essay writing is a dash process

Using Dashes

Dashes, when used sparingly and correctly, can be used to make your writing sound more sophisticated.

Indicate sudden changes in tone or thought within a sentence

To emphasize the contradiction between ideas

There is an illness in many foreign services–the people in them are only good at following instructions.* I am under the impression that she has no instructions at all–and doesn’t need any.* The exuberant–I should say lunatic–quality of his ravings electrified the crowd. *

Set off some sentence elements

To insert parenthetical commentary while emphasizing their importance (Parentheses tend to diminish the importance of what’s enclosed in them)

Over a candlelit dinner last month at Spaso House, the ambassadorial residence in Moscow, Robert Strauss and his wife Helen listened as two Senators–Republican Robert C. Smith of New Hampshire and Democrat John Kerry of Massachusetts–agreed that the way to bring American audiences “out of their chairs” these days was simply to say, in Smith’s words, “We won the cold war, and we’re not going to send one dime in aid to Russia.”* Strauss favors–as does, sotto voce, the Administration–early admission of Russia to the International Monetary Fund.*

Create emphasis

To connect ideas strongly to each other.

To feed, clothe, and find shelter for the needy–these are real achievements. For further information you may wish to take one of the following free grammar, style, and punctuation workshops offered by the Writing Center. *Adapted from Time Magazine, 6 April 1992.

Grammar and Punctuation

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Using Commas

Using Semicolons

Using Coordinating Conjunctions

Using Conjunctive Adverbs

Subject-Verb Agreement

Using Gender–Neutral Pronouns in Academic Writing

How to Proofread

Twelve Common Errors: An Editing Checklist

Clear, Concise Sentences

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• A step-by-step guide to the writing process

The Writing Process | 5 Steps with Examples & Tips

Published on April 24, 2020 by Jack Caulfield . Revised on December 8, 2023.

Good academic writing requires effective planning, drafting, and revision.

The writing process looks different for everyone, but there are five basic steps that will help you structure your time when writing any kind of text.

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Table of contents

Step 1: prewriting, step 2: planning and outlining, step 3: writing a first draft, step 4: redrafting and revising, step 5: editing and proofreading, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the writing process.

Before you start writing, you need to decide exactly what you’ll write about and do the necessary research.

Coming up with a topic

If you have to come up with your own topic for an assignment, think of what you’ve covered in class— is there a particular area that intrigued, interested, or even confused you? Topics that left you with additional questions are perfect, as these are questions you can explore in your writing.

The scope depends on what type of text you’re writing—for example, an essay or a research paper will be less in-depth than a dissertation topic . Don’t pick anything too ambitious to cover within the word count, or too limited for you to find much to say.

Narrow down your idea to a specific argument or question. For example, an appropriate topic for an essay might be narrowed down like this:

Doing the research

Once you know your topic, it’s time to search for relevant sources and gather the information you need. This process varies according to your field of study and the scope of the assignment. It might involve:

• Searching for primary and secondary sources .
• Reading the relevant texts closely (e.g. for literary analysis ).
• Collecting data using relevant research methods (e.g. experiments , interviews or surveys )

From a writing perspective, the important thing is to take plenty of notes while you do the research. Keep track of the titles, authors, publication dates, and relevant quotations from your sources; the data you gathered; and your initial analysis or interpretation of the questions you’re addressing.

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Especially in academic writing , it’s important to use a logical structure to convey information effectively. It’s far better to plan this out in advance than to try to work out your structure once you’ve already begun writing.

Creating an essay outline is a useful way to plan out your structure before you start writing. This should help you work out the main ideas you want to focus on and how you’ll organize them. The outline doesn’t have to be final—it’s okay if your structure changes throughout the writing process.

Use bullet points or numbering to make your structure clear at a glance. Even for a short text that won’t use headings, it’s useful to summarize what you’ll discuss in each paragraph.

An outline for a literary analysis essay might look something like this:

• Describe the theatricality of Austen’s works
• Outline the role theater plays in Mansfield Park
• Introduce the research question: How does Austen use theater to express the characters’ morality in Mansfield Park ?
• Discuss Austen’s depiction of the performance at the end of the first volume
• Discuss how Sir Bertram reacts to the acting scheme
• Introduce Austen’s use of stage direction–like details during dialogue
• Explore how these are deployed to show the characters’ self-absorption
• Discuss Austen’s description of Maria and Julia’s relationship as polite but affectionless
• Compare Mrs. Norris’s self-conceit as charitable despite her idleness
• Summarize the three themes: The acting scheme, stage directions, and the performance of morals
• Answer the research question
• Indicate areas for further study

Once you have a clear idea of your structure, it’s time to produce a full first draft.

This process can be quite non-linear. For example, it’s reasonable to begin writing with the main body of the text, saving the introduction for later once you have a clearer idea of the text you’re introducing.

To give structure to your writing, use your outline as a framework. Make sure that each paragraph has a clear central focus that relates to your overall argument.

Hover over the parts of the example, from a literary analysis essay on Mansfield Park , to see how a paragraph is constructed.

The character of Mrs. Norris provides another example of the performance of morals in Mansfield Park . Early in the novel, she is described in scathing terms as one who knows “how to dictate liberality to others: but her love of money was equal to her love of directing” (p. 7). This hypocrisy does not interfere with her self-conceit as “the most liberal-minded sister and aunt in the world” (p. 7). Mrs. Norris is strongly concerned with appearing charitable, but unwilling to make any personal sacrifices to accomplish this. Instead, she stage-manages the charitable actions of others, never acknowledging that her schemes do not put her own time or money on the line. In this way, Austen again shows us a character whose morally upright behavior is fundamentally a performance—for whom the goal of doing good is less important than the goal of seeming good.

When you move onto a different topic, start a new paragraph. Use appropriate transition words and phrases to show the connections between your ideas.

The goal at this stage is to get a draft completed, not to make everything perfect as you go along. Once you have a full draft in front of you, you’ll have a clearer idea of where improvement is needed.

Give yourself a first draft deadline that leaves you a reasonable length of time to revise, edit, and proofread before the final deadline. For a longer text like a dissertation, you and your supervisor might agree on deadlines for individual chapters.

Now it’s time to look critically at your first draft and find potential areas for improvement. Redrafting means substantially adding or removing content, while revising involves making changes to structure and reformulating arguments.

Evaluating the first draft

It can be difficult to look objectively at your own writing. Your perspective might be positively or negatively biased—especially if you try to assess your work shortly after finishing it.

It’s best to leave your work alone for at least a day or two after completing the first draft. Come back after a break to evaluate it with fresh eyes; you’ll spot things you wouldn’t have otherwise.

When evaluating your writing at this stage, you’re mainly looking for larger issues such as changes to your arguments or structure. Starting with bigger concerns saves you time—there’s no point perfecting the grammar of something you end up cutting out anyway.

Right now, you’re looking for:

• Arguments that are unclear or illogical.
• Areas where information would be better presented in a different order.
• Passages where additional information or explanation is needed.
• Passages that are irrelevant to your overall argument.

For example, in our paper on Mansfield Park , we might realize the argument would be stronger with more direct consideration of the protagonist Fanny Price, and decide to try to find space for this in paragraph IV.

For some assignments, you’ll receive feedback on your first draft from a supervisor or peer. Be sure to pay close attention to what they tell you, as their advice will usually give you a clearer sense of which aspects of your text need improvement.

Redrafting and revising

Once you’ve decided where changes are needed, make the big changes first, as these are likely to have knock-on effects on the rest. Depending on what your text needs, this step might involve:

• Making changes to your overall argument.
• Reordering the text.
• Cutting parts of the text.
• Adding new text.

You can go back and forth between writing, redrafting and revising several times until you have a final draft that you’re happy with.

Think about what changes you can realistically accomplish in the time you have. If you are running low on time, you don’t want to leave your text in a messy state halfway through redrafting, so make sure to prioritize the most important changes.

Check for common mistakes

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Editing focuses on local concerns like clarity and sentence structure. Proofreading involves reading the text closely to remove typos and ensure stylistic consistency. You can check all your drafts and texts in minutes with an AI proofreader .

Editing for grammar and clarity

When editing, you want to ensure your text is clear, concise, and grammatically correct. You’re looking out for:

• Grammatical errors.
• Ambiguous phrasings.
• Redundancy and repetition .

In your initial draft, it’s common to end up with a lot of sentences that are poorly formulated. Look critically at where your meaning could be conveyed in a more effective way or in fewer words, and watch out for common sentence structure mistakes like run-on sentences and sentence fragments:

• Austen’s style is frequently humorous, her characters are often described as “witty.” Although this is less true of Mansfield Park .
• Austen’s style is frequently humorous. Her characters are often described as “witty,” although this is less true of Mansfield Park .

To make your sentences run smoothly, you can always use a paraphrasing tool to rewrite them in a clearer way.

Proofreading for small mistakes and typos

When proofreading, first look out for typos in your text:

• Spelling errors.
• Missing words.
• Confused word choices .
• Punctuation errors .
• Missing or excess spaces.

Use a grammar checker , but be sure to do another manual check after. Read through your text line by line, watching out for problem areas highlighted by the software but also for any other issues it might have missed.

For example, in the following phrase we notice several errors:

• Mary Crawfords character is a complicate one and her relationships with Fanny and Edmund undergoes several transformations through out the novel.
• Mary Crawford’s character is a complicated one, and her relationships with both Fanny and Edmund undergo several transformations throughout the novel.

Proofreading for stylistic consistency

There are several issues in academic writing where you can choose between multiple different standards. For example:

• Whether you use the serial comma .
• Whether you use American or British spellings and punctuation (you can use a punctuation checker for this).
• Where you use numerals vs. words for numbers.
• How you capitalize your titles and headings.

Unless you’re given specific guidance on these issues, it’s your choice which standards you follow. The important thing is to consistently follow one standard for each issue. For example, don’t use a mixture of American and British spellings in your paper.

Additionally, you will probably be provided with specific guidelines for issues related to format (how your text is presented on the page) and citations (how you acknowledge your sources). Always follow these instructions carefully.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy
• Deep learning
• Generative AI
• Machine learning
• Reinforcement learning
• Supervised vs. unsupervised learning

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Revising, proofreading, and editing are different stages of the writing process .

• Revising is making structural and logical changes to your text—reformulating arguments and reordering information.
• Editing refers to making more local changes to things like sentence structure and phrasing to make sure your meaning is conveyed clearly and concisely.
• Proofreading involves looking at the text closely, line by line, to spot any typos and issues with consistency and correct them.

Whether you’re publishing a blog, submitting a research paper , or even just writing an important email, there are a few techniques you can use to make sure it’s error-free:

• Take a break : Set your work aside for at least a few hours so that you can look at it with fresh eyes.
• Proofread a printout : Staring at a screen for too long can cause fatigue – sit down with a pen and paper to check the final version.
• Use digital shortcuts : Take note of any recurring mistakes (for example, misspelling a particular word, switching between US and UK English , or inconsistently capitalizing a term), and use Find and Replace to fix it throughout the document.

If you want to be confident that an important text is error-free, it might be worth choosing a professional proofreading service instead.

If you’ve gone over the word limit set for your assignment, shorten your sentences and cut repetition and redundancy during the editing process. If you use a lot of long quotes , consider shortening them to just the essentials.

If you need to remove a lot of words, you may have to cut certain passages. Remember that everything in the text should be there to support your argument; look for any information that’s not essential to your point and remove it.

To make this process easier and faster, you can use a paraphrasing tool . With this tool, you can rewrite your text to make it simpler and shorter. If that’s not enough, you can copy-paste your paraphrased text into the summarizer . This tool will distill your text to its core message.

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Caulfield, J. (2023, December 08). The Writing Process | 5 Steps with Examples & Tips. Scribbr. Retrieved August 29, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/academic-writing/writing-process/

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• Writing Tips

How to Use Hyphens and Dashes in an Essay

• 3-minute read
• 12th May 2016

Hyphens and dashes are basically the same, right? Just little lines used to connect words? Well, sort of, but there are important distinctions you should keep in mind when writing an essay .

Hyphens ( – ) are typed with the key next to ‘0’ on your keyboard and generally used to connect two words or link syllables in a single word.

In some cases, this is because a compound word is conventionally hyphenated:

• Topsy-turvy
• Daughter-in-law
• Self-employed

At other times it’s because a hyphen is required to preserve clarity, such as when adding a prefix causes a letter collision (e.g. the double ‘i’ in ‘anti-inflammatory’).

Hyphens are also used when constructing phrasal adjectives . This is usually only necessary when the adjective occurs before the word it modifies (e.g. ‘a well-known politician’, but ‘the politician is well known’). But some adjectives are conventionally hyphenated regardless of where they appear in the sentence (e.g. both ‘an error-free paper’ and ‘the paper is error-free’ are correct since ‘error-free’ is almost always written with a hyphen).

A hanging or suspended hyphen can be used when two compound terms contain the same second element. For instance, a company might say ‘we offer five- and ten-year mortgages’. Here, the hyphen after ‘five’ shows that we mean ‘five-year and ten-year mortgages’ but didn’t want to repeat ‘year’. This can also be done with closed compounds, such as in ‘under- and overground trains’.

Hyphens are also used for writing out compound numbers, from twenty-one to ninety-nine.

It’s often worth checking whether a compound word really needs a hyphen, as conventions change over time. For instance, many people now write ‘e-mail’ as just ‘email’ or spell ‘co-operate’  as just ‘cooperate’.

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En and Em Dashes

There are two kinds of dash you might need to use, en dashes and em dashes, each of which has a specific purpose:

An en dash ( – ) is a little longer than a hyphen. Its main use is to indicate a range of values (e.g. people aged 18–21), a sequence (e.g. August–October, pp. 78–85, A–Z), or a connection (e.g. Anglo–American relations).

However, you can also use spaced en dashes to set apart a few words in a sentence – like this bit – before resuming the original thought.

Microsoft Word automatically formats hyphens as en dashes when they’re inserted between words with a space (e.g. ‘1 – 5’ changes to ‘1 – 5’).

An em dash ( — ) is longer than either a hyphen or an en dash. As with en dashes, we can use em dashes to add an interruption to a sentence—like this one—before resuming a thought. Note, too, that em dashes are unspaced.

This style of dash is more common in American English. Ultimately, though, whether to use em dashes or en dashes to set apart part of a sentence is largely a matter of preference as long as you are consistent.

The Difference

If you look carefully, hyphens and dashes differ in appearance as well as their use, so picking the right one in any given situation is vital: -/–/—.

Since conventions differ slightly from place to place, one thing you should do to ensure accuracy is check your style guide before starting an essay. However, the most important thing is to use these marks consistently throughout your document.

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[Author removed at request of original publisher]

Learning Objectives

• Identify the uses of dashes.
• Correctly use dashes in sentences.

A dash (—) is a punctuation mark used to set off information in a sentence for emphasis. You can enclose text between two dashes, or use just one dash. To create a dash in Microsoft Word, type two hyphens together. Do not put a space between dashes and text.

Arrive to the interview early — but not too early.

Any of the suits — except for the purple one — should be fine to wear.

On your own sheet of paper, clarify the following sentences by adding dashes. If the sentence is clear as it is, write OK .

• Which hairstyle do you prefer short or long?
• I don’t know I hadn’t even thought about that.
• Guess what I got the job!
• I will be happy to work over the weekend if I can have Monday off.
• You have all the qualities that we are looking for in a candidate intelligence, dedication, and a strong work ethic.

Key Takeaways

• Dashes indicate a pause in text.
• Dashes set off information in a sentence to show emphasis.

Write What Matters Copyright © 2020 by [Author removed at request of original publisher] is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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The New York Times

The learning network | skills practice | using dashes effectively.

Skills Practice | Using Dashes Effectively

Academic Skills

Teaching ideas based on New York Times content.

• See all in Academic Skills »
• See all lesson plans »

When do you use a dash? What is an em-dash? What about an en-dash? Is a dash the same as a hyphen? This versatile piece of punctuation is often misused by writers young and old, but when you learn how to use it wisely, a well-placed dash can add voice and vitality to your writing.

Your Task: Find three examples of dashes being used in the article excerpts below from The New York Times. Copy them down and explain how the dash is being used in each sentence. Is it there to tell the reader to pause? Is it a parenthetical dash? Does it signify disjointedness? Then write your own sentences correctly using dashes.

“Baseline Epics Spur a Debate About Court Speed”

But is grueling, winner-thwarting baseline tennis — no matter how athletically impressive — the way forward, particularly when the megastars are gone? Many in the game have doubts, and there is a push to encourage more variety in play and court speed with an eye on the net and an eye on the clock.

“New Jersey School District Cancels Testing After Exams Are Leaked on the Internet”

Lois Whipple, of the Montclair Fund for Educational Excellence, which raises money primarily for grants for teachers, said the situation in the district highlighted the unintended consequences — “bad and good” — that could emanate from reform efforts. “Montclair, like the rest of the country, is involved in a big philosophical, educational, pedagogical divide,” Ms. Whipple said. She also said she was stumped over whether the disclosure of the assessments was an accident, an act of sabotage or something else.”

“A Few Paces From the Race, a Starting Line for Girls in Basketball”

Rich Santiago has two daughters, ages 24 and 12, who play basketball. His older daughter, now a coach at Bloomfield College in New Jersey, was a scholarship athlete at the University of Texas at El Paso but never competed in the Rose Classic. Santiago said the evolution from the time his older daughter began playing and the increasingly competitive climate that the Rose Classic symbolizes has been incredible. “The skill sets are so much higher at a real early age,” he said. “My youngest daughter is so much better than my oldest daughter was when she was 12. You can find training in fundamentals and skills at a real early age — you didn’t have that before.”

“Americans Jailed for Months in Qatar After Daughter’s Death”

“The prosecution has been presenting its evidence without any input from our side,” Alex Simpson, a trial lawyer assisting in the defense of the Huangs, who are from Los Angeles, said in a telephone interview. “You’ve got these people who have been sitting in jail for almost a year, and based on stuff they’re not entirely sure about — where did it come from? We’re going to be explaining to the court our side of the story for the first time.”

“Too Much Shakespeare? Be Not Cowed”

“The side of right and virtue and truth and beauty, of course, the side of the greatest dramatist and poet who ever trod the earth. But let me continue. Of course, bad Shakespeare is boring. But nobody expressed the state of mind known as boredom better than he did. There’s this soliloquy — er, I mean, bit — in “Hamlet” that I’ll read to you now. His frenemies Rosencrantz and Guildenstern ——”

Before You Do the Task, You Might …

Get Some Dash Advice: The Opinionator piece “ Mad Dash ,” by Ben Yagoda, provides advice on when and how to employ the dash:

Dashes are used for two main purposes. The first is what I call the Pause Dash. It more or less says to the reader, “Right here, I want you to take a breath. What you will read next relates to what you have just read in an interesting way, and I would like to emphasize it.” When using dashes this way, you are allowed only one per sentence. The second main category is the Parenthetical Dash, in which dashes are deployed in pairs and set off nonessential elements of the sentence. When using dashes this way, limit yourself to one pair per sentence. (More than that produces confusion about exactly what is meant to be set off by the dashes, as in this sentence from a well-known piece of social criticism: “While an ethic of justice proceeds from the premise of equality—that everyone should be treated the same—an ethic of care rests on the premise of nonviolence—that no one should be hurt.”) In addition, make sure dashes are placed in such a way that, if the material within them is removed, the sentence still makes sense. A third purpose of dashes is to indicate disjointedness. This function shows up in dialogue (“I saw Bill yesterday — wait, is that a helicopter up there? — never mind”), in prose with a stream-of-consciousness quality, and in poetry, and is subject to no rules at all.

Read Mr. Yagoda’s essay, or look over the rules at Grammarly, and become familiar with how dashes are employed in writing.

• Be aware that an em-dash is used to offset parenthetical information or in place of a colon or commas. An em-dash can also be used to signify an abrupt change in thought or that a speaker has been disrupted.
• An en-dash usually replaces “to” between numbers, such as in 9-5pm.
• Don’t confuse dashes with hyphens. Hyphens (-) are used to connect two or more words (and numbers) into a single idea.

Work With a Partner: Before working on your own, try this example together. Read through the excerpt from Brooks Barnes’s “‘Ender’s Game’ Is No. 1, With a Caveat,” paying special attention to the bolded part of the sentence.

Summit Entertainment marketed “Ender’s Game” as “the motion picture event of the year,” but moviegoers — fresh off “Gravity” and looking ahead to “The Hunger Games: Catching Fire” — apparently saw through that: “Ender’s Game” took in a so-so $28 million at North American theaters over the weekend, winning the box-office race but probably ending studio hopes of introducing a new film franchise. A Summit spokesman called the total “solid” and “in line with the studio’s preweekend expectations.”

How is the dash being employed in this instance? Jot your answer down on a sheet of paper, then turn and talk to your neighbor. Do you agree? Did you both come up with the same answer? If not, work through it together and see if you can come to an agreement.

In this case, the information between the dashes is being used to offset parenthetical information – that is, information which the writer might put in parentheses. This is called an em-dash .

Above and Beyond:

If you are still confused about how dashes are used differently from hyphens and colons, visit Grammar Girl’s explanation about the different uses for each.

Then, practice using the correct punctuation. Teachers, check out NoRedInk for free grammar exercises that you can customize to your specific class.

This resource may be used to address the academic standards listed below.

Common Core E.L.A. Anchor Standards

1   Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English grammar and usage when writing or speaking.

2   Demonstrate command of the conventions of standard English capitalization, punctuation, and spelling when writing.

3   Apply knowledge of language to understand how language functions in different contexts, to make effective choices for meaning or style, and to comprehend more fully when reading or listening.

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The difference between a prank and bullying has to do with the intent of the person initiating the action. A prank is essentially good natured and sympathetic to the “victim”. Bullying is intended to be damaging and “hurtful”.

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When To Use A Dash In A Sentence – Dash Punctuation Guide

• February 20, 2024

Table of Contents Hide

What is a dash – meaning and definition, 1. em dash (—), 2. en dash (–), 3. figure dash (-), when to use a dash in a sentence, what makes a dash different from a hyphen, examples of sentences using dashes, frequently asked questions on the use of dash, we also recommend.

One of the most confusing punctuation marks in the English language is the dash. When should you use it? Is it just for emphasis or can it serve a more specific grammatical function? Understanding the correct usage of a dash can greatly improve the clarity and flow of your writing.

Many writers tend to use dashes haphazardly, without fully understanding their purpose. However, knowing when to use a dash can make a significant difference in the overall effectiveness of your writing. Whether you’re writing a formal essay, a creative piece, or even just a simple email, using dashes correctly can help you convey your message more effectively.

In this article, we will explore the different situations in which a dash should be used in a sentence, as well as provide examples to help you better understand how to incorporate this versatile punctuation mark into your writing.

A dash is a punctuation mark that resembles a hyphen but is longer. A dash is used to separate parts of a sentence and indicate a break. It indicates a longer pause than a comma and a semicolon. It is also called a long dash or an em dash.

The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines a dash as “the mark (—) used to separate parts of a sentence, often instead of a colon or in pairs instead of brackets”. A dash is described as “a straight, horizontal line used in writing, for example, to separate two main clauses whose meanings are closely connected” by the Collins Dictionary. A dash is described as a punctuation mark that is used especially to indicate a break in the thought or structure of a sentence. It helps increase the readability of a sentence.

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Types of Dashes

There are actually three main types of dashes, not four, each with distinct uses:

• The most common dash.
• Longer than other dashes, roughly the width of an “M”.
• Used for pauses, interruptions, emphasis, and introducing parenthetical elements.
• Example: “She looked up—suddenly realizing the truth.”

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• Shorter than an em dash, roughly the width of an “N”.
• Used to show ranges (dates, times, scores, etc.).
• Example: “The flight leaves at 10:15 AM – please arrive early.”
• Can also be used for compound numbers (e.g., 21st-century) but this is less common.
• The figure dash is the shortest in length.
• It is generally half the length of the standard en dash.
• A figure dash looks and functions much like a hyphen. You will most often see (and use) the figure dash when writing phone numbers or similar number sequences. For example:
• 404-555-1236
• 667-555-9862
• 899-555-2627

The figure dashes are not all that common in standard English writing. However, if you need to write an English sentence with number sequences, you should definitely make use of the figure dash.

READ ALSO: 15 Different Types of Tones in Writing: Must-Know Guide for All Writers

A dash can be used in a sentence for a variety of purposes. Here are some common situations where you can use a dash:

• It can sometimes be used in place of a comma, a colon, and a semicolon.
• It is used after an independent clause, most often, to conclude the thought.
• It is used in pairs instead of brackets to distinguish extra or unessential information from the rest of the sentence.
• It is used in dialogue writing to separate a comment from the rest of the dialogue.
• It is used before a series within a phrase.
• It is also used to indicate a range or a transport route.
• It is used between two country names or adjectives.

To help you comprehend this never-ending uncertainty, here is a table with the factors that make these two punctuation marks different from each other.

READ ALSO: What Is A Contraction In Writing? Definition, How To Use, and Examples

Here are some sentence examples to show you how a dash can be used in a sentence.

• The storm raged outside, wind howling like a banshee—then, a sudden silence.
• He looked at her, speechless—the weight of his secret crushing him.
• We know one thing for sure — something unexpected is coming our way.
• The old oak tree—a silent witness to decades of history—stood tall.
• People — both young and old — were advised to take vaccinations at the earliest.
• The mathematician—philosopher has won the Nobel Prize this year.
• The opening hours are 9:00 AM – 5:00 PM.
• “The final score was 2-1—a close match!
• The Chennai—Mumbai flight will leave at 10:00 a.m.
• Dinesh — the boy from Thanjavur — has arrived.

A dash is used to separate parts of a sentence and indicate a break. It indicates a longer pause than a comma and a semicolon. It is also called a long dash or an em dash.

The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines a dash as “the mark (—) used to separate parts of a sentence, often instead of a colon or in pairs instead of brackets”.

A dash is a type of punctuation that is used to denote a break in the phrase or an abrupt shift in the direction of the thinking. A hyphen, on the other hand, joins two words to create complex words. To signal that a word has been split and will continue on the following line, it is also utilized to finish a phrase.

Dashes, those versatile little lines, might seem intimidating at first. But remember, they’re your allies in adding clarity to your writing. From dramatic pauses to parenthetical asides, they offer a way to break the mold and express yourself with flair.

• grammarly.com – The Complete Guide to Dashes
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Dashes – Usage & Examples

| Danielle McLeod

| Punctuation

Danielle McLeod

Danielle McLeod is a highly qualified secondary English Language Arts Instructor who brings a diverse educational background to her classroom. With degrees in science, English, and literacy, she has worked to create cross-curricular materials to bridge learning gaps and help students focus on effective writing and speech techniques. Currently working as a dual credit technical writing instructor at a Career and Technical Education Center, her curriculum development surrounds student focus on effective communication for future career choices.

Dashes are an excellent way to show how various words, offsets, asides, and other informational phrases are related to one another. However, I find that most people don’t use a dash at all and incorrectly place a hyphen where a dash belongs. I was even guilty of doing this in the past and was shocked to discover the kinds of dashes I could use to make my writing more understandable.

Take a look at the types of dashes you can use and when to use a dash in a sentence below.

Em Dash vs. En Dash

There are two different types of dashes: the em dash and the en dash. Both are punctuation marks that help provide clarity to your reader.

The em dash (—) is the longest dash and can be used in place of a comma, semi-colon, colon, or parenthesis. The en dash (–) is the shorter dash and is used in sentences to show how words and ideas are related to one another in writing.

What is a Hyphen?

The hyphen (-) is often incorrectly used in place of a dash. The hyphen is used to connect two words together and should not be used in place of either an em or an en dash. Never used a double hyphen to replace an em or en dash. 

How to Use an Em Dash

The em dash is called an “em” because the dash is approximately the width of a typed letter M. It also is known as the em rule. It works to separate words and phrases from the rest of the sentence and is supposed to provide emphasis or drama.

Em Dash Rules

The use of an em dash is to create drama and draw attention to the words it helps offset. It allows your reader to focus on specific words and phrases and replaces confusing commas, semicolons, and parentheses. Take a look at how to use an em dash in a sentence.

Highlight Important Ideas, Summaries, and Dramatic Changes of Thought

• The final essay was due by noon — and had to be placed in the professor’s mailbox, of all things!
• The Homecoming Game — disappointingly postponed due to lighting — was finally called off.
• She wasn’t sure what to think — except she definitely had to rush if she was going to make it on time!

Set Off Long Nonessential Appositives if it is Already Internally Punctuated or to Add Drama

• The queen was born a commoner — despite her royal heritage, marriage to the king, and charity work in the poor areas of the city — and many people disliked her for it.

Set Off a Nonessential Modifier if it is Already Internally Punctuated or to Add Drama

• She thought she wasn’t good enough at the tryouts to land the role — her addition was flawless — and was humble in her acceptance of the placement.

Replace Parentheses if it is Long and Internally Punctuated, or to Provide Emphasis

• Our new school building provided new learning opportunities — luckily, I was able to transfer over to it, build a curriculum, and feel useful again — that the entire county could take advantage of.

Between a List and Independent Clause When the List Comes First

Creating new resources, applicable assessments, and hand on opportunities — are all useful for meaningful, in-class learning and career-building skills.

How to Use an En Dash

The en dash is called an “en” because the dash is approximately the width of a typed letter N. It also is known as the en rule. It is used to highlight the relationship between dates, numbers, or two words.

En Dash Rules

En dash rules are specific to word relationships. When the en dash is used in a sentence, it emphasizes how words and numbers are connected to one another. Look at these examples:

To Replace the Word Versus

• The governor – governor candidate debate was well organized and fairly moderated.
• The cross-country meet was held in the park for the Eagle – Wildcat district championship.

To Replace the Words “to” or “and”

Avoid if the structure includes a “from…to…” or “between…and…” parallel structure.

• The Detroit – Orlando flight is non-stop, quick, and great for families with young children.
• The final assessment was an English – History department collaboration.

To Show Number or Date Ranges

• My order should ship out within 5 – 7 business days.
• I need between 15 – 23 students to make the class a success.
• The period between 1900 – 1950 highlights incredible technological growth.

To Highlight Equal Pairings or Partnerships

• The student – student lesson creations helped teachers see what their classes valued for new learning opportunities.
• The university – college partnerships provided alignment for class career options.

For Vote Tallies, Scores, or Directions From One Point to Another

• The Rockhounds season ended 32 – 15.
• The votes were split 50 – 50.
• The Midland – Las Vegas Flight was a little over an hour long.

To Replace a Hyphen in Complex Compound Adjectives

• Pre-Columbus America was almost 100% untouched by European influences.

How to Use a Hyphen

Hyphens actually have many rules associated with their use, and it is important to explain their overall function in writing to help you recognize the difference between dashes and hyphens. The main purpose of a hyphen is to make connections between words.

Hyphen Rule Summary

Hyphens are more widely used than a dash, but they are also often overused or misused as well. They should be used to connect words and numbers to help readers understand the relationships between them. Here is a quick summary of its main uses.

Use With Compound Modifiers, Compound Nouns, Compound Verbs, and Compound Numbers

• The new school, built to create quality, career-building opportunities, was located next to the main High School Campus.
• Her brother-in-law was the new principal.
• She applied a block to her emotions, like a sun-screening against negativity.
• They expected fifty-two contestants in the E-Sports challenge next weekend.

To Divide Compound Words Containing Double Vowels

• She had always been semi-independent so moving to a new school was not a big deal.

Use With Prefixes Placed Before Capital Words and the Words Self, All, and Ex

• The pre-New Year’s gala was much less crowded and more enjoyable than bringing in the New Year with a crowd of strangers.
• One of the worst feelings was watching someone self-medicate with addictive behaviors.

Use With the Suffixes Elect, Type, Designate, or Like (If the Root has Three or More Syllables)

• The governor-elect will be sworn in during the January sessions.
• A commencement-like ceremony was held for students who achieved the highest honors.

Let’s Review

Dashes are a type of punctuation mark that can add clarity to your writing. There are two main forms of dashes you should take advantage of.

Em dashes work to offset and highlight words and phrases, and en dashes provide visual relationships between words and numbers. Hyphens, although more common, only are used to connect words or numbers — not to create relationships or add clarity to your writing.

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Dashes (Types, How to Use Them, When to Use Them, Grammar Rules)

What are dashes? How do I use dashes in writing? What are the grammar rules that govern the various types of dashes? A dash is a small horizontal line that is used as a punctuation mark in the English language. It resembles the hyphen (a punctuation mark used to separate individual words) in appearance, although it is longer and occasionally higher than the baseline. It is used to denote a pause or a range and is used to divide word groups rather than individual words.

Dash types (em dash and en dash)

The different styles of dashes include the en dash “–”, the em dash “—”, and the horizontal bar “―”. The em dash “—” and the en dash “–” are the two most popular dash forms. These dashes differ not only in their length but also in the function they perform in a sentence . Authors can easily remember the difference between these dashes by remembering the length of the alphabets “M” and “N.”

An em dash , like a comma , a semicolon , a colon , parentheses, and an ellipsis , signifies additional emphasis, a break in the flow of thought , or a sudden shift in direction.

Em dashes, for example, can take the place of parentheses when there are numerous commas in the parenthetical phrase.

Consider the following example:

• After a slight hesitation, Anna jumped up at the dog (or, rather, lunged at it).
• After a slight hesitation, Anna jumped up at the dog—or, rather, lunged at it.

An author can use colons to begin a clause that expands on the text that came before it. Colons are much more formal when compared to dashes. Em dashes, however, are more forceful than colons. Authors typically use em dashes to convey strong emotion or to give their text a more informal tone.

• Anna is terrified of two things: lizards and dancing.
• Anna is terrified of two things—lizards and dancing.

Em dashes are used by transcriptionists and authors to substitute letters that are obscure, censored, or purposefully deleted. Em dashes show up in groups of two or three in these instances.

A former member of the disgraced team, — — —, provided his statement at court today.

At the end of the letter was a fading sentence: “Love you , Anna, from your de— —ted friend.”

“H— — always get on my nerves. All they know is how to cause trouble everywhere they go .”

Some rules for em dashes

There are some important rules that authors should be careful about when using dashes. These include:

Phrases and words between dashes typically do not belong in the subject .

Anna—and her lovely pooch—is always welcome here for the Christmas holidays.

When necessary, dashes take the place of mandatory punctuation.

Without dash: The woman from Manila, Philippines, arrived.

With dash: The woman—she was from Manila, Philippines—arrived.

Spaces around the dash are preferred by some authors and publishers.

Without space: Anna—and her lovely pooch—is always welcome here for the Christmas holidays.

With space: Anna — and her lovely pooch — is always welcome here for the Christmas holidays.

An en dash is slightly shorter than an em dash in length. Despite having a similar appearance to em dashes, en dashes serve a very different purpose. Some common uses of the en dash include:

Indicate a link or connection

A connection or association between two words can be shown with an en dash. Authors typically use en dashes when employing a phrase with two words as a modifier . It is also used for connecting terms that have already been hyphenated. This method of dash usage results in compound adjectives .

Consider the following examples:

• The pro-life–pro-choice debate always sees a high amount of emotional arguments and appeals and ends in heated exchanges.
• The Nobel Peace Prize-winning humanitarian is the keynote speaker for the symposium organized by the charity.

Indicate a range of numbers or span of time

En dashes are frequently used to denote time periods or numerical ranges. The en dash in such sentences is used to represent either “through” or “to.”

• The parent-teacher meeting is scheduled to be conducted on Friday , 11:00-11:30 a.m.
• During the years 2002-2010, Anna lived in Manhattan, New York.
• We expect 25-50 celebrities at the gala.
• The tutor asked me to read pages 10–25 as homework for today.

More punctuation marks (all 26 marks)

In both American and British English, the em dash serves the same purpose. But there is a slight difference in the way the dash is represented in text. In British English, the dash is written as a single hyphen since most computer keyboards do not provide a separate dash.

In American English, the em dash is written with two consecutive hyphens. This is done to avoid any ambiguity that may crop up when a reader is perusing the text.

A dash divides words into parenthetical phrases, whereas a hyphen links two or more words together. While dashes are separated using spaces, hyphens are not separated using them. A hyphen can be used to join compound words when it is grammatically appropriate to do so.

For example, consider the following:

• Compound words that are hyphenated: sister-in-law, seven-year-old.
• Spelled out fractions: three-fifths, one-third.
• Compound adjectives : pet-friendly cafe, well-oiled tool.

In Unicode, the em dash is U+2014. If you are using em dashes in your content, don’t put a space between them. A spaced em dash creates a unique reading flow. Although, a spaced en dash is considered okay .

A double hyphen is not considered a dash. It is its own form of punctuation mark.

• Merriam Webster – dash – Definition
• Wikipedia – Dash
• Grammar Monster – Using Dashes
• Yourdictionary – 3 Types of Dashes and Correct Usage in Writing

Inside this article

Fact checked: Content is rigorously reviewed by a team of qualified and experienced fact checkers. Fact checkers review articles for factual accuracy, relevance, and timeliness. Learn more.

About the author

Dalia Y.: Dalia is an English Major and linguistics expert with an additional degree in Psychology. Dalia has featured articles on Forbes, Inc, Fast Company, Grammarly, and many more. She covers English, ESL, and all things grammar on GrammarBrain.

Core lessons

• Abstract Noun
• Accusative Case
• Active Sentence
• Alliteration
• Adjective Clause
• Adjective Phrase
• Adverbial Clause
• Appositive Phrase
• Body Paragraph
• Compound Adjective
• Complex Sentence
• Compound Words
• Compound Predicate
• Common Noun
• Comparative Adjective
• Comparative and Superlative
• Compound Noun
• Compound Subject
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• Dative Case
• Declarative Statement
• Direct Object Pronoun
• Direct Object
• Dangling Modifier
• Demonstrative Pronoun
• Demonstrative Adjective
• Direct Characterization
• Definite Article
• Doublespeak
• Equivocation Fallacy
• Future Perfect Progressive
• Future Simple
• Future Perfect Continuous
• Future Perfect
• First Conditional
• Gerund Phrase
• Genitive Case
• Helping Verb
• Irregular Adjective
• Irregular Verb
• Imperative Sentence
• Indefinite Article
• Intransitive Verb
• Introductory Phrase
• Indefinite Pronoun
• Indirect Characterization
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• Juxtaposition
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• Misplaced Modifier
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• Noun Adjective
• Object Pronoun
• Object Complement
• Order of Adjectives
• Parallelism
• Prepositional Phrase
• Past Simple Tense
• Past Continuous Tense
• Past Perfect Tense
• Past Progressive Tense
• Present Simple Tense
• Present Perfect Tense
• Personal Pronoun
• Personification
• Persuasive Writing
• Parallel Structure
• Phrasal Verb
• Predicate Adjective
• Predicate Nominative
• Phonetic Language
• Plural Noun
• Punctuation
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• Preposition
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• Parts of Speech
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• Possessive Determiner
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How to use dashes correctly

Published October 24, 2020. Updated May 18, 2022.

Dash Definition

The en dash is used between words and ranges, and the em dash is used to present additional information, appositives, lists, or conclusions.

Overview of When to Use a Dash

The two types of dashes are en dashes and em dashes. These are two separate punctuations with different functions. The difference between these two dashes varies from the lengths of their symbols to how they are applied. While the en dash has a more technical use, the em dash is mostly used at a writer’s discretion and indicates a break or pause in the sentence. A hyphen is the smallest (-), followed by the en dash (–), and, finally, the em dash, which is the longest (—). An en dash is applied without any space before and after it. This type of dash is used to indicate a range, especially between numerical quantities like scores and dates. An em dash can be used with or without spacing. It can be used in place of parentheses — or brackets — to present additional details in an otherwise complete sentence.

Difference s b etween h yphen s , e n d ash es , and e m d ash es    

The basic difference between these three punctuation marks depends on when they are used. Apart from this, their symbols differ only in length. A hyphen is the smallest (-), followed by the en dash (–), and, finally, the em dash, which is the longest (—). 

When t o u se h yphen s    

Essentially, hyphens are a feature of many compound words or terms like “ build-up, ” “ life-size , ” “ sugar-free, ” “ dog-friendly, ” and “ ninety-nine . ” Each of these words is read as a word with a unique meaning in itself . In “ life-size ,” for instance,   “ life ” and “ size ” have independent meanings in themselves, but the hyphenated compound has a unique meaning of its own.  

When t o u se e n d ash es  

Just like with the hyphen , the uses of an e n dash are mostly technical. An e n dash is always used without any space before or after it.  

INCORRECT: The score right now is 3 – 1 . CORRECT:     The score right now is 3–1 .

This type of dash is used to indicate a range, especially between numerical quantities like scores and date s . Examples of when to use an e n dash include the following:  

• pages 10–25  
• around $300–$400  
• the London–Paris train  
• the 2015–2016 yearbook    

In most of these examples, we read the e n dash as “ to ,” as it de notes a set or a range.   

Sometimes, an en dash is used as an extension of the hyphen. This is sometimes the case when you want to describe something by using multiple words or an open compound word. For example,   

She wore a Marilyn Monroe ⁠ –inspired dress.   

Akira Yoshino is an award ⁠ –winning scientist.   

This is a pre ⁠ –war building.    

Here, the en is used to join these words to form a new adjective.   

Similarly, the en dash is also used to indicate a direction, conflict, or connection:  

This election is all about the liberal ⁠ –conservative debate.   

The USA became involved in the later phases of the Sino ⁠ – Japanese War .   

I am going back home from the north ⁠ – south railway line.   

Here, we learned how to use the dash to show a connection between two words.  

W hen n ot t o u se e n d ash es  

You should not use an e n dash along with words like “ from ” and “ between ” to indicate a range .   

INCORRECT : Franklin D. Roosevelt was the President of America from 1933–1945 . CORRECT:     Franklin D. Roosevelt was the President of America from 1933 to 1945.

INCORRECT : Richard eats between 3–4 pizzas every month . CORRECT:     Richard eats between 3 and 4 pizzas every month.

When t o u se e m d ash es  

An e m dash can be used with or without spacing . There are four main uses of an e m dash :  

    1.  You can use this dash in place of parentheses — or brackets — to present additional details in an otherwise complete sentence 

Jim marked the errors — all 52 of them — and returned the paper to Shaun. 

Quickly she packed her clothes — a trusty pair of pants and some shirts — and rushed to the car.  

Note that when the parenthes e s are towards the end of the sentence, we only use one dash be fore the words we’re setting off from the rest of the sentence .

INCORRECT : In just a week, the actors were fed up with his direction ⁠ — or , rather, his lack of direction — CORRECT:   In just a week, the actors were fed up with his direction⁠—or, rather, his lack of direction.

    2.  Both the em dash and the comma are used with appositives

You can use the e m dash i n place  of commas , especially in appositives. Look at the following examples :    

Marvin ate lunch at his favorite restaurant , Chilis, on the weekends.  

  The five of us —Mat, Diana, Rachel, Mike , and Paul— went for a movie last night.  

You can see how both of these sentences present appositives in different way s . Generally, comma s are used to set off an appositive. However, you can see how using commas in the second example would make the sentence confusing.

The five of us, Mat, Diana, Rachel, Mike , and Paul, went for a movie last night.  

To make the sentence clear, we use the e m dash instead of commas.

Can you please call my assistant—Cathy, not Margery—for a copy of the sales report ?

However, this does not mean that the e m dash can replace the comma. In fact, excessive use of dashes can break up the flow of your writing. O nly in sentences where commas are not suitable and seem out of place can you trade them for the e m dash.  

    3.  Sometimes, an em dash is used for introducing or concluding, like a colon

This is usually done for emphasis , because an e m dash is stronger than a colon.   

My favorite ice creams are all classic flavors — c h ocolate, strawberry, vanilla , butterscotch .

After several weeks of deliberation, the jurors finally reached a unanimous verdict ⁠ — not guilty .  

    4.  The em dash is also a great writing tool to present a sharp turn or interruption of thought

C ould you pass —no, d on’t touch the knife— pass the salad bowl ?

So, as I was saying — wait, what were we talking about ?

Look at that —oh hey , Mike! I d idn’t see you there— t here’s a dog by the streetlight .

This is an informal use of the e m dash. You must have seen examples like these in creative writing or movie dialogues, and its occurrence   depends on the writing style.   

Key t akeaway s  

• There are two types of dashes: e n dash es and e m dash es . These are two different punctuation s with different functions .    
• While the e n dash is used between words and ranges, the e m dash is used to present additional information, appositives, lists , or conclusions .  
• Both e n dash es and e m dash es are altogether different from hyphe n s .  

Worried about your writing? The Chegg Writing grammar checker can help you identify and fix potential writing issues.

Punctuation Guides

Punctuation basics.

• Punctuation Rules
• Exclamation Point
• Oxford Comma
• Parentheses
• Question Mark
• Quotation Marks

Published October 24, 2020.

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The Writing Process

Making expository writing less stressful, more efficient, and more enlightening, search form, you are here, why should i use a writing process.

“A blank piece of paper.” —Nobel Prize-winning writer Ernest Hemingway when asked about the scariest thing he’d ever encountered

First of all, it is important to recognize that even though it may be informal or unconscious and may vary slightly depending on the writing task, you probably already do use a writing process , and it probably goes something like this:

• You read the instructions and anxiously choose a topic, doing a cost-benefit analysis between what will be easiest to write, what will be most interesting for you, and what will get you the best grade in the least amount of time.
• You do some brainstorming and make some notes.
• You make a very rough, minimal outline, either on paper or just in your head.
• You begin a painful struggle of writing the paper itself, agonizing over sentences and worrying not only about what ideas to put down but also how to say them not only grammatically correctly but even elegantly.
• As this is often done the night (or morning) before the assignment is due, you take a short break and then reread the paper, fixing any spelling or grammar mistakes you notice and perhaps rewriting or adding a sentence or two.
• You turn in the paper with that sense of fear still in the pit of your stomach and perhaps a vague—or very distinct—feeling that you could have done better, though you're not sure how.

Thus there are a few important reasons to use a formal writing process:

1. Reduce anxiety and stress.

2. Increase quality.

3. Learn more.

How to write a process essay

• August 25, 2023

Process essays are one of the most common types of essays . It’s simply explaining a process of how to do something. 

In this article, we’ll show you how to write a process essay in steps with interactive examples. 

Process essay definition

Let’s take a look at the steps outlined below to write a clear and effective process essay. 

Choose a topic

You should start by choosing a topic that not only interests you but also attracts your target audience. 

Whether it’s brewing the perfect cup of coffee or conquering the art of origami, your topic should be engaging and well-defined.  Let’s have a look at topic examples:

• Crafting Exquisite Miniature Bookbindings
• Building a Sustainable Vertical Garden
• Making the Perfect Cup of Coffee

So for this guide, I’ve chosen “Making the Perfect Cup of Coffee”. Now let’s continue with the next steps.

Create a process essay outline

Now that you’ve your topic at hand, it’s time to create an outline to present the steps chronologically. Outline will also help you organize your thoughts and ideas so you won’t get lost during the writing process.

Let’s examine this step with an example of a process essay explaining “Making the Perfect Cup of Coffee”.

Process essay outline example

• Thesis statement
• Provide safety precautions if necessary.
• Address to the reader
• Provide any variations or customization options if applicable.
• End with a memorable concluding thought or call to action.

By presenting the steps in chronological order, your readers can follow the process smoothly. 

During this step, just make sure to:

• Expand on each step you outlined earlier.
• Use clear and concise language.
• Make use of bullet points or numbered lists to make the process visually appealing.

After completing the outline, it’s time to write an interesting introduction.

Write an introduction

• Hook the reader's interest with a hook sentence
• Offer a brief overview of the topic and its significance
• Introduce and explain the process with a thesis statement at the end of introduction

Process essay introduction example

Introduction

Now that we have an intro on our hand, you need to tell what materials you need to finish the process.

Write the materials needed for the process

Listing the necessary materials for the process is a best practice for process essays. Typically found just after the introduction, this paragraph is devoted to outlining the necessary materials.

Here, p rioritizing the list is important; the more influential a component is, the higher its position on the list should be.

Example material list for process essay

Body paragraphs

Materials needed

• High-quality coffee beans that align with your flavor preference.
• A grinder for optimal flavor extraction.
• Equipment for brewing methods, such as a pour-over apparatus, a drip coffee maker, a French press, or an espresso machine.
• Fresh and clean water for brewing.
• Optional additives like milk, cream, sugar, flavored syrups, or other preferred elements.

Start writing the process

Right after listing the materials needed, it’s time to start writing the process itself.

When describing your process, be careful not to make it too complicated. To keep your readers on track, use transitional words like “after,” “eventually,” “first,” “then,” and others help you maintain an understandable tone.  

Or simply use a 1,2,3, bullet point structure as seen in example below to remind readers of their step during the process.

Body paragraphs - Process writing example

Materials needed ...

• Grind the beans just before brewing for optimal freshness. Use a burr grinder and adjust the coarseness to match your brewing method (coarse for French press, fine for espresso).
• Weigh your coffee grounds using a scale. A standard ratio is 1 to 2 tablespoons of coffee per 6 ounces of water, but adjust to your taste.
• Ensure the water is heated to the ideal temperature, typically between 195-205°F (90-96°C). Water that's too hot or too cold can affect the taste.
• Pay attention to the brewing time. Generally, 4-5 minutes is suitable for most methods, but again, adjust based on your preference.
• After finishing, regularly clean your coffee maker or French press to prevent rancid oils and residue from affecting your coffee's taste.

As seen from the example above, using an imperative language structure is generally preferable. It makes total sense as you’re describing a process in steps and usually don’t need a full sentence structure. 

Give tips and supporting details

After explaining the process above, it’s now time to provide tips and supporting details. Here, make use examples, tips, and even warnings if necessary. 

In other words, anticipate the questions your readers might have and address them as you go along. 

Body paragraphs - Supporting details

Supporting details & tips

• Ensure safe handling of hot water and coffee-making equipment.
• Water that's too hot can result in over-extraction, while water that's too cold won't extract enough flavor.

Write a conclusion

At this step, you simply need to write a conclusion paragraph to end your process essay. First summarize the key points, and restate the process in a concise and short sentence. And finally, finish your process essay by a memorable sentence or a call-to-action. 

Process essay conclusion example

Revise and polish your essay.

Now that you’ve written your essay, take a breath, and then come back for some editing. Check for consistency, correct sentence structure, efficient transitions , tense selection , and other linguistic issues that may arise. 

If possible, make use of proofreading tools like QuillBot or Grammarly . 

• Think about potential reader misunderstandings and address them. If needed, explain what should be avoided.
• Offer explanations for steps that might seem unusual or complicated.
• Define any unfamiliar terms or materials that the reader might not understand. This ensures clarity in your essay.

So  you’ve successfully learned how to write a captivating process essay. Remember, practice makes perfect. The more you write, the better you’ll become.

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How to Use Em Dashes (—), En Dashes (–) , and Hyphens (-)

What is an em dash.

The em dash (—) can function like a comma, a colon, or parenthesis. Like commas and parentheses, em dashes set off extra information, such as examples, explanatory or descriptive phrases, or supplemental facts. Like a colon, an em dash introduces a clause that explains or expands upon something that precedes it.

The Em Dash Indicates a New Direction

• An em dash can mark an abrupt change or break in the structure of a sentence.

Mabel the Cat was delighted with the assortment of pastries the new bakery featured, but Harry the Dog—he felt otherwise, for the bakery did not offer cheese Danishes at all.

• An em dash can indicate interrupted speech or a speaker’s confusion or hesitation.

“Of course you have a point,” Mabel murmured. “That is—I suppose it is concerning.”

The Em Dash as Comma or Parenthesis

• Em dashes are used in place of commas or parentheses to emphasize or draw attention to parenthetical or amplifying material. In this particular task, em dashes occupy a kind of middle ground among the three: when commas do the job, the material is most closely related to what’s around it, and when parentheses do the job, the material is most distantly related to what’s around it; when dashes do the job the material is somewhere in the middle.

The bakery's significantly broad hours of operation—6 a.m. to 6 p.m.—certainly showed concern for customers’ manifold circumstances.

• Dashes set off or introduce defining phrases and lists.

A regular selection of three kinds of croissants—plain, almond, and chocolate—was heartening, both Mabel and Harry agreed.

• An em dash is often used in place of a colon or semicolon to link clauses, especially when the clause that follows the dash explains, summarizes, or expands upon the preceding clause in a somewhat dramatic way.

Harry would never forget the Tuesday that Mabel called him from the bakery, her voice brimming with excitement—the bakery had added cheese Danishes to its selection.

• An em dash or pair of dashes often sets off illustrative or amplifying material introduced by such phrases as for example , namely , and that is , when the break in continuity is greater than that shown by a comma, or when the dash would clarify the sentence structure better than a comma.

The bakery was truly phenomenal. Although they did miss the mark somewhat with the pineapple upside-down cake Mabel ordered—that is, the cake had clearly been baked right-side up.

• An em dash may introduce a summary statement that follows a series of words or phrases.

Chocolate chip, oatmeal raisin, peanut butter, snickerdoodle, both macarons and macaroons—the panoply of cookie varieties was impressive as well.

• A dash often precedes the name of an author or source at the end of a quoted passage—such as an epigraph, extract, or book or film blurb—that is not part of the main text. The attribution may appear immediately after the quotation or on the next line.

“One cannot overestimate the effect that a good bakery can have on a person’s well-being.” —Mabel the Cat, quoted in The Websterburg Reporter

The Em Dash in the Company of Other Punctuation Marks

• If an em dash appears at a point where a comma could also appear, the comma is omitted.

Within its first year, Mabel and Harry had sampled all of the bakery’s offerings—all 62 items—and had also decided that the exercise was worth repeating.

• When a pair of em dashes sets off material ending with an exclamation point or a question mark, the mark is placed inside the dashes.

When the bakery closed for the month of August Mabel tried, despite her dolefulness—for how could she be otherwise?—to bake her own bread but each loaf that emerged from her oven tasted vaguely of tears.

• Dashes are used inside parentheses, and vice versa, to indicate parenthetical material within parenthetical material. The second dash is omitted if it would immediately precede the closing parenthesis; a closing parenthesis is never omitted.

The bakery’s reputation for scrumptious goods (ambrosial, even—each item was surely fit for gods) spread far and wide.

Em dash vs en dash

• Remembering that the em dash is the length of a capital M, it will surprise no one that the so-called “en dash” is the approximate length of a capital N, –. The en dash is the least loved of all; it’s not easily rendered by the average keyboard user (one has to select it as a special character, whereas the em dash can be conjured with two hyphens), so it’s mostly encountered in typeset material. (A hyphen does its job in other text.) It is most often used between numbers, dates, or other notations to signify “(up) to and including.”

The bakery will be closed August 1–August 31. The bakery is open 6:00 a.m.–6:00 p.m. The exceedingly complex recipe spans pages 128–34. Mabel and Harry lived elsewhere 2007–2019.

Note that one does not need words like from and between in these cases. The phrase “open 6:00 a.m.–6:00 p.m.” can be read as “open between 6:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m.” or as “open from 6:00 a.m. to/until 6:00 p.m.”

• If you want to be official about things, use the en dash to replace a hyphen in compound adjectives when at least one of the elements is a two-word compound.

the pre–Websterburg Bakery era

The thinking is that using a hyphen here, as in “the pre-Websterburg Bakery era,” risks the suggestion that pre attaches only to Websterburg . It’s unlikely, though, that a reader would truly be confused.

• The en dash replaces the word to between capitalized names, and is used to indicate linkages such as boundaries, treaties, and oppositions.

a Springfield–Websterburg train the pie–cake divide

• A two-em dash, ——, is used to indicate missing letters in a word and, less frequently, to indicate a missing word.

The butter-stained and crumb-embedded note was attributed to a Ms. M—— of Websterburg.

• A three-em dash, ———, indicates that a word has been left out or that an unknown word or figure is to be supplied.

Years later it was revealed that the Websterburg bakers had once had a bakery in ———, a city to the south. But the water quality there was prohibitive to the creating of decent bagels.

While we said above that the em dash, also called the “common dash,” is the most common of the true dashes, hyphens show up more frequently in text. They have a variety of uses.

• Hyphens are used to link elements in compound words .

a baker-owner

• In some words, a hyphen separates a prefix, suffix, or medial element from the rest of the word.

Websterburg’s pre-bakery days a bread-like scone jack-o'-lantern sugar cookies

• As we noted above, a hyphen often does the job of an en dash between numbers and dates, providing the meaning "(up) to and including."

pages 128-34 the years 2007-2019

• A hyphen marks an end-of-line division of a word.

Mabel and Harry don’t like to linger on their memories of Webster- burg’s pre-bakery days.

• A hyphen divides letters or syllables to give the effect of stuttering, sobbing, or halting speech.

"M-m-mabel, the cheese Danish is divine!”

• Hyphens indicate a word spelled out letter by letter.

Let’s not even talk about August, when the bakery is c-l-o-s-e-d.

The em dash is sometimes considered a less formal equivalent of the colon and parenthesis, but in truth it’s used in all kinds of writing, including the most formal—the choice of which mark to use is really a matter of personal preference.

Spacing around an em dash varies. Most newspapers insert a space before and after the dash, and many popular magazines do the same, but most books and journals omit spacing, closing whatever comes before and after the em dash right up next to it. This website prefers the latter, its style requiring the closely held em dash in running text.

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• © 2023 by Joseph M. Moxley - Professor of English - USF

Use dashes to set off an idea or an appositive within a sentence.

Table of Contents

A dash (—) is a punctuation mark used to set off an idea within a sentence and may be used alone or in pairs. Dashes interrupt a thought in a more dramatic way than a phrase enclosed in commas , but less theatrically than parentheses .

To form a dash, type two hyphens—without a space before, after, or between them—and your word processor will convert them to a dash. You make a dash by hitting the hyphen key twice. The hyphen key is next to the +/= key on your keyboard (the same key with the underscore _ ). Some Word programs will automatically join your hyphens together to make a dash, and some will leave the space. Either way is fine!

Dashes can be placed at the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence, depending on what you want to emphasize:

• Teaching—the profession has always appealed to me.
• The idea of being a teacher—working with kids, summers off—has always appealed to me.
• I have always known what I want to be—a teacher.

Note: If you put a dash in the middle of your sentence, you need to place another dash at the end of the emphasized information (like parentheses!).

Use dashes thoughtfully and sparingly, or they may lose their effectiveness.

How should dashes be used?

• Cell phones, hand-held computers, and built-in TVs—each a possible distraction—can lead to a potentially dangerous situation if used while driving.
• The young woman took all of the necessary supplies—leash, pet carrier, and paperwork—to the shelter when she went to pick up her newly-adopted dog.
• Genocide—the systematic killing of a racial group—is an atrocity that has created black holes in history.
• Childhood obesity has become a grave concern in many parts of the world—particularly during the last two decades.
• She finally let down her guard—and cried like a baby—when the counselor urged her to let go of her pain.

Use a Dash after a Series or List of Appositives

When you introduce a long series or list of appositives before the subject and verb, you are placing high demands on the reader’s short-term memory. Therefore, use this pattern rarely and only for emphasis. This pattern is particularly appropriate in conclusions, when you are bringing together the major threads of your discussion or argument. Finally, you should place a summary word after the dash and preferably before the subject of the sentence, as indicated by the following examples. The most common summary words that writers use are all, those, this, each, what, none, such, these .

• Jealousy, lust, hate, greed–these are the raw emotions we will explore.
• Lying, stealing, cheating, committing adultery–which is the greatest sin?
• To struggle with meaning, to edit, to combine sentences–these activities are well known to the struggling writer.
• Wining and dining his friends, stroking people’s egos, maintaining a good appearance, and spending money–all were part of his scheme to gain influence.

Use Dashes When You Wish to Emphasize a Parenthetical Element

Commas are usually sufficient punctuation to set off parenthetical elements. In some instances, however, you can use a dash instead, especially if you want to make the insertion more noticeable:

• The building next to ours–the one with the all-cedar exterior–was engulfed in flames.

When you want to whisper rather than shout, you can place the modifiers inside parentheses:

• The secret I have to tell you (the one I’ve been hinting about) will surprise you.

Use Dashes to Embed a Series or List of Appositives

A single appositive or modifier can easily be set off from the rest of the sentence in commas, but you must use dashes when you insert a series of appositives or modifiers. After all, how else will the reader know when the series is over?

• The essential qualities of an effective writer–discipline, effort, inspiration–can be learned by regular writing.
• With the help of her assistant–a high-speed personal computer–she produced a delightful letter.

Use Dashes to Set off an Emphatic Repetition

You can emphasize an important point by placing a dash or comma at the end of the sentence and then repeating a key word or phrase:

• Hal is a computer, the ultimate computer.
• Mrs. Leavitt is a gambler, a compulsive gambler.
• He was disturbed by the warning–the warning that everyone else ignored.
• All rapists should be severely punished–punished in a way they will never forget.

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How to Use a Dash

by Erica L. Meltzer | Sep 13, 2019 | ACT English/SAT Writing | 0 comments

Dashes are a form of punctuation that is pretty much guaranteed to show up on both the ACT® English Test and the multiple-choice SAT® Writing Test. Because they tend to be used more frequently in British than in American English, they are typically the least familiar type of punctuation for many students. That said, they are relatively straightforward.

Dashes are tested in three ways. The first is extremely common, the second less common, and the third rare.

1) To set off a non-essential clause (2 Dashes = 2 Commas)

In this case, dashes are used exactly like commas to indicate non-essential information that can be removed without affecting the basic meaning of a sentence. If you have one dash, you need the other dash. It cannot be omitted or replaced by a comma or by any other punctuation mark. This is the most important rule regarding dashes that you need to know.

Incorrect: John Locke – whose writings strongly influenced The Declaration of Independence , was one of the most important thinkers of the eighteenth century.

Correct: John Locke – whose writings strongly influenced The Declaration of Independence – was one of the most important thinkers of the eighteenth century.

You can assume that almost every ACT, and most SATs, will contain at least one question testing dashes this way.

2) To introduce an explanation or a list (Dash = Colon)

In this case, a full, stand-alone sentence must come before the dash. The information that follows the dash does not have to be a full sentence (although it’s perfectly fine if it is).

Correct: John Locke was one of the most important thinkers of the eighteenth century – his writings strongly influenced The   Declaration of Independence .

The information after the dash explains why Locke was one of the most important thinkers of the eighteenth century.

3) To create a dramatic pause

Finally, dashes can be used to create a break in a thought–they force the reader to stop for a fraction of a second before continuing on to whatever idea comes next. They are used to create a slight sense of drama or suspense.

Grammatically, this use is more or less interchangeable with #2: a full, standalone sentence must come before the dash, but either a sentence or a fragment can follow.

Correct: A number of John Locke’s ideas influenced The   Declaration of Independence – particularly those concerning government, labor, and revolution.

To reiterate, this usage is not tested often, and you should simply be aware that it is acceptable.

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5 reasons to give students feedback on their writing process

Have you ever taken a piece of writing on your computer and dropped it wholesale into the recycle bin? Ever crumpled up a piece of paper full of writing and shot it at a trash can, hoping to make a basket? There’s something universally cathartic about being able to start over again—from scratch—with writing. Perhaps it’s because we learn something new as we write. And though our early failed efforts can be painful, they do point us in a new direction and get us closer to what we really want to say with our writing. When you give students feedback on their writing process, you can help them do just that.

Writing is a recursive process, not a linear one

Research shows that this idea of starting over with writing has merit. Writing is a recursive process, not a linear one. The recursive model was first proposed by Linda Flower and John Hayes in 1981, replacing the previous linear model I was taught in school, which involved outlining, completing a first draft, editing, completing a second draft, and so on, all in the same order each time.

In the recursive model, writers constantly move between cognitive processes, such as planning (setting goals, generating ideas, organizing ideas), drafting (putting a writing plan into action), and reviewing (evaluating, editing, revising). Writers move fluidly between these processes to accomplish specific, self-generated goals.

Writers change their goals based on what they learn through the act of writing

According to Flower and Hayes, writing goals change, and they are generated in one of two ways:

• The writer establishes high-level goals and supporting sub-goals based on their purpose for writing. These goals are often set before writing begins. For example, a high-level goal for a student in elementary school might be, “I want to tell my school principal about how moving more during the day is good for us, so I can ask for PE class every day instead of every other day.”
• The writer changes their writing goal, or creates a new goal, based on what they learn through the act of writing. For the same student, the evolution of their goal might look like this: “My research says that students need 60 minutes of physical activity a day, so my plan for PE class every day isn’t enough. I need to get creative. How can students move more throughout the day? If I start my letter with these ideas, I’ll really get my principal’s attention.” (Cue shot of crumpled-up piece of paper landing in trash can.)

Often, those tossed-out efforts are proof positive that we’re engaged in the writing process and, more importantly, learning from it!

Students and their teachers may learn more from feedback on the writing process than on the written product

Flower and Hayes also suggest that educators should give students feedback on their writing process—not just the written product—when they give students input. This is because it can provide more useful information for students and teachers than focusing on the written product alone. Here are five reasons why:

1. Proficient writing is closely linked to a writer’s ability to self-regulate

Self-regulation is the ability to manage your thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to achieve your goals. In writing, self-regulation involves managing your environment, behaviors, and personal thoughts to effectively plan, draft, and review your work.

Educational psychologists describe these fundamental forms of self-regulation in writing as follows:

• Environmental processes are the external conditions and resources that writers use to facilitate their writing. This includes managing the physical environment (like finding a quiet place to write), seeking feedback from others, and using tools and resources (such as dictionaries or writing software) to enhance writing quality.
• Behavioral processes are the actions and strategies that writers employ to improve their writing. These include goal setting and generation tasks like outlining, drafting, and revising. But they also include self-reinforcement, such as rewarding ourselves when we meet a writing goal (like treating myself to a piece of dark chocolate when I finish writing this blog!).
• Personal processes are the internal cognitive and emotional mechanisms that influence writing. These include beliefs (confidence in one’s writing abilities), motivation (the desire to accomplish a goal with one’s writing), and cognitive strategies (like planning and organizing). They also include emotional regulation, such as how we manage stress and maintain focus while writing.

These three forms of self-regulation interact in a cyclic feedback loop—a loop that gives students many opportunities to self-monitor and adjust their strategies based on what’s going well (or not so well) in their writing.

Unfortunately, traditional feedback methods for student writing often deprive students of these opportunities to become self-regulated learners . In many cases, self-reflection and dialogue produce more relevant feedback for students, as my colleague Gina Wilmurth writes about in “Speak up! How getting students to talk more can improve writing.”

2. Multilingual learners engage in distinct writing processes and benefit from varied feedback

Researchers have found that multilingual learners use distinct writing strategies compared to monolingual learners . These processes aid multilingual learners in navigating the complexities of writing in English by leveraging their full linguistic repertoires. For example:

• Multilingual learners frequently rehearse phrases and words to ensure accuracy and fluency in their writing. This helps them internalize and produce language in English that aligns with their intended meaning.
• Multilingual learners often switch to their native language to retrieve a specific word or idea because it provides access to a broader range of vocabulary and concepts, which can then be translated into English.
• Multilingual learners may revert to their native language to review their writing for coherence , checking that writing is logically structured and ideas flow smoothly.

It’s important to remember that the language students learn first is the bedrock upon which all other languages develop. That’s why empowering multilingual learners to use translanguaging during their writing process is so effective.

When providing feedback on writing to multilingual learners, the type of feedback matters, too. In a meta-analysis of 25 studies on this topic, peer feedback was found to be more effective than teacher feedback for non-native speakers of English . Non-native speakers also benefitted from more varied feedback than native speakers, including oral, written, and computer-based feedback. Finally, the analysis revealed that coaching students on the revision process improved the content of their writing more than giving feedback on a specific written product. For example, providing general explanations about grammatical patterns was more effective than identifying specific errors.

3. Feedback that promotes a growth mindset is more effective than feedback that highlights errors

While feedback generally leads to writing gains for all students, all feedback is not equal. Based on the body of research, some feedback leads to significant gains in learning, some has no effect, and some has a negative effect . Formative feedback, which is given directly to students as part of everyday teaching and learning, is the most effective feedback for writing.

Feedback that promotes a growth mindset (i.e., using effort to increase learning and accepting that mistakes are an important part of the learning process) is also effective. This is particularly true for low-achieving students because it draws a clear connection between effort and achievement (“My writing improved because I worked hard”), which leads to higher expectations for future writing tasks and more attention to effort. Unfortunately, a student’s growth mindset is rendered useless whenever we include a grade with our comments. Repeated studies show that grades alone and grades with comments produce no learning gains . However, comments alone—as is typical in a formative feedback cycle—can result in large learning gains.

4. How we frame feedback to students makes a difference

While formative feedback can improve students’ learning and enhance teachers’ teaching, this is only true when students are receptive to the feedback and the feedback is on target.

In one study involving tenth-graders, students didn’t understand what the feedback was intended to achieve . A teacher’s feedback on word choice, for example, was perceived as a request to use “bigger words” that would impress the teacher. Another study with seventh-graders, however, produced a different result. Researchers placed a handwritten sticky note on some students’ essays that read, “I’m giving you these comments because I have very high expectations and I know that you can reach them.” This simple reframing led to significant gains in writing quality, especially among African American students . Students who received these notes were 40% more likely than the control group to revise their essays and integrate the teacher’s feedback. Why? The sticky notes built trust between teachers and students.

Clearly, how we frame our feedback can make all the difference. That’s why well-known researchers Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey have a new framework for creating a positive culture of feedback in the classroom. Their “4 C’s of Feedback” focus on care, credibility, clarity, and communication. They also address many of the issues I’ve noted in this article, such as the importance of one’s environment, building trust, and self-regulation. To learn more, watch the free webinar How Feedback Work s .

In the meantime, when you give students feedback on their writing process, follow these dos and don’ts .

5. Feedback about the writing process is more likely to transfer to future writing tasks

There are many ways to give students feedback on their writing process effectively. What’s most important is to start, because students are more likely to transfer this feedback to future writing tasks. For a more holistic view, gather input from students, their peers, and adults who observe them writing. Start simply by asking students to rate a series of “I statements” on a four-point scale (strongly disagree, disagree, agree, strongly agree).

Here are 10 statements to get you started:

• I enjoy writing at school.
• I set goals when I am writing.
• It’s hard for me to come up with ideas when I write.
• I do not usually plan before I start writing.
• I can stay focused when I write.
• I like making changes to my writing.
• I do not like to share my writing with others.
• I write differently depending on who will read my writing.
• I know who I can go to for help with my writing.
• I believe writing is important in everyday life.

Students can revisit these statements throughout the year to track their growth as writers. Also, make sure that you take time during every writing conference to discuss a student’s writing process. During these conversations, you can suggest strategies that might help the student improve their process based on their specific needs (e.g., planning, staying focused, getting help).

And remember, there’s always room for improvement

The writing process first proposed by Flower and Hayes in 1981 was so influential that it spawned fourteen other models, including four revisions by Flower and Hayes to their original work. The lesson here is that there’s always room for improvement when it comes to teaching writing and supporting student writers. For example, more recent studies show that digital support for academic writing is most effective when it encourages students to self-monitor and develop their own writing strategies .

As an educator and writer, I’m excited about these new technologies that can aid us in writing. I’ll probably still feel compelled to toss out an early draft or two. But next time, I just might ask an AI chatbot what it thinks before I do.

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Content disclaimer:

Teach. Learn. Grow. includes diverse perspectives that are meant to be a resource to educators and leaders across the country and around the world. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of NWEA.