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Case Study Report: Difine, Structure and How To Write

Case report study is a document that reflects the execution of the research program, contains the data obtained, their analysis, conclusions and practical recommendations flowing from them. Careful analysis (and not just a description) of the figures and facts obtained is the main task, or rather, the purpose of the report.

Case Study Report Structure

A case study report structure is determined by the purpose of the research, its tasks (purely marketing or more general, theoretical), and its immediate addressee. Logic, the sequence of the description of the data obtained, of course, is related to the sequence of questions in the questionnaire or form, with the sequence of various research procedures but not always exactly repeats it. The author should not miss the data that is momentous both for the researchers themselves and for those who will get acquainted with the results of the research. Building the text, the researcher, proceeds from the logic of the program. He tells how exactly and with what results the tasks set in it are solved. If the program formulated hypotheses, it is necessary to present (based on the received data) their proof or refutation.

A thorough analysis of all available data, identification and detailed description of the most interesting, significant facts and connections is needed. The authors need to pay special attention to the consistency, clarity, literacy of the presentation. An ill-conceived, careless description of the results of the procedure of the investigation itself may misrepresent even a successful work, and the credibility of its authors will disappear. Particularly clearly the shortcomings of the presentation will be visible to those who did not take the direct part in the study. After all, they can not know what you mean or think is not so momentous to specifically talk about it. Business case study report should not be cluttered with numbers; it is better to submit only those data that reveal significant facts and links in the text.

Some tables, lists, other materials can be given in the appendix. It’s also logical to present documentation (questionnaires, interview forms, demand analysis forms), a list of used literature in this part.On the other hand, the actual text part should be supplemented and “backed up” with tables, graphs, diagrams. They will make statements, comparisons, observations more demonstrative, visual and precise and. When listing tables, an author should carefully monitor the correctness of their description.

In many cases, it is useful to include the data about the difficulties encountered by researchers, the impact of these difficulties on the results obtained, and how mistakes and failures will be taken into account in further scientific and practical work.

How to Write a Case Study Report

There is no the universal advice how to write a case study report. However, a standard structure should be followed.

• It is logical to begin with a cover page that includes a topic of a case study, names of investigators and the topic of
• The next part is a summary where a researcher should say in few words about the goal of his work, methods he used and the results received.

In some cases, it is especially momentous to talk in detail about who initiated the study, how it was organized, who helped collect materials on the ground. It should be said when and where the study was conducted; if necessary, this part also explains why this particular place and time was chosen. In this part of the report, data processing methods are usually also characterized. Special attention should be paid to respondents who took part in a study. Depending on the purpose, objectives, and subject of the research, the characteristics of the respondents can be included both in the introductory part of the report and in the next, directly describing and analyzing the data obtained. The first option is usually chosen when the topic of the survey is of an overview nature.

• References and appendixes are additional parts of a case study report. The format for case study report, as a rule, corresponds to the format in conformity with a research itself was made.

How to Present a Case Study Report

In order for the report to be presented in the most favorable light, it is necessary to correctly structure the data obtained during the research and highlight the main points.

For clarity, the text should also include graphics and tables, but should not be oversaturated with them. If this is a marketing study of the target audience using sociological methods, the report becomes more interesting if the classified data and statements based on them (and, in the future, conclusions, and recommendations) are supplemented with concrete names, facts, and live statements of the respondents.

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• How to Write a Case Study on a Disease
• How to Write a Case Study on a Company
• Case Study on Organizational Structure
• Supply Chains – Report Structure
• How to Write a Report for Orientation
• How to Write a Case Study?

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Creating Case Studies: Make them visual

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Including visuals in your case studies can significantly improve readability and engagement.

If you're reading this, there is a chance that you already understand how to structure and write case studies. But do you know how to make them visually striking, or how to use data visualisation to make them accessible? In this post, we give you six tips to make your case studies stand out.

This is the third post of a three-part series on creating case studies for health technology companies. In our previous posts, we share our recommendations to create them using a strategic approach and make them relatable .

Bringing it all together: successful case studies are the right blend of human stories, information and compelling design.

1. Use Infographics

Infographics can be a powerful tool to communicate your data in an engaging, easy-to-understand format. They improve comprehension, increase engagement, boost recall, and increase shareability and awareness of your brand as a result. 

Essentially, infographics combine visuals and text to illustrate information clearly. There are several types you could use: 

• Informational Infographics: These provide an overview of a topic in an easy-to-understand format. They typically break down a complex topic into bite-sized pieces of information, often using bullet points, numbered lists, and small sections.
• Timeline Infographics: These visualise information over a period of time. They are great for showing the history of a topic, a process over time, or events in chronological order.
• Process Infographics: These outline the steps of a process. They can be useful in healthcare settings to illustrate treatment plans, patient journeys, or research methodologies.
• Comparison Infographics: These compare two or more things side-by-side. They’re useful for showing before-and-after scenarios, comparing options, or highlighting the differences and similarities between items.
• Hierarchical Infographics: These show information according to rank or importance. They are often used in healthcare to demonstrate levels of risk or to prioritize actions.
• Geographic Infographics: These use maps to display location-based data. They can be useful in health tech for showing regional differences in health statistics, the reach of a product or service, or epidemiological data.

Each type of infographic serves a different purpose, so it’s important to choose the type that best fits the information you’re trying to convey. Combining different types within one infographic can also be effective. For instance, a process infographic for a health tech startup might also include statistical infographics to show the effectiveness of each step.

2. Leverage Data Visualisation

Data visualisation is the practice of translating information into a graphical or pictorial format, such as charts, graphs, or maps. This technique is widely used in many sectors, including healthcare and technology, due to its ability to make complex data more understandable and actionable.

Using charts or graphs can greatly improve comprehension, aid in identifying patterns, enhances decision-making, increase engagement and generally simplify communication with all stakeholders.

As for infographics, there are several types of data visualisation you can use in your case study:

• Bar Graphs: These are great for comparing quantities of different categories. For instance, a health tech company might use a bar graph to show the number of patients served by their product in different regions.
• Pie Charts: These are used to show percentage or proportional data. For example, you might use a pie chart to illustrate the proportion of a clinic’s patients that have been diagnosed using your technology.
• Line Graphs: These are often used to represent changes over time. For instance, a health tech startup could use a line graph to show how their product has reduced patient wait times over several months or years.
• Area Charts: Similar to line graphs, area charts can show how values develop over time. They’re useful for showing totals and trends, such as the total number of users of a health app over time.
• Scatter Plots: Scatter plots can demonstrate correlations between two variables. For example, a scatter plot could illustrate the correlation between the use of an AI diagnosis tool and the accuracy of diagnoses.
• Heat Maps: Heat maps use colour intensity to represent quantities. They can be useful in healthcare for showing concentrations of certain conditions across different geographical areas.
• Dashboard: Dashboards combine multiple visualisations into a single display for easy monitoring. A health tech company might have a dashboard that tracks key performance indicators like active users, customer satisfaction, and uptime.

The type you choose depends on the nature of your data and what you want your audience to understand from it. You may also combine different types in a single presentation or report to tell a more comprehensive story.

3. Add Photos and Videos

Including photos and videos adds a layer of authenticity to your case study. You could include pictures of your product in use, screenshots of your software, or even a video testimonial from a satisfied customer.

We go into more detail in our post on making case studies relatable .

Remember to work with professionals to ensure the style used across all materials stays consistent and complements your brand. Also, remember to always seek permission before using personal photos or videos.

4. Use Breakout Boxes

Breakout boxes help highlight key points or quotes within the text. This draws attention to important information and breaks up the text flow, making it easier to read.

They are often used in case studies, articles, and reports for various reasons. They highlight critical information, improve readability and emphasise essential data.

In the context of a health tech startup, a breakout box in a case study might highlight a testimonial from a satisfied customer, a significant statistic, or a key outcome of using the product. This can help emphasise the value and impact of the solution being presented.

Just remember that, like all design elements, breakout boxes should be used judiciously. Too many can clutter your layout and diminish its impact. Also, ensure that they align with your document’s overall design and branding to maintain a cohesive look and feel.

5. Employ a Consistent and Clean Design

Your case study should align with your company’s brand aesthetic and promotes readability and comprehension.

It should reflect your brand identity, thereby enhancing professionalism and trustworthiness. Consistency in design elements – like colour schemes, typography, and layout – provides a cohesive look and feel, helping readers scan through your document but also reminding them of the context.

A clutter-free, well-organized layout retains attention, makes key points stand out, and prevents your content from being overwhelming. Therefore, a clean and consistent design significantly enhances the effectiveness of your case study.

6. Use White Space

Don’t be afraid of white space to create a clean design (see above).

White space guides the reader’s eye, helping them navigate the content more effectively and focus on key points. It enhances the overall aesthetic appeal, giving your content a clean, modern look. Additionally, strategic use of white space can make certain elements stand out, like call-to-actions, quotes or important statistics. Therefore, white space significantly contributes to a better user experience.

Are you ready to give it a go?  Get in touch if you need help designing engaging case studies. Our team of talented graphic designers surely know how to make a case study stand out.

Consider these tips using our previous case study example:

Data Visualization: Use a line graph to depict the reduction in misdiagnosis rates over the six months since MedDiag AI was implemented.

Photos: Include a real photo of Dr. Doe, or a screengrab of MedDiag AI in action.

Breakout Box: Highlight Dr. Doe’s testimonial in a breakout box to draw attention to it.

Design: Ensure the design of the case study aligns with your brand’s color scheme, typography, and overall aesthetic.

White Space: Use white space strategically to break the content into digestible sections and highlight key points.

By combining compelling storytelling with eye-catching visuals, you can create case studies that are not only informative but also engaging. Just remember, the goal of the design should always be to enhance the comprehension of your case study and highlight your key points.

You might also like

Creating case studies for health technology, creating case studies: make them relatable, let’s talk about you.

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Blog Marketing How to Write a Case Study [+ Design Tips]

How to Write a Case Study [+ Design Tips]

Written by: Ronita Mohan Aug 26, 2021

You need an impactful medium to share your business successes with potential customers and partners. The best way to showcase your brand is by designing a case study.

Case studies are a method of research and storytelling. They help readers gain a better understanding of a subject or process.

In this guide, we’ll explain how to write a case report that markets your business, as well as some design tips.

Don’t know how to start designing case studies?  Create a case study with Venngage’s templates. No design experience required.

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Click to jump ahead:

Case study defined, what is the purpose of a case study, what is the format of a case study, how do you write a business case study, case study design tips, case study faqs.

A case study is used in business, psychology, epidemiology, as well as the medical and scientific fields. These reports are also used for social and political work.

Case studies are defined as documents that examine a person, groups of people, events, operations and processes.

For marketing purposes, a case analysis can be a document that outlines problems faced by a customer. It also shares the solutions a brand provided to solve them, such as in the case report below.

USE THIS CASE STUDY TEMPLATE

Case studies usually share success stories for a business partnership or client. But case reports can also be used to analyze a process that went wrong.

This type of study will outline the need for improvements and suggest next steps. As a result, these case studies are not shared externally.

You can look at some case study examples  for inspiration to design your report. Read on to learn about the importance of case studies and how to write them.

Related:  What is a Case Study? [+6 Types of Case Studies]

Return to Table of Contents

Case studies are effective marketing tools that build trust and act as social proof for your brand.

Customers are more likely to choose your company if they know that other businesses like theirs have also benefited.

More importantly, when a customer participates in creating a case report with a brand, they endorse the company and their experience with it.

In other words, a  business report , like the example below, acts as a recommendation to anyone on the fence about working with your brand or using your products.

CREATE THIS REPORT TEMPLATE

Related:  Report Design Ideas to ENGAGE Readers [10+ Tips & Templates]

A case study can be of varying lengths. It can also take a variety of forms, such as a simple two-page document or a Venngage business infographic like the one below.

Most business case studies feature the following five sections.

Related: What is an Infographic? Examples, Templates & Design Tips

• About the company

When creating a case study for marketing, it is best to include a small section about the company. This section can be short, sharing highlights about the company’s goals and missions.

Venngage’s case study templates  offer a variety of options for customizing your report.

Overview of the case study

This is a key section of a case study. What is the study about? What was the reason for conducting it? What are the expected results?

The overview doesn’t have to be very long. Two or three paragraphs that sum up what a reader can expect from the report will suffice.

Case study research

You want to show the kind of research, strategy, and approach adopted for your case study. This is the section where you can showcase your process while conducting the analysis, like in this template.

Results of the case study

By far the most important aspect of a case study is the results section. You can choose to share your findings in a few paragraphs.

Alternatively, go down a more visual route by using data visualizations  to showcase your results. You can use different types of charts and graphs  or use a single number or donut chart.

This case study template is a great example of how to highlight results.

This is also a good section to include a testimonial or quote from your client as social proof.

Related: How to Choose the Best Types of Charts

Conclusion of the case report

You can choose to add a separate conclusion to your case study following the results section. This is where you sum up the process you used in the analysis.

Also, share why the process or campaign was effective and how your brand achieved these results.

Writing a case study requires research and revision. You should have a single objective decided before you start writing.

Case studies in marketing, like the below example, are meant to highlight your company’s successes. Choosing a client to showcase is also an important step in the writing process.

Below, we share the top steps to complete when writing a case study to promote your business.

Determine your objective

Before you start writing case studies, decide what the main objective for this exercise is. Case reports don’t have the potential to go viral, nor are they shareable on social media.

But a case study is an effective tool for converting prospects into customers. They can also encourage business partners to take that final step and sign on the dotted line.

You need to approach your case analysis differently than all other content. This is why you need to have an objective for undergoing the process of writing a case study.

For example, this report shows how the fictional company Toy Crates used the services of Ad Factory to significantly increase its sales.

The main objective of your case study is to highlight your business processes. You should also show the benefits of using your product. But there needs to be a relatable angle for whoever is reading your study.

Possible angles for a case study can be:

• Audience growth
• Launch of a new type of product
• Entry into a new market
• Improvements in conversion rates
• Increased revenue
• Increased traffic or social media impressions
• Technology or software adoption

This case study focuses on lead generation. The report showcases the efforts behind boosting the client’s lead generation program and the successes achieved.

Once you determine the best objective for your analysis, you can move onto the next step. Look for a client that best showcases positive aspects of your company.

Choose the right client

You need a particular type of client as the subject of your case study. This client will be a loyal customer. They should be willing to participate in the study. The client should also align with the objective of your study.

Pick a customer who knows your product inside and out. They should not be someone who used your product once and had success with it.

You want to showcase consistent and high-quality results over a period of time. In this example, the fictional Ad Factory also showcased Loot Box as a client that had success with their brand.

USE THIS CASE REPORT TEMPLATE

You also want to choose customers who have had success directly from using your product. If a brand has seen overall growth and your product was just part of that success, it won’t make for a compelling case study.

Contacting your client for the case study

The customer you choose for your case study should know what the process entails.

Be open in your communication about what you need to put together the case report. This could be communicated through calls, email conversations, or a project management tool.

Set a deadline and share a project timeline  so the client knows what the process will look like. Let them know what documentation or statistics you will need for them before you start writing.

Offer something in exchange for participating in the case study. These could be product discounts, a temporary upgrade, a mention in your newsletter, social media, or increased brand awareness.

USE THIS CASE REPORT TEMPLATE

It is imperative that you let the customer know how their information and data will be used. Tell them if you’re posting the case analysis to your blog, sharing it on YouTube, or with your email subscribers.

Some clients may not want their professional information shared with large audiences, so clarify this step of the process first.

Related:  40+ Timeline Template Examples and Design Tips

Research your case study

Once your client agrees to participate in the case analysis, you can begin researching. Remember the objective of your case study and research the subject accordingly.

For example, we wanted to show how infographics help businesses grow their audience. We contacted our user, ChadSan , who had seen massive growth after adding infographics to their marketing campaigns.

We put our findings into a  research infographic  along with quotes from the client, charts and graphs.

To do this, we researched the content ChadSan created before and compared their traffic to when they started using infographics.

It’s also important to look at the industry your client is in so you have an idea of what success looks like in that sector.

Client interviews

Conducting interviews with clients is a good way to get information for your case report.

You can hold interviews via video call, which you should record to double-check later or conduct the interview via email.

Email interviews might require follow-ups if you need further clarification on particular questions.

Asking the right questions is crucial during the research phase. You don’t want ‘yes’ or ‘no’ as an answer. You need qualified information and data to build out a case study, like the one below.

USE THIS CASE REPORT TEMPLATE

For example, we asked our contact at ChadSan for her experience using infographics in her marketing. We also asked about her main challenges, why she had chosen Venngage and the benefits of using Venngage.

This is also the stage when you can ask for concrete examples of how your product benefited your client.

We asked ChadSan to share some examples of the infographics they had created using our templates. This helped show our product in use, further social proof of the advantages of using Venngage infographics.

Create the case study outline

With the client interview completed, gather the data you have and start writing the outline for the case report. Remember the case study format  we shared earlier when you’re preparing the outline.

This will help you design a case study that is memorable, like this example.

For a case study blog post, you should prepare the following:

• Overview of the study
• The results, with charts
• Call to action

Write a few notes for each point that you can elaborate on in the next writing stage. By following this process, you can build out a case study like this example.

Draft your case report

The outline is your starting point for drafting the case report. Like any other piece of content you create, a case study needs to be engaging. It also needs a beginning, a middle and an end.

Use classic marketing storytelling approaches when writing case studies. Introduce your characters (the client), the conflict (the business problem), the resolution (the benefits of your product).

By using this technique, you can write a case study like this example.

Conclude with an analysis of your success and a testimonial recommending your product and brand.

Finalize your case study

Revise your study and ask one or two colleagues to glance over it to catch any mistakes you may have missed.

You should send the report to the client you’re showcasing for their approval. When you and the client are satisfied with the case study, an infographic study like the one below is ready to be published.

Share a link to the case study with the client to promote on their platforms. You can share the case report on your social channels, with partners and to your email subscribers.

Now that you know how to write your case report, here are some tips on case study design. Improving the aesthetics and usability of your study will make it memorable to read. In the long run, the study will help boost brand awareness.

Use a case study template

Make the case study design process easier by using a template. Venngage offers a variety of customizable case study templates , like this one, to make any study attractive and engaging.

Choose a template from Venngage’s library and edit it to fit your needs. Change the text, upload visuals or choose images from our stock photo integration. Pick icons from the 40,000+ icons available to better reflect your story.

With Venngage for Business , you can get priority support while designing your study.

You can also access  real-time collaboration  features so you can design your case study with team members.

Incorporate white space

A great way to make your case study engaging is to incorporate one important rule of design: use plenty of white space.

White space is all the blank areas around your text and visuals. This space gives your information room to breathe and makes it easier for readers to absorb your story.

Take a look at this template for inspiration. There is plenty of room around each element. This makes the study easier to navigate.

Write short paragraphs of two or three lines and use bullet points to create more space around your text. Leave room around your visuals, as well, so users can move through the sections easily.

Related:  The Ultimate Guide to Design Thinking

Visualize data for your case study

Case studies include a great deal of information but that doesn’t mean they need to be packed full of text. Visuals are a great way to catch the eye and keep users interested in your report.

Statistics are a key element of case reports but numbers on their own can get lost. Instead, visualize your data using Venngage’s chart maker and graph maker .

Design pie charts, bar graphs, donut charts, line and area graphs, or maps to visualize numerous types of data for your case studies, like in this example.

Related:  How to Tell a Story With Data: A Guide for Beginners

Add branding to case reports

Branding is an important facet of case reports. Anybody reading the study should know which companies were involved, both the client and your brand.

Add recognizable brand elements such as your logo and the client’s logo. Use your brand colors and brand fonts  throughout your case study design.

Ensure that your design adheres to your  brand guidelines , including your brand voice.

Take a look at this case study infographic Venngage created with Baptist Care. We incorporated both our logos in the infographic. We also used the brand colors and fonts of both companies.

You can easily add your branding to case report templates using Venngage’s  My Brand Kit  tool. Input your website and the Autobrand feature will apply your branding across all your designs.

What subjects are covered in a case study?

Depending on the field of study, case reports can examine a variety of subjects, including:

• a group of people
• an organization or business

For example, case studies in psychology may be focused on a person or groups of people. Medical case reports might study events or groups of patients.

Businesses can examine other organizations, as in this example, or events.

What are the characteristics of a case study?

Case studies are characterized by the units or subjects they examine. These units need to be studied in totality. Every aspect of the person, organization or event needs to be included.

Reports should also be qualitative as well as quantitative. This means that case study research describes problems and solutions.

It also backs those assumptions up with data. Both aspects must be included in the analysis, as in this example.

How can you design a case study with Venngage?

Venngage makes it easy to design case studies by offering numerous editable templates. Create an account with Venngage and browse the library for a template.

Customize the template, like the one below, in the easy-to-use drag-and-drop editor. Add text, pick colors , icons, add photos and charts and graphs.

Upload photos with Venngage. Drag and drop images into the Venngage editor and customize your reports in seconds.

Use a case study to highlight your brand’s successes

A case study can be a powerful marketing tool that showcases the advantages of using your product.

By highlighting real clients and their successes, you can provide social proof to potential customers and partners.

Designing case studies has never been easier. Use Venngage’s templates to create engaging reports to impress your audiences and help you grow your client base.

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Methodology

• Content Analysis | Guide, Methods & Examples

Content Analysis | Guide, Methods & Examples

Published on July 18, 2019 by Amy Luo . Revised on June 22, 2023.

Content analysis is a research method used to identify patterns in recorded communication. To conduct content analysis, you systematically collect data from a set of texts, which can be written, oral, or visual:

• Books, newspapers and magazines
• Speeches and interviews
• Web content and social media posts
• Photographs and films

Content analysis can be both quantitative (focused on counting and measuring) and qualitative (focused on interpreting and understanding).  In both types, you categorize or “code” words, themes, and concepts within the texts and then analyze the results.

Table of contents

What is content analysis used for, advantages of content analysis, disadvantages of content analysis, how to conduct content analysis, other interesting articles.

Researchers use content analysis to find out about the purposes, messages, and effects of communication content. They can also make inferences about the producers and audience of the texts they analyze.

Content analysis can be used to quantify the occurrence of certain words, phrases, subjects or concepts in a set of historical or contemporary texts.

Quantitative content analysis example

To research the importance of employment issues in political campaigns, you could analyze campaign speeches for the frequency of terms such as unemployment , jobs , and work  and use statistical analysis to find differences over time or between candidates.

In addition, content analysis can be used to make qualitative inferences by analyzing the meaning and semantic relationship of words and concepts.

Qualitative content analysis example

To gain a more qualitative understanding of employment issues in political campaigns, you could locate the word unemployment in speeches, identify what other words or phrases appear next to it (such as economy,   inequality or  laziness ), and analyze the meanings of these relationships to better understand the intentions and targets of different campaigns.

Because content analysis can be applied to a broad range of texts, it is used in a variety of fields, including marketing, media studies, anthropology, cognitive science, psychology, and many social science disciplines. It has various possible goals:

• Finding correlations and patterns in how concepts are communicated
• Understanding the intentions of an individual, group or institution
• Identifying propaganda and bias in communication
• Revealing differences in communication in different contexts
• Analyzing the consequences of communication content, such as the flow of information or audience responses

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• Unobtrusive data collection

You can analyze communication and social interaction without the direct involvement of participants, so your presence as a researcher doesn’t influence the results.

• Transparent and replicable

When done well, content analysis follows a systematic procedure that can easily be replicated by other researchers, yielding results with high reliability .

• Highly flexible

You can conduct content analysis at any time, in any location, and at low cost – all you need is access to the appropriate sources.

Focusing on words or phrases in isolation can sometimes be overly reductive, disregarding context, nuance, and ambiguous meanings.

Content analysis almost always involves some level of subjective interpretation, which can affect the reliability and validity of the results and conclusions, leading to various types of research bias and cognitive bias .

• Time intensive

Manually coding large volumes of text is extremely time-consuming, and it can be difficult to automate effectively.

If you want to use content analysis in your research, you need to start with a clear, direct  research question .

Example research question for content analysis

Is there a difference in how the US media represents younger politicians compared to older ones in terms of trustworthiness?

Next, you follow these five steps.

1. Select the content you will analyze

Based on your research question, choose the texts that you will analyze. You need to decide:

• The medium (e.g. newspapers, speeches or websites) and genre (e.g. opinion pieces, political campaign speeches, or marketing copy)
• The inclusion and exclusion criteria (e.g. newspaper articles that mention a particular event, speeches by a certain politician, or websites selling a specific type of product)
• The parameters in terms of date range, location, etc.

If there are only a small amount of texts that meet your criteria, you might analyze all of them. If there is a large volume of texts, you can select a sample .

2. Define the units and categories of analysis

Next, you need to determine the level at which you will analyze your chosen texts. This means defining:

• The unit(s) of meaning that will be coded. For example, are you going to record the frequency of individual words and phrases, the characteristics of people who produced or appear in the texts, the presence and positioning of images, or the treatment of themes and concepts?
• The set of categories that you will use for coding. Categories can be objective characteristics (e.g. aged 30-40 ,  lawyer , parent ) or more conceptual (e.g. trustworthy , corrupt , conservative , family oriented ).

Your units of analysis are the politicians who appear in each article and the words and phrases that are used to describe them. Based on your research question, you have to categorize based on age and the concept of trustworthiness. To get more detailed data, you also code for other categories such as their political party and the marital status of each politician mentioned.

3. Develop a set of rules for coding

Coding involves organizing the units of meaning into the previously defined categories. Especially with more conceptual categories, it’s important to clearly define the rules for what will and won’t be included to ensure that all texts are coded consistently.

Coding rules are especially important if multiple researchers are involved, but even if you’re coding all of the text by yourself, recording the rules makes your method more transparent and reliable.

In considering the category “younger politician,” you decide which titles will be coded with this category ( senator, governor, counselor, mayor ). With “trustworthy”, you decide which specific words or phrases related to trustworthiness (e.g. honest and reliable ) will be coded in this category.

4. Code the text according to the rules

You go through each text and record all relevant data in the appropriate categories. This can be done manually or aided with computer programs, such as QSR NVivo , Atlas.ti and Diction , which can help speed up the process of counting and categorizing words and phrases.

Following your coding rules, you examine each newspaper article in your sample. You record the characteristics of each politician mentioned, along with all words and phrases related to trustworthiness that are used to describe them.

5. Analyze the results and draw conclusions

Once coding is complete, the collected data is examined to find patterns and draw conclusions in response to your research question. You might use statistical analysis to find correlations or trends, discuss your interpretations of what the results mean, and make inferences about the creators, context and audience of the texts.

Let’s say the results reveal that words and phrases related to trustworthiness appeared in the same sentence as an older politician more frequently than they did in the same sentence as a younger politician. From these results, you conclude that national newspapers present older politicians as more trustworthy than younger politicians, and infer that this might have an effect on readers’ perceptions of younger people in politics.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Measures of central tendency
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Thematic analysis
• Cohort study
• Peer review
• Ethnography

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Conformity bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Availability heuristic
• Attrition bias
• Social desirability bias

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