• Could anybody’s privacy be invaded by the data collection process?
• Are there other staff in a lab who might be hurt if there were an accident?
• Are the research team aware of these risks, are they taking steps to minimise them, and do they have a plan if things go wrong?

The only way for the ethics committee to assess this is from the information you put into your application. Carefully think through your project and ask yourself those questions. And then put all of the answers into your application.

Here’s an example:

I am planning a project at the moment that involves interviewing health care providers about vulnerable people that they work with.

What are the risks to me? There aren’t any physical safety risks – I’ll be sitting in my office on the phone.

What about psychological risks? Could I be distressed by the content of the interviews? It’s possible. Some of the people I’ll interview are working with clients who have experienced child abuse, and some of their stories about their work might be upsetting.

What am I doing about these risks? I’m conducting interviews on the phone, rather than travelling to other people’s workplaces or homes. I won’t ask specifically about any distressing topics (minimising the risk), although they might come up anyway. If I get upset about the content of the interviews, I will probably be okay: I’ve worked in this area for many years, and I have strategies for dealing with it when my work upsets me (taking a break, talking to a colleague on the same project later on to help me process my feelings about it).

All of this goes into my application! I don’t write “I will conduct interviews with providers” and then say there are no risks, or that I have managed the risks. I give the committee all the details about each of the foreseeable risks I’ve identified, and exactly what I’m doing about them.

What about the risks to my participants? They could also find the content of the interviews upsetting. Again, my interview tool doesn’t ask directly about any distressing topics (minimising the risk), but it may come up. What’s my plan if my participants get upset? I’ll offer to change the topic, take a break, or stop the interview entirely. I mention this risk in the consent form, and the form will tell participants that they will have these options if they feel distressed. I will repeat this to them verbally at the start of the interview, and remind them that they don’t need to discuss anything with me that they don’t want to. Again, all these details go into my application.

What about risks to other people? Some health care providers might tell me private or sensitive information about their clients, by giving me specific examples instead of talking in general terms. To avoid this, I will ask them at the start of the interview not to talk about specific individuals, but to rather keep their answers general. If a participant does start to talk about an individual, I’ll remind them that this isn’t appropriate. I’ll also erase that part of the recording later on, so that those information isn’t transcribed. Again, all these details go into my application so that the ethics committee can see that I’m aware of the risk and I have a plan to manage it if it occurs.

As a committee member, I see applications get into trouble for a few common reasons.

The first is a lack of information , giving a very brief description of what will be done, without enough detail for the committee to understand the risks and what is being done about them.

The second is inconsistency , when a researcher says one thing on their application form, and something else in their consent form. Check carefully for consistency across all your documents before you submit.

A third is when a researcher proposes to do something that directly goes against the national ethical standards for research (e.g. collecting data without consent when they could get consent, or storing sensitive data in an insecure manner). Do not do this.

Some general tips:

• Find out the deadlines for your committee now, and start your application well in advance. It’s very hard to do a good job at the last minute, especially if you need details from your supervisor or other people in the project.
• Ask a colleague for a previous successful application for a similar project. Take note of the risks they identified, and how they managed them. Look at their consent forms and other documents, and see what you can adapt and reuse.
• Use grant applications for the project as a source of information on background, aims, methods, and outcomes. The format and level of detail required by the ethics committee is often similar.
• Read your country’s ethical guidance for research projects: this is what the ethics committee is working off. Think about which issues apply to your project, and how you can meet each of the standards. Spell this out for the committee.
• Find out whether your institution has specific requirements regarding wording in consent forms, storage of data, handling chemicals in the lab, etc. In your application, tell the committee that you are aware of these requirements and say how your project will meet them. Make sure that your consent forms and other documents are consistent with your institution’s standards. If your institution offers templates, use them!
• Ethics committees also assess the technical soundness of the research because poor quality research wastes time and resources, and exposes people to risks that aren’t justified by adequate benefits. Most committees include statistician and methods experts specifically for this reason (I’m one of them). Give a detailed explanation of your methods, and make sure they are appropriate to your research question. Get advice from a methods expert or a statistician to check that your project is sound – it’s much better to identify problems at the planning stage, rather than after you’ve gotten approval and collected your data.
• If you are doing an application for the first time, get help from your supervisor or thesis advisor. They shouldn’t make you do the application on your own. The more help you can get before you submit, the more quickly your project will get approved.

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Also I suggest doing the ethics training offered by your institution, or professional body. Recently I attended ANU’s Human Ethics training session. While I occasionally teach ethics, and have been a Chief Investigator on a project, I still found it useful. https://services.anu.edu.au/training/aries-human-ethics-training-sessions

Another useful resource is The Research Ethics Application Database (TREAD), an online database of successful research ethics applications from around the world, some of which include supporting documents such as consent forms and information sheets. (TREAD is also glad to have new submissions so if you have made a successful application, please consider sharing your paperwork – fully anonymised of course.) Info here https://tread.tghn.org/

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Research Design Review

A discussion of qualitative & quantitative research design, writing ethics into your qualitative proposal.

Every research proposal for studying human beings must carefully consider the ethical ramifications of engaging individuals for research purposes, and this is particularly true in the relatively intimate, in-depth nature of qualitative research. It is incumbent on qualitative researchers to honestly assure research participants their confidentiality and right to privacy, safety from harm, and right to terminate their voluntary participation at any time with no untoward repercussions from doing so. The proposal should describe the procedures that will be taken to implement these assurances, including gaining informed consent, gaining approval from the relevant Institutional Review Board, and anonymizing participants’ names, places mentioned, and other potentially identifying information.

Special consideration should be given in the proposal to ethical matters when the proposed research (a) pertains to vulnerable populations such as children or the elderly; (b) concerns a marginalized segment of the population such as people with disabilities, same-sex couples, or the economically disadvantaged; (c) involves covert observation that will be conducted in association with an ethnographic study; or (d) is a narrative study in which the researcher may withhold the full true intent of the research in order not to stifle or bias participants’ telling of their stories.

Furthermore, the researcher should pay particular attention to ethical considerations when writing a proposal for a focus group study. The focus group method (regardless of mode) brings together (typically) a number of strangers who are often asked to offer their candid thoughts on personal and sensitive topics. For this reason (and other reasons, e.g., the moderator may be sharing confidential information with the participants), it is important to gain a signed consent form from all participants; however, the reality is that there is no way the researcher can totally guarantee confidentiality. These and other associated ethical considerations should be discussed in the Design section of the focus group proposal.

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Great article! Ethical considerations become even more significant as we incorporate more and more technology.

• Pingback: Writing Ethics Into Your Qualitative Proposal | Managementpublic

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PhD Assistance

Ethical consideration on writing quality dissertation.

Every single PhD student across the globe should write a good PhD Research Dissertation on a particular research topic for the completion of his/her degree. So, it is essential for the PhD students to select a good research topic of student’s interest to develop a Quality PhD Research Dissertation . To ensure feasibility and safety of the selected research topic, there is a set of ethical guidelines and university regulations to be precisely considered by the students to get ethical clearance from the university before starting his/her research work.

Ethical consideration is one of the important steps in drafting a good PhD dissertation. The ethical guidelines and university regulations may vary from place to place. Yet, there is a set of basic principles in research ethics which has to be followed strictly by the students. If the student is found breaching the ethical protocol and university guidelines, the students may face serious consequences or termination of the research work. This article illustrates the basic principles in research ethics and ethical considerations on writing a quality dissertation. I hope this article will help you to understand the importance and benefits of ethical consideration.

There are many custom dissertation writing services exclusively available on the internet for Doctoral Dissertation Help & Editing Services . These PhD Writing Services – Experts in Thesis Help can guide the student in PhD dissertation writing. Especially, independent research scholars can seek expert PhD writing service for PhD dissertation assistance and PhD thesis writing help. The PhD student should wisely choose the best custom dissertation writing service provider only after knowing about the dissertation writing services of the company and the comparative advantages of the company from the other PhD dissertation writing services available on the internet. Moreover, I would strongly suggest the PhD students seek PhD dissertation writing help from quality dissertation writing services on the internet to produce a quality dissertation.

Basic principles for research ethical consideration 

These are some of the fundamental principles for research ethical consideration which should be followed rigorously by the students.

• Minimise the risk of harm
• Acquire informed consent
• Protect anonymity and confidentiality
• Respect other’s idea and acknowledge them
• Avoid deceptive or exaggeration practices
• Provide the right to withdraw
• Minimise the risk of harm:

This is the most important Ethical Consideration in any Research Work where it explains that the student should not only focus on getting good results but also avoid doing any harm. In other words, the participants should not be harmed in ways during the research phase. Sometimes the university may ask the student to fill out the ethical clearance form if the supervisor feels high potential risk in the Research Work . In this ethical clearance form, the student is asked to disclose the aim, objective, necessity, previous works on the similar area and the potential risk to the researcher, participant & the surrounding. Moreover, there are possibilities for different types of harms such as physical harm, mental stress, financial breakdown etc. during the research phase.

• Acquire informed consent:

The participant taking part in your research work should be informed about the research process, methodology and most importantly about the role of the participant in the research work. The participant has the freedom and the rights to decide whether he/she wants to participate or not. Before signing the agreement, the participant should be thoroughly explained about the research process and the potential risks in it.

The research scholar should acquire an official full consent statement from the participant prior to the research work. Moreover, the participant should not be deceived or forced to take part in the research work. This ethical consideration is mainly established to protect the vulnerable people from any poor research practice.  

• Protect anonymity and confidentiality:

The identity and the research data about the participant should be protected throughout the research process. If the PhD scholar is interested in disclosing the identity of the participant in the PhD research dissertation, Prior permission and full consent is required from the participant.

It is advisable to use code or identifiers like Mr. X, Mark-1 etc. to protect the true identity and personal information of the participant. Furthermore, it is the duty of the researcher to ensure that he/she protects the anonymity and confidentiality of the participant at all the stages of the research process.

• Respect other’s idea and acknowledge them:

This ethical consideration clearly reflects the character and temperament of the research student. During the research process, PhD students should be open to feedback, ideas, opinions and comments from others. Moreover, the scholar should also learn to appreciate and respect other’s ideas and opinions. It is paramount important to give appropriate credits to the respective person in the team for their contribution. If the student fails to acknowledge other scholar’s work which is used in their dissertation then it is considered as an act of intellectual theft or plagiarism. So, it is advisable to go for a plagiarism correction once the drafting phase is done.

• Avoid deceptive practices and exaggeration:

The PhD scholar should try to avoid any sort of deception practices while drafting the PhD dissertation. It is also advisable to present the research data without manipulation or exaggeration.

The PhD research dissertation is an Academic Manuscript which will be archived for future references. In that case, the practice of deception or exaggeration in the PhD research dissertation can change the course of the research. So, the students should try to avoid or minimise this practice. Importantly, the student should ensure that the aim and objective of the research work is simple, clear and straight without any sort of deception or exaggeration.

• Provide the right to withdraw:

The PhD scholar should ensure that the research participant is aware of the right to withdraw from the research work at any part of the research phase. If the research participant is willing to withdraw from the research work, he/she has the legal rights to do it. Pressuring or compelling the research participant to stay in the research work despite the participant’s interest should be strictly avoided. These are the top 6 basic principles in ethical consideration which should be meticulously followed by the PhD scholar to develop a quality dissertation.

Conclusion:

As quoted by the American judge Potter Stewart, “Ethics is knowing the difference between what you have a right to do and what is right to do.” This quote clearly explains the importance of ethics in ensuring morality in our society. Similarly, even in the research domain, ethical consideration and other ethical protocols establish a standard guideline to be followed by the researcher to ensure safety. So, this article conclusively illustrates the basic principles and the importance of research ethics and ethical considerations on writing a quality dissertation.

References:

• Dudovskiy, J. (2016). The Ultimate Guide to Writing a Dissertation in Business Studies: A Step-by-Step Assistance .
• Bryman, A. &  Bell, E. “Business Research Methods”, 2nd edition. Oxford University Press. 2007.
• Siti Roshaidai Mohd Arifin, “Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Study.” International Journal of Care Scholars. 2018, pg.no: 30-33.
• Carrie winstanley, “writing a dissertation for dummies.” John Wiley & Sons; UK edition. June 2009.
• Elliott, D. & Stern, J.E.,“Research ethics : a reader” Hanover, NH : University Press of New England, 1997.

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Home » Dissertation Methodology – Structure, Example and Writing Guide

Dissertation Methodology – Structure, Example and Writing Guide

• Table of Contents

Dissertation Methodology

In any research, the methodology chapter is one of the key components of your dissertation. It provides a detailed description of the methods you used to conduct your research and helps readers understand how you obtained your data and how you plan to analyze it. This section is crucial for replicating the study and validating its results.

Here are the basic elements that are typically included in a dissertation methodology:

• Introduction : This section should explain the importance and goals of your research .
• Research Design : Outline your research approach and why it’s appropriate for your study. You might be conducting an experimental research, a qualitative research, a quantitative research, or a mixed-methods research.
• Data Collection : This section should detail the methods you used to collect your data. Did you use surveys, interviews, observations, etc.? Why did you choose these methods? You should also include who your participants were, how you recruited them, and any ethical considerations.
• Data Analysis : Explain how you intend to analyze the data you collected. This could include statistical analysis, thematic analysis, content analysis, etc., depending on the nature of your study.
• Reliability and Validity : Discuss how you’ve ensured the reliability and validity of your study. For instance, you could discuss measures taken to reduce bias, how you ensured that your measures accurately capture what they were intended to, or how you will handle any limitations in your study.
• Ethical Considerations : This is where you state how you have considered ethical issues related to your research, how you have protected the participants’ rights, and how you have complied with the relevant ethical guidelines.
• Limitations : Acknowledge any limitations of your methodology, including any biases and constraints that might have affected your study.
• Summary : Recap the key points of your methodology chapter, highlighting the overall approach and rationalization of your research.

Types of Dissertation Methodology

The type of methodology you choose for your dissertation will depend on the nature of your research question and the field you’re working in. Here are some of the most common types of methodologies used in dissertations:

Experimental Research

This involves creating an experiment that will test your hypothesis. You’ll need to design an experiment, manipulate variables, collect data, and analyze that data to draw conclusions. This is commonly used in fields like psychology, biology, and physics.

Survey Research

This type of research involves gathering data from a large number of participants using tools like questionnaires or surveys. It can be used to collect a large amount of data and is often used in fields like sociology, marketing, and public health.

Qualitative Research

This type of research is used to explore complex phenomena that can’t be easily quantified. Methods include interviews, focus groups, and observations. This methodology is common in fields like anthropology, sociology, and education.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative research uses numerical data to answer research questions. This can include statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques. It’s common in fields like economics, psychology, and health sciences.

Case Study Research

This type of research involves in-depth investigation of a particular case, such as an individual, group, or event. This methodology is often used in psychology, social sciences, and business.

Mixed Methods Research

This combines qualitative and quantitative research methods in a single study. It’s used to answer more complex research questions and is becoming more popular in fields like social sciences, health sciences, and education.

Action Research

This type of research involves taking action and then reflecting upon the results. This cycle of action-reflection-action continues throughout the study. It’s often used in fields like education and organizational development.

Longitudinal Research

This type of research involves studying the same group of individuals over an extended period of time. This could involve surveys, observations, or experiments. It’s common in fields like psychology, sociology, and medicine.

Ethnographic Research

This type of research involves the in-depth study of people and cultures. Researchers immerse themselves in the culture they’re studying to collect data. This is often used in fields like anthropology and social sciences.

Structure of Dissertation Methodology

The structure of a dissertation methodology can vary depending on your field of study, the nature of your research, and the guidelines of your institution. However, a standard structure typically includes the following elements:

• Introduction : Briefly introduce your overall approach to the research. Explain what you plan to explore and why it’s important.
• Research Design/Approach : Describe your overall research design. This can be qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Explain the rationale behind your chosen design and why it is suitable for your research questions or hypotheses.
• Data Collection Methods : Detail the methods you used to collect your data. You should include what type of data you collected, how you collected it, and why you chose this method. If relevant, you can also include information about your sample population, such as how many people participated, how they were chosen, and any relevant demographic information.
• Data Analysis Methods : Explain how you plan to analyze your collected data. This will depend on the nature of your data. For example, if you collected quantitative data, you might discuss statistical analysis techniques. If you collected qualitative data, you might discuss coding strategies, thematic analysis, or narrative analysis.
• Reliability and Validity : Discuss how you’ve ensured the reliability and validity of your research. This might include steps you took to reduce bias or increase the accuracy of your measurements.
• Ethical Considerations : If relevant, discuss any ethical issues associated with your research. This might include how you obtained informed consent from participants, how you ensured participants’ privacy and confidentiality, or any potential conflicts of interest.
• Limitations : Acknowledge any limitations in your research methodology. This could include potential sources of bias, difficulties with data collection, or limitations in your analysis methods.
• Summary/Conclusion : Briefly summarize the key points of your methodology, emphasizing how it helps answer your research questions or hypotheses.

How to Write Dissertation Methodology

Writing a dissertation methodology requires you to be clear and precise about the way you’ve carried out your research. It’s an opportunity to convince your readers of the appropriateness and reliability of your approach to your research question. Here is a basic guideline on how to write your methodology section:

1. Introduction

Start your methodology section by restating your research question(s) or objective(s). This ensures your methodology directly ties into the aim of your research.

2. Approach

Identify your overall approach: qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods. Explain why you have chosen this approach.

• Qualitative methods are typically used for exploratory research and involve collecting non-numerical data. This might involve interviews, observations, or analysis of texts.
• Quantitative methods are used for research that relies on numerical data. This might involve surveys, experiments, or statistical analysis.
• Mixed methods use a combination of both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

3. Research Design

Describe the overall design of your research. This could involve explaining the type of study (e.g., case study, ethnography, experimental research, etc.), how you’ve defined and measured your variables, and any control measures you’ve implemented.

4. Data Collection

Explain in detail how you collected your data.

• If you’ve used qualitative methods, you might detail how you selected participants for interviews or focus groups, how you conducted observations, or how you analyzed existing texts.
• If you’ve used quantitative methods, you might detail how you designed your survey or experiment, how you collected responses, and how you ensured your data is reliable and valid.

5. Data Analysis

Describe how you analyzed your data.

• If you’re doing qualitative research, this might involve thematic analysis, discourse analysis, or grounded theory.
• If you’re doing quantitative research, you might be conducting statistical tests, regression analysis, or factor analysis.

Discuss any ethical issues related to your research. This might involve explaining how you obtained informed consent, how you’re protecting participants’ privacy, or how you’re managing any potential harms to participants.

7. Reliability and Validity

Discuss the steps you’ve taken to ensure the reliability and validity of your data.

• Reliability refers to the consistency of your measurements, and you might discuss how you’ve piloted your instruments or used standardized measures.
• Validity refers to the accuracy of your measurements, and you might discuss how you’ve ensured your measures reflect the concepts they’re supposed to measure.

8. Limitations

Every study has its limitations. Discuss the potential weaknesses of your chosen methods and explain any obstacles you faced in your research.

9. Conclusion

Summarize the key points of your methodology, emphasizing how it helps to address your research question or objective.

Example of Dissertation Methodology

An Example of Dissertation Methodology is as follows:

Chapter 3: Methodology

• Introduction

This chapter details the methodology adopted in this research. The study aimed to explore the relationship between stress and productivity in the workplace. A mixed-methods research design was used to collect and analyze data.

Research Design

This study adopted a mixed-methods approach, combining quantitative surveys with qualitative interviews to provide a comprehensive understanding of the research problem. The rationale for this approach is that while quantitative data can provide a broad overview of the relationships between variables, qualitative data can provide deeper insights into the nuances of these relationships.

Data Collection Methods

Quantitative Data Collection : An online self-report questionnaire was used to collect data from participants. The questionnaire consisted of two standardized scales: the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) to measure stress levels and the Individual Work Productivity Questionnaire (IWPQ) to measure productivity. The sample consisted of 200 office workers randomly selected from various companies in the city.

Qualitative Data Collection : Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 20 participants chosen from the initial sample. The interview guide included questions about participants’ experiences with stress and how they perceived its impact on their productivity.

Data Analysis Methods

Quantitative Data Analysis : Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the survey data. Pearson’s correlation was used to examine the relationship between stress and productivity.

Qualitative Data Analysis : Interviews were transcribed and subjected to thematic analysis using NVivo software. This process allowed for identifying and analyzing patterns and themes regarding the impact of stress on productivity.

Reliability and Validity

To ensure reliability and validity, standardized measures with good psychometric properties were used. In qualitative data analysis, triangulation was employed by having two researchers independently analyze the data and then compare findings.

Ethical Considerations

All participants provided informed consent prior to their involvement in the study. They were informed about the purpose of the study, their rights as participants, and the confidentiality of their responses.

Limitations

The main limitation of this study is its reliance on self-report measures, which can be subject to biases such as social desirability bias. Moreover, the sample was drawn from a single city, which may limit the generalizability of the findings.

Where to Write Dissertation Methodology

In a dissertation or thesis, the Methodology section usually follows the Literature Review. This placement allows the Methodology to build upon the theoretical framework and existing research outlined in the Literature Review, and precedes the Results or Findings section. Here’s a basic outline of how most dissertations are structured:

• Acknowledgements
• Literature Review (or it may be interspersed throughout the dissertation)
• Methodology
• Results/Findings
• References/Bibliography

In the Methodology chapter, you will discuss the research design, data collection methods, data analysis methods, and any ethical considerations pertaining to your study. This allows your readers to understand how your research was conducted and how you arrived at your results.

Advantages of Dissertation Methodology

The dissertation methodology section plays an important role in a dissertation for several reasons. Here are some of the advantages of having a well-crafted methodology section in your dissertation:

• Clarifies Your Research Approach : The methodology section explains how you plan to tackle your research question, providing a clear plan for data collection and analysis.
• Enables Replication : A detailed methodology allows other researchers to replicate your study. Replication is an important aspect of scientific research because it provides validation of the study’s results.
• Demonstrates Rigor : A well-written methodology shows that you’ve thought critically about your research methods and have chosen the most appropriate ones for your research question. This adds credibility to your study.
• Enhances Transparency : Detailing your methods allows readers to understand the steps you took in your research. This increases the transparency of your study and allows readers to evaluate potential biases or limitations.
• Helps in Addressing Research Limitations : In your methodology section, you can acknowledge and explain the limitations of your research. This is important as it shows you understand that no research method is perfect and there are always potential weaknesses.
• Facilitates Peer Review : A detailed methodology helps peer reviewers assess the soundness of your research design. This is an important part of the publication process if you aim to publish your dissertation in a peer-reviewed journal.
• Establishes the Validity and Reliability : Your methodology section should also include a discussion of the steps you took to ensure the validity and reliability of your measurements, which is crucial for establishing the overall quality of your research.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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