research meaning and nature

Nature of Research Meaning, Characteristics and Types

Table of contents:-, nature of research.

• Meaning of Research

Research Definition

• Characteristics of Research

Criteria for Good Research

• Qualities of a Good Research
• Types of Research

Need for Research

The basic nature of research is to advance knowledge and seek solutions to problems. To do this, we start with simple questions. For example, the fundamental questions in journalistic practice are: who, what, why, where, when and how. In research, these questions are addressed more systematically, reliably, testable, and replicable. In practice, all the questions are mixed, and it is difficult to isolate one from the other when dealing with human behaviour and social phenomena.

In research, these are isolated and studied in depth – separately and together. The basic premise is that any issue/event/phenomenon can be learned and subjected to appropriate systematic, objective scientific procedures, and conclusions can be arrived at that can preferably be generalised to the population. Such results and conclusions should also be amenable to replication as the search for knowledge is conducted with a defined set of rules and procedures commonly understood and shared by all sciences.

The following points can characterise the nature of research:

1) Systematic Activity

The research follows a systematic procedure to analyse a research problem in a better way. It is essential to avoid haphazard research methods and adhere to a well-structured approach for reliable outcomes. Researchers can proceed to the next step only after successfully concluding the previous one.

2) Logical Process

The basic tenet of research is “logic”. All the assumptions and analyses undertaken are based on certain logic. Research is a scientific, systematic, and planned investigation to understand the underlying problem.

3) Iterative Process

Research is an iterative process. Sometimes it becomes necessary for the researcher to review the work of earlier stages, which makes it cyclic. Often it becomes harder for the researcher to find out the starting and ending points.

4) Based on Empirical Evidence

Research studies are empirical. Researchers employ various scientific tools and techniques at every step of the research process. Accuracy and reliance on observable experiences or empirical evidence are verified in each research step. Therefore, quantitative research is easier to validate than qualitative research, which is more conceptual.

5) Controlled in Nature

Researchers frequently manage variable effects by permitting the variation of selected variables for testing purposes. Due to this reason, controlling the variables in scientific research is much easier than controlling the factors in social research. Hence in research, it is essential to control the variables carefully.

Research Meaning

Research comprises two different words, “Re” and “Search”. ‘Re’ implies a repetitive or iterative process, whereas ‘search’ signifies conducting a comprehensive examination or looking over carefully to find something. Various researchers have defined research in different ways because of its expansive scope. In general, researchers define research as a scientific process that establishes and/or validates new facts, ideas, and theories across diverse domains of knowledge. The research aims at adding to the existing stock of knowledge for the betterment of the world.

According to Waltz and Bausell, “Research is a systematic, formal, rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions to problems or to discover and interpret new facts and relationships”.

John Best states, “Research is a systematic activity directed towards discovery and the development of an organised body of knowledge.”

According to Clifford Woody, “Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting, organising and evaluating data. Making deductions and reaching conclusions to determine they fit the formulating hypothesis.”

Encyclopaedia of Social Science defines research as, “the manipulation of generalising to extend, connect or verify knowledge…” Manipulation incorporates experimentation adopted to arrive at generalisation.

Kerlinger (1973) defines “research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relationship about various phenomena.”

Burns (1994) also defines “research as a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem”.

Research involves scientific and systematic analysis of a specific area of study, culminating in the formulation of findings supported by sound reasoning.

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Characteristics of Good Research

A good research should qualify in the following essential criteria:

1) Ethically Conducted

A researcher should abide by the ethical standards laid down to conduct research accurately. Researchers must thoroughly examine, explain, and document both the research data and the limiting factors. This practice ensures transparency with the readers. The data should remain unaltered to accurately reflect the findings. The researchers must document the results of the study comprehensively.

2) Reliability

Reliability refers to the repeatability of a research, tool, procedure, or instrument. The degree of reliability of a research study depends on the consistency of its findings. Researchers determine the reliability of their work by observing consistent results under similar conditions and procedures. For example, a researcher may study the effect of a course written in English on the final grades of a group of students. To ensure the reliability of the study’s findings, researchers can replicate the study with a different group of students and achieve consistent results.

3) Clearly Defined Objectives

Researchers must clearly define the objectives of a research study. Well-defined research objectives provide researchers with a clear roadmap to follow. It helps the researchers to determine the type of data required to efficiently conduct the research.

4) Accuracy

Accurate research occurs when the research process, instruments, and tools interconnect seamlessly. It verifies that researchers are appropriately selecting their research tools. For example, Observation is the recommended data collection method when researching mental patients, as it helps overcome the challenge of potential inaccuracy in questionnaires or interviews .

5) Flexibility

Research involves re-examining the data till correct findings arrive. This is possible only if the research approach is flexible. There should always be scope to add on significant data or modify existing data as needed.

6) Generalisable Results

The degree to which the result of research can be applied to a bigger population is called generalisability. While carrying a research, the researcher selects a small sample from a target population. Hence, the sample and the research findings accurately reflect the characteristics of the target population. If the research results can be applied to other samples from a similar population, then the research findings can be considered generalisable.

7) Validity

Validity is a measure of the applicability of the research. It refers to the suitability and efficiency of the research instrument or procedure regarding the research problem. Validity measures the accuracy of an instrument in measuring the problem. It is a measurement of the applicability of the research. Validity is the basis of deciding whether a research conclusion, assumption, or proposition is true or false. The validity of research is maintained by clearly defining the concepts involved.

8) Credibility of Sources

Credibility means that the research data should be taken from trustworthy sources. Although the use of secondary data in research allows the researcher to complete the research within the timeframe, he loses credibility, as the secondary data are usually manipulated and hence relying exclusively on it can lead to erroneous and faulty research conclusions. A researcher should try to use primary data to the greatest extent feasible. If primary data is not available, then a specific amount of secondary data can be used. However, conducting research completely based on secondary data can harm the credibility of the research.

Objectives of Good Research

Research aims to uncover answers to questions by applying scientific procedures. The primary goal of research is to find hidden facts that have yet to be discovered. Although each research study has its specific purpose, research objectives can be broadly categorized into the following groups:

1. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as hypothesis-testing research or experimental studies).

2. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or achieve new insights into it (studies with this objective are termed exploratory research studies).

3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or is associated with something else (studies with this objective are known as diagnostic research studies).

4. To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, situation, or group (studies with this objective are known as descriptive research studies).

Research serves as a pool of knowledge. It is a vital source of guidelines for addressing various business, personal, professional, governmental, and social problems. It is a formal training ground, enabling individuals to understand new developments in their respective fields better.

The criteria for good research are outlined as follows:

1. The validity and reliability of the data should be examined.

2. The research report should be candid enough to assess the effects of the findings.

3. The research design should be carefully planned to generate results that maintain objectivity.

4. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined, and common concepts used should be operationally defined.

5. Data analysis in the research report should be adequate to reveal its significance, and the analysis method employed should be appropriate.

6. The research procedure must be precisely planned, focused, and appropriately described to enable other researchers to conduct further studies for advancement.

Qualities of Good Research

Good research possesses certain qualities, as outlined below:

1. Empirical

Conclusions are drawn based on hardcore evidence from real-life experiences and observations. This reliance on concrete information provides a foundation for external validation of research results.

2. Develop theories and Principles

Good research contributes to developing theories and principles, aiding in accurate predictions regarding the variables under study. Through the observation and analysis of samples, researchers can make sound generalizations about entire populations, extending beyond immediate situations, objects, or groups being investigated.

Research is guided by the rules of reasoning and logical processes, including induction (general to specific) and deduction (specific to public). Logical reasoning enhances the feasibility and meaningfulness of research in decision-making.

4. Replicable

The designs, procedures, and results of scientific research should be replicable, allowing anyone other than the original researcher to assess their validity. This ensures that one researcher can use or build upon the results obtained by another, making the procedures and results both replicable and transferrable.

5. Systematic

Research is structured according to a set of rules, following specific steps in a defined sequence. Systematic research encourages creative thinking, avoiding reliance on guessing and intuition to reach conclusions.

6. Valid and Verifiable

Research involves precise observation and accurate description. Researchers select reliable and valid instruments for data collection and utilize statistical measures to portray results accurately. The conclusions drawn are correct and can be verified by the researcher and others.

The research strives to achieve the following needs:

1) Describe the Features

The research seeks to describe the features of a particular phenomenon. It is one of the core activities of research where a researcher either observes the phenomenon and records its characteristic behaviour, conducts standardised tests to measure the behaviour or describes the change in attitude or opinion of the customers. For example, a researcher can describe the behaviour of smokers by either analysing or observing their behaviour by undergoing some standard tests, such as measuring per-day consumption, the level of resistance, etc.

2) Influence Activities

The research emphasises applying the existing theories and models instead of developing new theories, for influencing various facets of the environment. Most of the research conducted in social, behavioural and educational research falls under the area of influence.

3) Explore unknown facts

One of the prime objectives of research is to explore an unknown object or phenomenon. While exploring, a researcher tries to understand the details of the situation or phenomenon for developing preliminary hypotheses and generalisations. Exploring allows the researchers to develop theories and explain the questions of how and why a phenomenon operates in a particular way.

4) Explain a Phenomenon

Another objective of the research is to explain several facts. The research aims to explain why and how a phenomenon operates in a specific way. Researchers develop theories to explain the behaviour of a particular phenomenon, these theories are prepared by determining the factors that cause the change and identifying their effects on the phenomenon. Most scientific and educational researchers have this objective for their studies. For example, if a researcher is trying to know, “Do holiday trips for employee families improve work-life balance?”. Therefore, the cause is ‘holiday trips’ and the effect is ‘work-life balance’.

5) Predict Future Activities

Research is also conducted to predict future activities. Predictions can be made based on explanations regarding a phenomenon. Hence, for making forecasts adequate prior information is essential. Forecasting activity can also be performed on the research based on explanation. Here, predictions are made based on cause-and-effect relationships in a phenomenon. A good example of this objective is the research that analysts conduct during elections to predict the winning political party based on the information that they can gather from the voting polls.

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Home Market Research

What is Research: Definition, Methods, Types & Examples

The search for knowledge is closely linked to the object of study; that is, to the reconstruction of the facts that will provide an explanation to an observed event and that at first sight can be considered as a problem. It is very human to seek answers and satisfy our curiosity. Let’s talk about research.

Content Index

What is Research?

What are the characteristics of research.

• Comparative analysis chart

Qualitative methods

Quantitative methods, 8 tips for conducting accurate research.

Research is the careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or research problem using scientific methods. According to the American sociologist Earl Robert Babbie, “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”

Inductive methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify the observed event. Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research , and deductive methods are more commonly associated with quantitative analysis .

Research is conducted with a purpose to:

• Identify potential and new customers
• Understand existing customers
• Set pragmatic goals
• Develop productive market strategies
• Address business challenges
• Put together a business expansion plan
• Identify new business opportunities
• Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
• The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive methods.
• Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
• There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated with it.
• It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research opportunities.
• It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
• Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate and correct. For example, laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the experiment’s final result.

What is the purpose of research?

There are three main purposes:

• Exploratory: As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore a group of questions. The answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before. This exploratory data analysis process lays the foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.

LEARN ABOUT: Descriptive Analysis

• Descriptive: It focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through a process of data collection. Descriptive research describe the behavior of a sample population. Only one variable is required to conduct the study. The three primary purposes of descriptive studies are describing, explaining, and validating the findings. For example, a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the company profit.

LEARN ABOUT: Best Data Collection Tools

• Explanatory: Causal research or explanatory research is conducted to understand the impact of specific changes in existing standard procedures. Running experiments is the most popular form. For example, a study that is conducted to understand the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.

Here is a comparative analysis chart for a better understanding:

It begins by asking the right questions and choosing an appropriate method to investigate the problem. After collecting answers to your questions, you can analyze the findings or observations to draw reasonable conclusions.

When it comes to customers and market studies, the more thorough your questions, the better the analysis. You get essential insights into brand perception and product needs by thoroughly collecting customer data through surveys and questionnaires . You can use this data to make smart decisions about your marketing strategies to position your business effectively.

To make sense of your study and get insights faster, it helps to use a research repository as a single source of truth in your organization and manage your research data in one centralized data repository .

Types of research methods and Examples

Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative .

Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods .

Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-ended questions . The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.

Types of qualitative methods include:

• One-to-one Interview
• Focus Groups
• Ethnographic studies
• Text Analysis

Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms . It uses a systematic way of investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable variables to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.

Types of quantitative methods include:

• Survey research
• Descriptive research
• Correlational research

LEARN MORE: Descriptive Research vs Correlational Research

Remember, it is only valuable and useful when it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Incorrect results can lead to customer churn and a decrease in sales.

It is essential to ensure that your data is:

• Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
• Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
• Reliable – other people who investigate in the same way can produce similar results.
• Timely – current and collected within an appropriate time frame.
• Complete – includes all the data you need to support your business decisions.

Gather insights

• Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and problems you observe. Write a sentence describing each one.
• Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main findings appears.
• Make a list of your findings from the most common to the least common.
• Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats identified in a SWOT analysis .
• Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your study.
• Act on your strategies
• Look for gaps in the information, and consider doing additional inquiry if necessary
• Plan to review the results and consider efficient methods to analyze and interpret results.

Review your goals before making any conclusions about your study. Remember how the process you have completed and the data you have gathered help answer your questions. Ask yourself if what your analysis revealed facilitates the identification of your conclusions and recommendations.

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Definition of research

 (Entry 1 of 2)

Definition of research  (Entry 2 of 2)

transitive verb

intransitive verb

• disquisition
• examination
• exploration
• inquisition
• investigation
• delve (into)
• inquire (into)
• investigate
• look (into)

Examples of research in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'research.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

Middle French recerche , from recercher to go about seeking, from Old French recerchier , from re- + cerchier, sercher to search — more at search

1577, in the meaning defined at sense 3

1588, in the meaning defined at transitive sense 1

Phrases Containing research

• marketing research
• market research
• operations research
• oppo research

research and development

• research park
• translational research

Dictionary Entries Near research

Cite this entry.

“Research.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/research. Accessed 20 Jun. 2024.

Kids Definition

Kids definition of research.

Kids Definition of research  (Entry 2 of 2)

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What is Research? Definition, Types, Methods and Process

By Nick Jain

Published on: July 25, 2023

Table of Contents

What is Research?

Types of research methods, research process: how to conduct research, top 10 best practices for conducting research in 2023.

Research is defined as a meticulous and systematic inquiry process designed to explore and unravel specific subjects or issues with precision. This methodical approach encompasses the thorough collection, rigorous analysis, and insightful interpretation of information, aiming to delve deep into the nuances of a chosen field of study. By adhering to established research methodologies, investigators can draw meaningful conclusions, fostering a profound understanding that contributes significantly to the existing knowledge base.

This dedication to systematic inquiry serves as the bedrock of progress, steering advancements across sciences, technology, social sciences, and diverse disciplines. Through the dissemination of meticulously gathered insights, scholars not only inspire collaboration and innovation but also catalyze positive societal change.

In the pursuit of knowledge, researchers embark on a journey of discovery, seeking to unravel the complexities of the world around us. By formulating clear research questions, researchers set the course for their investigations, carefully crafting methodologies to gather relevant data. Whether employing quantitative surveys or qualitative interviews, data collection lies at the heart of every research endeavor. Once the data is collected, researchers meticulously analyze it, employing statistical tools or thematic analysis to identify patterns and draw meaningful insights. These insights, often supported by empirical evidence, contribute to the collective pool of knowledge, enriching our understanding of various phenomena and guiding decision-making processes across diverse fields. Through research, we continually refine our understanding of the universe, laying the foundation for innovation and progress that shape the future.

Research embodies the spirit of curiosity and the pursuit of truth. Here are the key characteristics of research:

• Systematic Approach: Research follows a well-structured and organized approach, with clearly defined steps and methodologies. It is conducted in a systematic manner to ensure that data is collected, analyzed, and interpreted in a logical and coherent way.
• Objective and Unbiased: Research is objective and strives to be free from bias or personal opinions. Researchers aim to gather data and draw conclusions based on evidence rather than preconceived notions or beliefs.
• Empirical Evidence: Research relies on empirical evidence obtained through observations, experiments, surveys, or other data collection methods. This evidence serves as the foundation for drawing conclusions and making informed decisions.
• Clear Research Question or Problem: Every research study begins with a specific research question or problem that the researcher aims to address. This question provides focus and direction to the entire research process.
• Replicability: Good research should be replicable, meaning that other researchers should be able to conduct a similar study and obtain similar results when following the same methods.
• Transparency and Ethics: Research should be conducted with transparency, and researchers should adhere to ethical guidelines and principles. This includes obtaining informed consent from participants, ensuring confidentiality, and avoiding any harm to participants or the environment.
• Generalizability: Researchers often aim for their findings to be generalizable to a broader population or context. This means that the results of the study can be applied beyond the specific sample or situation studied.
• Logical and Critical Thinking: Research involves critical thinking to analyze and interpret data, identify patterns, and draw meaningful conclusions. Logical reasoning is essential in formulating hypotheses and designing the study.
• Contribution to Knowledge: The primary purpose of research is to contribute to the existing body of knowledge in a particular field. Researchers aim to expand understanding, challenge existing theories, or propose new ideas.
• Peer Review and Publication: Research findings are typically subject to peer review by experts in the field before being published in academic journals or presented at conferences. This process ensures the quality and validity of the research.
• Iterative Process: Research is often an iterative process, with findings from one study leading to new questions and further research. It is a continuous cycle of discovery and refinement.
• Practical Application: While some research is theoretical in nature, much of it aims to have practical applications and real-world implications. It can inform policy decisions, improve practices, or address societal challenges.

These key characteristics collectively define research as a rigorous and valuable endeavor that drives progress, knowledge, and innovation in various disciplines.

Research methods refer to the specific approaches and techniques used to collect and analyze data in a research study. There are various types of research methods, and researchers often choose the most appropriate method based on their research question, the nature of the data they want to collect, and the resources available to them. Some common types of research methods include:

1. Quantitative Research: Quantitative research methods focus on collecting and analyzing quantifiable data to draw conclusions. The key methods for conducting quantitative research are:

Surveys- Conducting structured questionnaires or interviews with a large number of participants to gather numerical data.

Experiments-Manipulating variables in a controlled environment to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

Observational Studies- Systematically observing and recording behaviors or phenomena without intervention.

Secondary Data Analysis- Analyzing existing datasets and records to draw new insights or conclusions.

2. Qualitative Research: Qualitative research employs a range of information-gathering methods that are non-numerical, and are instead intellectual in order to provide in-depth insights into the research topic. The key methods are:

Interviews- Conducting in-depth, semi-structured, or unstructured interviews to gain a deeper understanding of participants’ perspectives.

Focus Groups- Group discussions with selected participants to explore their attitudes, beliefs, and experiences on a specific topic.

Ethnography- Immersing in a particular culture or community to observe and understand their behaviors, customs, and beliefs.

Case Studies- In-depth examination of a single individual, group, organization, or event to gain comprehensive insights.

3. Mixed-Methods Research: Combining both quantitative and qualitative research methods in a single study to provide a more comprehensive understanding of the research question.

4. Cross-Sectional Studies: Gathering data from a sample of a population at a specific point in time to understand relationships or differences between variables.

5. Longitudinal Studies: Following a group of participants over an extended period to examine changes and developments over time.

6. Action Research: Collaboratively working with stakeholders to identify and implement solutions to practical problems in real-world settings.

7. Case-Control Studies: Comparing individuals with a particular outcome (cases) to those without the outcome (controls) to identify potential causes or risk factors.

8. Descriptive Research: Describing and summarizing characteristics, behaviors, or patterns without manipulating variables.

9. Correlational Research: Examining the relationship between two or more variables without inferring causation.

10. Grounded Theory: An approach to developing theory based on systematically gathering and analyzing data, allowing the theory to emerge from the data.

11. Surveys and Questionnaires: Administering structured sets of questions to a sample population to gather specific information.

12. Meta-Analysis: A statistical technique that combines the results of multiple studies on the same topic to draw more robust conclusions.

Researchers often choose a research method or a combination of methods that best aligns with their research objectives, resources, and the nature of the data they aim to collect. Each research method has its strengths and limitations, and the choice of method can significantly impact the findings and conclusions of a study.

Learn more: What is Research Design?

Conducting research involves a systematic and organized process that follows specific steps to ensure the collection of reliable and meaningful data. The research process typically consists of the following steps:

Step 1. Identify the Research Topic

Choose a research topic that interests you and aligns with your expertise and resources. Develop clear and focused research questions that you want to answer through your study.

Step 2. Review Existing Research

Conduct a thorough literature review to identify what research has already been done on your chosen topic. This will help you understand the current state of knowledge, identify gaps in the literature, and refine your research questions.

Step 3. Design the Research Methodology

Determine the appropriate research methodology that suits your research questions. Decide whether your study will be qualitative , quantitative , or a mix of both (mixed methods). Also, choose the data collection methods, such as surveys, interviews, experiments, observations, etc.

Step 4. Select the Sample and Participants

If your study involves human participants, decide on the sample size and selection criteria. Obtain ethical approval, if required, and ensure that participants’ rights and privacy are protected throughout the research process.

Step 5. Information Collection

Collect information and data based on your chosen research methodology. Qualitative research has more intellectual information, while quantitative research results are more data-oriented. Ensure that your data collection process is standardized and consistent to maintain the validity of the results.

Step 6. Data Analysis

Analyze the data you have collected using appropriate statistical or qualitative research methods . The type of analysis will depend on the nature of your data and research questions.

Step 7. Interpretation of Results

Interpret the findings of your data analysis. Relate the results to your research questions and consider how they contribute to the existing knowledge in the field.

Step 8. Draw Conclusions

Based on your interpretation of the results, draw meaningful conclusions that answer your research questions. Discuss the implications of your findings and how they align with the existing literature.

Step 9. Discuss Limitations

Acknowledge and discuss any limitations of your study. Addressing limitations demonstrates the validity and reliability of your research.

Step 10. Make Recommendations

If applicable, provide recommendations based on your research findings. These recommendations can be for future research, policy changes, or practical applications.

Step 11. Write the Research Report

Prepare a comprehensive research report detailing all aspects of your study, including the introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, and references.

Step 12. Peer Review and Revision

If you intend to publish your research, submit your report to peer-reviewed journals. Revise your research report based on the feedback received from reviewers.

Make sure to share your research findings with the broader community through conferences, seminars, or other appropriate channels, this will help contribute to the collective knowledge in your field of study.

Remember that conducting research is a dynamic process, and you may need to revisit and refine various steps as you progress. Good research requires attention to detail, critical thinking, and adherence to ethical principles to ensure the quality and validity of the study.

Learn more: What is Primary Market Research?

Best practices for conducting research remain rooted in the principles of rigor, transparency, and ethical considerations. Here are the essential best practices to follow when conducting research in 2023:

1. Research Design and Methodology

• Carefully select and justify the research design and methodology that aligns with your research questions and objectives.
• Ensure that the chosen methods are appropriate for the data you intend to collect and the type of analysis you plan to perform.
• Clearly document the research design and methodology to enhance the reproducibility and transparency of your study.

2. Ethical Considerations

• Obtain approval from relevant research ethics committees or institutional review boards, especially when involving human participants or sensitive data.
• Prioritize the protection of participants’ rights, privacy, and confidentiality throughout the research process.
• Provide informed consent to participants, ensuring they understand the study’s purpose, risks, and benefits.

3. Data Collection

• Ensure the reliability and validity of data collection instruments, such as surveys or interview protocols.
• Conduct pilot studies or pretests to identify and address any potential issues with data collection procedures.

4. Data Management and Analysis

• Implement robust data management practices to maintain the integrity and security of research data.
• Transparently document data analysis procedures, including software and statistical methods used.
• Use appropriate statistical techniques to analyze the data and avoid data manipulation or cherry-picking results.

5. Transparency and Open Science

• Embrace open science practices, such as pre-registration of research protocols and sharing data and code openly whenever possible.
• Clearly report all aspects of your research, including methods, results, and limitations, to enhance the reproducibility of your study.

6. Bias and Confounders

• Be aware of potential biases in the research process and take steps to minimize them.
• Consider and address potential confounding variables that could affect the validity of your results.

7. Peer Review

• Seek peer review from experts in your field before publishing or presenting your research findings.
• Be receptive to feedback and address any concerns raised by reviewers to improve the quality of your study.

8. Replicability and Generalizability

• Strive to make your research findings replicable, allowing other researchers to validate your results independently.
• Clearly state the limitations of your study and the extent to which the findings can be generalized to other populations or contexts.

9. Acknowledging Funding and Conflicts of Interest

• Disclose any funding sources and potential conflicts of interest that may influence your research or its outcomes.

10. Dissemination and Communication

• Effectively communicate your research findings to both academic and non-academic audiences using clear and accessible language.
• Share your research through reputable and open-access platforms to maximize its impact and reach.

By adhering to these best practices, researchers can ensure the integrity and value of their work, contributing to the advancement of knowledge and promoting trust in the research community.

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Research : Meaning, Definition, Nature, Importance, Objectives and Types

In this article we are discussing the basic concepts of Research : Meaning, Definition, Nature, Importance, Objectives and Types

Meaning of Research

Meaning of Research – Research refers to the systematic and scientific investigation of a particular topic, with the aim of gaining new knowledge, insights, and understanding. It involves the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data in order to answer specific questions or solve problems.

First, we should start from the word ‘research’. This word is made up by adding ‘Re’ as a prefix to the word ‘search’. Search is to make known of an existent unknown thing. Therefore, research (search of searched) means to elicit some facts out of a known thing. Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge

Every letter of the word ‘research’ emphasizes a special and dignified meaning as given below. R – Rational (way of thinking)

E – Expert/Exhaustive (Treatment) S – Search (for solution)

E – Exactness

A – Analytical Analysis (of adequate data) R – Relationship (of facts)

C – Careful (recording)/ critical (observation) / constructive (attitude) / condensed/and compactly (stated Generalization)

H – Honesty/Hard work

Research is thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a problem in research. Research : Meaning, Definition, Nature, Importance, Objectives and Types

Definition of Research

We can summarize the modern definitions of research in following points-Research is

“Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested, solutions, collecting, organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and reaching conclusions and at last carefully listing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.”

-Clifford Woody

“Research is the systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled observations that may leave to development of generalizations, principles or theories result in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events.”                                

-John W.Best

Importance and Objectives of Research

Importance and Objectives of Research – To discover answers to questions through the application of scientific procedures, its main aim is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. (Exploratory or formulative research studies).
• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group. (Descriptive research studies).
• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something else. (Diagnostic research studies).
• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (hypothesis-testing research studies).

Nature of Research 

Followings are the Nature of Research:

• Systematic: Research is a systematic process that involves a structured approach to the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.
• Objective: Research should be objective, free from personal biases and opinions. The findings should be based on empirical evidence.
• Replicable: Research should be replicable, meaning that the methods and procedures used should be clearly documented and able to be repeated by other researchers.
• Valid and Reliable: Research should be valid and reliable, meaning that the methods used to collect and analyze data should be accurate and consistent.
• Ethical: Research should be conducted in an ethical manner, ensuring that participants are treated with respect and that their rights and confidentiality are protected.

Overall, research is an important process for advancing knowledge and understanding in various fields, and its effectiveness depends on its systematic approach, objectivity, and ethical considerations.

TYPES OF RESEARCH:

Following are the various types of research: Basic or fundamental, Applied, Action, Qualitative, Quantitative, Exploratory, Descriptive, Evaluation, Experimental, Diagnostic Research

• Basic Research: Basic research is conducted to gain a fundamental understanding of a phenomenon or to develop new theories and concepts. This type of research is often exploratory and aims to answer questions that have not been previously addressed.
• Applied Research: Applied research is conducted to solve specific problems or to address practical issues. It involves the application of existing knowledge and theories to real-world problems.
• Action Research: Action research is a form of applied research that focuses on solving specific problems within a particular setting or community. It involves collaboration between researchers and practitioners in order to develop practical solutions.
• Qualitative Research: Qualitative research is conducted to explore subjective experiences, attitudes, and behaviors. It involves collecting and analyzing data through observation, interviews, and focus groups.
• Quantitative Research: Quantitative research is conducted to measure and quantify phenomena. It involves collecting and analyzing numerical data through surveys, experiments, and statistical analysis.
• It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intension to apply it in practice.
• This research helps in developing theories by discovering broad generalization and principles.
• It is organized through different procedures of research like sampling, hypothesizing facts, etc. It can be experimented in a psychological laboratory.
• Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics, research studies concerning human behavior carried on with a view to make generalizations about human behavior are examples of fundamental research.
• Aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organization.
• Solve practical problem of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge sake.
• Marketing research is an example of applied research.
• It is a preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which researcher has little or no knowledge.
• The objective of exploratory research is the development of hypothesis rather than their testing.
• Its aim is immediate application but not any development of theory.
• It is research either initiated to solve the immediate problem or if the researcher finds any problem during the course of his field investigation and observation, he applies it.
• Includes surveys and fact findings enquiries of different kinds.
• The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs, as it exists at present.
• In social science and business research the term often used is ex-post fact research.
• The researcher has no control over the variables, he can only report what has happened or what is happening.
• It is a type of applied research.
• It is made for assessing and taking stock of effectiveness of social or economic programmes.
• For example: Family planning scheme, Irrigation project.
• Similar to descriptive study but with a different focus, which is directed towards discovering what is happening? Why is it happening and what can be done about it?
• It aims at identifying the causes of problems and possible solutions for it.

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Dr. Gaurav Jangra

Dr. Gaurav has a doctorate in management, a NET & JRF in commerce and management, an MBA, and a M.COM. Gaining a satisfaction career of more than 10 years in research and Teaching as an Associate professor. He published more than 20 textbooks and 15 research papers.

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Research | Meaning, Types, Characteristics, Positivism

Research: Meaning, Types and Characteristics

When you say that you are undertaking a research study to find answers to a question, you are implying that the process;

• is being undertaken within a framework of a set of philosophies (approaches);
• uses procedures, methods, and techniques that have been tested for their validity and reliability ;
• is designed to be unbiased and objective .

Philosophies mean approaches, e.g., qualitative, quantitative, and the academic discipline in which you have been trained.

Validity means that correct procedures have been applied to find answers to a question.

Reliability refers to the quality of a measurement procedure that provides repeatability and accuracy.

Unbiased and objective means that you have taken each step in an unbiased manner and drawn each conclusion to the best of your ability and without introducing your own vested interest.

(Bias is a deliberate attempt to either conceal or highlight something).

Adherence to the three criteria mentioned above enables the process to be called ‘research’.

However, the degree to which these criteria are expected to be fulfilled varies from discipline to discipline and so the meaning of ‘research’ differs from one academic discipline to another.

The difference between research and non-research activity is, in the way we find answers: the process must meet certain requirements to be called research. We can identify these requirements by examining some definitions of research.

The word research is composed of two syllables, “ re” and “ search.” “ re” is a prefix meaning again, a new or over again and “ search” is a verb meaning to examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to establish facts or principles.

Research is a structured enquiry that utilizes acceptable scientific methodology to solve problems and create new knowledge that is generally applicable.

Scientific methods consist of systematic observation, classification and interpretation of data.

Characteristics of Research

Research is a process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting information to answer questions. But to qualify as research, the process must have certain characteristics: it must, as far as possible, be controlled, rigorous, systematic, valid and verifiable, empirical and critical.

Controlled – in real life there are many factors that affect an outcome. The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables (factors), you set up your study in a way that minimizes the effects of other factors affecting the relationship. This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a laboratory. However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where such controls are not possible. Therefore, in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.

Rigorous -you must be scrupulous in ensuring that the procedures followed to find answers to questions are relevant, appropriate and justified. Again, the degree of rigour varies markedly between the physical and social sciences and within the social sciences.

Systematic -this implies that the procedure adopted to undertake an investigation follow a certain logical sequence. The different steps cannot be taken in a haphazard way. Some procedures must follow others.

Valid and verifiable -this concept implies that whatever you conclude on the basis of your findings is correct and can be verified by you and others.

Empirical -this means that any conclusion drawn are based upon hard evidence gathered from information collected from real-life experiences or observations.

Critical -critical scrutiny of the procedures used and the methods employed is crucial to a research enquiry . The process of investigation must be foolproof and free from drawbacks. The process adopted and the procedures used must be able to withstand critical scrutiny.

For a process to be called research, it is imperative that it has the above characteristics.

Types of Research

Research can be classified from three perspectives:

• Application of research study
• Objectives in undertaking the research
• Inquiry Mode employed

Based on Application:

From the point of view of the application, there are two broad categories of research:

• Pure Research
• Applied Research,

Pure research (Fundamental) involves developing and testing theories and hypotheses that are intellectually challenging to the researcher but may or may not have a practical application at the present time or in the future. The knowledge produced through pure research is sought in order to add to the existing body of research methods.

Applied research (Action Research) is done to solve specific, practical questions; for policy formulation, administration and understanding of a phenomenon. It can be exploratory but is usually descriptive . It is almost always done on the basis of basic research.

Applied research can be carried out by academic or industrial institutions. Often, an academic institution such as a university will have a specific applied research program funded by an industrial partner interested in that program.

Based on Objectives:

From the viewpoint of objectives, research can be classified as

• Descriptive
• Correlational
• Explanatory
• Exploratory

Descriptive research attempts to describe systematically a situation, problem, phenomenon, service or programme, or provides information about, say, the living condition of a community, or describes attitudes towards an issue.

Correlational research attempts to discover or establish the existence of a relationship/ interdependence between two or more aspects of a situation.

Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a relationship between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.

Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the possibilities of undertaking a particular research study ( feasibility study pilot study).

In practice, most studies are a combination of the first three categories.

Based on Inquiry Mode:

From the process adopted to find the answer to re search questions; the two approaches are:

• Structured approach
• Unstructured approach

Structured approach: The structured approach to inquiry is usually classified as quantitative research . Everything that forms the research process- objectives, design, sample, and the questions that you plan to ask of respondents- is predetermined. It is more appropriate to determine the extent of a problem, issue or phenomenon by quantifying the variation.

e.g . how many people have a particular problem? How many people hold a particular attitude?

Unstructured approach: The unstructured approach to inquiry is usually classified as qualitative research . This approach allows flexibility in all aspects of the research process.

It is more appropriate to explore the nature of a problem, issue or phenomenon without quantifying it. The main objective is to describe the variation in a phenomenon, situation or attitude.

e,g, description of an observed situation, the historical enumeration of events, an account of different opinions different people have about an issue, description of working condition in a particular industry.

Both approaches have their place in research. Both have their strengths and weaknesses.

In many studies, there is a combination of both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

For example, suppose you have to find the types of cuisine/accommodation available in a city and the extent of their popularity.

Types of cuisine are the qualitative aspect of the study as finding out about them entails a description of the culture and cuisine

The extent of their popularity is the quantitative aspect as it involves estimating the number of people who visit a restaurant serving such cuisine and calculating the other indicators that reflect the extent of popularity.

Positivism and Post-Positivism Approach

Positivism:.

Positivism argues for the existence of a true and objective reality that can be studied by applying the methods and principles of natural sciences and scientific inquiry. It maintains that “the object of study is independent of researchers; knowledge is discovered and verified through direct observations or measurements of phenomena; facts are established by taking apart a phenomenon to examine its component parts.” According to this paradigm, the role of the researcher is to provide material for the development of laws by testing theories.

Positivists believe in five principles which include

• Phenomenalism (knowledge confirmed by the senses can be regarded as knowledge),
• Deductivism (the purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested to make laws),
• Inductivism (the gathering of facts provides the basis for laws and knowledge),
• Objectivism (science should be value-free) and
• Scientific statements

Post positivism:

Post Positivism is considered a contemporary paradigm that developed as a result of the criticism of positivism. Like positivists, post positivists also believe in the existence of a single reality, however, they acknowledge that reality can never be fully known and efforts to understand reality are limited owing to the human beings’ sensory and intellectual limitations.

The aim of post positivist research is also a prediction and explanation. Like positivists, post positivists also strive to be objective, neutral and ensure that the findings fit with the existing knowledge base. However, unlike positivists, they acknowledge and spell out any predispositions that may affect the objectivity

Positivism and post positivism was precluded from use in this study for several reasons. Firstly, research conducted under both of these paradigms is usually quantitative where a hypothesis is tested while the researcher remains objective and separate from the area of investigation.

Ref – Kumar, R. (2019). Resarch methodology: A step-by-step guide for beginners . Sage Publications Limited. https://www.ukessays.com/essays/psychology/rsearch-on-positivism-and-post-positivism-psychology-essay.php

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What is the nature of a study? [closed]

If one is asked to elaborate the nature of a study, like, for example, political science, or political theory, sociology, or a study on any other subject, what should he/she elaborate on? What should a report or an essay on the nature of a study include? Thank you.

• independent-study

• Think about the sorts of unanswered questions that you think are worth exploring. Then generalize a bit. –  Buffy Commented Oct 25, 2020 at 9:48
• @Buffy could you please add more details to your answer? –  adieng Commented Oct 25, 2020 at 10:42

The "nature" of a study or a piece of research is the sorts of questions that it sets out to answer. If you accept that research is about the unknown, then the researcher wants to explore that and, hopefully shed light. Ideally, research results in definite answers to important questions, but it might not be able to get that definitive, especially in human subjects such as those you name.

But the nature of a political study, for example, might involve a comparison of electoral systems and how they might evolve over time. Or it might involve defense against the rise of dictatorship. Likewise comparisons between the effectiveness of parliamentary systems vs other democratic forms is possible. And even the definition of "effectiveness" might be open to study in such a field of research.

The nature of a particular study could be quite narrow, such as the reasons for some outcomes in British elections in one specific year as compared to a year a few years earlier and why different parties got different results.

And, of course, if it is "research" then the researcher is looking to draw conclusions and to find evidence for, as well as against, those conclusions. That is what separates it from, say, journalism or speculative writing.

Not the answer you're looking for? Browse other questions tagged independent-study .

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Online Guide to Writing and Research

The research process, explore more of umgc.

• Online Guide to Writing

The Nature of Research

What is “research”?

Your friend mentions that they just knitted a sweater and you have always wanted to learn how to knit.  What could you do now? You could watch a video on YouTube, look for knitting books at your local library, or ask your friend who can knit how to start.  What you are actively doing here is “researching” the topic of knitting and learning more about it.  We do this in our everyday lives, and we also do this when writing a paper for our academic coursework.   

Simply put, research is information gathering about something that’s new to you.  We research every day, utilizing the internet for most of our research gathering, whether personal or academic. 

Academic research is information gathering under parameters specified by your coursework and assignment instructions.  For instance, if you are a political science major and you need to write a research paper about the similarities and differences between socialism and capitalism, you would then perform research to learn more about these terms and your final product (your paper) will join the scholarly community when completed.   

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Table of Contents: Online Guide to Writing

Chapter 1: College Writing

How Does College Writing Differ from Workplace Writing?

What Is College Writing?

Why So Much Emphasis on Writing?

Chapter 2: The Writing Process

Doing Exploratory Research

Getting from Notes to Your Draft

Introduction

Prewriting - Techniques to Get Started - Mining Your Intuition

Prewriting: Targeting Your Audience

Prewriting: Techniques to Get Started

Prewriting: Understanding Your Assignment

Rewriting: Being Your Own Critic

Rewriting: Creating a Revision Strategy

Rewriting: Getting Feedback

Rewriting: The Final Draft

Techniques to Get Started - Outlining

Techniques to Get Started - Using Systematic Techniques

Thesis Statement and Controlling Idea

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Freewriting

Writing: Getting from Notes to Your Draft - Summarizing Your Ideas

Writing: Outlining What You Will Write

Chapter 3: Thinking Strategies

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone

A Word About Style, Voice, and Tone: Style Through Vocabulary and Diction

Critical Strategies and Writing

Critical Strategies and Writing: Analysis

Critical Strategies and Writing: Evaluation

Critical Strategies and Writing: Persuasion

Critical Strategies and Writing: Synthesis

Developing a Paper Using Strategies

Kinds of Assignments You Will Write

Patterns for Presenting Information

Patterns for Presenting Information: Critiques

Patterns for Presenting Information: Discussing Raw Data

Patterns for Presenting Information: General-to-Specific Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Specific-to-General Pattern

Patterns for Presenting Information: Summaries and Abstracts

Supporting with Research and Examples

Writing Essay Examinations

Writing Essay Examinations: Make Your Answer Relevant and Complete

Writing Essay Examinations: Organize Thinking Before Writing

Writing Essay Examinations: Read and Understand the Question

Chapter 4: The Research Process

Planning and Writing a Research Paper

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Ask a Research Question

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Cite Sources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Collect Evidence

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Decide Your Point of View, or Role, for Your Research

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Draw Conclusions

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Find a Topic and Get an Overview

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Manage Your Resources

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Outline

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Survey the Literature

Planning and Writing a Research Paper: Work Your Sources into Your Research Writing

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Human Resources

Research Resources: What Are Research Resources?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found?

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Electronic Resources

Research Resources: Where Are Research Resources Found? - Print Resources

Structuring the Research Paper: Formal Research Structure

Structuring the Research Paper: Informal Research Structure

The Research Assignment: How Should Research Sources Be Evaluated?

The Research Assignment: When Is Research Needed?

The Research Assignment: Why Perform Research?

Chapter 5: Academic Integrity

Academic Integrity

Giving Credit to Sources

Giving Credit to Sources: Copyright Laws

Giving Credit to Sources: Documentation

Giving Credit to Sources: Style Guides

Integrating Sources

Practicing Academic Integrity

Practicing Academic Integrity: Keeping Accurate Records

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Paraphrasing Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Quoting Your Source

Practicing Academic Integrity: Managing Source Material - Summarizing Your Sources

Types of Documentation

Types of Documentation: Bibliographies and Source Lists

Types of Documentation: Citing World Wide Web Sources

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - APA Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - CSE/CBE Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - Chicago Style

Types of Documentation: In-Text or Parenthetical Citations - MLA Style

Types of Documentation: Note Citations

Chapter 6: Using Library Resources

Finding Library Resources

Chapter 7: Assessing Your Writing

How Is Writing Graded?

How Is Writing Graded?: A General Assessment Tool

The Draft Stage

The Draft Stage: The First Draft

The Draft Stage: The Revision Process and the Final Draft

The Draft Stage: Using Feedback

The Research Stage

Using Assessment to Improve Your Writing

Chapter 8: Other Frequently Assigned Papers

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Article and Book Reviews

Reviews and Reaction Papers: Reaction Papers

Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Adapting the Argument Structure

Writing Arguments: Purposes of Argument

Writing Arguments: References to Consult for Writing Arguments

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Anticipate Active Opposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Determine Your Organization

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Develop Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Introduce Your Argument

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - State Your Thesis or Proposition

Writing Arguments: Steps to Writing an Argument - Write Your Conclusion

Writing Arguments: Types of Argument

Appendix A: Books to Help Improve Your Writing

Dictionaries

General Style Manuals

Researching on the Internet

Special Style Manuals

Writing Handbooks

Appendix B: Collaborative Writing and Peer Reviewing

Collaborative Writing: Assignments to Accompany the Group Project

Collaborative Writing: Informal Progress Report

Collaborative Writing: Issues to Resolve

Collaborative Writing: Methodology

Collaborative Writing: Peer Evaluation

Collaborative Writing: Tasks of Collaborative Writing Group Members

Collaborative Writing: Writing Plan

General Introduction

Peer Reviewing

Appendix C: Developing an Improvement Plan

Working with Your Instructor’s Comments and Grades

Appendix D: Writing Plan and Project Schedule

Devising a Writing Project Plan and Schedule

Reviewing Your Plan with Others

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Nurtured by nature

Psychological research is advancing our understanding of how time in nature can improve our mental health and sharpen our cognition

Vol. 51, No. 3 Print version: page 50

• Cognition and the Brain
• Environment and Population

Be honest: How much time do you spend staring at a screen each day? For most Americans, that number clocks in at more than 10 hours, according to a 2016 Nielsen Total Audience Report. Our increasing reliance on technology, combined with a global trend toward urban living, means many of us are spending ever less time outdoors—even as scientists compile evidence of the value of getting out into the natural world.

From a stroll through a city park to a day spent hiking in the wilderness, exposure to nature has been linked to a host of benefits, including improved attention, lower stress, better mood, reduced risk of psychiatric disorders and even upticks in empathy and cooperation. Most research so far has focused on green spaces such as parks and forests, and researchers are now also beginning to study the benefits of blue spaces, places with river and ocean views. But nature comes in all shapes and sizes, and psychological research is still fine-tuning our understanding of its potential benefits. In the process, scientists are charting a course for policymakers and the public to better tap into the healing powers of Mother Nature.

“There is mounting evidence, from dozens and dozens of researchers, that nature has benefits for both physical and psychological human well­being,” says Lisa Nisbet, PhD, a psychologist at Trent University in Ontario, Canada, who studies connectedness to nature. “You can boost your mood just by walking in nature, even in urban nature. And the sense of connection you have with the natural world seems to contribute to happiness even when you’re not physically immersed in nature.”

Cognitive benefits

Spending time in nature can act as a balm for our busy brains. Both correlational and experimental research have shown that interacting with nature has cognitive benefits—a topic University of Chicago psychologist Marc Berman, PhD, and his student Kathryn Schertz explored in a 2019 review. They reported, for instance, that green spaces near schools promote cognitive development in children and green views near children’s homes promote self-control behaviors. Adults assigned to public housing units in neighborhoods with more green space showed better attentional functioning than those assigned to units with less access to natural environments. And experiments have found that being exposed to natural environments improves working memory, cognitive flexibility and attentional control, while exposure to urban environments is linked to attention deficits ( Current Directions in Psychological Science , Vol. 28, No. 5, 2019).

Researchers have proposed a number of ideas to explain such findings, as Nisbet and colleagues described in a review of the benefits of connection with nature (Capaldi, C.A., et al., International Journal of Wellbeing , Vol. 5, No. 4, 2015). The biophilia hypothesis argues that since our ancestors evolved in wild settings and relied on the environment for survival, we have an innate drive to connect with nature. The stress reduction hypothesis posits that spending time in nature triggers a physiological response that lowers stress levels. A third idea, attention restoration theory, holds that nature replenishes one’s cognitive resources, restoring the ability to concentrate and pay attention.

The truth may be a combination of factors. “Stress reduction and attention restoration are related,” Nisbet points out. “And because of the societal problems we’re dealing with in terms of stress, both of these theories have gotten a lot of attention from researchers.”

Experimental findings show how impressive nature’s healing powers can be—just a few moments of green can perk up a tired brain. In one example, Australian researchers asked students to engage in a dull, attention-draining task in which they pressed a computer key when certain numbers flashed on a screen. Students who looked out at a flowering green roof for 40 seconds midway through the task made significantly fewer mistakes than students who paused for 40 seconds to gaze at a concrete rooftop (Lee, K.E., et al., Journal of Environmental Psychology , Vol. 42, No. 1, 2015).

Even the sounds of nature may be recuperative. Berman and colleagues found that study participants who listened to nature sounds like crickets chirping and waves crashing performed better on demanding cognitive tests than those who listened to urban sounds like traffic and the clatter of a busy café (Van Hedger, S.C., et. al., Psychonomic Bulletin & Review , Vol. 26, No. 2, 2019).

Nature and happiness

While such laboratory experiments are intriguing, they don’t fully capture the diverse benefits that go hand in hand with time spent in the outdoor world, says Cynthia Frantz, PhD, a professor of psychology and environmental studies at Oberlin College in Ohio. “Spending time in nature has cognitive benefits, but it also has emotional and existential benefits that go beyond just being able to solve arithmetic problems more quickly,” she notes.

In a review of the research, Gregory Bratman, PhD, an assistant professor at the University of Washington, and colleagues shared evidence that contact with nature is associated with increases in happiness, subjective well-being, positive affect, positive social interactions and a sense of meaning and purpose in life, as well as decreases in mental distress ( Science Advances , Vol. 5, No. 7, 2019).

Other work suggests that when children get outside, it leaves a lasting impression. In a study of residents of Denmark, researchers used satellite data to assess people’s exposure to green space from birth to age 10, which they compared with longitudinal data on individual mental health outcomes. The researchers examined data from more than 900,000 residents born between 1985 and 2003. They found that children who lived in neighborhoods with more green space had a reduced risk of many psychiatric disorders later in life, including depression, mood disorders, schizophrenia, eating disorders and substance use disorder. For those with the lowest levels of green space exposure during childhood, the risk of developing mental illness was 55% higher than for those who grew up with abundant green space (Engemann, K., et al., PNAS , Vol. 116, No. 11, 2019).

There is even evidence that images of nature can be beneficial. Frantz and colleagues compared outcomes of people who walked outside in either natural or urban settings with those of people who watched videos of those settings. They found that any exposure to nature—in person or via video—led to improvements in attention, positive emotions and the ability to reflect on a life problem. But the effects were stronger among those who actually spent time outside (Mayer, F.S., et al., Environment and Behavior , Vol. 41, No. 5, 2009).

More recently, scientists have begun exploring whether virtual reality nature experiences are beneficial. In a review of this work, Mathew White, PhD, an environmental psychologist at the University of Exeter in England, and colleagues concluded that while the real deal is best, virtual reality can be a worthwhile substitute for people who are unable to get outdoors, such as those with mobility problems or illness ( Neuro­psychiatric Disease and Treatment , Vol. 14, 2018).

Nature might also make us nicer—to other people as well as to the planet. John Zelenski, PhD, a professor of psychology at Carleton University in Ontario, Canada, and colleagues showed undergraduates either nature documentaries or videos about architectural landmarks. Then the participants played a fishing game in which they made decisions about how many fish to harvest across multiple seasons. Those who had watched the nature video were more likely to cooperate with other players, and also more likely to make choices that would sustain the fish population ( Journal of Environmental Psychology , Vol. 42, No. 1, 2015). In another experiment, Zelenski and his colleagues found that elementary school children acted more prosocially to classmates and strangers after a field trip to a nature school than they did after a visit to an aviation museum (Dopko, R.L., et al., Journal of Environmental Psychology , Vol. 63, No. 1, 2019).

Those generous behaviors weren’t attributed to students’ moods, Zelenski and his colleagues found, so it wasn’t simply that spending time in nature made them happier and therefore more giving. Another plausible (though unproven) explanation is the emotion of awe. “There are some hints that awe is associated with generosity, and nature can be a way to induce awe,” he says. “One of the things that may come from awe is the feeling that the individual is part of a much bigger whole.”

Experience vs. connection

With so many benefits linked to nature, people naturally wonder: How much time outside is enough? White and colleagues took a stab at answering that question by studying a representative sample of nearly 20,000 adults across the United Kingdom. They found people who had spent at least two recreational hours in nature during the previous week reported significantly greater health and well-being. That pattern held true across subgroups including older adults and people with chronic health problems, and the effects were the same whether they got their dose of nature in a single 120-minute session or spread out over the course of the week ( Scientific Reports , Vol. 9, No. 1, 2019). “We’re not saying we’ve cracked this nut yet, but this is a first step toward making specific recommendations about how much time in nature is enough,” White says.

The amount of time one spends in nature isn’t the only element to consider—it’s also beneficial to feel connected to the natural world even when you’re stuck at a desk. Researchers call this feeling by a variety of names, including nature relatedness, connectedness to nature and inclusion of nature in self, and they’ve developed a number of scales to measure the trait.

Whatever you call it, connectedness to nature seems to benefit mood and mental health. In a meta-analysis, Alison Pritchard, PhD, ABPP, at the University of Derby in England, and colleagues found that people who feel more connected to nature have greater eudaimonic well-being—a type of contentment that goes beyond just feeling good and includes having meaningful purpose in life ( Journal of Happiness Studie s , online first publication, 2019).

Zelenski and Nisbet studied whether connection itself is the magic ingredient. They assessed the overlap between connectedness with nature and a general sense of connectedness, such as feeling in tune with one’s friends or community. They found that feeling connected to nature was a significant predictor of happiness even after controlling for the effects of general connectedness ( Environment and Behavior , Vol. 46, No. 1, 2014). “People who feel that their self-concept is intertwined with nature report being a bit happier,” says Zelenski. “Nature connectedness isn’t the biggest predictor of happiness, but [the association between the two] is quite consistent.”

In fact, nature might help to buffer the effects of loneliness or social isolation. White and his colleagues surveyed 359 U.K. residents about their social connectedness and proximity to nature over the previous week. Social isolation is typically associated with worse subjective well-being. But the researchers found that when people with low social connectedness had high levels of nearby nature, they reported high levels of well­being (Cartwright, B.D.S., et al., International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , Vol. 15, No. 6, 2018). “There are people who don’t necessarily want to spend their time with others, but they feel connected to the natural environment, and that can enhance their well-being,” White says.

Green and blue spaces

It’s clear that getting outside is good for us. Now, scientists are working to determine what types of environments are best. Much attention has gone to green spaces, but White has studied a variety of marine and freshwater environments and found these blue spaces are also good for well-being (Gascon, M., et al., International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health , Vol. 220, No. 8, 2017.) In fact, he says, they may even be slightly more restorative than green spaces.

There may also be value in trekking to remote locations. In a survey of 4,515 U.K. residents, White found that people reported more connection to nature and felt more restored after visiting rural and coastal locations than they did after spending time in urban green spaces. Areas deemed to be “high environmental quality”—such as nature reserves and protected habitats—were also more beneficial than areas with low biodiversity (Wyles, K.J., et al., Environment and Behavior , Vol. 51, No. 2, 2019). In other work, White and his colleagues found that people who watched nature videos with a diverse mix of flora and fauna reported lower anxiety, more vitality and better mood than those who watched videos featuring less biodiverse landscapes (Wolf, L.J., et al., PLOS ONE , Vol. 12, No. 1, 2017).

But there’s an important caveat, White adds: “If you have a break from work and you’ve only got half an hour, then a wild remote place is no use to you at all.” Urban parks and trees also produce positive outcomes. Just like a little exercise is better than none, we should take­ advantage of green and blue spaces wherever and whenever we can. That’s easier said than done, though, especially for people at a socioeconomic disadvantage. Poorer neighborhoods, White notes, are seldom the ones with leafy groves and ocean views.

Yet policymakers, city planners, environmental organizations and government agencies are coming around to the importance of natural spaces, and psychologists are offering them their expertise, says White, who has presented his research to groups such as the U.K.’s Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. Organizations and cities are expressing interest in this research, Zelenski says, though many policymakers are waiting to see the results of intervention studies before investing in green infrastructure. One of the United Nations’ sustainable development goals includes the target of providing universal access to safe, inclusive and accessible green and public spaces by 2030.

There is urgency in fostering these connections, says Nisbet. Because while people benefit from their connection with the natural world, the environment also benefits when people feel connected and committed to caring for the Earth—and between climate change and habitat loss, the planet is in serious need of some care. “When people are disconnected from nature, they aren’t motivated to work on wicked problems like climate change. We’re losing the environments that contribute to our flourishing,” she says. “The key question is, How do we help people feel connected to nature so we’re motivated to protect the places that will help us thrive?”

• Spending time in nature is linked to both cognitive benefits and improvements in mood, mental health and emotional well-being.
• Feeling connected to nature can produce similar benefits to well-being, regardless of how much time one spends outdoors.
• Both green spaces and blue spaces (aquatic environments) produce well-being benefits. More remote and biodiverse spaces may be particularly helpful, though even urban parks and trees can lead to positive outcomes.

Related article

Bringing nature into treatment

Further reading

Environmental Neuroscience Berman, M.G., et al., American Psychologist , 2019

Nature and Mental Health: An Ecosystem Service Perspective Bratman, G.N., et al., Science Advances , 2019

Ecotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice Jordan, M., & Hinds, J. (Eds.), Red Globe Press, 2016

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• 31 May 2024

What is science? Tech heavyweights brawl over definition

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If you do research and don’t publish it, is it science? That’s the question at the heart of an ongoing debate on X between entrepreneur Elon Musk and pioneering computer scientist Yann LeCun. Over the past few days, the conversation sprawled into a brawl about the definition of science, attracting thousands of commentators including researchers of all stripes.

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Six distinct types of depression identified in Stanford Medicine-led study

Brain imaging, known as functional MRI, combined with machine learning can predict a treatment response based on one’s depression “biotype.”

June 17, 2024 - By Rachel Tompa

Researchers have identified six subtypes of depression, paving the way toward personalized treatment. Damerfie -   stock.adobe.com

In the not-too-distant future, a screening assessment for depression could include a quick brain scan to identify the best treatment.

Brain imaging combined with machine learning can reveal subtypes of depression and anxiety, according to a new study led by researchers at Stanford Medicine. The study , published June 17 in the journal Nature Medicine , sorts depression into six biological subtypes, or “biotypes,” and identifies treatments that are more likely or less likely to work for three of these subtypes.

Better methods for matching patients with treatments are desperately needed, said the study’s senior author,  Leanne Williams , PhD, the Vincent V.C. Woo Professor, a professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences, and the director of Stanford Medicine’s Center for Precision Mental Health and Wellness . Williams, who lost her partner to depression in 2015, has focused her work on pioneering the field of precision psychiatry .

Around 30% of people with depression have what’s known as treatment-resistant depression , meaning multiple kinds of medication or therapy have failed to improve their symptoms. And for up to two-thirds of people with depression, treatment fails to fully reverse their symptoms to healthy levels.  

That’s in part because there’s no good way to know which antidepressant or type of therapy could help a given patient. Medications are prescribed through a trial-and-error method, so it can take months or years to land on a drug that works — if it ever happens. And spending so long trying treatment after treatment, only to experience no relief, can worsen depression symptoms.

“The goal of our work is figuring out how we can get it right the first time,” Williams said. “It’s very frustrating to be in the field of depression and not have a better alternative to this one-size-fits-all approach.”

Biotypes predict treatment response

To better understand the biology underlying depression and anxiety, Williams and her colleagues assessed 801 study participants who were previously diagnosed with depression or anxiety using the imaging technology known as functional MRI, or fMRI, to measure brain activity. They scanned the volunteers’ brains at rest and when they were engaged in different tasks designed to test their cognitive and emotional functioning. The scientists narrowed in on regions of the brain, and the connections between them, that were already known to play a role in depression.

Using a machine learning approach known as cluster analysis to group the patients’ brain images, they identified six distinct patterns of activity in the brain regions they studied.

Leanne Williams

The scientists also randomly assigned 250 of the study participants to receive one of three commonly used antidepressants or behavioral talk therapy. Patients with one subtype, which is characterized by overactivity in cognitive regions of the brain, experienced the best response to the antidepressant venlafaxine (commonly known as Effexor) compared with those who have other biotypes. Those with another subtype, whose brains at rest had higher levels of activity among three regions associated with depression and problem-solving, had better alleviation of symptoms with behavioral talk therapy. And those with a third subtype, who had lower levels of activity at rest in the brain circuit that controls attention, were less likely to see improvement of their symptoms with talk therapy than those with other biotypes.

The biotypes and their response to behavioral therapy make sense based on what they know about these regions of the brain, said Jun Ma, MD, PhD, the Beth and George Vitoux Professor of Medicine at the University of Illinois Chicago and one of the authors of the study. The type of therapy used in their trial teaches patients skills to better address daily problems, so the high levels of activity in these brain regions may allow patients with that biotype to more readily adopt new skills. As for those with lower activity in the region associated with attention and engagement, Ma said it’s possible that pharmaceutical treatment to first address that lower activity could help those patients gain more from talk therapy.

“To our knowledge, this is the first time we’ve been able to demonstrate that depression can be explained by different disruptions to the functioning of the brain,” Williams said. “In essence, it’s a demonstration of a personalized medicine approach for mental health based on objective measures of brain function.”

In another recently published study , Williams and her team showed that using fMRI brain imaging improves their ability to identify individuals likely to respond to antidepressant treatment. In that study, the scientists focused on a subtype they call the cognitive biotype of depression, which affects more than a quarter of those with depression and is less likely to respond to standard antidepressants. By identifying those with the cognitive biotype using fMRI, the researchers accurately predicted the likelihood of remission in 63% of patients, compared with 36% accuracy without using brain imaging. That improved accuracy means that providers may be more likely to get the treatment right the first time. The scientists are now studying novel treatments for this biotype with the hope of finding more options for those who don’t respond to standard antidepressants.

Further explorations of depression

The different biotypes also correlate with differences in symptoms and task performance among the trial participants. Those with overactive cognitive regions of the brain, for example, had higher levels of anhedonia (inability to feel pleasure) than those with other biotypes; they also performed worse on executive function tasks. Those with the subtype that responded best to talk therapy also made errors on executive function tasks but performed well on cognitive tasks.

One of the six biotypes uncovered in the study showed no noticeable brain activity differences in the imaged regions from the activity of people without depression. Williams believes they likely haven’t explored the full range of brain biology underlying this disorder — their study focused on regions known to be involved in depression and anxiety, but there could be other types of dysfunction in this biotype that their imaging didn’t capture.

Williams and her team are expanding the imaging study to include more participants. She also wants to test more kinds of treatments in all six biotypes, including medicines that haven’t traditionally been used for depression.

Her colleague  Laura Hack , MD, PhD, an assistant professor of psychiatry and behavioral sciences, has begun using the imaging technique in her clinical practice at Stanford Medicine through an experimental protocol . The team also wants to establish easy-to-follow standards for the method so that other practicing psychiatrists can begin implementing it.

“To really move the field toward precision psychiatry, we need to identify treatments most likely to be effective for patients and get them on that treatment as soon as possible,” Ma said. “Having information on their brain function, in particular the validated signatures we evaluated in this study, would help inform more precise treatment and prescriptions for individuals.”

Researchers from Columbia University; Yale University School of Medicine; the University of California, Los Angeles; UC San Francisco; the University of Sydney; the University of Texas MD Anderson; and the University of Illinois Chicago also contributed to the study.

Datasets in the study were funded by the National Institutes of Health (grant numbers R01MH101496, UH2HL132368, U01MH109985 and U01MH136062) and by Brain Resource Ltd.

• Rachel Tompa Rachel Tompa is a freelance science writer.

About Stanford Medicine

Stanford Medicine is an integrated academic health system comprising the Stanford School of Medicine and adult and pediatric health care delivery systems. Together, they harness the full potential of biomedicine through collaborative research, education and clinical care for patients. For more information, please visit med.stanford.edu .

Hope amid crisis

Psychiatry’s new frontiers

The Enlightenment

The Enlightenment (Age of Reason) was a revolution in thought in Europe and North America from the late 17th century to the late 18th century. The Enlightenment involved new approaches in philosophy , science , and politics. Above all, the human capacity for reason was championed as the tool by which our knowledge could be extended, individual liberty maintained, and happiness secured.

Origins of the Enlightenment

The Enlightenment is usually dated from the last quarter of the 17th century to the last quarter of the 18th century. During the Renaissance (1400-1600), when intellectuals and artists looked back to antiquity for inspiration, there arose the humanist movement, which stressed the promotion of civic virtue, that is, realising a person's full potential both for their own good and for the good of the society in which they live. The ideas of the Enlightenment flourished from these roots and blossomed thanks to events like the Protestant Reformation (1517-1648), which diminished the traditional power of the Christian Church in everyday life. Most enlightened thinkers did not want to replace the Church, but they did want greater religious freedom and toleration.

The Enlightenment derives its name 'light' from the contrast to what was then seen as the 'darkness' of the Middle Ages. We now know that the medieval period was perhaps not quite as 'dark' as once thought, but the essential fact remains that religion , superstition, and deference to authority did permeate that period of human existence before philosophers began to challenge these concepts in the 17th century. It was no longer possible to simply accept received wisdom as truth just because it had been unchallenged for centuries.

In this new atmosphere of relative intellectual freedom, reason challenged accepted beliefs. Just like the practical experiments scientists were conducting in the Scientific Revolution to discover the laws of nature, so, too, philosophers were keen to apply reason to age-old problems of how we should live together in societies, how we can be virtuous, what is the best form of government, and what constitutes happiness. This was a battle of reason against emotion, superstition, and fear; its principal weapons were optimism for a better world and both the freedom and ability to question absolutely everything. Not for nothing were the new enlightened philosophers also called 'free-thinkers'.

Pre-Enlightenment Thinkers

The Enlightenment was driven forward by philosophers, although given that many were also writers of non-philosophical works or even dabbled in politics, they might be better described today as intellectuals. These thinkers challenged accepted thought and, it is important to stress, each other, since there was never any consensus as to the answers to the questions everyone was trying to answer. What is sure is this process of examining and building knowledge was a long one, with different strands in different places. With hindsight, we can reconstruct the chain of ideas we collectively call the Enlightenment, but the participants at that time were aware that they were involved in a new movement of thought.

There is a group of thinkers who are often called 'pre-Enlightenment' philosophers since they established some of the key foundations upon which the Enlightenment was built. This group includes Francis Bacon (1561-1626), Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), René Descartes (1596-1650), Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677), and John Locke (1632-1704).

Bacon stressed the need for a new combined method of empirical experimentation (i.e. observation and experience) and shared data collection so that humanity might finally discover all of nature's secrets and improve itself. This approach was adopted by many enlightened philosophers. Bacon's thoughts on the need to test our knowledge to see if it is actually true and his belief that we could build a better world if we all applied ourselves were also influential.

Hobbes, an English politician and thinker, proposed the idea of a state of nature , a brutish existence before we got together into societies. Hobbes believed that citizens must sacrifice some liberties in order to gain the security of society, and they do this when they form a social contract between themselves, that is, a collective promise to abide by certain rules of behaviour. He also believed, because of his pessimistic view of human nature, where people act entirely out of self-interest, that a very strong political authority was required, his Leviathan, named after the biblical monster. These ideas and Hobbes' attempt to disentangle philosophy, morality, and politics from religion would all inspire Enlightenment thinkers, either in support or in providing alternative models.

Descartes, a French rationalist philosopher, proposed that all knowledge must be subjected to doubt because our senses are unreliable, we may be dreaming, or we may be living in a deception created by an evil demon. Descartes' conclusion of applying doubt to everything is his founding principle of indubitable truth Cogito, ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am"). From Decartes' ideas came Cartesianism and the position that the mind and body (or matter) are two distinct things but, in some way that thinkers had yet to determine, they interact with each other. While some critics point out that Descartes' hunting down of doubts can lead to absurdities and total scepticism, his strategy has importance for the Enlightenment since it demonstrates the value of questioning everything and not taking at face value knowledge we have inherited from previous generations – knowledge that may, in fact, turn out to be not knowledge at all but only belief.

The Dutchman Spinoza attacked superstition and challenged the traditional role of God in human affairs, suggesting God does not interfere in our everyday lives. Combining rationalism and metaphysics, Spinoza was greatly interested in science and believed that by using our reason and studying nature we could come to better know ourselves and the divine. He also called for greater religious toleration.

The Englishman Locke proposed that there should be limits on state power in order to guarantee certain liberties, especially the right to hold property, which he considered a natural right (i.e. it is not given by a government or law code). Locke's perfect state has a separation of powers, and the government can only operate if it has the consent of the people. Further, citizens can overthrow a government if it does not perform its role of protecting their rights. Locke believed humans can work together for a common good. He believed that individuals are more important than institutions like absolute monarchs and the Church. He believed that all citizens are equal and the state should educate its citizens to be reasoned and tolerant citizens. More than any other thinker, perhaps, Locke's ideas not only inspired other thinkers but also influenced real-world affairs.

There were many other thinkers that influenced the Enlightenment, but space precludes discussion of them here; men like the German polymath Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), who believed that all knowledge was interconnected. In short, a whole body of international thinkers had already come up with the essential playing cards of the Enlightenment game before it had even started. Later philosophers now reshuffled these, selected some, and rejected others in their search for the winning hand of just how humans should live and knowledge be acquired.

10 Key Enlightenment Thinkers

Having set the foundation, then, a new wave of thinkers set about building a new edifice of Western knowledge. Disagreeing just as often they agreed with each other, all of the thinkers had the common objective of finding a better world to live in.

One of the first texts of the Enlightenment proper was the 1687 Principia Mathematica by Isaac Newton (1642-1727). Newton's book is in many ways a culmination of the Scientific Revolution, and it presents the view that the world around us can be understood, and the best tool for that purpose is science, in particular, mathematics. In his discovery of the force of gravity (and others besides), Newton showed that empiricism and deduction were the best methods to increase knowledge. Philosophers took this approach in their own work. Newton also showed that there was harmony and order in nature, which was something that philosophers sought to recreate in human society.

The French philosophe Montesquieu (1689-1757) was mostly concerned with avoiding authoritarian government. Going beyond Locke, he researched the history of politics – essentially founding political science – and famously articulated a separation of powers between the executive, legislative, and judiciary. He is another thinker who advocates the protection of individual liberty through laws, non-government interference, and toleration. To give an idea of the battle with the Establishment many enlightened thinkers had to face, Montesquieu's book The Spirit of the Laws was put on the Catholic Church's Index of Prohibited Books in 1751.

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The French author Voltaire (1694-1778) "more than any other represented the Enlightenment to his contemporaries" (Chisick, 430). Less an original philosopher and more a destroyer of the old attitudes, Voltaire was critical of the power of the Catholic Church, he called for more individual liberty and religious toleration, and championed our power of reason and innate capacity for moral behaviour. Voltaire also chastised philosophers for not coming up with practical solutions to society's problems.

David Hume (1711-1776) was a Scottish philosopher, who presented a positive view of human nature – we all possess a capacity for sympathy and a natural moral sense – but a sceptical view of religion's usefulness. Hume believed knowledge comes only from experience and observation but also acknowledged there are some things we can never know such as, why is there evil in the world? Hume expanded the notion of reason to include emotion.

The Swiss thinker Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) contributed with his mixing of Hobbes and Locke in stating that humans in a state of nature are free, equal, and have two basic instincts: a sense of self-preservation and a pity for others. The people must gather in a community based on consent and with the ultimate objective of that society being the common good. For Rousseau, the general will is a compromise where individuals sacrifice complete liberty to achieve the next best option: a restriction on liberty in order to avoid a situation of no liberty at all. Whatever the general will turns out to be, that is the right one. Rousseau does recognise the need for a system of laws and strong government to guide the general will of the people when it might inadvertently err and to protect property, for him, an unfortunate creation of society. Rousseau was also concerned with ridding society of its obvious inequalities and injustices by having the state encourage its citizens through education to adopt a less self-interested approach to community life.

The thoughts of the Frenchman Denis Diderot (1713-1784) may be summarised as a humanistic belief in individual autonomy and the positive use of modern, non-religious, and, if possible, scientific arguments and methods to challenge age-old knowledge based on faith and superstition alone. Diderot was editor of the multivolume Encyclopedia , often described as the ' Bible of the Enlightenment' and summarised by N. Hampson as "an anthology of 'enlightened' opinions on politics, philosophy, and religion" (86). Diderot spent time advising both Catherine the Great (empress regent of Russia, 1762-1796) and Frederick the Great in Prussia (l. 1712-1786), examples of so-called 'Enlightened despots'.

Adam Smith (1723-1790) was a Scottish philosopher and economist. He believed that economics is a science and follows certain laws, what he called the 'Invisible Hand'. These laws, like any laws of nature, can be discovered through the use of reason. Smith called for free trade and limited interference in markets by governments, for which he is seen as the founder of liberal economics. A. Gottlieb describes Smith's The Wealth of Nations as "the founding text of modern economics" (198).

The German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) challenged the dominance of empiricism and rationalism in Enlightenment thought as he believed that some knowledge must be independent of sensation, examples given include our concepts of space and time. These things are a priori knowledge, things that we can think about without ever experiencing them directly. Consequently, Kant shifted the focus of philosophy to an examination of general concepts and categories. In ethics, Kant stated that moral worth comes from a person's intentions and not from the results of their actions, which could be accidental. Good actions spring from following rules without exceptions like "never tell lies", what he called categorical imperatives. Kant also stressed the need for toleration, education, and cooperation between nations.

Edmund Burke (1729-1797) stated that any nation and its institutions, including religious ones, were a product of a rich and long history, and so one particular generation should not simply cast away such time-tested guardians of our safety and liberty. Burke also thought that intuition and imagination were just as important tools as reason in understanding our world.

Thomas Paine (1737-1809), in his pamphlet Common Sense , famously called for the American colonies to rebel against British rule. Paine denounced slavery, was opposed to any form of privilege, believed all men are equal and should have the right to vote, and he called for a system of progressive taxation that could fund a fairer society.

Here we have considered only ten enlightened thinkers, but there were, of course, many more, but, unfortunately, space precludes their mention. The trend to apply enlightened thought to practical everyday problems was continued. Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794) called for prison reform and the end of excessive punishments for criminals. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797) called for equal education opportunities for men and women and stressed the benefits to society of improving the situation of women. Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) offered a way to measure the success of new laws with his utilitarianism and its "greatest happiness of the greatest number principle". Thinking about a better world had been the priority of the Enlightenment, but as the 18th century wore on, actually making one became the new priority.

A Great Mixing of Ideas

For ideas to spread and take root, there needed to be interaction between intellectuals, and this was achieved (beyond merely physically visiting each other) by several new means. The printing press allowed not only books to be distributed relatively cheaply but also treatises, pamphlets, and magazines. Never before had so much paper been passed across Europe. Ideas, and perhaps even more importantly, critical reaction to those ideas, and so the stimulus for yet more ideas, could be spread faster than ever before.

Another means for intellectuals to interact was the rise of academies and societies, where papers were published in in-house magazines, and meetings and debates were held. People also met in coffee houses to discuss new ideas. Yet another means of spreading ideas was the salon, particularly in Paris , although soon the idea caught on everywhere. These salons, so often managed by women, further aided the transmission of ideas not only between intellectuals but also different sections of society. For the first time, perhaps, philosophers, artists, politicians, and business people were able to meet together informally. Further, there was even some mixing of different levels of society in salons since the intellectuals and artistic creators could now meet aristocrats and those with great wealth, a meeting that often led to patronage, and so yet more ideas could be created.

The Impact of the Enlightenment

A key idea of enlightened thinkers was the belief that human existence could be improved through human endeavour. Developments in science and technology as well as progressive thinking in political philosophy meant that a better standard of living could be achieved for everyone. Reforms were championed that reduced society's inequalities and diminished the impact of such negative but all-too-present phenomena as famine, disease, and poverty. Reformers called for real change in education so that more young people could attend school and become better citizens by developing their natural ability to reason. Just as individuals were to be left to pursue their own liberty and happiness in the new politics of liberalism, there developed the idea of laissez-faire economics, that is, minimising government interference to let the economy develop as the markets dictated it should. Modern liberal democracies then are based on the Enlightenment idea that some areas of life are no business of the state, a marked difference to societies of the Middle Ages.

To these general consequences of the Enlightenment, there can be added definite practical ones. As the Enlightenment specialist N. Hampson notes, the danger of studying the Enlightenment only in intellectual terms can lead to the conclusion that "the Enlightenment was everything in general and nothing in particular" (Cameron, 296). Some practical particulars include the end of the persecution of heretics, no more witches being burnt at the stake, serfdom coming to its final stage, and torture being removed from judicial processes. There were powerful movements to end slavery and the death penalty. The Church was formally separated from the state in some places, notably France. More universities and libraries were founded. Greater fairness was achieved in electoral systems.

The impact of the progress in science would be seen in the British Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) and its counterparts across the world. Many enlightened thinkers also foresaw the darker side of 'progress', such as an unrestrained individualism opposed to the common good and minority-controlled technological development that alienated large groups of people and destroyed the environment.

It was not just the intellectuals who believed they could shape a better future. It took a long time for the high ideas of intellectuals to filter down to the lower classes, but descend they eventually did. Ordinary people of all classes now considered taking direct action to improve their lot in life and the political systems in which they lived. The two clearest examples of this action for a better world are the French Revolution and the American Revolutionary War . Revolutionaries in both events were inspired by and frequently quoted the works of enlightened philosophers; their revolutionary documents like the French Bill of Rights and the US Declaration of Independence were replete with the language these philosophers were using such as "inalienable rights" and "pursuit of happiness".

Criticisms of the Enlightenment

In some areas like the arts, there was a reaction to the Enlightenment and the new dominance of reason. This reaction was seen most clearly in the movement we call Romanticism (1775-1830), where, in literature and art, emphasis was given to new forms and modes of emotional and spontaneous expression.

Other critics of the Enlightenment lament its contradictory results such as a possible overemphasis on individuals and yet also a strong state. Critics point to the rejection of cultural traditions, the reduction in value of faith and religious beliefs, that economic, scientific, and technological 'progress' is, in fact, only 'regression' in terms of our humanity, and that the Eurocentric philosophers were ignorant of what makes humans different in different places (or even the same place). In short, the Enlightenment has been blamed for all the ills of modernity, whether it be the Holocaust or the destruction of the Brazilian rainforest. One might counterargue, and plenty of historians have, that such blanket criticisms can only be made against the Enlightenment if one takes it as an entirely homogenous collection of ideas, something this article hopefully discourages.

Into the 21st century, the achievements of the Enlightenment, particularly liberty, freedom of thought, and toleration are still in existence in many places, but certainly not everywhere. As the historian H. Chisick points out these freedoms are not immune to ever-present threats like racism, political extremism, and religious fanaticism:

Apparently, the key values of the Enlightenment are not acquired once and for all. Rather, they must be appropriated by each generation and each culture in turn, or they will be submerged and lost. (160)

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Bibliography

• Chisick, Harvey. Historical Dictionary of the Enlightenment . Scarecrow Press, 2005.
• Gottlieb, Anthony. The Dream of Enlightenment. Liveright, 2016.
• Hampson, Norman. The Enlightenment. Penguin Books, 1991.
• Isaiah Berlin. Age of Enlightenment[The Mentor Philosophers Series]. New American Library, 1963.
• Law, Stephen. The Great Philosophers. Quercus, 2009.
• Popkin, R H et al. Philosophy Made Simple . Routledge, 1993.
• Robertson, Ritchie. The Enlightenment. Harper, 2021.
• Yolton, John W. & Rogers, Pat & Porter, Roy & Stafford, Barbara. A Companion to the Enlightenment . Wiley-Blackwell, 1991.

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One of the most common reasons for knee replacement surgery is severe pain from joint damage caused by wear-and-tear arthritis, also called osteoarthritis. An artificial knee joint has metal caps for the thighbone and shinbone, and high-density plastic to replace damaged cartilage. Each of these artificial parts is called a prosthesis.

Knee replacement surgery replaces parts of injured or worn-out knee joints. The surgery can help ease pain and make the knee work better. During the surgery, damaged bone and cartilage are replaced with parts made of metal and plastic.

To decide whether a knee replacement is right for you, a surgeon checks your knee's range of motion, stability, and strength. X-rays help show the extent of damage.

The right artificial joints and surgical techniques for you depend on your age, weight, activity level, knee size and shape, and overall health.

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The most common reason for knee replacement surgery is to ease pain caused by arthritis. People who need knee replacement surgery usually have problems walking, climbing stairs and getting up out of chairs.

If only one part of the knee is damaged, surgeons often can replace just that part. If the entire joint needs to be replaced, the ends of the thighbone and shinbone are reshaped and the entire joint resurfaced. These bones are hard tubes that contain a soft center. The ends of the artificial parts are inserted into the softer central part of the bones.

Ligaments are bands of tissue that help hold joints together. If the knee's ligaments aren't strong enough to hold the joint together by themselves, the surgeon may choose implants that can be connected so they can't come apart.

Knee replacement surgery, like any surgery, carries risks. They include:

• Blood clots. Surgeons typically recommend blood-thinning medications to prevent this risk. The most common location for blood clots is in the leg. But they can travel to the lungs and become deadly.
• Nerve damage. Nerves in the area where the implant is placed can be injured. Nerve damage can cause numbness, weakness and pain.
• Infection. Infection can occur at the incision site or in the deeper tissue. Surgery is sometimes needed to treat an infection.

The implants used for knee replacements are durable, but they may loosen or become worn over time. If this happens, another surgery may be needed to replace the loose or worn parts.

How you prepare

Food and medications.

Your health care team might advise you to stop taking certain medications and dietary supplements before your surgery. You'll likely be instructed not to eat anything after midnight the day of your surgery.

Prepare for your recovery

For several weeks after the procedure, you might need to use crutches or a walker, so arrange for them before your surgery. Make sure you have a ride home from the hospital and help with everyday tasks, such as cooking, bathing and doing laundry.

To make your home safer and easier to navigate during recovery, consider doing the following:

• Create a living space on one floor since climbing stairs can be difficult.
• Install safety bars or a secure handrail in your shower or bath.
• Secure stairway handrails.
• Get a stable chair with a firm seat cushion and back, and a footstool to elevate your leg.
• Arrange for a toilet seat riser with arms if you have a low toilet.
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• Remove loose rugs and cords.

What you can expect

When you check in for your surgery, you'll be asked to remove your clothes and put on a hospital gown. You'll be given either a spinal block, which numbs the lower half of your body, or a general anesthetic, which puts you into a sleep-like state.

Your surgeon might also inject a numbing medicine around nerves or in and around the joint to help block pain after your surgery.

During the procedure

Knee replacement surgery usually takes 1 to 2 hours. To perform the procedure, the surgeon:

• Makes an incision over the knee.
• Removes diseased and damaged bone and cartilage, leaving healthy bone intact.
• Implants the replacement parts into the thighbone, shinbone and kneecap.

After the procedure

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Artificial knee joints used in knee replacement surgery are typically made of metal and plastic. Metal parts replace the damaged thighbone and shinbone. Plastic replaces cartilage on the shin and kneecap parts.

After surgery, you'll rest in a recovery area for a short time. How long you stay in the hospital after surgery depends on your individual needs. Many people can go home the same day.

The risk of blood clots increases after knee replacement surgery. To prevent this complication, you may need to:

• Move early. You'll be encouraged to sit up and walk with crutches or a walker soon after surgery.
• Apply pressure. Both during and after surgery, you might wear elastic compression stockings or inflatable air sleeves on your lower legs. The air sleeves squeeze and release your legs. That helps keep blood from pooling in the leg veins, reducing the chance that clots will form.
• Take blood thinners. Your surgeon might prescribe an injected or oral blood thinner after surgery. Depending on how soon you walk, how active you are and your overall risk of blood clots, you might need blood thinners for several weeks after surgery.

You'll also likely be asked to do frequent breathing exercises and gradually increase your activity level. A physical therapist can show you how to exercise your new knee. After you leave the hospital, you'll likely continue physical therapy at home or at a center.

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For most people, knee replacement provides pain relief, improved mobility and a better quality of life. Most knee replacements can be expected to last at least 15 to 20 years.

After recovery, you can engage in various low-impact activities, such as walking, swimming, golfing or biking. But you should avoid higher impact activities, such as jogging, and sports that involve contact or jumping. Talk to your health care team about ways to stay active after knee replacement.

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• Frontera WR, et al., eds. Total knee arthroplasty. In: Essentials of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation: Musculoskeletal Disorders, Pain, and Rehabilitation. 4th ed. Elsevier; 2019. https://www.clinicalkey.com. Accessed Nov. 1, 2022.
• Martin GM, et al. Total knee arthroplasty. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Nov. 1, 2022.
• Knee replacement. American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. https://orthoinfo.aaos.org/en/treatment/total-knee-replacement. Accessed Nov. 1, 2022.
• AskMayoExpert. Knee replacement. Mayo Clinic; 2021.
• Martin GM, et al. Complications of total knee arthroplasty. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/search. Accessed Nov. 1, 2022.
• Health Education & Content Services (Patient Education). Total knee replacement surgery. Mayo Clinic; 2018.
• Ami TR. Allscripts EPSi. Mayo Clinic. Oct. 4, 2022.
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