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Visual Representation

What is visual representation.

Visual Representation refers to the principles by which markings on a surface are made and interpreted. Designers use representations like typography and illustrations to communicate information, emotions and concepts. Color, imagery, typography and layout are crucial in this communication.

Alan Blackwell, cognition scientist and professor, gives a brief introduction to visual representation:

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We can see visual representation throughout human history, from cave drawings to data visualization :

Art uses visual representation to express emotions and abstract ideas.

Financial forecasting graphs condense data and research into a more straightforward format.

Icons on user interfaces (UI) represent different actions users can take.

The color of a notification indicates its nature and meaning.

Van Gogh's "The Starry Night" uses visuals to evoke deep emotions, representing an abstract, dreamy night sky. It exemplifies how art can communicate complex feelings and ideas.

© Public domain

Importance of Visual Representation in Design

Designers use visual representation for internal and external use throughout the design process . For example:

Storyboards are illustrations that outline users’ actions and where they perform them.

Sitemaps are diagrams that show the hierarchy and navigation structure of a website.

Wireframes are sketches that bring together elements of a user interface's structure.

Usability reports use graphs and charts to communicate data gathered from usability testing.

User interfaces visually represent information contained in applications and computerized devices.

This usability report is straightforward to understand. Yet, the data behind the visualizations could come from thousands of answered surveys.

© Interaction Design Foundation, CC BY-SA 4.0

Visual representation simplifies complex ideas and data and makes them easy to understand. Without these visual aids, designers would struggle to communicate their ideas, findings and products . For example, it would be easier to create a mockup of an e-commerce website interface than to describe it with words.

Visual representation simplifies the communication of designs. Without mockups, it would be difficult for developers to reproduce designs using words alone.

Types of Visual Representation

Below are some of the most common forms of visual representation designers use.

Text and Typography

Text represents language and ideas through written characters and symbols. Readers visually perceive and interpret these characters. Typography turns text into a visual form, influencing its perception and interpretation.

We have developed the conventions of typography over centuries , for example, in documents, newspapers and magazines. These conventions include:

Text arranged on a grid brings clarity and structure. Gridded text makes complex information easier to navigate and understand. Tables, columns and other formats help organize content logically and enhance readability.

Contrasting text sizes create a visual hierarchy and draw attention to critical areas. For example, headings use larger text while body copy uses smaller text. This contrast helps readers distinguish between primary and secondary information.

Adequate spacing and paragraphing improve the readability and appearance of the text. These conventions prevent the content from appearing cluttered. Spacing and paragraphing make it easier for the eye to follow and for the brain to process the information.

Balanced image-to-text ratios create engaging layouts. Images break the monotony of text, provide visual relief and illustrate or emphasize points made in the text. A well-planned ratio ensures neither text nor images overwhelm each other. Effective ratios make designs more effective and appealing.

Designers use these conventions because people are familiar with them and better understand text presented in this manner.

This table of funerals from the plague in London in 1665 uses typographic conventions still used today. For example, the author arranged the information in a table and used contrasting text styling to highlight information in the header.

Illustrations and Drawings

Designers use illustrations and drawings independently or alongside text. An example of illustration used to communicate information is the assembly instructions created by furniture retailer IKEA. If IKEA used text instead of illustrations in their instructions, people would find it harder to assemble the furniture.

IKEA assembly instructions use illustrations to inform customers how to build their furniture. The only text used is numeric to denote step and part numbers. IKEA communicates this information visually to: 1. Enable simple communication, 2. Ensure their instructions are easy to follow, regardless of the customer’s language.

© IKEA, Fair use

Illustrations and drawings can often convey the core message of a visual representation more effectively than a photograph. They focus on the core message , while a photograph might distract a viewer with additional details (such as who this person is, where they are from, etc.)

For example, in IKEA’s case, photographing a person building a piece of furniture might be complicated. Further, photographs may not be easy to understand in a black-and-white print, leading to higher printing costs. To be useful, the pictures would also need to be larger and would occupy more space on a printed manual, further adding to the costs.

But imagine a girl winking—this is something we can easily photograph. 

Ivan Sutherland, creator of the first graphical user interface, used his computer program Sketchpad to draw a winking girl. While not realistic, Sutherland's representation effectively portrays a winking girl. The drawing's abstract, generic elements contrast with the distinct winking eye. The graphical conventions of lines and shapes represent the eyes and mouth. The simplicity of the drawing does not draw attention away from the winking.

A photo might distract from the focused message compared to Sutherland's representation. In the photo, the other aspects of the image (i.e., the particular person) distract the viewer from this message.

© Ivan Sutherland, CC BY-SA 3.0 and Amina Filkins, Pexels License

Information and Data Visualization

Designers and other stakeholders use data and information visualization across many industries.

Data visualization uses charts and graphs to show raw data in a graphic form. Information visualization goes further, including more context and complex data sets. Information visualization often uses interactive elements to share a deeper understanding.

For example, most computerized devices have a battery level indicator. This is a type of data visualization. IV takes this further by allowing you to click on the battery indicator for further insights. These insights may include the apps that use the most battery and the last time you charged your device.

macOS displays a battery icon in the menu bar that visualizes your device’s battery level. This is an example of data visualization. Meanwhile, macOS’s settings tell you battery level over time, screen-on-usage and when you last charged your device. These insights are actionable; users may notice their battery drains at a specific time. This is an example of information visualization.

© Low Battery by Jemis Mali, CC BY-NC-ND 4.0, and Apple, Fair use

Information visualization is not exclusive to numeric data. It encompasses representations like diagrams and maps. For example, Google Maps collates various types of data and information into one interface:

Data Representation: Google Maps transforms complex geographical data into an easily understandable and navigable visual map.

Interactivity: Users can interactively customize views that show traffic, satellite imagery and more in real-time.

Layered Information: Google Maps layers multiple data types (e.g., traffic, weather) over geographical maps for comprehensive visualization.

User-Centered Design : The interface is intuitive and user-friendly, with symbols and colors for straightforward data interpretation.

The volume of data contained in one screenshot of Google Maps is massive. However, this information is presented clearly to the user. Google Maps highlights different terrains with colors and local places and businesses with icons and colors. The panel on the left lists the selected location’s profile, which includes an image, rating and contact information.

© Google, Fair use

Symbolic Correspondence

Symbolic correspondence uses universally recognized symbols and signs to convey specific meanings . This method employs widely recognized visual cues for immediate understanding. Symbolic correspondence removes the need for textual explanation.

For instance, a magnifying glass icon in UI design signifies the search function. Similarly, in environmental design, symbols for restrooms, parking and amenities guide visitors effectively.

The Interaction Design Foundation (IxDF) website uses the universal magnifying glass symbol to signify the search function. Similarly, the play icon draws attention to a link to watch a video.

How Designers Create Visual Representations

Visual language.

Designers use elements like color , shape and texture to create a communicative visual experience. Designers use these 8 principles:

Size – Larger elements tend to capture users' attention readily.

Color – Users are typically drawn to bright colors over muted shades.

Contrast – Colors with stark contrasts catch the eye more effectively.

Alignment – Unaligned elements are more noticeable than those aligned ones.

Repetition – Similar styles repeated imply a relationship in content.

Proximity – Elements placed near each other appear to be connected.

Whitespace – Elements surrounded by ample space attract the eye.

Texture and Style – Users often notice richer textures before flat designs.

The 8 visual design principles.

In web design , visual hierarchy uses color and repetition to direct the user's attention. Color choice is crucial as it creates contrast between different elements. Repetition helps to organize the design—it uses recurring elements to establish consistency and familiarity.

In this video, Alan Dix, Professor and Expert in Human-Computer Interaction, explains how visual alignment affects how we read and absorb information:

Correspondence Techniques

Designers use correspondence techniques to align visual elements with their conceptual meanings. These techniques include color coding, spatial arrangement and specific imagery. In information visualization, different colors can represent various data sets. This correspondence aids users in quickly identifying trends and relationships .

Color coding enables the stakeholder to see the relationship and trend between the two pie charts easily.

In user interface design, correspondence techniques link elements with meaning. An example is color-coding notifications to state their nature. For instance, red for warnings and green for confirmation. These techniques are informative and intuitive and enhance the user experience.

The IxDF website uses blue for call-to-actions (CTAs) and red for warnings. These colors inform the user of the nature of the action of buttons and other interactive elements.

Perception and Interpretation

If visual language is how designers create representations, then visual perception and interpretation are how users receive those representations. Consider a painting—the viewer’s eyes take in colors, shapes and lines, and the brain perceives these visual elements as a painting.

In this video, Alan Dix explains how the interplay of sensation, perception and culture is crucial to understanding visual experiences in design:

Copyright holder: Michael Murphy _ Appearance time: 07:19 - 07:37 _ Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C67JuZnBBDc

Visual perception principles are essential for creating compelling, engaging visual representations. For example, Gestalt principles explain how we perceive visual information. These rules describe how we group similar items, spot patterns and simplify complex images. Designers apply Gestalt principles to arrange content on websites and other interfaces. This application creates visually appealing and easily understood designs.

In this video, design expert and teacher Mia Cinelli discusses the significance of Gestalt principles in visual design . She introduces fundamental principles, like figure/ground relationships, similarity and proximity.

Interpretation

Everyone's experiences, culture and physical abilities dictate how they interpret visual representations. For this reason, designers carefully consider how users interpret their visual representations. They employ user research and testing to ensure their designs are attractive and functional.

Leonardo da Vinci's "Mona Lisa", is one of the most famous paintings in the world. The piece is renowned for its subject's enigmatic expression. Some interpret her smile as content and serene, while others see it as sad or mischievous. Not everyone interprets this visual representation in the same way.

Color is an excellent example of how one person, compared to another, may interpret a visual element. Take the color red:

In Chinese culture, red symbolizes luck, while in some parts of Africa, it can mean death or illness.

A personal experience may mean a user has a negative or positive connotation with red.

People with protanopia and deuteranopia color blindness cannot distinguish between red and green.

In this video, Joann and Arielle Eckstut, leading color consultants and authors, explain how many factors influence how we perceive and interpret color:

Learn More about Visual Representation

Read Alan Blackwell’s chapter on visual representation from The Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction.

Learn about the F-Shaped Pattern For Reading Web Content from Jakob Nielsen.

Read Smashing Magazine’s article, Visual Design Language: The Building Blocks Of Design .

Take the IxDF’s course, Perception and Memory in HCI and UX .

Questions related to Visual Representation

Some highly cited research on visual representation and related topics includes:

Roland, P. E., & Gulyás, B. (1994). Visual imagery and visual representation. Trends in Neurosciences, 17(7), 281-287. Roland and Gulyás' study explores how the brain creates visual imagination. They look at whether imagining things like objects and scenes uses the same parts of the brain as seeing them does. Their research shows the brain uses certain areas specifically for imagination. These areas are different from the areas used for seeing. This research is essential for understanding how our brain works with vision.

Lurie, N. H., & Mason, C. H. (2007). Visual Representation: Implications for Decision Making. Journal of Marketing, 71(1), 160-177.

This article looks at how visualization tools help in understanding complicated marketing data. It discusses how these tools affect decision-making in marketing. The article gives a detailed method to assess the impact of visuals on the study and combination of vast quantities of marketing data. It explores the benefits and possible biases visuals can bring to marketing choices. These factors make the article an essential resource for researchers and marketing experts. The article suggests using visual tools and detailed analysis together for the best results.

Lohse, G. L., Biolsi, K., Walker, N., & Rueter, H. H. (1994, December). A classification of visual representations. Communications of the ACM, 37(12), 36+.

This publication looks at how visuals help communicate and make information easier to understand. It divides these visuals into six types: graphs, tables, maps, diagrams, networks and icons. The article also looks at different ways these visuals share information effectively.

​​If you’d like to cite content from the IxDF website , click the ‘cite this article’ button near the top of your screen.

Some recommended books on visual representation and related topics include:

Chaplin, E. (1994). Sociology and Visual Representation (1st ed.) . Routledge.

Chaplin's book describes how visual art analysis has changed from ancient times to today. It shows how photography, post-modernism and feminism have changed how we see art. The book combines words and images in its analysis and looks into real-life social sciences studies.

Mitchell, W. J. T. (1994). Picture Theory. The University of Chicago Press.

Mitchell's book explores the important role and meaning of pictures in the late twentieth century. It discusses the change from focusing on language to focusing on images in cultural studies. The book deeply examines the interaction between images and text in different cultural forms like literature, art and media. This detailed study of how we see and read visual representations has become an essential reference for scholars and professionals.

Koffka, K. (1935). Principles of Gestalt Psychology. Harcourt, Brace & World.

"Principles of Gestalt Psychology" by Koffka, released in 1935, is a critical book in its field. It's known as a foundational work in Gestalt psychology, laying out the basic ideas of the theory and how they apply to how we see and think. Koffka's thorough study of Gestalt psychology's principles has profoundly influenced how we understand human perception. This book has been a significant reference in later research and writings.

A visual representation, like an infographic or chart, uses visual elements to show information or data. These types of visuals make complicated information easier to understand and more user-friendly.

Designers harness visual representations in design and communication. Infographics and charts, for instance, distill data for easier audience comprehension and retention.

For an introduction to designing basic information visualizations, take our course, Information Visualization .

Text is a crucial design and communication element, transforming language visually. Designers use font style, size, color and layout to convey emotions and messages effectively.

Designers utilize text for both literal communication and aesthetic enhancement. Their typography choices significantly impact design aesthetics, user experience and readability.

Designers should always consider text's visual impact in their designs. This consideration includes font choice, placement, color and interaction with other design elements.

In this video, design expert and teacher Mia Cinelli teaches how Gestalt principles apply to typography:

Designers use visual elements in projects to convey information, ideas, and messages. Designers use images, colors, shapes and typography for impactful designs.

In UI/UX design, visual representation is vital. Icons, buttons and colors provide contrast for intuitive, user-friendly website and app interfaces.

Graphic design leverages visual representation to create attention-grabbing marketing materials. Careful color, imagery and layout choices create an emotional connection.

Product design relies on visual representation for prototyping and idea presentation. Designers and stakeholders use visual representations to envision functional, aesthetically pleasing products.

Our brains process visuals 60,000 times faster than text. This fact highlights the crucial role of visual representation in design.

Our course, Visual Design: The Ultimate Guide , teaches you how to use visual design elements and principles in your work effectively.

Visual representation, crucial in UX, facilitates interaction, comprehension and emotion. It combines elements like images and typography for better interfaces.

Effective visuals guide users, highlight features and improve navigation. Icons and color schemes communicate functions and set interaction tones.

UX design research shows visual elements significantly impact emotions. 90% of brain-transmitted information is visual.

To create functional, accessible visuals, designers use color contrast and consistent iconography. These elements improve readability and inclusivity.

An excellent example of visual representation in UX is Apple's iOS interface. iOS combines a clean, minimalist design with intuitive navigation. As a result, the operating system is both visually appealing and user-friendly.

Michal Malewicz, Creative Director and CEO at Hype4, explains why visual skills are important in design:

Learn more about UI design from Michal in our Master Class, Beyond Interfaces: The UI Design Skills You Need to Know .

The fundamental principles of effective visual representation are:

Clarity : Designers convey messages clearly, avoiding clutter.

Simplicity : Embrace simple designs for ease and recall.

Emphasis : Designers highlight key elements distinctively.

Balance : Balance ensures design stability and structure.

Alignment : Designers enhance coherence through alignment.

Contrast : Use contrast for dynamic, distinct designs.

Repetition : Repeating elements unify and guide designs.

Designers practice these principles in their projects. They also analyze successful designs and seek feedback to improve their skills.

Read our topic description of Gestalt principles to learn more about creating effective visual designs. The Gestalt principles explain how humans group elements, recognize patterns and simplify object perception.

Color theory is vital in design, helping designers craft visually appealing and compelling works. Designers understand color interactions, psychological impacts and symbolism. These elements help designers enhance communication and guide attention.

Designers use complementary , analogous and triadic colors for contrast, harmony and balance. Understanding color temperature also plays a crucial role in design perception.

Color symbolism is crucial, as different colors can represent specific emotions and messages. For instance, blue can symbolize trust and calmness, while red can indicate energy and urgency.

Cultural variations significantly influence color perception and symbolism. Designers consider these differences to ensure their designs resonate with diverse audiences.

For actionable insights, designers should:

Experiment with color schemes for effective messaging. 

Assess colors' psychological impact on the audience. 

Use color contrast to highlight critical elements. 

Ensure color choices are accessible to all.

In this video, Joann and Arielle Eckstut, leading color consultants and authors, give their six tips for choosing color:

Learn more about color from Joann and Arielle in our Master Class, How To Use Color Theory To Enhance Your Designs .

Typography and font choice are crucial in design, impacting readability and mood. Designers utilize them for effective communication and expression.

Designers' perception of information varies with font type. Serif fonts can imply formality, while sans-serifs can give a more modern look.

Typography choices by designers influence readability and user experience. Well-spaced, distinct fonts enhance readability, whereas decorative fonts may hinder it.

Designers use typography to evoke emotions and set a design's tone. Choices in font size, style and color affect the emotional impact and message clarity.

Designers use typography to direct attention, create hierarchy and establish rhythm. These benefits help with brand recognition and consistency across mediums.

Read our article to learn how web fonts are critical to the online user experience .

Designers create a balance between simplicity and complexity in their work. They focus on the main messages and highlight important parts. Designers use the principles of visual hierarchy, like size, color and spacing. They also use empty space to make their designs clear and understandable.

The Gestalt law of Prägnanz suggests people naturally simplify complex images. This principle aids in making even intricate information accessible and engaging.

Through iteration and feedback, designers refine visuals. They remove extraneous elements and highlight vital information. Testing with the target audience ensures the design resonates and is comprehensible.

Michal Malewicz explains how to master hierarchy in UI design using the Gestalt rule of proximity:

Answer a Short Quiz to Earn a Gift

Why do designers use visual representation?

• To guarantee only a specific audience can understand the information
• To replace the need for any form of written communication
• To simplify complex information and make it understandable

Which type of visual representation helps to compare data?

• Article images
• Line charts
• Text paragraphs

What is the main purpose of visual hierarchy in design?

• To decorate the design with more colors
• To guide the viewer’s attention to the most important elements first
• To provide complex text for high-level readers

How does color impact visual representation?

• It has no impact on the design at all.
• It helps to distinguish different elements and set the mood.
• It makes the design less engaging for a serious mood.

Why is consistency important in visual representation?

• It limits creativity, but allows variation in design.
• It makes sure the visual elements are cohesive and easy to understand.
• It makes the design unpredictable yet interesting.

Better luck next time!

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Literature on Visual Representation

Here’s the entire UX literature on Visual Representation by the Interaction Design Foundation, collated in one place:

Learn more about Visual Representation

Take a deep dive into Visual Representation with our course Perception and Memory in HCI and UX .

How does all of this fit with interaction design and user experience? The simple answer is that most of our understanding of human experience comes from our own experiences and just being ourselves. That might extend to people like us, but it gives us no real grasp of the whole range of human experience and abilities. By considering more closely how humans perceive and interact with our world, we can gain real insights into what designs will work for a broader audience: those younger or older than us, more or less capable, more or less skilled and so on.

“You can design for all the people some of the time, and some of the people all the time, but you cannot design for all the people all the time.“ – William Hudson (with apologies to Abraham Lincoln)

While “design for all of the people all of the time” is an impossible goal, understanding how the human machine operates is essential to getting ever closer. And of course, building solutions for people with a wide range of abilities, including those with accessibility issues, involves knowing how and why some human faculties fail. As our course tutor, Professor Alan Dix, points out, this is not only a moral duty but, in most countries, also a legal obligation.

Portfolio Project

In the “ Build Your Portfolio: Perception and Memory Project ”, you’ll find a series of practical exercises that will give you first-hand experience in applying what we’ll cover. If you want to complete these optional exercises, you’ll create a series of case studies for your portfolio which you can show your future employer or freelance customers.

This in-depth, video-based course is created with the amazing Alan Dix , the co-author of the internationally best-selling textbook  Human-Computer Interaction and a superstar in the field of Human-Computer Interaction . Alan is currently a professor and Director of the Computational Foundry at Swansea University.

Gain an Industry-Recognized UX Course Certificate

Use your industry-recognized Course Certificate on your resume , CV , LinkedIn profile or your website.

All open-source articles on Visual Representation

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What is visual representation?

In the vast landscape of communication, where words alone may fall short, visual representation emerges as a powerful ally. In a world inundated with information, the ability to convey complex ideas, emotions, and data through visual means is becoming increasingly crucial. But what exactly is visual representation, and why does it hold such sway in our understanding?

Defining Visual Representation:

Visual representation is the act of conveying information, ideas, or concepts through visual elements such as images, charts, graphs, maps, and other graphical forms. It’s a means of translating the abstract into the tangible, providing a visual language that transcends the limitations of words alone.

The Power of Images:

The adage “a picture is worth a thousand words” encapsulates the essence of visual representation. Images have an unparalleled ability to evoke emotions, tell stories, and communicate complex ideas in an instant. Whether it’s a photograph capturing a poignant moment or an infographic distilling intricate data, images possess a unique capacity to resonate with and engage the viewer on a visceral level.

Facilitating Understanding:

One of the primary functions of visual representation is to enhance understanding. Humans are inherently visual creatures, and we often process and retain visual information more effectively than text. Complex concepts that might be challenging to grasp through written explanations can be simplified and clarified through visual aids. This is particularly valuable in fields such as science, where intricate processes and structures can be elucidated through diagrams and illustrations.

Visual representation also plays a crucial role in education. In classrooms around the world, teachers leverage visual aids to facilitate learning, making lessons more engaging and accessible. From simple charts that break down historical timelines to interactive simulations that bring scientific principles to life, visual representation is a cornerstone of effective pedagogy.

Data Visualization:

In an era dominated by big data, the importance of data visualization cannot be overstated. Raw numbers and statistics can be overwhelming and abstract, but when presented visually, they transform into meaningful insights. Graphs, charts, and maps are powerful tools for conveying trends, patterns, and correlations, enabling decision-makers to glean actionable intelligence from vast datasets.

Consider the impact of a well-crafted infographic that distills complex research findings into a visually digestible format. Data visualization not only simplifies information but also allows for more informed decision-making in fields ranging from business and healthcare to social sciences and environmental studies.

Cultural and Artistic Expression:

Visual representation extends beyond the realm of information and education; it is also a potent form of cultural and artistic expression. Paintings, sculptures, photographs, and other visual arts serve as mediums through which individuals can convey their emotions, perspectives, and cultural narratives. Artistic visual representation has the power to transcend language barriers, fostering a shared human experience that resonates universally.

Conclusion:

In a world inundated with information, visual representation stands as a beacon of clarity and understanding. Whether it’s simplifying complex concepts, conveying data-driven insights, or expressing the depth of human emotion, visual elements enrich our communication in ways that words alone cannot. As we navigate an increasingly visual society, recognizing and harnessing the power of visual representation is not just a skill but a necessity for effective communication and comprehension. So, let us embrace the visual language that surrounds us, unlocking a deeper, more nuanced understanding of the world.

Ebook Friendly

16 amazing book charts and visualizations.

In times of picture-driven internet, where we are hunting for various kinds of infographics, animations, and chart, books prove they are a highly inspiring topic for visual design.

Many of these visualizations are possible thanks to the internet and digitization.

As soon as the book goes digital, its entire content can be analysed like never before. Creators can include much more data in the analysis, what leads to breath-taking visuals.

Let’s just take a tool every internet user can utilize: Google Ngram Viewer . You can track the appearance of selected words in books over time. A simple idea to make infographics like this one: Love DNA of classic novels .

Processing the information is important, but nothing will replace the talent of a designer to present the data in a clear and exciting way.

You’ll see below the greatest examples of data visualization applied to books, but not only that. Having unlimited access to images on the internet artists can create collages that represent the content of a single book or entire book genres. In the list below you’ll see such examples as well.

Please share in the comments the projects that should be highlighted. I’ll add them in the next update of the list.

[ef-reco id=”100684″ title=”Read also” info=”Top article”]

1. A guide to fiction genres

“A Plotting of Fiction Genres” chart is epic. It investigates the genres of most famous books and puts them together in a catching visual.

Whether you’re partial to Epic Fantasies (“The Lord of The Rings), Romance (“Bridget Jones’s Diary”), Cozy Mysteries (“The Convivial Codfish”), or Literature Qua Literature (“Moby Dick”), this celebration of creative writing’s delineations is sure to please readers of all brows—whether high-, low-, or in-between.

The book covers you’ll find in the design are fictional. The team from Pop Chart Lab designed them for the main fiction genres, like science-fiction, mystery, or horror.

From there you’ll be able to follow sub-genres – each one represented by the most famous title.

⇢ Credits and more info

2. Character interactions in Shakespeare’s tragedies

A series of fascinating network graphs created by a Swiss data research analyst and designer Martin Grandjean explores the structure and character interactions of eleven classic tragedies by William Shakespeare.

Each chart presents all characters from a specific tragedy. Each character is represented as a circle. The more important the character the bigger the circle.

The lines connect characters to other characters with whom they interact in the same scene. Network density measures how close the graph is to complete.

The result speaks for itself: the longest tragedy ( Hamlet ) is not the most structurally complex and is less dense than King Lear , Titus Andronicus or Othello .

When you analyze the graphs, you’ll see that in some tragedies characters belong to clear groups. It’s obvious with Romeo and Juliet , where we have Montague and Capulet families.

3. YA reading calendar

This calendar with YA book recommendations is epic. It’s not only a useful tool that lets discover new books, but also an extremely detailed and well designed visual.

The 2015 YA reading calendar brakes down YA books into seasonal, monthly, weekly and daily recommendations. Separate charts for seasonal reads were also prepared by Epic Reads team.

This infographic marks the beginning of the new breed of discovery tools – the ones that put recommended titles into an advanced, visually catchy form that is much more enjoyable to explore than a mere collage of book covers.

It’s not the first creative design from Epic Reads, and I’m sure we can expect a lot more from this YA-focused book community.

4. Opening lines of famous novels

This is one of the most stunning designs from Pop Chart Lab . The chart brings the most exciting analysis of what many book lovers consider the most exciting part of the book: opening line.

Diagrammatical Dissertation on Opening Lines of Notable Novels breaks down grammatical construction of opening sentences of 25 famous novels.

Each sentence is diagrammed into a partitioned, color-coded pictogram, according to the dictates of the classic Reed-Kellogg system.

Whether you’re a book buff, an English teacher, or a hard-line grammarian, this diagrammatical dissertation has something for the aesthete in all of us.

5. Plot Lines

This is one of the most beautiful examples of literary visualizations I’ve ever seen – and it actually gives a very useful advice for every aspiring author.

What’s the best recipe to make your novel a bestseller? Kill off your characters.

The infographic was developed by Joanna Kamradt and Christian Tate for the literary magazine “Delayed Gratification”. It analyses the plot of 13 novels that won the prestigious Man Booker Prize in 2011.

Every single title includes death – the black part of the chart is overwhelmingly large.

6. Narrative structure of books

What you see above is just a teaser – a screenshot of an interactive visualization of narrative flow of  Kafka on the Shore by Haruki Murakami.

The visualization was developed by Natalia Bilenko and Asako Miyakawa, neuroscience PhD students at UC Berkeley. 

A dynamically changing graph studies connections between characters throughout the book. Emotional strength and valence of each sentence are shown in a color-coded sentiment plot.

When you hover over the sentence bars, you’ll see the text of the original sentences.

7. Color signatures

Artist and designer Jaz Parkinson created a wonderful art project called “Colour Signatures”.

Famous novels are presented in a form of posters/book covers, where colour spectrums are a reference to colours used in novels’ content.

Jaz explains more how the colours are found:

For example when it might say ‘yellow brick road,’ ‘yellow’ gets a tally, or when for example in The Road it says ‘dark ash covered everything’ (not an actual quote), that image evokes dark grey instantly in the mind, so dark grey gets a tally.

8. Romeo and Juliet poster

Created by Saloniki-based design studio Beetroot, the poster links with red ink all instances of words “Romeo” and “Juliet”.

The word “Romeo” appears 308 times in William Shakespeare’s most famous tragedy, “Juliet” – 180 times. That makes 55,440 connections.

Designers from Beetroot included all these connections in the poster, creating an attention-drawing visual, evoking feelings of love and blood.

9. Connections between characters in Infinite Jest

Infinite Jest is a lengthy and complex 1996 novel by David Foster Wallace, full of cultural references, and exploiting deep multilevel relations between characters.

Designer Sam Potts took an attempt to visualize  complex connections between characters from the book in a single chart.

The diagram doesn’t explain the story or show the advance of the plot. It’s just a sheer representation of how intense the narration in a single book can be, as seen through the plethora of connections between characters.

10. Top 10 bestsellers from 2000-2011

This awesome image includes every book from USA Today Top 10 weekly bestseller lists from 2000-2011. More than 6,000 book covers are shown, from 1,300 individual books.

The visualization was created by James R.A. Davenport, astronomer and social data analyst. He wrote a special script that was grabbing book covers every week.

If the book cover stands for the mood of the book, this chart is a fantastic way to see how our reading preferences evolved over time.

You can see the “decay time” of books as they drift off the bestseller list. Color choices seem to have become more saturated since 2000, and Twilight (big black band) is the undisputed champ.

11. Thematic flow of a book

In an image above you’ see the visual representation of A Year and a Day , a romance based in medieval Scotland, written by the New York Times bestseller author Virginia Henley.

The visualization is the outcome of a very interesting initiative by BookLamp and the Book Genome Project. A special algorithm was developed to analyze the topic and writing style of a book.

Such visualizations become a new, and very valuable, addition to book’s blurb, ratings and reviews. They fantastically describe (“display” would be a better word) what you can expect from a book, and how the plot evolves.

12. Color distribution of YA covers

YA writer Kate Hart wrote a great post uncovering YA covers. The post is accompanied by a series of images (one of them you see above, but there are other interesting ones to explore).

Kate gathered more than 900 books released in 2011 in United States. Then she researched the color distribution and demographic of these books.

13. Penguin sci-fi book covers over time

Arthur Buxton put together the most common colors of Penguin Publishing sci-fi books and arranged them over time. It’s interesting to see how iconic Penguin book cover art was evolving over time.

Each timeline represents all the iterations of a cover in chronological order.

Within each bar chart, length corresponds to the time in print and the dive most prominent colors are shown proportionally.

14. Connected words of 1984

“Connected” is a work of art by Greg Orrom Swan. The Bristol-based artist and designer connected the letters in the first two paragraphs of George Orwell’s 1984 .

The image is a part of the larger art project called “Five Ways to Read 1984”.

15. Literary Organism

Stefanie Posavec created an astonishing Writing Without Words project that analyzes writing styles of famous authors between authors.

The visual you see above is “Literary Organism”. It analyses in detail Jack Kerouac’s On the Road . It’s a simple organic structure that breaks down Part One of the book.

The chart  breaks into chapters, chapters into paragraphs, paragraphs into sentences, and sentences into words. Everything has its own color according to key themes in On the Road .

16. The Great Gatsby chapter by chapter

Here is another visual from Pop Chart Lab. This time you can analyze, chapter by chapter, the plot in The Great Gatsby .

The graph traces the comings and goings of characters, but also movement by trains, cars, and feet – for Daisy, Nick, Tom, Gatsby, and every other character in the novel.

A map at the top of the chart also shows the 20s New York locations of scenes in the book.

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by ELIZABETH GILBERT

Once upon a time, there was a man named Jack Gilbert, who was not related to me – unfortunately for me. 

Jack Gilbert was a great poet, but if you’ve never heard of him, don’t worry about it. It’s not your fault. He never much cared about being known. But I knew about him, and I loved him dearly from a respectful distance, so let me tell you about him.

Jack Gilbert was born in Pittsburgh in 1925 and grew up in the midst of that city’s smoke, noise, and industry. He worked in factories and steel mills as a young man, but was called from an early age to write poetry. He answered the call without hesitation. He became a poet the way other men become monks: as a devotional practice, as an act of love, and as a lifelong commitment to the search for grace and transcendence. I think this is probably a very good way to become a poet. Or to become anything, really, that calls to your heart and brings you to life.

176 words read …

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Visualizations That Really Work

Know what message you’re trying to communicate before you get down in the weeds. by Scott Berinato

Summary .   

Not long ago, the ability to create smart data visualizations (or dataviz) was a nice-to-have skill for design- and data-minded managers. But now it’s a must-have skill for all managers, because it’s often the only way to make sense of the work they do. Decision making increasingly relies on data, which arrives with such overwhelming velocity, and in such volume, that some level of abstraction is crucial. Thanks to the internet and a growing number of affordable tools, visualization is accessible for everyone—but that convenience can lead to charts that are merely adequate or even ineffective.

By answering just two questions, Berinato writes, you can set yourself up to succeed: Is the information conceptual or data-driven? and Am I declaring something or exploring something? He leads readers through a simple process of identifying which of the four types of visualization they might use to achieve their goals most effectively: idea illustration, idea generation, visual discovery, or everyday dataviz.

This article is adapted from the author’s just-published book, Good Charts: The HBR Guide to Making Smarter, More Persuasive Data Visualizations.

Not long ago, the ability to create smart data visualizations, or dataviz, was a nice-to-have skill. For the most part, it benefited design- and data-minded managers who made a deliberate decision to invest in acquiring it. That’s changed. Now visual communication is a must-have skill for all managers, because more and more often, it’s the only way to make sense of the work they do.

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Plot Diagram and Narrative Arc

What is a Plot Diagram?

A useful plot diagram definition is a concise and visual representation of a story's structure, breaking it down into its essential components, which helps readers and writers analyze and understand narratives more effectively. Simply stated, it is a way of tracking the important events in a story. A plot diagram exposition typically introduces the main characters, establishes the setting, and provides the initial context of the story, laying the foundation for the narrative's development.

Formally, it is a linear graphic representation of the narrative arc of a story that demonstrates the important elements occurring from beginning to end. A detailed plot chart diagram can be a valuable tool for both readers and writers, as it visually maps out the key elements of a narrative, aiding in analysis and storytelling. To put it simply, this visual triangle (as shown in the above image) is an easy way for students to remember the way a story's events unfold. The plot line diagram is broken down into three segments: three segments: beginning, middle, and end that include six main parts or "The Six Parts of a Story": Exposition, Conflict, Rising Action, Climax, Falling Action and Resolution.

Narrative arc diagrams, story arcs, or Plot Diagrams are essential tools for students to improve reading comprehension, build literary connections, and increase their appreciation of literature! Plot line diagrams are called by many names. They may also be referred to as story charts, story arcs, story plot line, plot graphs or charts, story mountains, or plot mountain diagrams . Whatever you call it, it's useful to arrange the plot elements in order because it allows students to pick out major themes in the text, to trace character development with character arcs over the course of the narrative, and for students to hone their analytical skills. They challenge students to create the story arc in order of events, and to pick out and include only the most important key elements to create a concise, organized summary, which is a skill they will use throughout their life!

Lessons emphasizing these skills meet many Common Core Standards for English Language Arts ( CCSS.ELA-Literacy ) and are referenced in all grade levels. Students are sure to use the skills they learn throughout elementary, middle and high school. However, these concepts can also be used outside of the classroom! They not only give students a fuller understanding of classroom texts, but their favorite books and movies as well.

Plot Structure Example

The plot diagram picture example below is a completed story map from the award-winning novel The Lightning Thief by Rick Riordan. This storyboard exemplifies the plot diagram format, and follows the basic structure of a story arc.

What are the Six Elements of a Plot Diagram?

The 6 elements of a plot diagram or traditional story arc are: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Creating a story plot map can be an invaluable tool for writers, as it helps them visualize the trajectory of their narrative and ensure a well-structured and engaging story.

Elements of Plot Structure Diagrams Explained:

The exposition of the literary plot diagram is the introduction to a story. In many stories, this is where the author exposes the reader to the important elements of the "set up" or background of the story such as the major characters' names, setting , and mood . In a good story, the exposition generally includes introducing the reader to the main and supporting characters as well as where and when the story takes place. The exposition shows how this introduction "sets the stage" and gives the reader the story idea.

The plot diagram conflict is the primary problem that drives the story. The conflict may also be called the inciting incident and it is the principal goal for the protagonist or main character to achieve. In a common story structure, the conflict is usually revealed as a problem the main character must solve or an obstacle they need to overcome in order to reach their goal. Both the Exposition and the Conflict are considered part of the Beginning of the story.

Rising Action

The rising action of the story consists of all of the events that lead to the eventual climax of the story. The rising action includes the events in which the character attempts to solve the primary conflict of the story. Most complications unfold during a plot's rising action, adding depth and intrigue to the narrative as the story's central conflict develops. The events broaden the character's development and are notable in the way they create suspense, increased emotion and tension in the story. The rising action is the bulk of the middle of the story.

The rising action culminates in the climax or turning point in the story. The climax is often the most exciting point of the story or a series of exciting events. The climax in the chart is at the peak of the mountain. This is the moment or moments where there is a marked turning point for the story or the goals of the main character. This may include a major revelation, the overcoming of an obstacle or the character's main problem is resolved. The climax concludes the middle of the story. A climax chart can be used to graphically illustrate the pinnacle of tension and conflict in the story, serving as a visual aid for readers to pinpoint the narrative's most crucial turning point.

Falling Action

The falling action is the beginning of the end. It includes all of the events and everything that happens as a result of the climax, including wrapping-up of main points, questions being answered, and character development. The falling action are all of the events after the turning point that lead the reader to the end or resolution of the story. These events are usually more relaxed and notably decreasing in tension as the story makes its way towards its conclusion.

A common resolution to fairytales is "happily ever after," and this classic ending is often depicted on plot diagrams as the point where all conflicts are resolved, and the main characters' lives are filled with joy and contentment. The resolution is not always happy, but it does complete the story. It can leave a reader with questions, answers, frustration, or satisfaction. The resolution or ending of the story may answer important questions and tie up loose ends. However, the resolution can also end in a 'cliff-hanger' wherein some problems remain unsolved perhaps for the reader to ponder or to queue up a sequel.

Why Teach Plot Diagrams?

Teaching students about story structure encourages critical thinking and greater comprehension in reading. Understanding the narrative helps students engage in deep reading and utilize skillful analysis as they read. It encourages students to predict what will happen next and make connections between the story they are reading and other books they have read.

In addition, narrative arcs provide a useful framework for students to apply to their own creative writing . When students engage in creative writing a common challenge is in organizing their ideas and honing in on the important elements that they need to convey.

Making storyboards that illustrate a plot diagram chart can bring students' understanding to life as they identify the key ideas. Storyboarding is an engaging and fun way for students to interact with the texts they read in class. The details featured in a student's storyboard allow their teacher to immediately assess whether the student is comprehending the main events of the story, and the scope of the objectives. " Four Innovative Ways to Teach Parts of a Story " is another helpful article on teaching narrative arcs in elementary school using the popular teaching tools: "Somebody Wanted But So Then" and the "STORY" acronym. By utilizing storyboards, teachers can easily assess students’ understanding of important story components. Combined illustrations and text can enliven difficult concepts like “rising action” and “climax”. These story arc templates help students to flesh out the most important parts of a story in a clear, visually appealing way.

Make a Plot Diagram with Storyboard That!

Students having difficulty making a story arc? Storyboard That Creator to the rescue! Teachers can quickly and easily use the Storyboard Creator in a variety of ways to introduce story plotting to their students.

Students can create short story arc diagram examples using a simple "BME" or "Beginning, Middle End" in a three-cell storyboard. They can also track longer novels or more complicated stories in a "Six Parts of a Story" six-cell storyboard. In addition to traditional storyboards, students can use our worksheet layout to create digital worksheets !

BME: Beginning, Middle and End Summaries

Students can use our classic comic strip layout to retell the elements of plot using a three-cell storyboard. This is best for younger grades, short stories, or for those looking for a quicker assessment. Check out the example stories below! These illustrate how a Beginning, Middle, End, sometimes known as a three act structure, is included in the novel studies for the popular books Sadako and the Thousand Paper Cranes , Pattan's Pumpkin and Charlotte's Web . Note that for Charlotte's Web students can create a BME summary in a chart layout that has two cells for each part giving them more choice in what scenes and important events to include.

Below is a blank BME template and a completed example of a BME summary for the exciting tale Tristan Strong Punches a Hole in the Sky by Kwame Mbalia.

Teachers can also take Storyboard That offline with these pre-made Beginning, Middle, End worksheets . Like all of our pre-designed worksheet templates, these can be easily customized by the teacher or the student to include images and ample space for writing.

"Six Parts of a Story" Plot Diagrams

For longer books and more complicated plots, a six-cell storyboard is necessary for the story diagram. The storyboard template can include titles above each cell for: exposition, conflict, rising action, climax, falling action and resolution. Below is an example from the classic high school novel, To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee. As you can see, there is ample room for descriptions as well as compelling images that illustrate these primary story elements.

Plot Diagrams for any Book

How to get started? Copy the storyboard below to easily give students a blank template to map the narrative arc of a story for any book!

Blank Template

Or, copy our pre-made lesson plan in our General Novel Study Guide and adapt it to meet the needs of your students! The finished example using the tale Goldilocks is below. Since most students know the story of Goldilocks (or can easily re-read it), it is an effective plot chart example to use for many students!

More Examples of Related Activities

A plot diagram in literature can be completed with any novel and across grade levels from elementary through high school. Below are some of our most loved pre-made activities that you can quickly and easily copy into your teacher account: Because of Mr. Terupt by Rob Buyea, The Stars Beneath our Feet by David Barclay Moore, and The Book Thief by Markus Zusak. For more inspiration, see all of our novel studies in our vast Literature Library !

Working on plays with your students? We also have lots of information about Five Act Structure and three act structure to help you and your students understand more about the plot format of the dramatic arc!

How to Differentiate Lessons with Modified Templates

Within all classrooms there are varying degrees of abilities , challenges and needs. Some students may be able to complete a narrative arc template with little assistance while others need a more personalized approach. Students who struggle with reading comprehension may have difficulty picking out the different parts of a story. In our Storyboard That assignments, teachers have the ability to add as many templates as they wish!

Teachers can add templates that include leading information such as prompts, sentence starters and even finished cells to help students that need more scaffolding with the assignment. The best part about providing templates is that teachers can control just what information is provided and decide how much to guide students.

Providing visuals prior to asking the students to complete the assignment gives them “clues” to what they are looking for when completing the diagram. The visuals act as context clues for students to focus their energy on the appropriate information, as seen in the Holes examples below.

In the first template on the left, the teacher used our finished example but removed the text in the description boxes. In this way, the student may use the illustrations as a guide but the challenge is to complete the writing in the descriptions for each plot element.

In the second story template on the right, the teacher included the text in the description boxes but left the cells blank for the student to create the illustrations.

In the third example on the left, the teacher included one finished cell to help get students started. They can see what an illustration and description can look like and apply that knowledge to completing the rest of the diagram.

Finally in the last example, both text and images are included for those students that need maximum support. Teachers can have students use this as a starting point and add speech bubbles, quotes or other text evidence to enhance each plot element.

Digital or Printable Worksheets

Teachers and students can use our worksheet layout along with the pre-made graphic organizer found in the worksheets category in the Creator to create a template from scratch. Even better, teachers may choose from our pre-made narrative arc worksheets ! These worksheets can be customized and printed out for students to fill out by hand, or they can be completed in the Storyboard Creator like a digital worksheet. You can even create multiple versions for those students who might need a little extra help with their plot map, and keep them in your teacher dashboard for future use!

Check out our Digital Worksheet Plot Diagram Assignment for the popular book Wonder by R.J. Palacio, or our book creator where students can make their own books. A GIF of the finished example is below! Do your students love Wonder ? Check out our more in-depth lessons on this modern classic . These lessons are all standards-aligned and ready to assign to students in just a few clicks!

Relating to the Common Core

Analyzing a literary work with a plot structure diagram fulfills Common Core ELA standards for many age groups. Below are only two examples of ELA standards for different levels. Please see your Common Core State Standards for grade-appropriate strands.

• ELA-Literacy.RL.9-10.2 : Determine a theme or central idea of a text and analyze in detail its development over the course of the text, including how it emerges and is shaped and refined by specific details; provide an objective summary of the text
• ELA-Literacy.RL.6.3 : Describe how a particular story’s or drama’s plot unfolds in a series of episodes as well as how the characters respond or change as the plot moves toward a resolution

Example Rubrics for Story Diagram Lesson Plans

Rubrics are an essential tool to use with assessments for both teachers and students. For students, rubrics help outline what is expected in a positive, clear and concise way. Students do not have to guess how to meet the expectations of an assignment because it is clearly iterated and can be referenced as they work. For teachers, rubrics allow them to point to specific criteria when grading and providing feedback.

The challenge for most teachers is that rubrics are extremely time consuming to make. Fear not! The educators at Storyboard That have created them for you! Below are some example rubrics that you can use with any plot point lesson plan in elementary, middle and high school. They are all created with Rubric , our easy online rubric maker! These rubrics can be attached to any assignment by simply copying the url! You can also customize and edit these rubrics to meet your specific needs by going to Quick Rubric .

How to Teach Plot Diagrams in the Elementary Classroom

Define the parts of a plot diagram.

Begin by introducing the five key components of a plot diagram: exposition, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. Provide examples of each of these parts to help students understand their meanings.

Use Graphic Organizers

Use graphic organizers such as a story map or plot diagram to visually represent the different parts of a story. These organizers can help students see how the different parts of the story fit together.

Read Stories with Clear Plot Structures

Choose books or stories that have clear plot structures. This will help students see how the different parts of the plot diagram work together to create a cohesive story.

Provide Opportunities for Practice

Provide students with opportunities to practice creating their own plot diagrams. This could be done through independent work, small group work, or whole-class activities.

Connect to Real-Life Experiences

Help students see how the plot diagram can be applied to their own lives. For example, they could create a plot diagram for a personal experience or a current event.

Frequently Asked Questions about Plot Diagrams

What are the six parts of a plot diagram.

The plot, or narrative arc of a story, is composed of 6 main parts that make up the beginning, middle and end of the story. The six parts are: exposition, conflict, rising action, climax, falling action, and resolution. These can be mapped out in a storyboard or shown as a plot triangle or story mountain.

Why is it helpful to make plot diagrams?

Plot diagrams can increase students' reading comprehension as well as aid students in their creative writing. They help students learn to identify the most important parts in the plot as well as delve into higher level literary thinking about themes and devices that authors use to tell a story.

How can I make a plot diagram?

Storyboard That makes it so easy to create your own plot diagram! Students can use a storyboard template that has titles and descriptions for each of the 6 parts of the story. We also have many plot diagram worksheet templates to choose from that can be used online as a digital worksheet or printed out and used offline as well!

What is the narrative arc of a story?

The narrative arc of a story includes key stages: exposition (introduction), inciting incident (triggering event), rising action (developing conflict), climax (peak conflict), falling action (unraveling), and resolution (conclusion). These stages structure the story's progression, engage the audience, and provide a satisfying narrative experience.

What is a good narrative arc?

A good narrative arc is a storytelling structure that engages the audience and delivers a satisfying story. It typically consists of key elements: exposition (introduction), inciting incident (triggering event), rising action (developing conflict), climax (peak conflict), falling action (unraveling), and resolution (conclusion). It should engage the audience, develop characters, introduce conflict, explore meaningful themes, and ultimately provide a satisfying and meaningful conclusion, tying up loose ends and answering key questions. The quality of a narrative arc can vary depending on the genre, style, and intended audience, but these elements and qualities are often essential for a compelling narrative.

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18 Types of Diagrams You Can Use to Visualize Data (Templates Included)

Have you ever found yourself stuck while trying to explain a complex concept to someone? Or struggling to put your idea into words?

This is where diagrams come in.

While simple text is best for highlighting figures or information, diagrams are handy for conveying complex ideas and loads of information without overwhelming your audience. They can visualize almost anything, from numerical data to qualitative relationships, making them versatile tools in numerous fields.

Whether you’re in the academe or enterprise setting, this guide is for you. We’ll explore the different types of diagrams with a brief explanation for each type, the best time to use a diagram type, and how you can use them to be a better visual storyteller and communicator. You’ll also find examples and templates for each type of diagram.

Let’s get on with it.

You can also follow along by creating a free account . Select a template to get started.

What exactly is a diagram? 

A diagram is a visual snapshot of information. Think of diagrams as visual representations of data or information that communicate a concept, idea, or process in a simplified and easily understandable way. You can also use them to illustrate relationships, hierarchies, cycles, or workflows. 

Diagrams aren’t just used to show quantitative data, such as sales earnings or satisfaction ratings with a diagram. They’re equally helpful if you want to share qualitative data. For example, a diagram could be used to illustrate the life cycle of a butterfly, showcasing each transformation stage. 

Now, let’s jump into the various types of diagrams, ranging from simple flow charts to the more complex Unified Modeling Language (UML) diagrams.

18 diagram types and when to use each type 

Whether you’re doing data analysis or need a simple visual representation of data, there is a wide array of diagrams at your fingertips. If you’re having a hard time choosing the right diagram for your data visualization needs, use the list below as a quick guide. 

1. Flowchart 

A flowchart is a type of diagram that acts as a roadmap for a process or workflow. It uses shapes and arrows to guide you through each step, making complex procedures simple to understand.

Flowcharts are best for : Simplifying complex processes into understandable stages, making it easier for your readers to follow along and see the ‘big picture”. 

2. Line graph

Line graphs , sometimes called line charts, visualizes numerical data points connected by straight lines. In a line graph or line chart, data points representing different time periods are plotted and connected by a line. This helps with easy visualization of trends and patterns.

Line graphs are best for: Representing the change of one or more quantities over time, making them excellent for tracking the progression of data points.

3. Bar chart 

A bar chart , often interchangeable with bar graphs, is a type of diagram used primarily to display and compare data. For this diagram type, rectangular bars of varying lengths represent data of different categories or groups. Each bar represents a category, and the length or height of the bar corresponds to the numeric data or quantity.

Variations of bar charts include stacked bar charts, grouped bar charts, and horizontal bar charts. 

Bar charts are best for : Comparing the frequency, count, or other measures (such as average) for different categories or groups. A bar chart is particularly useful if you want to display data sets that can be grouped into categories.

4. Circle diagram or pie chart

A pie chart is a circular diagram that represents data in slices. Each slice of the pie chart represents a different category and its proportion to the whole.

Pie charts are best for: Displaying categorical data where you want to highlight each category’s percentage of the total.

5.Venn diagrams

A Venn diagram compares the differences and similarities of groups of things. As a diagram based on overlapping circles, each circle in a Venn diagram represents a different set, and their overlap represents the intersection of the data sets. 

Venn diagrams are best for : Visualizing the relationships between different groups of things. They are helpful when you want to show areas of overlap between elements. A good example is if you want to compare the features of different products or two overlapping concepts, like in the Ikigai Venn diagram template below. Easily create your Venn diagram with Piktochart’s online Venn diagram maker .

6. Tree diagrams

A tree diagram is a diagram that starts with one central idea and expands with branching lines to show multiple paths, all possible outcomes, decisions, or steps. Each ‘branch’ represents a possible outcome or decision in a tree diagram, moving from left to right. Tree diagrams are best for : Representing hierarchy like organizational roles, evolutionary relationships, or possible outcomes of events like when a company launches a product. 

7. Organizational chart 

Organizational charts are diagrams used to display the structure of an organization. In an organizational chart, each box or node represents a different role or department, and lines connecting the boxes illustrate the lines of authority, communication, and responsibility. The chart typically starts with the highest-ranking individual or body (like a CEO or Board of Directors) at the top and branches downwards to various levels of management and individual employees.

Organizational charts are best for : Showing relationships between different members and departments in a company or organization. 

8. Gantt charts 

Gantt charts are typically used in project management to represent the timeline of a project. They consist of horizontal bars, with each bar representing a task or activity.

For this type of diagram, each chart is represented by a horizontal bar spanning from its start date to its end date. The length of the bar corresponds to the duration of the task. Tasks are listed vertically, often in the order they need to be completed. In some projects, tasks are grouped under larger, overarching activities or phases.

Gantt charts are best for : Projects where you need to manage multiple tasks that occur over time, often in a specific sequence, and may depend on each other.

9. Unified Modeling Language (UML) diagram

Software engineers use Unified Modeling Language (UML) diagrams to create standardized diagrams that illustrate the building blocks of a software system.

UML diagrams, such as class diagrams, sequence diagrams, and state diagrams, provide different perspectives on complex systems. Class diagrams depict a system’s static structure, displaying classes, attributes, and relationships. Meanwhile, sequence diagrams illustrate interactions and communication between system entities, providing insight into system functionality. 

UML diagrams are best for : Visualizing a software system’s architecture in software engineering.

10. SWOT analysis diagrams 

A SWOT analysis diagram is used in business strategy for evaluating internal and external factors affecting the organization. The acronym stands for Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats. Each category is represented in a quadrant chart, providing a comprehensive view of the business landscape.

SWOT diagrams are best for : Strategic planning and decision-making. They represent data that can help identify areas of competitive advantage and inform strategy development.

Piktochart offers professionally-designed templates to create diagrams , reports , presentations , brochures , and more. Sign up for a free account today to create impressive visuals within minutes.

11. Fishbone diagram 

Fishbone diagrams, sometimes called cause-and-effect diagrams,  are used to represent the causes of a problem. They consist of a central idea, with different diagrams or branches representing the factors contributing to the problem.

Fishbone diagrams are best for : Brainstorming and problem-solving sessions.

12. Funnel chart

A funnel chart is a type of diagram used to represent stages or progress. In a funnel chart, each stage is represented by a horizontal bar, and the length of the bar corresponds to the quantity or value at that stage. The chart is widest at the top, where the quantity or value is greatest, and narrows down to represent the decrease at each subsequent stage.

Funnel charts are best for: Visual representation of the sales pipeline or data visualization of how a broad market is narrowed down into potential leads and a select group of customers.

13. SIPOC diagrams

A SIPOC diagram is used in process improvement to represent the different components of a process. The acronym stands for Suppliers, Inputs, Process, Outputs, and Customers.

SIPOC diagrams are best for: Providing a high-level view of a process which helps visualize the sequence of events and their interconnections.

14. Swimlane diagrams

Swimlane diagrams are best for mapping out complex processes that involve multiple participants or groups.

Keep in mind that each lane (which can be either horizontal or vertical) in a swimlane diagram represents a different participant or group involved in the process. The steps or activities carried out by each participant are plotted within their respective lanes. This helps clarify roles and responsibilities as well as the sequence of events and points of interaction.

Swimlane diagrams are best for : Visualizing how different roles or departments interact and collaborate throughout a workflow or process.

15. Mind maps

A mind map starts with a central idea and expands outward to include supporting ideas, related subtopics, concepts, or tasks, which can be further subdivided as needed. The branches radiating out from the central idea represent hierarchical relationships and connections between the different pieces of information in a mind map.

Mind maps are best for : Brainstorming, taking notes, organizing information, and visualizing complex concepts in a digestible format.

16. Scatter Plots

Scatter plots are used to compare data and represent the relationship between two variables. In a scatter plot, each dot represents a data point with its position along the x and y axes representing the values of two variables.

Scatter plots are best for : Observing relationships and trends between the two variables. These scatter plots are useful for regression analysis, hypothesis testing, and data exploration in various fields such as statistics, economics, and natural sciences.

17. PERT chart

PERT (Project Evaluation Review Technique) charts are project management tools used to schedule tasks. Each node or arrow represents each task, while lines represent dependencies between tasks. The chart includes task duration and earliest/latest start/end times.

Construction project managers often use PERT charts to schedule tasks like design, site prep, construction, and inspection. Identifying the critical path helps focus resources on tasks that impact the project timeline.

PERT charts are best for : Visualizing the sequence of tasks, the time required for each task, and project timelines.

18. Network diagrams

A network diagram visually represents the relationships between elements in a system or project. In network diagrams, each node represents an element, such as a device in a computer network or a task in a project. The lines or arrows connecting the nodes represent the relationships or interactions between these elements.

Network diagrams are best for: Visually representing the relationships or connections between different elements in a system or a project. They are often used in telecommunications, computer networking, project management, and organization planning.

Choosing the right diagram starts with a good understanding of your audience

Understanding your audience’s needs, expectations, and context is necessary before designing diagrams. The best diagram is not the one that looks the most impressive but the one that communicates complex information most clearly and effectively to your intended audience.

Make professional diagrams for free with no design experience with Piktochart’s online diagram maker . Sign up for free .

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The Art of Book Cover Design: A Visual Journey into the World of Books

The impact of a book cover design goes far beyond its aesthetic appeal. It is a visual representation of the story within, a key factor in attracting readers, and a powerful tool for book marketing.

In this article, we will explore the art of book cover design, delving into its importance, the psychology behind it, the elements of an effective cover, current trends, successful case studies, DIY tips for self-published authors, the benefits of hiring a professional designer, and available resources. By the end of this visual journey, you will have a deeper appreciation for the artistry and significance of book cover design.

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A book cover is the first point of contact between a reader and a book. It serves as a visual invitation, enticing potential readers to pick up the book and explore its contents. A well-designed cover can captivate the imagination, evoke emotions, and convey the essence of the story. It is the face of the book, representing its genre, tone, and target audience.

Not only does a compelling book cover attract readers, but it also distinguishes a book from its competitors. In a crowded market, where numerous books compete for attention, a well-designed cover can make all the difference. It helps a book stand out on the shelves, both physical and virtual, and increases its chances of being noticed by potential readers.

The Psychology Behind Book Cover Design

Book cover design is not just about aesthetics. It is also deeply rooted in psychology. Colors, typography, imagery, and composition all play a role in influencing readers’ perceptions and emotions. Understanding the psychology behind these design elements is crucial for creating an effective book cover.

Colors, for example, evoke specific emotions and associations. Warm colors like red and orange can convey excitement or passion, while cool colors like blue and green can evoke calmness or mystery. Typography choices also contribute to the overall tone of the book cover. Serif fonts can give a more traditional or elegant feel, while sans-serif fonts can convey modernity or simplicity.

Furthermore, the composition of a book cover can guide the reader’s eye and create a sense of balance or tension. The placement of elements, such as the title, author name, and imagery, can influence the viewer’s perception and draw attention to key elements. By understanding these psychological principles, book cover designers can strategically create covers that resonate with readers.

Elements of an Effective Book Cover

A successful book cover is a harmonious combination of various elements. These elements combine to create a visually appealing and meaningful design that captures the book’s essence. Here are some key elements to consider when designing a book cover:

1. Title and Author Name: The title and author name should be prominent and easily readable. Carefully select your typography to reflect the genre and tone of the book.

2. Imagery: The imagery on a book cover should apply to the story and intriguing enough to pique the reader’s curiosity. It should capture the essence of the book without revealing too much.

3. Colors: Select the color palette to evoke the desired emotions and reflect the genre of the book. The colors should harmonize and create a visually pleasing composition.

4. Typography: The choice of fonts and their arrangement can significantly impact the overall design. The typography should be legible, visually appealing, and consistent with the book’s overall theme.

5. Composition: The arrangement of all the elements on the cover should create a balanced and visually pleasing composition. The placement of each element should guide the viewer’s eye and create a sense of harmony.

By paying attention to these key elements, book cover designers can create visually striking and meaningful designs that attract readers and accurately represent the book’s essence.

Trends in Book Cover Design

Book cover design, like any other form of art, is subject to trends that evolve. Staying aware of these trends can help designers create fresh and current covers. Here are some current trends in book cover design:

1. Minimalism: Clean and minimalist designs have recently gained popularity. Simple illustrations, bold typography, and negative space create a modern, eye-catching aesthetic.

2. Hand-drawn Artwork: Hand-drawn illustrations and lettering add a personal and unique touch to book covers. This trend reflects a desire for authenticity and craftsmanship.

3. Vintage-inspired Designs: Nostalgia is a powerful emotion, and vintage-inspired book covers tap into this sentiment. Retro color palettes, typography, and imagery evoke a sense of nostalgia and charm.

4. Bold Typography: Typography takes center stage in many contemporary book cover designs. Bold and expressive fonts make an impact and draw attention to the title.

5. Abstract Art: Abstract and surreal designs allow creative interpretations and intrigue. These covers often use vibrant colors and unconventional compositions to capture the reader’s attention.

While it’s important to be aware of current trends, it’s also essential to balance staying relevant and creating a timeless design that resonates with the book’s target audience.

Case Studies of Successful Book Covers

Examining successful book covers can provide valuable insights into what works in the world of book cover design. Let’s explore a few case studies that showcase the power of a well-designed cover:

1. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald: The iconic cover of The Great Gatsby is a testament to the enduring power of simplicity. With its elegant, yet minimalistic design featuring a pair of eyes and vibrant colors, the cover captures the essence of the Jazz Age and the mysterious allure of Jay Gatsby.

2. The Hunger Games by Suzanne Collins: The cover of The Hunger Games trilogy successfully conveys the dystopian theme of the series. The iconic mockingjay pin, combined with a bold sans-serif font and a fiery background, instantly captures attention and creates a sense of urgency.

3. “Harry Potter” series by J.K. Rowling: The covers of the “Harry Potter” series have become instantly recognizable worldwide. Each cover features intricate illustrations that hint at the magical world within. The use of vibrant colors, whimsical typography, and consistent design elements create a sense of unity throughout the series.

These case studies demonstrate the power of a well-designed book cover in capturing the essence of a story and resonating with readers. They exemplify how an effective book cover can become an enduring symbol of a beloved book.

DIY Book Cover Design Tips for Self-Published Authors

Self-published authors often face the challenge of designing their book covers on a limited budget. While hiring a professional designer is ideal, it may not always be feasible. Here are some DIY book cover design tips for self-published authors:

1. Research and Inspiration: Start by researching book covers in your genre to get a sense of current trends and design elements that resonate with readers. Take note of cover designs that catch your eye and analyze why they are effective.

2. Use High-Quality Images: If you choose to use stock photos or illustrations, ensure they are of high quality and have the necessary licenses. Low-resolution or poorly composed images can detract from the overall design.

3. Typography Matters: Select legible and appropriate fonts for your genre. Experiment with different typography options, but avoid using too many fonts, as it can create a cluttered look. If applicable, consistency in typography across your book series can create a cohesive and recognizable brand.

4. Seek Feedback: Share your design with a trusted group of friends, beta readers, or online communities to gather feedback. Constructive criticism can help refine your design and ensure it resonates with your target audience.

5. Simplicity is Key: Keep the design simple and focused. Avoid cluttering the cover with too many elements or excessive text. A clean and visually striking design will have a more significant impact.

While these tips can help self-published authors create their book covers, it’s essential to acknowledge the value of professional expertise. Investing in a professional book cover designer can elevate your book’s overall quality and marketability.

Hiring a Professional Book Cover Designer

Hiring a professional book cover designer is a wise investment for authors who want to ensure their book covers are of the highest quality. Professional designers bring expertise, creativity, and an understanding of current market trends. Here are some benefits of hiring a professional book cover designer:

1. Industry Knowledge: Professional book cover designers deeply understand various genres and can create designs that resonate with specific target audiences. They stay up-to-date with industry trends and know what works in the market.

2. Customization: A professional designer can create a unique and personalized cover tailored to your book’s needs. They consider the story, genre, and target audience to design a cover that accurately represents your book.

3. Technical Expertise: Professional designers have the technical skills and software knowledge to create high-quality designs. They understand the technical requirements for print and digital formats, ensuring your cover looks great in all formats.

4. Collaboration: Working with a professional designer allows for collaboration and feedback. They can guide you through the design process, incorporating your vision while providing valuable insights and suggestions.

5. Time and Stress Savings: Designing a book cover from scratch can be time-consuming and stressful, especially for authors juggling multiple responsibilities. Hiring a professional designer frees up your time, allowing you to focus on writing, marketing, and other aspects of publishing.

Investing in a professional book cover designer is an investment in the success of your book. A well-designed cover can significantly impact your book’s chances of standing out in a competitive market and attracting readers.

Book Cover Design Services and Resources

For authors seeking professional book cover design services, numerous options are available. Below are some reputable book cover design services and resources to explore:

1. 99designs: 99designs is a popular platform that connects authors with a community of talented designers. Authors can launch a contest, provide a design brief, and receive multiple design options from different designers.

2. Reedsy: Reedsy is an online marketplace that connects authors with vetted professionals, including book cover designers. Authors can browse through the profiles of designers, view their portfolios, and hire them directly.

3. SelfPubBookCovers: SelfPubBookCovers offers a wide selection of pre-designed book covers that authors can customize to fit their books. The platform allows authors to search for covers by genre, theme, or style.

4. Canva: Canva is a popular graphic design tool offering pre-designed templates for book covers. Authors can choose from various templates, customize them with images and text, and download high-resolution files.

5. Professional Book Cover Designers: Researching and contacting professional book cover designers directly is another option. Many designers have websites or online portfolios where authors can view their work and contact them for inquiries.

These resources provide authors with access to talented designers and pre-designed templates, simplifying the process of finding a book cover that meets their needs and budget.

The Impact of Book Cover Design on Book Sales

The importance of book cover design cannot be overstated in book sales. A well-designed cover can significantly impact a book’s success in the market. Here’s how book cover design influences book sales:

1. Attracts Attention: A visually striking cover stands out among the competition, catching the eye of potential readers. It creates a first impression that compels readers to explore further.

2. Establishes Genre and Audience: A well-executed cover design instantly communicates a book’s genre and target audience. It helps readers quickly identify if the book aligns with their interests and preferences.

3. Builds Brand Recognition: Consistent and well-designed covers across a series or an author’s body of work establish a recognizable brand. This recognition can lead to increased trust and loyalty from readers.

4. Word-of-Mouth Marketing: A memorable and visually appealing cover can generate buzz and word-of-mouth recommendations. Readers are more likely to share and recommend a book with an enticing cover.

5. Online Visibility: In the digital age, book covers are crucial in online visibility. Covers that are visually appealing, easily readable in thumbnail size, and optimized for online platforms increase the chances of being discovered by potential readers.

The lasting legacy of a well-designed book cover extends beyond the initial release of a book. It can continue to attract readers and generate sales long after the book’s publication.

The Lasting Legacy of a Well-Designed Book Cover

In the world of books, where countless stories compete for attention, a well-designed book cover is a powerful asset. It has the potential to captivate readers, communicate the essence of a story, and significantly impact book sales. The art of book cover design combines aesthetics, psychology, and market knowledge to visually represent the book’s soul.

Whether you are an author embarking on a self-publishing journey or a traditional publisher, understanding the importance of book cover design is essential. By appreciating the elements of an effective cover, staying aware of current trends, and considering professional assistance when needed, you can unleash the full potential of your book’s visual journey.

So, embrace the art of book cover design, for it is the gateway to the vast and enchanting world of books. Let your cover be an invitation, a promise, and a lasting legacy that entices readers to embark on a literary adventure.

Now it’s time to unleash your creativity and design a book cover that leaves a lasting impression. Your book deserves a cover that captivates and inspires. Start your visual journey into the world of book cover design today!

Esther Lombardi

Esther A. Lombardi is a freelance writer and journalist with more than two decades of experience writing for an array of publications, online and offline. She also has a master's degree in English Literature with a background in Web Technology and Journalism. 

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How to Illustrate a Book: Expert Tips and Techniques

By: Author Paul Jenkins

Posted on April 23, 2023

Categories Art , Publishing

Illustrating a book can be rewarding and creative, bringing the story to life through captivating visuals. Whether you are a writer looking to enhance your work or an artist seeking to collaborate with an author, understanding the basic steps of book illustration is essential to producing a successful final product.

There are many ways to approach book illustration, and drawing from various sources and techniques can help artists develop their unique style. The process often starts with reading the story and deeply understanding the characters, settings, and themes. This allows the illustrator to create images that complement and enhance the narrative, making it more engaging for the reader.

Aspiring illustrators should seek inspiration from various sources, such as their favorite artists or award-winning picture books, to understand different approaches and styles in illustration. This can help them develop their distinctive style and make their illustrations stand out in the crowded book publishing market. It’s essential to practice and refine one’s skills, whether working on a personal project or collaborating with an author, to create compelling visuals that truly capture the magic of the story being told.

Finding Inspiration

Finding inspiration for illustrating a book can be a challenging yet exciting process. Creating a unique and captivating visual representation of the text is essential, particularly for children’s books, as the illustrations play a significant role in engaging young readers.

Reading and Research

One of the best ways to gather inspiration is by reading and researching various books within your target genre. Expose yourself to different illustration styles and techniques to understand how other illustrators have successfully brought stories to life. Additionally, consider the reading level of your intended audience and ensure that your illustrations are age-appropriate and engaging.

Character Development

Developing strong, memorable characters is crucial for an interesting story. Take inspiration from the text and start sketching your ideas for the appearance and personality of each character. Consider their emotions, relationships, and roles within the story. Iterating and refining your character designs will help create a more immersive experience for readers.

Continuity in Illustrations

Maintaining continuity throughout your illustrations is necessary to create a cohesive visual narrative. Pay attention to the details in the story, such as character appearances, settings, and colors, to ensure that they remain consistent across all illustrations. This sense of continuity will make the book feel more polished and professional, helping the reader to be fully immersed in the story.

By actively reading and researching, investing time in character development, and focusing on maintaining continuity in your illustrations, you can gather valuable inspiration that will help you create a unique and captivating visual representation of the text in your book.

Choosing an Art Style

When illustrating a book, choosing an art style that complements the narrative and captivates the reader’s imagination is crucial. The art style sets the tone for the entire book, enhances the storytelling, and adds aesthetic value to the text. This section will explore two critical aspects of selecting an art style for your illustrations: Traditional vs. Digital Art and Color Palette Selection.

Traditional vs. Digital Art

Both traditional and digital art offers their unique set of advantages and aesthetics. Traditional art encompasses hand-drawn or hand-painted illustrations, often created with graphite, ink, watercolor, acrylic, or oil. This method provides a tangible, authentic feel and often showcases the artist’s handiwork and intricate details. However, it can be more time-consuming and require more physical resources.

Digital art, on the other hand, utilizes computer software and digital tools to create illustrations. This medium enables artists to experiment with various techniques and styles and edit, undo, or redo their work conveniently. Digital art can also be more cost-effective and efficient than traditional methods, requiring fewer materials and allowing for more effortless reproduction and distribution.

When choosing between traditional and digital art, consider your artistic skills, available tools and resources, production timeline, and the desired visual effect for your book’s illustrations.

Color Palette Selection

Choosing an appropriate color palette is essential for creating visually cohesive and compelling illustrations. A well-chosen color palette can enhance your book’s narrative’s mood, atmosphere, and overall perception. To select a suitable color palette, consider the following factors:

• Story Theme: Choose colors that reflect your book’s tone and subject matter. For example, a children’s book may benefit from bright, vibrant colors, while a mystery novel may call for darker, muted hues.
• Consistency: Develop a uniform palette to ensure your illustrations maintain a consistent appearance throughout the book. This consistency helps create a sense of continuity and familiarity for readers.
• Contrast: Incorporate contrasting colors to draw attention to specific elements or create a visual hierarchy in your illustrations. Proper use of contrast can make your graphics more legible and enhance storytelling.
• Emotional Impact: Consider the emotional associations of different colors and how they can affect the reader’s experience. For instance, cool colors like blues and greens often evoke calm and tranquility, while warm colors such as reds and oranges can convey energy and excitement.

When selecting your color palette, experiment with various combinations and consider consulting resources such as illustration style guides or color theory materials to make informed decisions. Ultimately, your chosen art style and color palette should enhance the book’s narrative, engage the reader, and convey the intended emotions and themes.

Creating a Portfolio

As an illustrator, having a professional portfolio is crucial for showcasing your work and impressing potential clients. This section will discuss some of the best practices for creating a compelling portfolio and explore various portfolio platforms you can utilize.

Best Practices

When building a strong illustration portfolio, curating a collection of your best work is essential. Utilize the following tips to make your portfolio more effective:

• Start and end your portfolio with your strongest illustrations to create a great first impression and deliver a strong lasting impact.
• Organize your work in a cohesive and visually appealing manner, grouping similar projects and illustrations.
• Include a mix of personal and professional projects to showcase your range and versatility as an illustrator.
• Consider including relevant testimonials from previous clients or art directors to highlight your professionalism and competency.

Portfolio Platforms

Now that you know what to include in your portfolio, choosing the right platform to display your work is essential. Various online platforms and websites are available, each catering to different types and styles of portfolios. A few popular options include:

Before committing to a platform, research each option to find one most suitable for the style and goals of your illustration career.

Developing and Sketching Thumbnails

Developing and sketching thumbnails is a crucial step in illustrating a book. Thumbnails serve as a blueprint for the final illustrations, allowing artists to experiment with composition, perspective, and visual storytelling.

Thumbnail Sketches

Thumbnail sketches are rough drawings that focus on basic shapes and layouts. They are used to study the visual elements within a scene or page without focusing on finer details. Creating thumbnail sketches helps the illustrator understand the composition of each scene and identify any potential issues early in the process.

When sketching thumbnails, it is important to let the pencil flow freely over the page, focusing on capturing the scene’s essence in simple, black-and-white shapes. The goal is to experiment with different compositions and visual elements, iterating on ideas quickly before committing to a more detailed illustration.

Creating a Storyboard

A storyboard is a series of thumbnail sketches that represent the sequential flow of the book’s illustrations. It is an essential tool for visualizing the progression and pacing of the story. The storyboard gives the illustrator an overview of the entire book, allowing them to make any necessary adjustments to ensure the story flows cohesively.

When creating a storyboard, the illustrator should begin by using the thumbnail sketches they’ve already created to arrange the key scenes in sequential order. This provides a visual representation of the story and helps identify gaps or inconsistencies in the narrative. If needed, additional thumbnail sketches can be created to address these issues.

In conclusion, developing and sketching thumbnails is foundational in illustrating a book. By creating thumbnail sketches and organizing them into a storyboard, illustrators can ensure that their final illustrations effectively convey the story’s narrative and pacing.

Working with Authors and Editors

Illustrating a book involves a close partnership with authors and editors. Navigating this collaboration is essential to create a visually appealing and cohesive work. This section provides insights into effectively working with authors and editors through feedback, communication, and collaboration.

Giving and Receiving Feedback

Sharing and receiving feedback is an essential part of the book illustration process. The illustrator should be open to constructive criticism from the author and editors and use it to refine their work. It is crucial that illustrators:

• Ask for specific feedback on their initial sketches and ideas;
• Listen carefully to the suggestions and concerns of the author and editors; and
• Be willing to make changes to the illustrations in response to feedback.

Similarly, authors and editors should:

• Provide clear and constructive feedback to the illustrator;
• Be open to the illustrator’s input and ideas; and
• Approach the process as a collaborative effort.

Collaboration and Communication

Effective communication between the illustrator, author, and editors is vital to the success of the book illustration process. To maintain a productive and smooth collaboration:

• The illustrator should have a clear understanding of the author’s vision and the story’s tone;
• Regular check-in sessions should be held to discuss the work’s progress and raise any issues that may arise;
• Both parties should respect each other’s creative process and be open to suggestions and changes; and
• Transparent communication on deadlines and expectations is necessary to avoid misunderstandings.

Illustrators, authors, and editors can collaborate by practicing effective communication and collaboration to create a polished and visually engaging final product.

Navigating the Publishing Process

When illustrating a book, it is crucial to understand the publishing process to navigate it effectively. This section covers the essentials of working with publishing companies, contracts and agreements, and self-publishing options.

Publishing Companies

Publishing companies play a significant role in bringing your illustrated book to life. They are responsible for various tasks such as editing, designing covers, and marketing your book. It is essential to research publishing companies and their submission requirements to find the best fit for your work. Typically, you will need an agent to help you communicate with traditional publishing houses and show them your illustrations and book concept.

Contracts and Agreements

Once a publisher expresses interest in your book, you will likely sign a contract. This legal document outlines the terms and conditions for both parties, including royalties, deadlines, rights, and responsibilities. As an illustrator, it is vital to read the contract carefully and ensure its fairness. Don’t hesitate to consult a lawyer specializing in intellectual property to clarify confusing terms or negotiate better conditions if needed.

Self-Publishing Options

Self-publishing is an alternative to traditional publishing companies. This option allows you complete control over the creative process and rights to your work. However, self-publishing also means taking on the responsibility of editing, formatting, cover design, and marketing that a publishing company would handle. Some popular self-publishing platforms are Amazon Kindle Direct Publishing (KDP), IngramSpark, and Lulu.

Do not neglect the importance of editing, cover design, and formatting when self-publishing. Professional-looking illustrations and a well-formatted book can significantly impact your book’s success. A good book cover can attract readers and entice them to purchase your work.

Designing Book Covers

When illustrating a book, the cover is crucial in attracting readers and conveying the mood or theme. This section will discuss photos, images, and software tools for creating eye-catching book covers.

Photos and Images

Using high-quality photos and images is vital for creating captivating book covers. These visuals help readers connect instantly with the book’s content by providing a glimpse into its theme, narrative, or genre. For children’s books, colorful illustrations often appeal to young readers and spark their imaginations.

When selecting photographs for book covers, it’s essential to choose visually appealing images that reflect the book’s content. Ensure the images convey the story’s mood, characters, or setting, giving potential readers an idea of what to expect. Use high-resolution images to avoid pixelated or blurry covers, especially when printing physical books.

Software Tools

Various software tools can significantly assist in designing professional-looking book covers. Adobe Photoshop is a popular and powerful editing software designers widely use to create custom artwork or edit existing images. Photoshop also allows users to work with layers, manipulate typography, and apply special effects, all essential for an impactful book cover design.

Another user-friendly software option is Canva , which provides numerous templates, images, and design elements to help even amateurs create visually appealing book covers. Canva’s drag-and-drop interface makes it easy for users to experiment with design elements, typography, and colors without requiring extensive design expertise.

In conclusion, designing an engaging book cover requires stunning visuals and the right software tools. By selecting relevant images and mastering software like Adobe Photoshop or Canva, designers can create attractive book covers that effectively convey the book’s essence and entice readers to explore its content.

Catering to Young Readers

Illustrating a book for young readers requires specific attention, as it plays a crucial role in engaging children and helping them understand the narrative. This section will focus on creating age-appropriate content and considering reading levels while illustrating a book for young audiences.

Age-Appropriate Content

To cater to young readers, creating appropriate illustrations for their age group is essential. For instance, very young children respond well to simple, bold shapes and bright colors, while older children may appreciate more complex, detailed illustrations. It is essential to clearly understand the target audience’s preferences and cognitive abilities while designing illustrations. A key factor is to balance providing visual appeal and ensuring that the images are not overwhelming or confusing for young minds.

Reading Levels

A critical aspect of illustrating for young readers is keeping in mind their reading levels. At different stages of their reading journey, children are likely to rely more or less on illustrations to help them understand the story. For early readers or pre-readers, illustrations need to be highly descriptive and depict the story’s main events, almost like a visual storytelling format. As children’s reading skills progress, the images can become more abstract, often complemented by the text rather than directly reflecting it.

Various visual elements such as tables, bullet points, and charts can help engage children and convey information more effectively in educational or non-fiction books. Using these elements ensures that the content remains accessible and appealing to diverse groups of young readers:

• Use tables to organize and display complex data or lists.
• Implement bullet points for breaking down key points and making them easily digestible.
• Utilize charts and graphs to present numerical or statistical information in a visually appealing manner.

In conclusion, catering to young readers while illustrating a book involves creating age-appropriate content that is mindful of their reading levels. Focusing on these factors can help make the book more engaging and accessible to its intended audience.

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Visual Representation of Texts

In-class exercise.

Many students find working in the visual mode a productive change. Thes two related exercises help students better understand challenging texts and prepare to write a paper on them. You may find that one or another works better in your class, or you may choose to use both, at different points in the semester. This activity also works well with online tools such as Jamboard and may be of special interest when teaching remotely; see a Jamboard variation handout here .

multimodality; metacognition; reading strategies; audience; visual mode; creativity; group activity; collaboration; mind map; concept map; research question

Exercise 1: Creating Visual Schema for Texts

Students create a list of best practices for understanding a text and then apply these strategies to a challenging text to represent it visually for an audience that is interested in but unfamiliar with it. This exercise helps students to better understand a challenging text by simplifying its abstract concepts into images. It also makes explicit reading strategies that students can transfer to other contexts.

To apply effective systems of thinking from a previous text as a way to formalize analytical habits

• Individual Reflections
• What in-class activities (discussions, small group activities, writing prompts) helped you to organize your understanding of our previous texts? Why?
• How can you generalize these activities so that you can apply them to any text?
• Group Discussion : Share your answers with your small group and create a list of “best practices” for understanding a challenging text. Consider the following questions to begin organizing your ideas:
• What general key terms/concepts need defining? (Your reader is unfamiliar but interested.)
• What background information needs to be summarized to provide context?
• What structural information (how the book is organized, sections, etc.) is necessary?
• What kinds of evidence does the text draw on?
• Creative Activity
• Create a visual schema for our text to help an unfamiliar reader understand it.
• As you create your visual schema, try to balance general and particular information.
• Be creative with your schema; you have complete freedom.
• After your group has finalized your schema, you will present it on the chalkboard, poster board, or via a free idea mapping tool like MindMup or LucidChart or another program and share it with the class.

Student Samples

The image above shows a chalk-drawn flower on a classroom blackboard, with words written on the parts of the flower representing different elements of the text.

The image above shows a pencil and marker sketch on a large sheet of paper, with symbols and quotes from the text.

Here’s a downloadable version of this activity to distribute to students.

Exercise 1.5: Creating Visual Schema for Texts (Jamboard edition)

The images above show an image of a “sticky note” Jamboard with directions (directions text also available here ) and a sample of a Jamboard schema with sticky notes, images, and words to represent a text

Exercise 2: New Perspectives on Interpreting and Connecting Texts

This brainstorming activity asks students to visually represent class readings in order to generate a research question and potential ways to answer it. It ends by asking students to write an elevator story about their essay’s possible direction.

To spark new ways of thinking about how to generate a research question; to visualize connections between various texts; to strengthen concepts of narrative in argumentative writing

• Visualize : In any pictorial form you’d like, without using words other than the title of each text, express the main issues/themes for 1-2 of our texts. Ideas: comic strips, symbols and numbers, maps, stick figures, etc.
• Make Connections : Look at the story-images you created for the text(s):
• What larger themes/problems surfaced? 
• Which images resonate most strongly for the text(s)?
• Are there patterns and repetitions in your images?
• Consider one issue that appears in your visualization: What is the text saying about this issue? 
• Create a Research Question and Answer
• What question do you want to ask about one problem/issue found in the text(s)?
• What is the text’s response? (As in, what is/are the text(s) saying about this problem?)
• Write an Elevator Story : Finally, imagine telling a 15-second story of the ideas you’ve generated in this activity. This is all hypothetical for now, but that’s fine; it will help you begin to imagine your paper.

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Blog Graphic Design Visual Presentation: Tips, Types and Examples

Visual Presentation: Tips, Types and Examples

Written by: Krystle Wong Sep 28, 2023

So, you’re gearing up for that big presentation and you want it to be more than just another snooze-fest with slides. You want it to be engaging, memorable and downright impressive. 

Well, you’ve come to the right place — I’ve got some slick tips on how to create a visual presentation that’ll take your presentation game up a notch. 

Packed with presentation templates that are easily customizable, keep reading this blog post to learn the secret sauce behind crafting presentations that captivate, inform and remain etched in the memory of your audience.

Click to jump ahead:

What is a visual presentation

15 effective tips to make your visual presentations more engaging, 6 major types of visual presentation you should know , what are some common mistakes to avoid in visual presentations, visual presentation faqs, 5 steps to create a visual presentation with venngage.

A visual presentation is a communication method that utilizes visual elements such as images, graphics, charts, slides and other visual aids to convey information, ideas or messages to an audience. 

Visual presentations aim to enhance comprehension engagement and the overall impact of the message through the strategic use of visuals. People remember what they see, making your point last longer in their heads. 

Without further ado, let’s jump right into some great visual presentation examples that would do a great job in keeping your audience interested and getting your point across.

In today’s fast-paced world, where information is constantly bombarding our senses, creating engaging visual presentations has never been more crucial. To help you design a presentation that’ll leave a lasting impression, I’ve compiled these examples of visual presentations that will elevate your game.

1. Use the rule of thirds for layout

Ever heard of the rule of thirds? It’s a presentation layout trick that can instantly up your slide game. Imagine dividing your slide into a 3×3 grid and then placing your text and visuals at the intersection points or along the lines. This simple tweak creates a balanced and seriously pleasing layout that’ll draw everyone’s eyes.

2. Get creative with visual metaphors

Got a complex idea to explain? Skip the jargon and use visual metaphors. Throw in images that symbolize your point – for example, using a road map to show your journey towards a goal or using metaphors to represent answer choices or progress indicators in an interactive quiz or poll.

3. Engage with storytelling through data

Use storytelling magic to bring your data to life. Don’t just throw numbers at your audience—explain what they mean, why they matter and add a bit of human touch. Turn those stats into relatable tales and watch your audience’s eyes light up with understanding.

4. Visualize your data with charts and graphs

The right data visualization tools not only make content more appealing but also aid comprehension and retention. Choosing the right visual presentation for your data is all about finding a good match. 

For ordinal data, where things have a clear order, consider using ordered bar charts or dot plots. When it comes to nominal data, where categories are on an equal footing, stick with the classics like bar charts, pie charts or simple frequency tables. And for interval-ratio data, where there’s a meaningful order, go for histograms, line graphs, scatterplots or box plots to help your data shine.

In an increasingly visual world, effective visual communication is a valuable skill for conveying messages. Here’s a guide on how to use visual communication to engage your audience while avoiding information overload.

5. Employ the power of contrast

Want your important stuff to pop? That’s where contrast comes in. Mix things up with contrasting colors, fonts or shapes. It’s like highlighting your key points with a neon marker – an instant attention grabber.

6. End with a powerful visual punch

Your presentation closing should be a showstopper. Think a stunning clip art that wraps up your message with a visual bow, a killer quote that lingers in minds or a call to action that gets hearts racing.

7. Tell a visual story

Structure your slides like a storybook and create a visual narrative by arranging your slides in a way that tells a story. Each slide should flow into the next, creating a visual narrative that keeps your audience hooked till the very end.

Icons and images are essential for adding visual appeal and clarity to your presentation. Venngage provides a vast library of icons and images, allowing you to choose visuals that resonate with your audience and complement your message. 

8. Show the “before and after” magic

Want to drive home the impact of your message or solution? Whip out the “before and after” technique. Show the current state (before) and the desired state (after) in a visual way. It’s like showing a makeover transformation, but for your ideas.

9. Add fun with visual quizzes and polls

To break the monotony and see if your audience is still with you, throw in some quick image quizzes or polls. It’s like a mini-game break in your presentation — your audience gets involved and it makes your presentation way more dynamic and memorable.

10. Use visuals wisely

Your visuals are the secret sauce of a great presentation. Cherry-pick high-quality images, graphics, charts and videos that not only look good but also align with your message’s vibe. Each visual should have a purpose – they’re not just there for decoration. 

11. Utilize visual hierarchy

Employ design principles like contrast, alignment and proximity to make your key info stand out. Play around with fonts, colors and placement to make sure your audience can’t miss the important stuff.

12. Engage with multimedia

Static slides are so last year. Give your presentation some sizzle by tossing in multimedia elements. Think short video clips, animations, or a touch of sound when it makes sense, including an animated logo .

For those dealing with multilingual audiences, consider the use of an AI image translator to seamlessly convert text within images to various languages, enhancing accessibility and understanding. There are tons of video and clip creator tools like HubSpot or Adobe But remember, these are sidekicks, not the main act, so use them smartly.

13. Interact with your audience

Turn your presentation into a two-way street. Start your presentation by encouraging your audience to join in with thought-provoking questions, quick polls or using interactive tools. Get them chatting and watch your presentation come alive.

When it comes to delivering a group presentation, it’s important to have everyone on the team on the same page. Venngage’s real-time collaboration tools enable you and your team to work together seamlessly, regardless of geographical locations. Collaborators can provide input, make edits and offer suggestions in real time. 

14. Incorporate stories and examples

Weave in relatable stories, personal anecdotes or real-life examples to illustrate your points. It’s like adding a dash of spice to your content – it becomes more memorable and relatable.

15. Nail that delivery

Don’t just stand there and recite facts like a robot — be a confident and engaging presenter. Lock eyes with your audience, mix up your tone and pace and use some gestures to drive your points home. Practice and brush up your presentation skills until you’ve got it down pat for a persuasive presentation that flows like a pro.

Venngage offers a wide selection of professionally designed presentation templates, each tailored for different purposes and styles. By choosing a template that aligns with your content and goals, you can create a visually cohesive and polished presentation that captivates your audience.

Looking for more presentation ideas ? Why not try using a presentation software that will take your presentations to the next level with a combination of user-friendly interfaces, stunning visuals, collaboration features and innovative functionalities that will take your presentations to the next level. 

Visual presentations come in various formats, each uniquely suited to convey information and engage audiences effectively. Here are six major types of visual presentations that you should be familiar with:

1. Slideshows or PowerPoint presentations

Slideshows are one of the most common forms of visual presentations. They typically consist of a series of slides containing text, images, charts, graphs and other visual elements. Slideshows are used for various purposes, including business presentations, educational lectures and conference talks.

2. Infographics

Infographics are visual representations of information, data or knowledge. They combine text, images and graphics to convey complex concepts or data in a concise and visually appealing manner. Infographics are often used in marketing, reporting and educational materials.

Don’t worry, they are also super easy to create thanks to Venngage’s fully customizable infographics templates that are professionally designed to bring your information to life. Be sure to try it out for your next visual presentation!

3. Video presentation

Videos are your dynamic storytellers. Whether it’s pre-recorded or happening in real-time, videos are the showstoppers. You can have interviews, demos, animations or even your own mini-documentary. Video presentations are highly engaging and can be shared in both in-person and virtual presentations .

4. Charts and graphs

Charts and graphs are visual representations of data that make it easier to understand and analyze numerical information. Common types include bar charts, line graphs, pie charts and scatterplots. They are commonly used in scientific research, business reports and academic presentations.

Effective data visualizations are crucial for simplifying complex information and Venngage has got you covered. Venngage’s chart templates enable you to create engaging charts, graphs,and infographics that enhance audience understanding and retention, leaving a lasting impression in your presentation.

5. Interactive presentations

Interactive presentations involve audience participation and engagement. These can include interactive polls, quizzes, games and multimedia elements that allow the audience to actively participate in the presentation. Interactive presentations are often used in workshops, training sessions and webinars.

Venngage’s interactive presentation tools enable you to create immersive experiences that leave a lasting impact and enhance audience retention. By incorporating features like clickable elements, quizzes and embedded multimedia, you can captivate your audience’s attention and encourage active participation.

6. Poster presentations

Poster presentations are the stars of the academic and research scene. They consist of a large poster that includes text, images and graphics to communicate research findings or project details and are usually used at conferences and exhibitions. For more poster ideas, browse through Venngage’s gallery of poster templates to inspire your next presentation.

Different visual presentations aside, different presentation methods also serve a unique purpose, tailored to specific objectives and audiences. Find out which type of presentation works best for the message you are sending across to better capture attention, maintain interest and leave a lasting impression. 

To make a good presentation , it’s crucial to be aware of common mistakes and how to avoid them. Without further ado, let’s explore some of these pitfalls along with valuable insights on how to sidestep them.

Overloading slides with text

Text heavy slides can be like trying to swallow a whole sandwich in one bite – overwhelming and unappetizing. Instead, opt for concise sentences and bullet points to keep your slides simple. Visuals can help convey your message in a more engaging way.

Using low-quality visuals

Grainy images and pixelated charts are the equivalent of a scratchy vinyl record at a DJ party. High-resolution visuals are your ticket to professionalism. Ensure that the images, charts and graphics you use are clear, relevant and sharp.

Choosing the right visuals for presentations is important. To find great visuals for your visual presentation, Browse Venngage’s extensive library of high-quality stock photos. These images can help you convey your message effectively, evoke emotions and create a visually pleasing narrative. 

Ignoring design consistency

Imagine a book with every chapter in a different font and color – it’s a visual mess. Consistency in fonts, colors and formatting throughout your presentation is key to a polished and professional look.

Reading directly from slides

Reading your slides word-for-word is like inviting your audience to a one-person audiobook session. Slides should complement your speech, not replace it. Use them as visual aids, offering key points and visuals to support your narrative.

Lack of visual hierarchy

Neglecting visual hierarchy is like trying to find Waldo in a crowd of clones. Coupling this with video transcription can make your presentation more comprehensive and engaging. Use size, color and positioning to emphasize what’s most important. Guide your audience’s attention to key points so they don’t miss the forest for the trees.

Ignoring accessibility

Accessibility isn’t an option these days; it’s a must. Forgetting alt text for images, color contrast and closed captions for videos can exclude individuals with disabilities from understanding your presentation. 

Relying too heavily on animation

While animations can add pizzazz and draw attention, overdoing it can overshadow your message. Use animations sparingly and with purpose to enhance, not detract from your content.

Using jargon and complex language

Keep it simple. Use plain language and explain terms when needed. You want your message to resonate, not leave people scratching their heads.

Not testing interactive elements

Interactive elements can be the life of your whole presentation, but not testing them beforehand is like jumping into a pool without checking if there’s water. Ensure that all interactive features, from live polls to multimedia content, work seamlessly. A smooth experience keeps your audience engaged and avoids those awkward technical hiccups.

Presenting complex data and information in a clear and visually appealing way has never been easier with Venngage. Build professional-looking designs with our free visual chart slide templates for your next presentation.

What is a visual presentation?

A visual presentation is a method of presenting information through visual aids such as slides, images, charts and videos. It enhances understanding and retention by illustrating key points and data visually. Visual presentations are commonly used in meetings, lectures, and conferences to engage and inform the audience effectively.

What is the role of storytelling in visual presentations?

Storytelling plays a crucial role in visual presentations by providing a narrative structure that engages the audience, helps them relate to the content and makes the information more memorable.

What software or tools can I use to create visual presentations?

You can use various software and tools to create visual presentations, including Microsoft PowerPoint, Google Slides, Adobe Illustrator, Canva, Prezi and Venngage, among others.

What is the difference between a visual presentation and a written report?

The main difference between a visual presentation and a written report is the medium of communication. Visual presentations rely on visuals, such as slides, charts and images to convey information quickly, while written reports use text to provide detailed information in a linear format.

How do I effectively communicate data through visual presentations?

To effectively communicate data through visual presentations, simplify complex data into easily digestible charts and graphs, use clear labels and titles and ensure that your visuals support the key messages you want to convey.

Are there any accessibility considerations for visual presentations?

Accessibility considerations for visual presentations include providing alt text for images, ensuring good color contrast, using readable fonts and providing transcripts or captions for multimedia content to make the presentation inclusive.

Most design tools today make accessibility hard but Venngage’s Accessibility Design Tool comes with accessibility features baked in, including accessible-friendly and inclusive icons.

How do I choose the right visuals for my presentation?

Choose visuals that align with your content and message. Use charts for data, images for illustrating concepts, icons for emphasis and color to evoke emotions or convey themes.

How can I adapt my visual presentations for online or virtual audiences?

To adapt visual presentations for online or virtual audiences, focus on concise content, use engaging visuals, ensure clear audio, encourage audience interaction through chat or polls and rehearse for a smooth online delivery.

What is the role of data visualization in visual presentations?

Data visualization in visual presentations simplifies complex data by using charts, graphs and diagrams, making it easier for the audience to understand and interpret information.

How do I choose the right color scheme and fonts for my visual presentation?

Choose a color scheme that aligns with your content and brand and select fonts that are readable and appropriate for the message you want to convey.

How can I measure the effectiveness of my visual presentation?

Measure the effectiveness of your visual presentation by collecting feedback from the audience, tracking engagement metrics (e.g., click-through rates for online presentations) and evaluating whether the presentation achieved its intended objectives.

Follow the 5 simple steps below to make your entire presentation visually appealing and impactful:

1. Sign up and log In: Log in to your Venngage account or sign up for free and gain access to Venngage’s templates and design tools.

2. Choose a template: Browse through Venngage’s presentation template library and select one that best suits your presentation’s purpose and style. Venngage offers a variety of pre-designed templates for different types of visual presentations, including infographics, reports, posters and more.

3. Edit and customize your template: Replace the placeholder text, image and graphics with your own content and customize the colors, fonts and visual elements to align with your presentation’s theme or your organization’s branding.

4. Add visual elements: Venngage offers a wide range of visual elements, such as icons, illustrations, charts, graphs and images, that you can easily add to your presentation with the user-friendly drag-and-drop editor.

5. Save and export your presentation: Export your presentation in a format that suits your needs and then share it with your audience via email, social media or by embedding it on your website or blog .

So, as you gear up for your next presentation, whether it’s for business, education or pure creative expression, don’t forget to keep these visual presentation ideas in your back pocket.

Feel free to experiment and fine-tune your approach and let your passion and expertise shine through in your presentation. With practice, you’ll not only build presentations but also leave a lasting impact on your audience – one slide at a time.

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• Published: 19 July 2015

The role of visual representations in scientific practices: from conceptual understanding and knowledge generation to ‘seeing’ how science works

• Maria Evagorou 1 ,
• Sibel Erduran 2 &
• Terhi Mäntylä 3  

International Journal of STEM Education volume  2 , Article number:  11 ( 2015 ) Cite this article

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The use of visual representations (i.e., photographs, diagrams, models) has been part of science, and their use makes it possible for scientists to interact with and represent complex phenomena, not observable in other ways. Despite a wealth of research in science education on visual representations, the emphasis of such research has mainly been on the conceptual understanding when using visual representations and less on visual representations as epistemic objects. In this paper, we argue that by positioning visual representations as epistemic objects of scientific practices, science education can bring a renewed focus on how visualization contributes to knowledge formation in science from the learners’ perspective.

This is a theoretical paper, and in order to argue about the role of visualization, we first present a case study, that of the discovery of the structure of DNA that highlights the epistemic components of visual information in science. The second case study focuses on Faraday’s use of the lines of magnetic force. Faraday is known of his exploratory, creative, and yet systemic way of experimenting, and the visual reasoning leading to theoretical development was an inherent part of the experimentation. Third, we trace a contemporary account from science focusing on the experimental practices and how reproducibility of experimental procedures can be reinforced through video data.

Conclusions

Our conclusions suggest that in teaching science, the emphasis in visualization should shift from cognitive understanding—using the products of science to understand the content—to engaging in the processes of visualization. Furthermore, we suggest that is it essential to design curriculum materials and learning environments that create a social and epistemic context and invite students to engage in the practice of visualization as evidence, reasoning, experimental procedure, or a means of communication and reflect on these practices. Implications for teacher education include the need for teacher professional development programs to problematize the use of visual representations as epistemic objects that are part of scientific practices.

During the last decades, research and reform documents in science education across the world have been calling for an emphasis not only on the content but also on the processes of science (Bybee 2014 ; Eurydice 2012 ; Duschl and Bybee 2014 ; Osborne 2014 ; Schwartz et al. 2012 ), in order to make science accessible to the students and enable them to understand the epistemic foundation of science. Scientific practices, part of the process of science, are the cognitive and discursive activities that are targeted in science education to develop epistemic understanding and appreciation of the nature of science (Duschl et al. 2008 ) and have been the emphasis of recent reform documents in science education across the world (Achieve 2013 ; Eurydice 2012 ). With the term scientific practices, we refer to the processes that take place during scientific discoveries and include among others: asking questions, developing and using models, engaging in arguments, and constructing and communicating explanations (National Research Council 2012 ). The emphasis on scientific practices aims to move the teaching of science from knowledge to the understanding of the processes and the epistemic aspects of science. Additionally, by placing an emphasis on engaging students in scientific practices, we aim to help students acquire scientific knowledge in meaningful contexts that resemble the reality of scientific discoveries.

Despite a wealth of research in science education on visual representations, the emphasis of such research has mainly been on the conceptual understanding when using visual representations and less on visual representations as epistemic objects. In this paper, we argue that by positioning visual representations as epistemic objects, science education can bring a renewed focus on how visualization contributes to knowledge formation in science from the learners’ perspective. Specifically, the use of visual representations (i.e., photographs, diagrams, tables, charts) has been part of science and over the years has evolved with the new technologies (i.e., from drawings to advanced digital images and three dimensional models). Visualization makes it possible for scientists to interact with complex phenomena (Richards 2003 ), and they might convey important evidence not observable in other ways. Visual representations as a tool to support cognitive understanding in science have been studied extensively (i.e., Gilbert 2010 ; Wu and Shah 2004 ). Studies in science education have explored the use of images in science textbooks (i.e., Dimopoulos et al. 2003 ; Bungum 2008 ), students’ representations or models when doing science (i.e., Gilbert et al. 2008 ; Dori et al. 2003 ; Lehrer and Schauble 2012 ; Schwarz et al. 2009 ), and students’ images of science and scientists (i.e., Chambers 1983 ). Therefore, studies in the field of science education have been using the term visualization as “the formation of an internal representation from an external representation” (Gilbert et al. 2008 , p. 4) or as a tool for conceptual understanding for students.

In this paper, we do not refer to visualization as mental image, model, or presentation only (Gilbert et al. 2008 ; Philips et al. 2010 ) but instead focus on visual representations or visualization as epistemic objects. Specifically, we refer to visualization as a process for knowledge production and growth in science. In this respect, modeling is an aspect of visualization, but what we are focusing on with visualization is not on the use of model as a tool for cognitive understanding (Gilbert 2010 ; Wu and Shah 2004 ) but the on the process of modeling as a scientific practice which includes the construction and use of models, the use of other representations, the communication in the groups with the use of the visual representation, and the appreciation of the difficulties that the science phase in this process. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to present through the history of science how visualization can be considered not only as a cognitive tool in science education but also as an epistemic object that can potentially support students to understand aspects of the nature of science.

Scientific practices and science education

According to the New Generation Science Standards (Achieve 2013 ), scientific practices refer to: asking questions and defining problems; developing and using models; planning and carrying out investigations; analyzing and interpreting data; using mathematical and computational thinking; constructing explanations and designing solutions; engaging in argument from evidence; and obtaining, evaluating, and communicating information. A significant aspect of scientific practices is that science learning is more than just about learning facts, concepts, theories, and laws. A fuller appreciation of science necessitates the understanding of the science relative to its epistemological grounding and the process that are involved in the production of knowledge (Hogan and Maglienti 2001 ; Wickman 2004 ).

The New Generation Science Standards is, among other changes, shifting away from science inquiry and towards the inclusion of scientific practices (Duschl and Bybee 2014 ; Osborne 2014 ). By comparing the abilities to do scientific inquiry (National Research Council 2000 ) with the set of scientific practices, it is evident that the latter is about engaging in the processes of doing science and experiencing in that way science in a more authentic way. Engaging in scientific practices according to Osborne ( 2014 ) “presents a more authentic picture of the endeavor that is science” (p.183) and also helps the students to develop a deeper understanding of the epistemic aspects of science. Furthermore, as Bybee ( 2014 ) argues, by engaging students in scientific practices, we involve them in an understanding of the nature of science and an understanding on the nature of scientific knowledge.

Science as a practice and scientific practices as a term emerged by the philosopher of science, Kuhn (Osborne 2014 ), refers to the processes in which the scientists engage during knowledge production and communication. The work that is followed by historians, philosophers, and sociologists of science (Latour 2011 ; Longino 2002 ; Nersessian 2008 ) revealed the scientific practices in which the scientists engage in and include among others theory development and specific ways of talking, modeling, and communicating the outcomes of science.

Visualization as an epistemic object

Schematic, pictorial symbols in the design of scientific instruments and analysis of the perceptual and functional information that is being stored in those images have been areas of investigation in philosophy of scientific experimentation (Gooding et al. 1993 ). The nature of visual perception, the relationship between thought and vision, and the role of reproducibility as a norm for experimental research form a central aspect of this domain of research in philosophy of science. For instance, Rothbart ( 1997 ) has argued that visualizations are commonplace in the theoretical sciences even if every scientific theory may not be defined by visualized models.

Visual representations (i.e., photographs, diagrams, tables, charts, models) have been used in science over the years to enable scientists to interact with complex phenomena (Richards 2003 ) and might convey important evidence not observable in other ways (Barber et al. 2006 ). Some authors (e.g., Ruivenkamp and Rip 2010 ) have argued that visualization is as a core activity of some scientific communities of practice (e.g., nanotechnology) while others (e.g., Lynch and Edgerton 1988 ) have differentiated the role of particular visualization techniques (e.g., of digital image processing in astronomy). Visualization in science includes the complex process through which scientists develop or produce imagery, schemes, and graphical representation, and therefore, what is of importance in this process is not only the result but also the methodology employed by the scientists, namely, how this result was produced. Visual representations in science may refer to objects that are believed to have some kind of material or physical existence but equally might refer to purely mental, conceptual, and abstract constructs (Pauwels 2006 ). More specifically, visual representations can be found for: (a) phenomena that are not observable with the eye (i.e., microscopic or macroscopic); (b) phenomena that do not exist as visual representations but can be translated as such (i.e., sound); and (c) in experimental settings to provide visual data representations (i.e., graphs presenting velocity of moving objects). Additionally, since science is not only about replicating reality but also about making it more understandable to people (either to the public or other scientists), visual representations are not only about reproducing the nature but also about: (a) functioning in helping solving a problem, (b) filling gaps in our knowledge, and (c) facilitating knowledge building or transfer (Lynch 2006 ).

Using or developing visual representations in the scientific practice can range from a straightforward to a complicated situation. More specifically, scientists can observe a phenomenon (i.e., mitosis) and represent it visually using a picture or diagram, which is quite straightforward. But they can also use a variety of complicated techniques (i.e., crystallography in the case of DNA studies) that are either available or need to be developed or refined in order to acquire the visual information that can be used in the process of theory development (i.e., Latour and Woolgar 1979 ). Furthermore, some visual representations need decoding, and the scientists need to learn how to read these images (i.e., radiologists); therefore, using visual representations in the process of science requires learning a new language that is specific to the medium/methods that is used (i.e., understanding an X-ray picture is different from understanding an MRI scan) and then communicating that language to other scientists and the public.

There are much intent and purposes of visual representations in scientific practices, as for example to make a diagnosis, compare, describe, and preserve for future study, verify and explore new territory, generate new data (Pauwels 2006 ), or present new methodologies. According to Latour and Woolgar ( 1979 ) and Knorr Cetina ( 1999 ), visual representations can be used either as primary data (i.e., image from a microscope). or can be used to help in concept development (i.e., models of DNA used by Watson and Crick), to uncover relationships and to make the abstract more concrete (graphs of sound waves). Therefore, visual representations and visual practices, in all forms, are an important aspect of the scientific practices in developing, clarifying, and transmitting scientific knowledge (Pauwels 2006 ).

Methods and Results: Merging Visualization and scientific practices in science

In this paper, we present three case studies that embody the working practices of scientists in an effort to present visualization as a scientific practice and present our argument about how visualization is a complex process that could include among others modeling and use of representation but is not only limited to that. The first case study explores the role of visualization in the construction of knowledge about the structure of DNA, using visuals as evidence. The second case study focuses on Faraday’s use of the lines of magnetic force and the visual reasoning leading to the theoretical development that was an inherent part of the experimentation. The third case study focuses on the current practices of scientists in the context of a peer-reviewed journal called the Journal of Visualized Experiments where the methodology is communicated through videotaped procedures. The three case studies represent the research interests of the three authors of this paper and were chosen to present how visualization as a practice can be involved in all stages of doing science, from hypothesizing and evaluating evidence (case study 1) to experimenting and reasoning (case study 2) to communicating the findings and methodology with the research community (case study 3), and represent in this way the three functions of visualization as presented by Lynch ( 2006 ). Furthermore, the last case study showcases how the development of visualization technologies has contributed to the communication of findings and methodologies in science and present in that way an aspect of current scientific practices. In all three cases, our approach is guided by the observation that the visual information is an integral part of scientific practices at the least and furthermore that they are particularly central in the scientific practices of science.

Case study 1: use visual representations as evidence in the discovery of DNA

The focus of the first case study is the discovery of the structure of DNA. The DNA was first isolated in 1869 by Friedrich Miescher, and by the late 1940s, it was known that it contained phosphate, sugar, and four nitrogen-containing chemical bases. However, no one had figured the structure of the DNA until Watson and Crick presented their model of DNA in 1953. Other than the social aspects of the discovery of the DNA, another important aspect was the role of visual evidence that led to knowledge development in the area. More specifically, by studying the personal accounts of Watson ( 1968 ) and Crick ( 1988 ) about the discovery of the structure of the DNA, the following main ideas regarding the role of visual representations in the production of knowledge can be identified: (a) The use of visual representations was an important part of knowledge growth and was often dependent upon the discovery of new technologies (i.e., better microscopes or better techniques in crystallography that would provide better visual representations as evidence of the helical structure of the DNA); and (b) Models (three-dimensional) were used as a way to represent the visual images (X-ray images) and connect them to the evidence provided by other sources to see whether the theory can be supported. Therefore, the model of DNA was built based on the combination of visual evidence and experimental data.

An example showcasing the importance of visual representations in the process of knowledge production in this case is provided by Watson, in his book The Double Helix (1968):

…since the middle of the summer Rosy [Rosalind Franklin] had had evidence for a new three-dimensional form of DNA. It occurred when the DNA 2molecules were surrounded by a large amount of water. When I asked what the pattern was like, Maurice went into the adjacent room to pick up a print of the new form they called the “B” structure. The instant I saw the picture, my mouth fell open and my pulse began to race. The pattern was unbelievably simpler than those previously obtained (A form). Moreover, the black cross of reflections which dominated the picture could arise only from a helical structure. With the A form the argument for the helix was never straightforward, and considerable ambiguity existed as to exactly which type of helical symmetry was present. With the B form however, mere inspection of its X-ray picture gave several of the vital helical parameters. (p. 167-169)

As suggested by Watson’s personal account of the discovery of the DNA, the photo taken by Rosalind Franklin (Fig.  1 ) convinced him that the DNA molecule must consist of two chains arranged in a paired helix, which resembles a spiral staircase or ladder, and on March 7, 1953, Watson and Crick finished and presented their model of the structure of DNA (Watson and Berry 2004 ; Watson 1968 ) which was based on the visual information provided by the X-ray image and their knowledge of chemistry.

X-ray chrystallography of DNA

In analyzing the visualization practice in this case study, we observe the following instances that highlight how the visual information played a role:

Asking questions and defining problems: The real world in the model of science can at some points only be observed through visual representations or representations, i.e., if we are using DNA as an example, the structure of DNA was only observable through the crystallography images produced by Rosalind Franklin in the laboratory. There was no other way to observe the structure of DNA, therefore the real world.

Analyzing and interpreting data: The images that resulted from crystallography as well as their interpretations served as the data for the scientists studying the structure of DNA.

Experimenting: The data in the form of visual information were used to predict the possible structure of the DNA.

Modeling: Based on the prediction, an actual three-dimensional model was prepared by Watson and Crick. The first model did not fit with the real world (refuted by Rosalind Franklin and her research group from King’s College) and Watson and Crick had to go through the same process again to find better visual evidence (better crystallography images) and create an improved visual model.

Example excerpts from Watson’s biography provide further evidence for how visualization practices were applied in the context of the discovery of DNA (Table  1 ).

In summary, by examining the history of the discovery of DNA, we showcased how visual data is used as scientific evidence in science, identifying in that way an aspect of the nature of science that is still unexplored in the history of science and an aspect that has been ignored in the teaching of science. Visual representations are used in many ways: as images, as models, as evidence to support or rebut a model, and as interpretations of reality.

Case study 2: applying visual reasoning in knowledge production, the example of the lines of magnetic force

The focus of this case study is on Faraday’s use of the lines of magnetic force. Faraday is known of his exploratory, creative, and yet systemic way of experimenting, and the visual reasoning leading to theoretical development was an inherent part of this experimentation (Gooding 2006 ). Faraday’s articles or notebooks do not include mathematical formulations; instead, they include images and illustrations from experimental devices and setups to the recapping of his theoretical ideas (Nersessian 2008 ). According to Gooding ( 2006 ), “Faraday’s visual method was designed not to copy apparent features of the world, but to analyse and replicate them” (2006, p. 46).

The lines of force played a central role in Faraday’s research on electricity and magnetism and in the development of his “field theory” (Faraday 1852a ; Nersessian 1984 ). Before Faraday, the experiments with iron filings around magnets were known and the term “magnetic curves” was used for the iron filing patterns and also for the geometrical constructs derived from the mathematical theory of magnetism (Gooding et al. 1993 ). However, Faraday used the lines of force for explaining his experimental observations and in constructing the theory of forces in magnetism and electricity. Examples of Faraday’s different illustrations of lines of magnetic force are given in Fig.  2 . Faraday gave the following experiment-based definition for the lines of magnetic forces:

a Iron filing pattern in case of bar magnet drawn by Faraday (Faraday 1852b , Plate IX, p. 158, Fig. 1), b Faraday’s drawing of lines of magnetic force in case of cylinder magnet, where the experimental procedure, knife blade showing the direction of lines, is combined into drawing (Faraday, 1855, vol. 1, plate 1)

A line of magnetic force may be defined as that line which is described by a very small magnetic needle, when it is so moved in either direction correspondent to its length, that the needle is constantly a tangent to the line of motion; or it is that line along which, if a transverse wire be moved in either direction, there is no tendency to the formation of any current in the wire, whilst if moved in any other direction there is such a tendency; or it is that line which coincides with the direction of the magnecrystallic axis of a crystal of bismuth, which is carried in either direction along it. The direction of these lines about and amongst magnets and electric currents, is easily represented and understood, in a general manner, by the ordinary use of iron filings. (Faraday 1852a , p. 25 (3071))

The definition describes the connection between the experiments and the visual representation of the results. Initially, the lines of force were just geometric representations, but later, Faraday treated them as physical objects (Nersessian 1984 ; Pocovi and Finlay 2002 ):

I have sometimes used the term lines of force so vaguely, as to leave the reader doubtful whether I intended it as a merely representative idea of the forces, or as the description of the path along which the power was continuously exerted. … wherever the expression line of force is taken simply to represent the disposition of forces, it shall have the fullness of that meaning; but that wherever it may seem to represent the idea of the physical mode of transmission of the force, it expresses in that respect the opinion to which I incline at present. The opinion may be erroneous, and yet all that relates or refers to the disposition of the force will remain the same. (Faraday, 1852a , p. 55-56 (3075))

He also felt that the lines of force had greater explanatory power than the dominant theory of action-at-a-distance:

Now it appears to me that these lines may be employed with great advantage to represent nature, condition, direction and comparative amount of the magnetic forces; and that in many cases they have, to the physical reasoned at least, a superiority over that method which represents the forces as concentrated in centres of action… (Faraday, 1852a , p. 26 (3074))

For giving some insight to Faraday’s visual reasoning as an epistemic practice, the following examples of Faraday’s studies of the lines of magnetic force (Faraday 1852a , 1852b ) are presented:

(a) Asking questions and defining problems: The iron filing patterns formed the empirical basis for the visual model: 2D visualization of lines of magnetic force as presented in Fig.  2 . According to Faraday, these iron filing patterns were suitable for illustrating the direction and form of the magnetic lines of force (emphasis added):

It must be well understood that these forms give no indication by their appearance of the relative strength of the magnetic force at different places, inasmuch as the appearance of the lines depends greatly upon the quantity of filings and the amount of tapping; but the direction and forms of these lines are well given, and these indicate, in a considerable degree, the direction in which the forces increase and diminish . (Faraday 1852b , p.158 (3237))

Despite being static and two dimensional on paper, the lines of magnetic force were dynamical (Nersessian 1992 , 2008 ) and three dimensional for Faraday (see Fig.  2 b). For instance, Faraday described the lines of force “expanding”, “bending,” and “being cut” (Nersessian 1992 ). In Fig.  2 b, Faraday has summarized his experiment (bar magnet and knife blade) and its results (lines of force) in one picture.

(b) Analyzing and interpreting data: The model was so powerful for Faraday that he ended up thinking them as physical objects (e.g., Nersessian 1984 ), i.e., making interpretations of the way forces act. Of course, he made a lot of experiments for showing the physical existence of the lines of force, but he did not succeed in it (Nersessian 1984 ). The following quote illuminates Faraday’s use of the lines of force in different situations:

The study of these lines has, at different times, been greatly influential in leading me to various results, which I think prove their utility as well as fertility. Thus, the law of magneto-electric induction; the earth’s inductive action; the relation of magnetism and light; diamagnetic action and its law, and magnetocrystallic action, are the cases of this kind… (Faraday 1852a , p. 55 (3174))

(c) Experimenting: In Faraday's case, he used a lot of exploratory experiments; in case of lines of magnetic force, he used, e.g., iron filings, magnetic needles, or current carrying wires (see the quote above). The magnetic field is not directly observable and the representation of lines of force was a visual model, which includes the direction, form, and magnitude of field.

(d) Modeling: There is no denying that the lines of magnetic force are visual by nature. Faraday’s views of lines of force developed gradually during the years, and he applied and developed them in different contexts such as electromagnetic, electrostatic, and magnetic induction (Nersessian 1984 ). An example of Faraday’s explanation of the effect of the wire b’s position to experiment is given in Fig.  3 . In Fig.  3 , few magnetic lines of force are drawn, and in the quote below, Faraday is explaining the effect using these magnetic lines of force (emphasis added):

Picture of an experiment with different arrangements of wires ( a , b’ , b” ), magnet, and galvanometer. Note the lines of force drawn around the magnet. (Faraday 1852a , p. 34)

It will be evident by inspection of Fig. 3 , that, however the wires are carried away, the general result will, according to the assumed principles of action, be the same; for if a be the axial wire, and b’, b”, b”’ the equatorial wire, represented in three different positions, whatever magnetic lines of force pass across the latter wire in one position, will also pass it in the other, or in any other position which can be given to it. The distance of the wire at the place of intersection with the lines of force, has been shown, by the experiments (3093.), to be unimportant. (Faraday 1852a , p. 34 (3099))

In summary, by examining the history of Faraday’s use of lines of force, we showed how visual imagery and reasoning played an important part in Faraday’s construction and representation of his “field theory”. As Gooding has stated, “many of Faraday’s sketches are far more that depictions of observation, they are tools for reasoning with and about phenomena” (2006, p. 59).

Case study 3: visualizing scientific methods, the case of a journal

The focus of the third case study is the Journal of Visualized Experiments (JoVE) , a peer-reviewed publication indexed in PubMed. The journal devoted to the publication of biological, medical, chemical, and physical research in a video format. The journal describes its history as follows:

JoVE was established as a new tool in life science publication and communication, with participation of scientists from leading research institutions. JoVE takes advantage of video technology to capture and transmit the multiple facets and intricacies of life science research. Visualization greatly facilitates the understanding and efficient reproduction of both basic and complex experimental techniques, thereby addressing two of the biggest challenges faced by today's life science research community: i) low transparency and poor reproducibility of biological experiments and ii) time and labor-intensive nature of learning new experimental techniques. ( http://www.jove.com/ )

By examining the journal content, we generate a set of categories that can be considered as indicators of relevance and significance in terms of epistemic practices of science that have relevance for science education. For example, the quote above illustrates how scientists view some norms of scientific practice including the norms of “transparency” and “reproducibility” of experimental methods and results, and how the visual format of the journal facilitates the implementation of these norms. “Reproducibility” can be considered as an epistemic criterion that sits at the heart of what counts as an experimental procedure in science:

Investigating what should be reproducible and by whom leads to different types of experimental reproducibility, which can be observed to play different roles in experimental practice. A successful application of the strategy of reproducing an experiment is an achievement that may depend on certain isiosyncratic aspects of a local situation. Yet a purely local experiment that cannot be carried out by other experimenters and in other experimental contexts will, in the end be unproductive in science. (Sarkar and Pfeifer 2006 , p.270)

We now turn to an article on “Elevated Plus Maze for Mice” that is available for free on the journal website ( http://www.jove.com/video/1088/elevated-plus-maze-for-mice ). The purpose of this experiment was to investigate anxiety levels in mice through behavioral analysis. The journal article consists of a 9-min video accompanied by text. The video illustrates the handling of the mice in soundproof location with less light, worksheets with characteristics of mice, computer software, apparatus, resources, setting up the computer software, and the video recording of mouse behavior on the computer. The authors describe the apparatus that is used in the experiment and state how procedural differences exist between research groups that lead to difficulties in the interpretation of results:

The apparatus consists of open arms and closed arms, crossed in the middle perpendicularly to each other, and a center area. Mice are given access to all of the arms and are allowed to move freely between them. The number of entries into the open arms and the time spent in the open arms are used as indices of open space-induced anxiety in mice. Unfortunately, the procedural differences that exist between laboratories make it difficult to duplicate and compare results among laboratories.

The authors’ emphasis on the particularity of procedural context echoes in the observations of some philosophers of science:

It is not just the knowledge of experimental objects and phenomena but also their actual existence and occurrence that prove to be dependent on specific, productive interventions by the experimenters” (Sarkar and Pfeifer 2006 , pp. 270-271)

The inclusion of a video of the experimental procedure specifies what the apparatus looks like (Fig.  4 ) and how the behavior of the mice is captured through video recording that feeds into a computer (Fig.  5 ). Subsequently, a computer software which captures different variables such as the distance traveled, the number of entries, and the time spent on each arm of the apparatus. Here, there is visual information at different levels of representation ranging from reconfiguration of raw video data to representations that analyze the data around the variables in question (Fig.  6 ). The practice of levels of visual representations is not particular to the biological sciences. For instance, they are commonplace in nanotechnological practices:

Visual illustration of apparatus

Video processing of experimental set-up

Computer software for video input and variable recording

In the visualization processes, instruments are needed that can register the nanoscale and provide raw data, which needs to be transformed into images. Some Imaging Techniques have software incorporated already where this transformation automatically takes place, providing raw images. Raw data must be translated through the use of Graphic Software and software is also used for the further manipulation of images to highlight what is of interest to capture the (inferred) phenomena -- and to capture the reader. There are two levels of choice: Scientists have to choose which imaging technique and embedded software to use for the job at hand, and they will then have to follow the structure of the software. Within such software, there are explicit choices for the scientists, e.g. about colour coding, and ways of sharpening images. (Ruivenkamp and Rip 2010 , pp.14–15)

On the text that accompanies the video, the authors highlight the role of visualization in their experiment:

Visualization of the protocol will promote better understanding of the details of the entire experimental procedure, allowing for standardization of the protocols used in different laboratories and comparisons of the behavioral phenotypes of various strains of mutant mice assessed using this test.

The software that takes the video data and transforms it into various representations allows the researchers to collect data on mouse behavior more reliably. For instance, the distance traveled across the arms of the apparatus or the time spent on each arm would have been difficult to observe and record precisely. A further aspect to note is how the visualization of the experiment facilitates control of bias. The authors illustrate how the olfactory bias between experimental procedures carried on mice in sequence is avoided by cleaning the equipment.

Our discussion highlights the role of visualization in science, particularly with respect to presenting visualization as part of the scientific practices. We have used case studies from the history of science highlighting a scientist’s account of how visualization played a role in the discovery of DNA and the magnetic field and from a contemporary illustration of a science journal’s practices in incorporating visualization as a way to communicate new findings and methodologies. Our implicit aim in drawing from these case studies was the need to align science education with scientific practices, particularly in terms of how visual representations, stable or dynamic, can engage students in the processes of science and not only to be used as tools for cognitive development in science. Our approach was guided by the notion of “knowledge-as-practice” as advanced by Knorr Cetina ( 1999 ) who studied scientists and characterized their knowledge as practice, a characterization which shifts focus away from ideas inside scientists’ minds to practices that are cultural and deeply contextualized within fields of science. She suggests that people working together can be examined as epistemic cultures whose collective knowledge exists as practice.

It is important to stress, however, that visual representations are not used in isolation, but are supported by other types of evidence as well, or other theories (i.e., in order to understand the helical form of DNA, or the structure, chemistry knowledge was needed). More importantly, this finding can also have implications when teaching science as argument (e.g., Erduran and Jimenez-Aleixandre 2008 ), since the verbal evidence used in the science classroom to maintain an argument could be supported by visual evidence (either a model, representation, image, graph, etc.). For example, in a group of students discussing the outcomes of an introduced species in an ecosystem, pictures of the species and the ecosystem over time, and videos showing the changes in the ecosystem, and the special characteristics of the different species could serve as visual evidence to help the students support their arguments (Evagorou et al. 2012 ). Therefore, an important implication for the teaching of science is the use of visual representations as evidence in the science curriculum as part of knowledge production. Even though studies in the area of science education have focused on the use of models and modeling as a way to support students in the learning of science (Dori et al. 2003 ; Lehrer and Schauble 2012 ; Mendonça and Justi 2013 ; Papaevripidou et al. 2007 ) or on the use of images (i.e., Korfiatis et al. 2003 ), with the term using visuals as evidence, we refer to the collection of all forms of visuals and the processes involved.

Another aspect that was identified through the case studies is that of the visual reasoning (an integral part of Faraday’s investigations). Both the verbalization and visualization were part of the process of generating new knowledge (Gooding 2006 ). Even today, most of the textbooks use the lines of force (or just field lines) as a geometrical representation of field, and the number of field lines is connected to the quantity of flux. Often, the textbooks use the same kind of visual imagery than in what is used by scientists. However, when using images, only certain aspects or features of the phenomena or data are captured or highlighted, and often in tacit ways. Especially in textbooks, the process of producing the image is not presented and instead only the product—image—is left. This could easily lead to an idea of images (i.e., photos, graphs, visual model) being just representations of knowledge and, in the worse case, misinterpreted representations of knowledge as the results of Pocovi and Finlay ( 2002 ) in case of electric field lines show. In order to avoid this, the teachers should be able to explain how the images are produced (what features of phenomena or data the images captures, on what ground the features are chosen to that image, and what features are omitted); in this way, the role of visualization in knowledge production can be made “visible” to students by engaging them in the process of visualization.

The implication of these norms for science teaching and learning is numerous. The classroom contexts can model the generation, sharing and evaluation of evidence, and experimental procedures carried out by students, thereby promoting not only some contemporary cultural norms in scientific practice but also enabling the learning of criteria, standards, and heuristics that scientists use in making decisions on scientific methods. As we have demonstrated with the three case studies, visual representations are part of the process of knowledge growth and communication in science, as demonstrated with two examples from the history of science and an example from current scientific practices. Additionally, visual information, especially with the use of technology is a part of students’ everyday lives. Therefore, we suggest making use of students’ knowledge and technological skills (i.e., how to produce their own videos showing their experimental method or how to identify or provide appropriate visual evidence for a given topic), in order to teach them the aspects of the nature of science that are often neglected both in the history of science and the design of curriculum. Specifically, what we suggest in this paper is that students should actively engage in visualization processes in order to appreciate the diverse nature of doing science and engage in authentic scientific practices.

However, as a word of caution, we need to distinguish the products and processes involved in visualization practices in science:

If one considers scientific representations and the ways in which they can foster or thwart our understanding, it is clear that a mere object approach, which would devote all attention to the representation as a free-standing product of scientific labor, is inadequate. What is needed is a process approach: each visual representation should be linked with its context of production (Pauwels 2006 , p.21).

The aforementioned suggests that the emphasis in visualization should shift from cognitive understanding—using the products of science to understand the content—to engaging in the processes of visualization. Therefore, an implication for the teaching of science includes designing curriculum materials and learning environments that create a social and epistemic context and invite students to engage in the practice of visualization as evidence, reasoning, experimental procedure, or a means of communication (as presented in the three case studies) and reflect on these practices (Ryu et al. 2015 ).

Finally, a question that arises from including visualization in science education, as well as from including scientific practices in science education is whether teachers themselves are prepared to include them as part of their teaching (Bybee 2014 ). Teacher preparation programs and teacher education have been critiqued, studied, and rethought since the time they emerged (Cochran-Smith 2004 ). Despite the years of history in teacher training and teacher education, the debate about initial teacher training and its content still pertains in our community and in policy circles (Cochran-Smith 2004 ; Conway et al. 2009 ). In the last decades, the debate has shifted from a behavioral view of learning and teaching to a learning problem—focusing on that way not only on teachers’ knowledge, skills, and beliefs but also on making the connection of the aforementioned with how and if pupils learn (Cochran-Smith 2004 ). The Science Education in Europe report recommended that “Good quality teachers, with up-to-date knowledge and skills, are the foundation of any system of formal science education” (Osborne and Dillon 2008 , p.9).

However, questions such as what should be the emphasis on pre-service and in-service science teacher training, especially with the new emphasis on scientific practices, still remain unanswered. As Bybee ( 2014 ) argues, starting from the new emphasis on scientific practices in the NGSS, we should consider teacher preparation programs “that would provide undergraduates opportunities to learn the science content and practices in contexts that would be aligned with their future work as teachers” (p.218). Therefore, engaging pre- and in-service teachers in visualization as a scientific practice should be one of the purposes of teacher preparation programs.

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Evagorou, M., Erduran, S. & Mäntylä, T. The role of visual representations in scientific practices: from conceptual understanding and knowledge generation to ‘seeing’ how science works. IJ STEM Ed 2 , 11 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-015-0024-x

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High School Book Project Ideas

How to Write an Interview With a Book Character

Teaching students to appreciate literature and analyze it critically is an important part of being a high school teacher. Having students create a book project enables them to read the text and respond to it in creative ways. The projects are fun and educational, and students have many project options, from writing a paper to designing a visual representation of a book. There are several book project ideas on the website for Teach Net the demonstrate how effective they are in learning about literature.

Book Review

Students should be assigned a book (or choose a book) and critically look at its characters, plot and language. Special attention should be paid to what they like about the book, what conflict is presented and what the resolution entails. Students need to analyze how the book compares to others of the same genre and focus on the writing style's ability to present a clear and engaging story. Their book review should examine the book's facets: character development, plot lines, use of metaphor and symbolism, the author's voice and the overall message. The review is a good assignment for the student who enjoys critical writing.

The Alternative Ending

Students read the assigned or chosen book and then come up with a new ending or an epilogue. They should have a clear understanding of the characters and their motivations and know how the plot leads to the book's ending. They then need to consider the world that the author has created and write material that would go beyond the last page. Students should think about what may happen next, where the character might go and what sort of resolution they would like to see. This allows them to be creative, play with their own language and play off the author's storyline. Students can choose to write the ending in their own voice—or, for a challenge, in the voice of the author.

Character Interview

For this project, students write an interview between themselves and a character in the book. They can also have the character be interviewed by another character or by the author. In this way, they can use their critical understanding of the characters (or the author) to develop an imaginary interview. The interview should show students' observational abilities; they should be able to reflect the thought process, desires and motivations of the character. The interview needs to pose questions about the author's philosophy or the character's belief system. Students should write them to the best of their knowledge about the character or the author.

Film Comparison

Have students compare the book to a movie. They can use their cultural knowledge and interests to draw comparisons and contrast ideas between the book and a film. They can compare and contrast philosophies, character qualities, aesthetics and underlying metaphors. Students can create a diagram that contrasts and compares the movie and the book. Or they can write a paper that looks at both media.

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Lisa Basile has been writing for magazines and newspapers since 2003. She has a Master of Fine Arts in writing and has contributed to local news and national magazines such as "Billboard," "Maxim" and "Cosmo!Girl." Basile also edits an online magazine and writes daily content for Alloy Media.

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Introduction

Graphs and charts are visual representation of data. They provide a powerful means of summarizing and presenting data in a way that most people find easier to comprehend. Charts and graphs enable us to see the main features or characteristics of the data. They not only enable us to present the numerical findings of a study, but also provide the shape and pattern of the data, which is critical in data analysis and decision making.

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What Is Visual Storytelling? (With Examples + Infographic)

What do the first two minutes of Wall-E and the following GIF of Matthew McConaughey experiencing all the feels have in common?

They use visual storytelling, also known as visual narrative, to show a lot of information in a little bit of time.

Visual storytelling uses graphics, images, videos and more to hook the audience and drive storylines and emotions. It’s quite literally the act of telling a story or communicating information with visual content — and it’s an insanely powerful content marketing medium.

It has unparalleled potential to generate traffic and convert leads at every stage of the sales funnel. No content marketing strategy is complete without it.

For context, here’s the Wall-E intro:

Digital marketers need to earn their audience’s attention, and that’s not easy given the insane amount of competition. Every day,

• Tens of thousands of new websites go live.
• Millions of new blog posts are written.
• Tens of millions of photos are uploaded on social media.
• Hundreds of millions of emails are sent.

Sometimes the best way to cut through the noise is to not say anything at all.

Why Visual Storytelling Is Important for Your Brand

The fact is that the most iconic and memorable brand campaigns are recognizable because of their visual storytelling. Being able to show and not tell your audience about your company or product is increasingly the most effective way to market yourself — and science backs it up!

According to MIT researchers, the human brain is capable of processing an image in as little as 13 milliseconds . For context, here are really fast things that are slower than your ability to process an image:

• Sunlights’ journey to Earth (8 minutes).
• The blink of an eye (300 milliseconds).
• Usain Bolt’s reaction time off the starting block (155 milliseconds).

In other words, this is your brain on the influence of images:

Why does this matter? Because your intended audience hasn’t got all day, and a lot of content creators are vying for their attention. If you want to get there first, you’ll need to master the art of making an impression on your audience in a short amount of time — and that’s where visual storytelling enters the picture.

Visual storytelling is economical because you can convey more information in less time, hence the “picture is worth a thousand words” platitude. Imagery has the ability to capture attention quicker than text, at which point you have a platform to communicate your brand message, either entirely through visual storytelling or through a combination of visual, audio and textual content.

Additionally, visual storytelling adds value to a brand’s content marketing strategy in the following ways:

• Helps generate interest at the very beginning of a buyer’s journey by luring readers into top-of-funnel blog content.
• Makes copy feel more lively and engaging.
• Allows for passive ingestion of a message, for instance, through video or animations.
• Boosts readability by making long-form content seem less cluttered. (Ever hear of the dollar-bill rule? It’s more applicable to print, but if you can hold a dollar bill vertically and horizontally on a page without hitting an image, blockquote, subhead or bulleted list then you need something to break up the text.)

Visual media also leaves a more lasting impression on the audience. About 65% of people are visual learners, meaning for most of us, the message is more likely to stick if we see it. And in marketing, visual storytelling is the best way to help your audience see what your brand is about.

What Makes a Good Visual Story?

Visual storytelling is becoming the fundamental marketing strategy for brands to talk about themselves. It can convey a wide range of emotions, humor and information — all without any words being said. But what makes a good visual story?

Below we break down a list of ways to achieve your brand’s best visual story (and steps to avoid):

How To Build an Effective Brand Visual Story:

• Craft an interesting story that will appeal to your audience.
• Choose your visual media according to the needs of your narrative.
• Incorporate basic storytelling techniques.
• Grab people’s attention right off the bat with dynamic imagery.
• Support your visual narrative with text and audio to add context wherever needed.
• Keep your message clear and simple.
• Measure the performance of visual media with relevant KPIs like social shares, backlinks and site metrics.

Visual Storytelling Steps To Avoid:

• Viral memes. It may seem tempting to chase a recently viral meme, but the fact is that the speed of the internet is faster than any marketing team. By the time you push out your viral meme content, it’ll probably have fallen off the pop culture radar.
• Shoehorn a narrative into a specific visual idea. If the shoe doesn’t fit, don’t try to force it! Audiences are savvier than ever and it’s more than likely your narrative will sink with this method rather than swim.
• Prioritize style over substance. What’s the point of a visual story if it lacks substance? Visuals should support the narrative, not be the central focus.
• Repackage the same story across every visual media format (unless they’re a good match). This is a judgment call for most brands. Repackaging the same content over and over can harm your audience’s perception of your brand, so it’s better to refrain from doing it.
• Go overboard on imagery. You don’t want to wind up confusing or distracting your target audience. Keep it as concise as possible for a clearer understanding.
• Remove audio and text just for the sake of having a 100% visual story. Audio and text are helpful tools — don’t abandon them just to keep things visual.

Every decision you make should be focused on making your story clearer and more compelling. A presentation design choice might seem appealing because it’s dynamic or eye-catching, but if it doesn’t support the narrative at all, it could wind up just being a distraction.

Do’s and Don’ts of Visual Storytelling

Although there’s room for experimentation with visual storytelling, digital marketers should stick to the basic fundamentals — at least at first. You have to learn the rules before you can break them, after all.

Follow these visual storytelling do’s and don’ts to get produce the best content:

• Start by crafting an interesting story that will appeal to your audience.
• Chase viral memes.
• Shoehorn a narrative into a specific visual idea.
• Prioritize style over substance.
• Repackage the same story across every visual media format (unless they’re a good match).
• Go overboard on imagery and wind up confusing or distracting your target audience.
• Remove audio and text just for the sake of having a 100% visual story.

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Visual Storytelling Examples

A visual story, or a visual narrative, is told primarily through visual content. Emphasis on the primarily — otherwise you’re left with photography and silent film.

Some of the more visual-heavy examples in content marketing include photo-based case studies, videos and 2D and 3D animations. In general, though, online visual stories typically weave imagery and narrative together to get the best of both worlds. An online photo essay will usually have text captions to add context. Videos will often incorporate text and/or voiceovers.

What’s more, video and text help each other out. A short, keyword-rich blog post or concise landing page will make your new video easier to find on the web. Conversely, your text-heavy white papers, case studies and eBooks will rely on visual media to help tell the story or accentuate certain aspects of the information.

The key to creating strong multimedia content is to understand the impact that different visual mediums have on your audience, and how and when to use each:

Photos might be used as part of a visual case study on your website or blog. They could be used in a Facebook album to document your company’s recent attendance at a conference. They can be a literal interpretation of something described in the accompanying copy, or they might symbolize a concept (e.g., “Is your vendor’s lack of attention making you feel like the man on the moon?”). Alternatively, a single photo could stand alone on a visual social media platform such as Instagram. Heck, you can even use an embed of an existing Instagram photo within a blog post.

The picture above is arguably one of the most famous examples of photography used as visual storytelling, titled Migrant Mother. Captured by famed photographer Dorothea Lange in 1936, this picture documented the effects of the Great Depression on U.S. families. This photo conveys the worry, hunger and despair of the Great Depression without the need for any additional words.

Memes have taken over social media in the last few years, and brands are finally beginning to recognize the power these unique and humorous images truly have. Using memes, which often have a layered language of their own, can capture the attention of younger demographics quickly and attract them to your brand. Take a look at the below example:

Many people will not relate to this particular meme, which is fine, and it’s sort of the whole point of a good meme. It takes a recognizable visual aid (Boromir from LOTR) and then makes it relatable to a specific audience, in this case, someone who might be trying to set up a PHP server.

Don’t have time to create a video or animation? Use a GIF to capture the emotion you want your audience to feel when interacting with your brand.

This GIF admittedly makes very little sense. But it’s somehow mesmerizing, and in context to an article about proper cat care, it might actually be appropriate. There’s a whole world of GIFs out there that express all sorts of sentiments and ideas. Embed them into your 1,500-word blog posts, share them on your social media channels, maybe with a sentence or two of context that ties it to your brand, or maybe not. Sometimes taking a break from business boosts engagement.

Custom Images

The purpose of a custom illustration or custom image is to combine a small amount of text with a photo or graphic in such a way that they complement each other and get a clear point across. Case in point, eliminating the copy or the photo from this image would kill the effect. You need them both to see the humor. Granted, the example above isn’t actually selling anything, but it still illustrates the dynamism of an image that’s been doctored through graphic design.

Custom illustrations are great alternatives to stock photography. Design them with your brand colors and visual aesthetics to really tag your content and make it stand out from the crowd.

Graphs and Charts

The above is a great example of using visual media to convey information in an organized manner. It’s informative (tells us what America’s favorite type of pie is), entertaining (because it’s a “pie” chart) and also just aesthetically pleasing. This would go great with a blog post about people’s pie-eating preferences and a scoop of vanilla ice cream.

Video is a great way to demonstrate the value of your products or services. Getty Images’ short video, “Nosferatu, the Nonsilent Film,” dubbed original footage from the silent film “Nosferatu” with stock music, sound effects and voices. Essentially, they gave us a humorous product demo in video format. Cleverly done.

Rather than spending money on filming and editing original video content, you could work with graphic designers who have the wizardry to create an immersive visual world using nothing but software, brand guidelines and their own imaginations. Or if you want to get real creative, you can even take a page out of A-Ha’s book and do an animation-video crossover. The beauty of animation is that it can be highly stylized. Every detail, from how you portray facial features, to the proportions of your newly created world can be used to say something about your brand.

Infographics

Last but definitely not least, infographics are highly shareable, engaging assets that belong at the top of the funnel in any content marketing strategy. They come in all shapes and sizes and use a variety of clever techniques to visually represent information. The example above correlates cigarette length to federal tax collections in billions of dollars. The one below (a snippet from a bigger graphic by movehub, available here ) uses a map, colors and a legend to show the cost of living throughout the world. (Who knew Greenland was so expensive?)

How To Become a Better Visual Storyteller

Visual storytelling can seem daunting at first, which is understandable. To do it right, you have to deftly weave together different media formats and communicate with your audience sometimes without saying a word. We’re not all natural-born visual storytellers, but that’s OK. By following a few simple guidelines, anyone can craft a compelling visual narrative.

Start With a Good Story

That may sound obvious, but a lot of marketers fall into the trap of trying to reverse engineer a narrative around a particular visual element. Piggybacking off a meme or GIF that’s gone viral could blow up in your face if the underlying story doesn’t really land with your audience. It could just come across as a desperate attempt to look trendy.

Always remember that the imagery should serve the story. Compelling visuals won’t have the same punch if your underlying message doesn’t shine through.

Lean on Tried-and-True Storytelling Techniques

Marketing-based storytelling has to follow the same rules that drive our favorite movies, TV shows and books forward. “Star Wars” has just as much in common with “Beowulf” as it does with “Flash Gordon,” and that’s because it relies on narrative structures that have stood the test of time.

Be sure your visual content is built on top of these fundamental storytelling techniques:

• Conflict: Every good story has an obstacle that needs to be overcome. The more your audience can relate to the conflict, the more your message will resonate with them. That’s why case studies are often so compelling to potential customers.
• Structure: From Aristotle to Dan Harmon, storytellers throughout history have adhered to structural templates to give their narratives momentum. It’s not just about having a beginning, middle and end, mind you; every part of your visual story should be meaningful and help propel the narrative toward its climax and conclusion.
• Simplicity: Don’t overcomplicate it. Often, the stories that leave the biggest impact can be summed up in one or two sentences. “The Odyssey” is just about a guy trying to get home. If you find your visual story is bringing in too many threads, try paring things down to get back to your core message. That goes for design too. Overly detailed or complex visual elements could be distracting and draw attention away from more pertinent points of interest.
• Contrast: Silent film stars like Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton were masters of using contrasting images to tell a visual story. A more modern example (if a 35-year-old movie counts as modern) would be the malt shop showdown between Marty McFly and Biff in “Back to the Future.” You can just barely see Marty’s eyes nervously peek out from behind Biff’s looming shoulders, but that’s all you need to realize how outmatched he is.
• Size: Alfred Hitchcock is virtually unparalleled when it comes to using visuals to build suspense. One of his basic filmmaking rules was to draw viewers to important objects on the screen by making those items bigger than everything else. Sounds simple, but it’s effective when telling a story with images and animations.

Pair the Right Visual Media With Your Message

Consider the medium that’s best suited for telling your particular story. Do you want to highlight the tangible ROI of your services, complete with hard data and statistics? Then an infographic is probably your best bet. Alternatively, if you’re looking to introduce potential customers to your complex B2B services, a short animation may be the way to go.

Storytelling Tools To Get You Started

Even if you don’t have a design, animation or video team on staff, you can still create your own visual stories with the help of online tools and software applications. These storytelling tools can turn any digital marketer into an effective visual storyteller:

• Ceros: This platform uses a simple interface so marketers of all walks of life can craft animations, infographics and other visual designs with relative ease. Cero’s also has an entire blog dedicated to storytelling examples. You can see what other brands have created using the platform , providing a little extra inspiration.
• Adobe Spark: It might require a little more design know-how than some other options, but Adobe Spark has tons of features to create high-caliber, professional visual media . The active and supportive community can help answer questions and show you the ropes.
• Canva: Build your own visual designs with this easy-to-use platform . Its drag-and-drop interface lets you create custom images using templates or from scratch.

And That’s a Wrap!

There are plenty of other ways to use visual media to tell a story that we haven’t covered. There are also crossover-content formats such as eBooks (we like to think of these as picture books grownups read at work) and white papers (more text-heavy, but with nice iconography, graphs and other visual aids).

But we’d have to create a novel to go into the level of detail that visual storytelling truly deserves. So this will have to suffice for now.

Besides, we think you get the picture, and if not, well …

Jeff Keleher

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Jeff Keleher is a writer and editor at Brafton. A man of simple tastes, he enjoys playing guitar, playing video games and playing with his dog - sometimes all at once. He still hasn't gotten over Illinois' loss in the 2005 NCAA National Championship game, and he probably never will.

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If You See What I Mean? Visual Narratives – Stories Told Through, With And By Visual Images

• First Online: 08 September 2016

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Visual field texts, visual methods, and representation of research using visual genres have had a long history and at times a close relationship with narrative research. Visual methods can contribute particular depth to what we can understand from a story and a teller: Visual diaries to tell personal stories; found images and participatory/researcher constructed images act as representations of narratives; photo elicitation can be used to stimulate stories; documentaries capture personal and cultural stories; and, storytelling may be captured visually as a representation and non-representation. Drawing on the work of scholars in visual traditions, including visual narrative and my own visual work, I will illustrate (in visual and textual modes) how the visual may be harnessed in three research spaces: during field text creation, as interim research texts or analysis, and as research texts for dissemination (Clandinin and Connelly 2000). I conclude with some of the issues and challenges for those wanting to employ visual narrative.

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lisahunter (2017). If You See What I Mean? Visual Narratives – Stories Told Through, With And By Visual Images. In: Dwyer, R., Davis, I., emerald, e. (eds) Narrative Research in Practice. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1579-3_5

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