religion reflection essay

Berkley Center

Reflections on christianity and freedom.

By: William Inboden

December 17, 2012

Yet as a theological principle, Christianity’s emphasis on the interior and eternal dimensions of freedom establishes a foundation for some of the exterior and temporal dimensions of freedom, including freedom of conscience and freedom from religious coercion. Thus Christ’s famous command to “Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar’s, and to God the things that are God’s” (Mark 12:17) was not just a directive that his followers obey the civic authorities, but also a declaration distinguishing between the areas of life that Caesar was competent to rule in, and those he was not. The interior freedom promised by Christianity had at least an exterior implication.

Any inquiry into the relationship between Christianity and religious freedom soon encounters a paradox of history. Christianity has been associated with some of the most notorious episodes of religious intolerance in history, yet Christianity is also associated with some of the greatest advances of religious freedom in history. Indeed, it is these former instances that are often cited as examples of the alleged hypocrisy of Christianity: the Spanish Inquisition, the burning of Servetus in Geneva, the social constraints of Puritanism, and so on. But the accompanying historical record of the Christian tradition’s role in the realization and advance of religious liberty bears another witness. Indeed, perhaps it is this implicit (and sometimes explicit) expectation that the Christian faith support religious freedom that accounts for the severe judgments incurred when it has not. One way to view the unfolding of church history is as an ongoing interaction between the biblical principles described at the outset and the human experience. This historical drama in turn has produced some consequential figures who, in drawing on the theological resources of the Christian tradition during times of great tumult, laid key foundation stones in the development of religious liberty as a political right. Three of them, discussed below, are Martin Luther, Roger Williams, and Charles Malik.

Luther’s appearance in 1521 before the Diet of Worms is regarded by Protestants as a landmark theological moment, but it was also a landmark moment for religious liberty as well. The words of his famous refusal to recant his teachings and writings are instructive: “Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason…my conscience is captive to the Word of God, I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe.” While Luther’s primary concern was defending his theological convictions about salvation and ecclesial authority, the basis of his appeal was liberty of conscience – a precedent that countless other religious dissenters who followed would take as their lodestar. Luther soon applied this insight to his understanding of the very nature of religious faith. “Faith is a free work to which no one can be forced. It is a divine work in the spirit. Let alone then that outward force should compel or create it.” For Luther, his belief that Christian salvation began as a sovereign act of God led naturally to the conclusion that the State had no competence to interfere. To be sure, in practice Luther did not always honor the spirit or letter of these insights, but more important is the precedent he set for those who later did. Historian Roland Bainton has described religious liberty as one of the signature legacies of the Protestant Reformation. “The age of the Reformation prepared the way [for religious liberty] in the realm of fact by breaking the monopoly of a single confession, and in the realm of idea elaborated all of the salient concepts which in the West came into their own through the Enlightenment.”

One hundred years after Luther, a Cambridge graduate ordained as an Anglican minister named Roger Williams became disillusioned with what he believed to be the errors of Anglicanism and sought refuge in New England. Arriving in Boston in 1631, he soon began attracting many followers – and attracting the displeasure of the Puritan authorities – with his then-unusual views. He held that civil authorities had no authority in religious matters, and so could not require church attendance on the Sabbath or punish citizens for violating any of the first four commandments. For a Puritan society founded on the conviction that they had a national covenant with God, and that He would bless and provide for them only so long as the society stayed united and pure, such views were not only unsettling – they were seditious. After being rebuked by the Massachusetts Bay Colony authorities, Williams just became more radical. He soon began teaching that the King of England had no authority to grant the colony its charter in the first place, and charged the King with blasphemy for usurping the prerogatives of God. Not surprisingly, this upset the Puritan leaders even more; when they denounced Williams again, he responded by declaring all of their churches apostate. At their wits end, the Puritan authorities banished Williams from the province. He headed south in the dead of winter, depending on the care of Indians whom he had befriended previously, until he arrived in present-day Rhode Island and founded Providence. Williams by this time had come to embrace believer’s baptism, and in March of 1639, a man named Ezekiel Hollyman baptized Williams, who in turn baptized Hollyman and ten others to form the first Baptist church in America. From that point to his death, Williams was not a member of any particular church. As the eminent Puritan historian Edmund Morgan has described him, Williams was “a charming, sweet-tempered, winning man, courageous, selfless, God-intoxicated – and stubborn – the very soul of separation…[he] would separate not only from erroneous churches but also from everyone who would not denounce erroneous churches as confidently as he did…he could follow a belief to its conclusion with a passionate literalness that bordered on the ridiculous.” Eccentric and hyper-schismatic though he was, Williams’ distinction between civil and religious authority, his progressive relations with the Native Americans, and his resolute commitment to freedom of conscience all stand as admirable legacies.

If Roger Williams laid the groundwork for religious liberty to be realized in the eventual founding of the United States, three centuries later Charles Malik helped codify it as a right for the rest of the world. A Harvard philosophy professor, distinguished diplomat, and one of the main architects of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), Malik made a particular priority of ensuring that the UDHR include a protection of religious freedom. Malik’s own background as a Lebanese Christian who grew up amidst the multiple faiths of his homeland, including Sunni and Shi’a Muslims, Druze, and Christians, gave him a particularly acute firsthand appreciation for the importance of religious toleration. Indispensable to this, Malik believed, was the right not only to believe and practice one’s faith, but also to change it. Any restrictions on the right to leave one’s religion and adopt another (or none at all for that matter) amounted to an unconscionable interposition of the State between the human person and the transcendent. Accordingly the final wording of Article 18 of the UDHR bears Malik’s distinct imprint: “Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion; this includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance.” As significant as the principle of religious liberty that Malik articulated was the foundation that he asserted. Human rights in general, and religious liberty in particular, he believed, were endowed in all human beings not by an abstract deity but by the “Lord of History” by which Malik meant the biblical God. He was clear that belief in this deity was not a prerequisite for having the right to religious liberty – thus his advocacy for the rights of all people – but in his mind this right had a transcendent grounding derived from the Christian faith.

Considered from the vantage point of history, the relationship between Christianity and religious freedom is not a mere set of abstraction ideational influences, but a demonstration of the role of individual Christians, attempting to be faithful to the implications of their faith in their own lives, yet with great consequence for the lives of others and for generations to come.

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Home — Essay Samples — Religion — Religious Pluralism — Role of Religion in Society: Exploring its Significance and Implications

Role of Religion in Society: Exploring Its Significance and Implications

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Published: Sep 5, 2023

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Table of contents

Introduction, the significance of religion in society, the implications of religion in society, the debate surrounding the role of religion in society, the historical context of religion in society, the impact of religion on culture and identity, the role of religion in promoting social cohesion, the impact of religion on politics and governance, the relationship between religion and morality, the role of religion in promoting social justice and equality, the debate between secularism and religious influence in society, the impact of cultural attitudes towards religion on the debate, the potential consequences of religion's role in society.

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Religion and Identity

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Religion can be a central part of one’s identity. The word religion comes from a Latin word that means “to tie or bind together.” Modern dictionaries define religion as “an organized system of beliefs and rituals centering on a supernatural being or beings.” To belong to a religion often means more than sharing its beliefs and participating in its rituals; it also means being part of a community and, sometimes, a culture.

The world’s religions are similar in many ways; scholar Stephen Prothero refers to these similarities as “family resemblances.” All religions include rituals, scriptures, and sacred days and gathering places. Each religion gives its followers instructions for how human beings should act toward one another. 1   In addition, three of the world’s religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—share a common origin: all three trace their beginnings to the biblical figure of Abraham.

There is incredible diversity within each religion in terms of how members define their connections to it. For some, a religion’s theological beliefs and rituals of worship are central to their lives. Others are more drawn to a religion’s community and culture than to its beliefs and rituals. Many even feel part of a religion’s culture but choose not to participate in its rituals at all. Some people feel free to choose a religion for themselves, or to reject religion entirely as a part of their identity. Others feel that they have been born and raised in a particular religion and are unwilling or unable to change it. Some governments grant privileges to one religion and not to others, while other governments protect citizens’ freedom to follow any religion without privilege or penalty.

• 1 Stephen Prothero, God Is Not One: The Eight Rival Religions That Run the World—and Why Their Differences Matter (New York: HarperOne, 2010), 12–13.

Different people have different experiences with their religion. In the following reflections, teenagers share parts of their religious experiences. While each belongs to a particular religion, each one’s experience does not fully represent that religion as a whole.

Rebecca, then age 17, explains the influence that her religion, Judaism, has on her life:

In the Bible, in the Torah, there are 613 commandments. They involve everything from how you treat other people, to Jewish holidays and how we observe them, and the Sabbath, which is every week, and how we observe that. It’s like a guide how to live. There are also a lot of dietary laws. The dietary laws say we can only eat certain kinds of meat that are killed and prepared in a certain way. We can’t eat meat at nonkosher restaurants. My parents like to remind me of this funny story. One time when I was two, we were driving past a Burger King. I saw the sign, and I yelled out, “That sign says Burger King. No burgers for Jewish people.” I picked up on those observances. It was always something that was part of me. I recognized that it was important. We set the Sabbath aside as a day of rest because God rested on the seventh day after creating the world. Because of this, there are lots of rules for things you can and can’t do . . . It’s supposed to be a day of rest—you’re not supposed to do any type of work, or watch television, use the computer, use electricity, any of that stuff . . . For me it’s very spiritual. It really separates the day out from the rest of the week. I spend a lot of time with my family—from Friday night at sundown until Saturday night. I go to prayers at my synagogue in the morning and sometimes in the afternoon. It’s just a really spiritual experience. It makes it more of an important day . . . I haven’t gone to see a movie on a Saturday or Friday night ever. It’s weird being in a public high school because you’re faced with being in a school where there’s lots of activities on Friday nights and things to miss out on. Like all the school plays are on Friday nights. I have to give up trying out for school plays. And sports—I used to play softball. But there are games every Saturday, so I couldn’t play those. A lot of people look at it like, “How can you give up all of this stuff because of your religion?” It’s just a matter of how you look at it. You can look at it as being a burden—that you have these religious obligations, so you’re not able to do your school activities. But I look at it as a more positive experience. It’s something that I choose to do. 2

• 2 How Can You Give Up All of This Stuff Because of Your Religion?,” in Pearl Gaskins, I Believe In . . . : Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Young People Speak About Their Faith (Chicago: Cricket Books, 2004), 58–59. Reproduced by permission from Carus Publishing Company.

A woman lights a candle with her daughter during the start of the Passover seder.

Often, the way individuals relate to and practice a religion changes over the course of their lives. Maham, age 19, explains how her Muslim faith and practice has changed as she has grown older:

When I was fifteen, I was really super-religious actually. Then I fell into this not-so-religious stage—that was between the end of junior year of high school and freshman year of college. I started praying less and hanging out with my friends more. I believe that spirituality is a roller coaster and that you’re going to have your ups and downs, because when you’re up, there’s nowhere to go but down. That’s how life is. I went down, and now I think I’m heading right back up. I still am not back praying five times a day because of my schedule (I try to pray as much as I can), but I believe that true spirituality transcends ritual worship, so I try to live my life with the philosophy that Islam teaches—of compassion, peace, submission, tolerance, and things like that. I try every day to fight the jihad of personal struggle to become a better person. That’s what Islam is to me now, more than just praying five times a day. When you’re fourteen, that’s enough. But as you mature, life becomes complicated and harder to categorize as just good and bad. The rules are not laid out in black and white anymore—you find a lot of gray area since you gain more independence as you get older. After all, you start to make your own decisions—some good, some bad—but life has to teach you its lessons somehow. I do believe in rituals. Like Ramadan is coming up next week. Do I plan on fasting all thirty days? Yes, I do. Those things help me become a better Muslim. There are a lot of things that are taught in Islam, like wearing the headscarf and praying. Just as people eat food four or five times a day to nourish their bodies, prayers nourish the soul four or five times a day. It’s a way for me to meditate. It’s a way for me to tune myself out from the things around me that are bad influences. It’s a way to remind myself of who I am so I have less chances of doing something I’ll regret. 3

Sara, age 18, feels differently about the rituals and worship practices of her religion than Rebecca and Maham do:

I feel really connected with my Jewish community, but a little less connected to the observance factor of my religion. I don’t keep kosher. I don’t really feel that that’s necessary. When I was little, my whole family would sit down every Friday night and light the Shabbat candles and say the blessings. We don’t do that anymore. Now it’s like, “It’s Friday night. I’m going to go out with my friends.” I don’t like organized prayer. Every once in a while I go to services, but I appreciate it a lot more when I do my own thing and say my own prayers . . . When I was younger, I never really thought I was different ’cause I was Jewish. It didn’t occur to me until high school when I started getting really involved with stuff. It’s kind of weird when I really think about it. It’s like I’m just like everyone else, except there’s that little part of me that’s going to be Jewish forever, and that makes me different. 4

Hesed, age 14, a member of the United Methodist Church, explains how he knows the Christian religion in which he was raised is right for him:

After confirmation [as an adolescent] I was getting stronger in the faith, but I still thought about it and said, “Well, what about other religions? Are they fake? And if they are, why are there millions of Muslims around the world who pray to Allah five times a day? And why are there Buddhists who make Buddhism their faith? Why do I think this one faith is real?” And basically, to me, I just get a feeling. It’s really hard to explain. Christianity just feels right to me. I go to church, and I see the cross, and we’re at prayer—it feels right. And I can honestly say that I feel the presence of God in that place. And for me, Christianity is the religion where I feel that. To me that’s basically what faith is—to just believe in what you think is right. And this is right for me. Now I’m really secure in what I believe. And I don’t know if it’s wrong to say it—since I’m a Christian and we’re supposed to go out and save the world and convert people to Christianity—but I truly do believe that there are a lot of people who feel that their religion, whether it be Islam, or Buddhism, or Hinduism, is right for them. And I don’t see anything wrong with that. I’m not saying those are the right faiths, but you just get a feeling when something is right for you. 5

Connection Questions

• How do the young people in this reading experience religious belief and belonging? What can we learn from the similarities and differences in their stories?
• Based on your experiences and observations, what are some other kinds of experiences with religion that are not represented in these four short reflections?
• How would you describe the role, if any, that religion plays in your identity?
• 3 “I Try Every Day to Fight the Jihad of Personal Struggle,” in Gaskins, I Believe In . . . , 68–89. Reproduced by permission from Carus Publishing Company.
• 4 “I Wear Two Stars of David,” in Gaskins, I Believe In . . . , 33. Reproduced by permission from Carus Publishing Company.
• 5 "Shaky Waters,” in Gaskins, I Believe In . . . , 103. Reproduced by permission from Carus Publishing Company.

How to Cite This Reading

Facing History & Ourselves, “ Religion and Identity ”, last updated August 2, 2016.

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Religion in Society: Sociology of Religion – Reflection Paper Essay

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Many a times, people raise the question on the origin of religion; in addition, this question has fascinated philosophers as well as scientists throughout the centuries (Johnstone 21). Different religions have different practices of what they believe in and so the question remains; what is the origin of these practices.

Where did the notion that God exists come from? Due to these questions, many different answers have been given as a way of satisfying people’s curiosity. From my definition, religion is anything that a person relies on, which has pivotal value, whereby the person discovers indispensable wholeness as both an individual and person in the society. Nevertheless, religion can have numerous definitions particularly based on a person’s experience.

The emergence of Christianity gives the simplest answer as to where religion came from since it gives the answer that God came up with the idea of religion. Religious teachings, especially Christianity, record that God created the world in six days and rested on the seventh. He created a man, animals, and everything else in the world and while in the Garden of Eden, he instilled rules that he wanted people in the garden to follow.

He also revealed his intentions by using prophets to get his message across to the people, and through this process, they recorded his words. In this process, there emerged the creation of religion via revelation. Christianity is not the only religion where there is divine origin; for instance, the founder of Buddhism, Gautama Buddha, stated that he received heavenly inspiration in his search for the truth as he sat under the tree known as bo (Johnstone 23).

Therefore, he got his religious practices through revelation. In the Islamic religion, Muhammad reports to obtain visions in a cave close to Mecca from the angel Gabriel. Looking at all the aforementioned reports, it is easy to see a dominant belief that a certain divine power interceded leading to what we know today as religion.

The followers of religious leaders who recorded the supernatural revelations believed it to be true and so there was the emergence of a religious system (Johnstone 23). Therefore, in my opinion, these religious leaders played a key role in developing religious practices that people follow in the world we live in and this trend will continue for many centuries to come.

Religion at times comes out as science particularly in an environment where thought and language give people control. There is the use of tools, shelters built, seeds planted, and clothes made to keep the body warm. However, in the past, people could not explain what caused the rain to fall, what caused the sun to rise and even where human beings came from. Different communities had varied explanations for all these and many other questions; nevertheless, the principles continued to be the same.

According to Taylor, one god was responsible for pulling the sun with his chariot across the sky, while another made the wind to blow and many other explanations (94). Therefore, it is clear that people believed that gods had something to do with creating the universe as well as humanity. For quite a number of years, the analyses made concerning the world made a lot of sense as they could underscore the existing facts.

Religion had an explanation for the world and so for the ancestors, science was a religion. At times crops failed, people died, and there was answering of prayers and people could see all these occurrences as gods’ doing. On the other hand, after the passing of many years, philosophers started to understand that gods did not have anything to do with the events that happened, the world simply obeyed the already rules of nature (Royce 36).

Apart from social scientists who have tried to explain where religion came from, anthropologists and especially those in the 19 th Century, came up with their own version of unraveling the mystery of the origin of religion.

In their belief, they have the notion that religion in a way came as a response to the various experience that people underwent in the world they lived (Johnstone 24). People went through mysterious, awesome, and horrifying events such as lighting, thunder, tidal waves, illness, death and many others and so they saw the need to know what caused those happenings, hence religious systems slowly came up.

From my perspective, I can see how this aspect led to the emergence of religion for people could not go through such traumatic events and not want to know the causes of the same. This realization explains the thinking of anthropologists such as Max Muller who represented the naturalistic school that put emphasis on the significance of nature’s physical acts like sunrises, storms, and tides. Anthropologist from the past believed that trees, rocks, people, and animals possessed spirits (Johnstone 25).

There exist psychological explanations with regard to identifying where religion came from. The explanation focuses on people’s emotional needs. It states that people are more likely to look for maintenance of emotional stability particularly when faced with danger, disruption, and insecurity (Johnstone 27).

They try to come up with answers as to why such bad things are happening to them and how they can fight against them in order to overcome, and at this point religion comes in because the rational mind cannot unravel the mysteries surrounding such issues.

Therefore, human beings look for divine intervention and look up to God to answer their prayers and show them the way to follow so that they can come out of the predicament they are in and look forward to a brighter future. In the Christian religion, the records hold that God loves everyone and whoever shall seek him will find him and this assurance underscores why God sent his only son so that he could die for the sake of mankind’s sins and relieve them of eternal punishment (Royce 63).

This aspect explains why many people who are having challenges think that they have done something wrong, hence the reason why God is punishing them. According to Sigmund Freud who is regarded as the “father of psychoanalysis”, religion comes entirely from the guilt that people feel after having done something wrong (Johnstone 28). Consequently, in his perspective, religion by definition is a mechanism that gives people room to sublimate most of the primitive instincts that they have, but society usually represses.

Looking at the sociological views that explain where religion came from, we go over the various explanations by diverse sociologists like Durkheim, Georg Simmel, Emile Durkheim, and Guy Swanson. According to Georg Simmel, faith has to exist in religion just as it is imperative in other human relationships.

Religious faith to a supreme being is crucial in our everyday today life (Johnstone 30). I agree with this assertion because, if people do not have faith in a supreme being, they are bound to lose hope in life especially when faced with seemingly insurmountable calamities. Having religious faith helps people to be in a position to believe even when one cannot see the Supreme Being and have trust that everything will work out favorably.

Despite the fact that the origins of religion for sure are not clear, speculation as well as research has however been successful. From chapter 2, it is clear that even though there are different suggestions as to where religion came from, it is clear that religion started a long time ago and it was build as a way of helping people to stay on the right path coupled with understanding some of the mysterious events that happen.

In my view, the psychological explanations stand out as I also believe and uphold the practices highlighted here. In most cases, people are going through challenging occurrences that they look for divine intervention to help them to sort out their issues. People have the belief that God helps people who help themselves, but I believe there are areas where people are unable to help themselves and so God has to intervene, and this area highlights the need for prayers, as they underscore the popular way of requesting assistance from God.

In addition to the aforementioned information, religion is also a way to enforce morality. People’s thinking capacity developed and so did their ego. Property and ego result to conflict and this explains why people kill each other in order to defend what is theirs. Uncontrolled egos on the other hand make people vulnerable and both of these aspects give way to moral decay. Therefore, religion came in as a way of underpinning morality.

Consequently, communities came up with moral codes, which are rules regarding life, sexual activities, as well as property. This aspect greatly helps people to put their behaviors in check. Different communities had different rules; however, there were some that remained the same; for example, do not steal, do not kill or do not commit adultery. Nevertheless, people are weak; therefore, the probability of breaking their own moral code is very high and so a strong community has to be present to ensure morality is enforced.

The strongest moral code however emanates from a supreme being because he lives forever and sees everything and has power over life and death; therefore, he commands the greatest respect. Identifying religion with morality has been happening for thousands of years such that many people believe there is no difference between the two. Religion in my opinion also came as a way of making communities to be united.

This move was extremely necessary particularly in a primitive world. Nevertheless, there was a time that religion turned to be very violent especially after the Islamic expansion almost 1400 years ago. There was no unification of communities especially in the 21 st century and every religion blamed other religions for the violence (Royce 118).

Overall, religion from my perspective was a good thing to emerge as it definitely acted as guidance for all human beings across the world. Otherwise, without religion, people would be acting in any manner that pleases themselves oblivious or ignorant of the consequences. Being able to answer to a supreme being makes people to become humble and aware that there are grave repercussions to any evil deed they engage in (Taylor 123).

From the chapter, it is clear that religion serves the purpose of giving people answers to concerns and questions over destiny, purpose, and mystery coupled with offering support and comfort in times of bereavement, danger, and death among other eventualities. Religion is also important, as it is real unlike in magic where there is a creation of illusions and people get false hope.

Religion offers a safe haven for people who are in need of help and particularly divine intervention. From reading chapter 2, it is evident where religion came from irrespective of whether it is a theory or from scientific evidence.

All the information given allows us to realize that religion has come a long way to reach where it is today. It also makes us to realize the vital role played by religious leaders from the past who made it possible for people to believe in a supreme being and thus uphold to the rules and practices of religion that help in instilling morality amongst people.

Works Cited

Johnstone, Ronald. Religion in Society, A Sociology of Religion. 8th ed. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 2007. Print.

Taylor, Justin. Where did Christianity come from? Minnesota: Liturgical Press, 2001. Print.

Royce, Josiah. Sources of religious insight 1912 . New York: Kessinger Publishing, 2003. Print.

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RE & The RE Teacher

Spirituality of the person, the child, and the teacher, compassion and mindfulness, morality and ethics, the context of re in ireland & further afield, world religions, re programmes, pedagogies and methodologies, teaching re on school placement, reference list.

• Lockett, Jordan S.; Jones, Rose B. (2009). Why Tell Stories? Kappa Delta Pi Record, v45 n4 p176-178.
• Brenda Watson and Penny Thompson. (2007). The Effective Teaching of Religious Education.
• King, U. (2011). Can Spirituality Transform Our World? Journal for the Study of Spirituality.1(1), (17-34)
• Lesley Roth & Trudelle Thomas (2013) Spirit books: promoting conversation with picture books, International Journal of Children's Spirituality, 18:4, 351-368
• Küng, H. Judaism: The Religious Situation of Our Time, London: SCM, 1992, p. xxii
• Lecture Notes 2018/2019

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Religious/Spiritual Experiences Reflection Paper

Engaging in various religious and spiritual activities is crucial to extend our horizons, improve our comprehension of other worldviews, and promoting interreligious dialogue. During this course, I have engaged in two experiences that have introduced me to different religious and spiritual traditions and practices. I wanted to learn more, challenge my assumptions, and better understand the variety of human spirituality by immersing myself in new environments. With a focus on the knowledge obtained, the lessons discovered, and the ramifications for my personal and professional development, this reflection paper will critically examine my experiences. Both encounters confirmed the value of inner peace-seeking, compassion, and mindfulness in all major religions and spiritual traditions. These routines provide people with a sense of comfort, purpose, and direction. They also taught me the value of valuing and embracing diversity since every culture has a unique perspective on living, worshipping, and being human.

It is crucial to approach therapeutic therapy with care, respect, and cultural competence when working with a client from a different religious or spiritual background than ours (Hagedorn & Gutierrez, 2009). To truly understand the client as a person, it is necessary to recognize their religious and spiritual convictions and grasp the beliefs of individuals or groups regarding religion. Learning all you can about their specific religious standards would be best. You can connect better with your clients by showing cultural awareness, allowing them to explore their experiences in a comfortable environment openly. A productive strategy would be to converse sincerely with the client regarding their specific spiritual needs and objectives for incorporating them into therapy. Utilize a collaborative strategy and involve the client in decision-making to let them direct the examination of their spiritual or religious activities in the context of therapy.

The Kelly et al. (2021) essay examines the spiritual and religious needs and beliefs of cancer patients who have had surgery. The study aims to shed light on cancer survivors’ experiences and how healthcare providers can best meet their particular needs. Interviews with cancer patients who had undergone cancer-specific surgery were conducted for the study. The results clarified how crucial religious and spiritual beliefs are for overcoming cancer’s problems. Numerous participants said their faith gave them a feeling of solace, optimism, and purpose during their cancer journey.

“Exploring the Motivations of Students to Engage in their spiritual, religious, or faith lives in College” by Betts et al. (2022) examines their religious and spiritual practices. The study seeks to understand college students’ religious and spiritual participation. Through surveys and interviews, the research examines student motivations, including belonging, personal growth, moral guidance, and a higher power link. The findings illuminate students’ motivations and how religious and spiritual practices affect them. The study sheds light on college students’ spirituality and religion. It reveals how faith and belief systems impact their college experience by revealing the variables that motivate their religious or spiritual activity. This knowledge can help educators, counsellors, and religious leaders create supportive college student religious and spiritual environments.

“Integration versus segregation: Applications of the spiritual competencies in counselor education programs” by Hagedorn and Gutierrez (2009) examines spiritual competencies in counsellor education programs. The study emphasizes religious and spiritual education for counsellors’ cultural competence. According to the study, counsellors must comprehend varied religious and spiritual traditions and their effects on clients. The spiritual competencies framework helps counsellors address clients’ religious and spiritual issues. Spiritual competencies in counsellor education programs help professionals comprehend and treat clients’ religious and spiritual activities. This method creates a more inclusive and culturally sensitive counselling atmosphere, helping counsellors negotiate religious and spiritual talks and supporting clients in investigating and integrating their beliefs into therapy.

Betts, M., Grabsch, D. K., Davis, V. D., Bell, L. M., & Sheedy, F. A. (2022). Exploring the motivations of students to engage in their spiritual, religious, or faith lives in college.  Journal of Beliefs & Values , 1-14.

Hagedorn, W. B., & Gutierrez, D. (2009). Integration versus segregation: Applications of the spiritual competencies in counselor education programs.  Counselling and Values ,  54 (1), 32-47.

Kelly, E. P., Paredes, A. Z., DiFilippo, S., Hyer, M., Tsilimigras, D. I., Rice, D., … & Pawlik, T. M. (2021). The religious/spiritual beliefs and needs of cancer survivors who underwent cancer-directed surgery.  Palliative & Supportive Care ,  19 (2), 175-181.

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Reflections

You are here, theologies of hope.

This article is a shortened adaptation of a two-part “For the Life of the World” podcast on the theme of hope that YDS Professor Miroslav Volf posted in summer 2020, produced by the Yale Center for Faith & Culture. You can listen here to podcast Part 1 and Part 2 .

Fear, more than hope, is characteristic of our time. In the late 1960s, we were optimistic about the century’s hopes for the triumph of justice and something like universal peace, but that has given way to increasing pessimism. “No future” scenarios have become plausible to us. As I write in summer 2020, the coronavirus pandemic gives the dominant shape to our anxieties. But even before the pandemic, we feared more than we hoped. We feared and continue to fear falling behind as the gap widens between the ultra-rich and the rest who are condemned to run frantically just to stay in the same place yet often cannot prevent falling behind. We fear the collapse of the ecosystem straining under the burden of our ambitions, the revenge of nature for violence we perpetrate against it. We fear loss of cultural identities as the globe shrinks, and people, driven by war, ecological devastation, and deprivation, migrate to where they can survive and thrive.

Politically, the consequence is the rise of identity politics and nationalism, both driven largely by fear. Culturally, the consequences are dystopian movies and literature, and the popularity of pessimistic philosophies. In religious thought and imagination, too, apocalyptic moods are again in vogue. Hope seems impossible; fear feels overwhelming.

A Thing With Feathers

The Apostle Paul has penned some of the most famous lines about hope ever written: “For in hope we were saved. Now hope that is seen is not hope. For who hopes for what is seen? But if we hope for what we do not see, we wait for it with patience” (Romans 8:24-25). Hope is a strange thing – as Emily Dickinson declares in her famous poem , it’s a “thing with feathers” perched in our soul, ready to take us on its wings to some future good. In fact, hope is a thing that has already taken us to that good with the tune that it sings. In hope – or perhaps by hope – “we were saved,” writes Apostle Paul. In hope, a future good which isn’t yet, somehow already is. A future good we cannot see, which waits in darkness, still qualifies our entire existence. We might be suffering or experiencing “hardship … distress … persecution … famine … nakedness … peril … sword … we are being killed all day long” (Romans 8:18, 35-36), and yet we have been saved and we are saved.

Interpreting the phrase “in hope we are saved,” Martin Luther suggested in his Lectures on Romans that just as love transforms the lover into the beloved, so “hope changes the one who hopes into what is hoped for.” [1]   Thus, a key feature of hope is that it stretches a person into the unknown, the hidden, the darkness of unknown possibility. For Paul this can happen because God is with us – God who gives life to the dead and calls into existence things that do not exist.

Hope vs. Optimism vs. Expectation

When I hope, I expect something in the future. I cannot hope for my 18-year-old son to know how to ride a bike, because he knows that already. But I can hope for him to do well in college, for that’s where he is headed in the fall. Without expectation for the future, there can be no hope. But we don’t hope for everything we can expect in the future. We generally don’t hope for natural occurrences, such as a new day that dawns after a dark and restful night; I know , more or less, that the next day will come. But I may hope for cool breezes to freshen up a hot summer day. We reserve the term “hope” for the expectation of things that we cannot fully control or predict with a high degree of certainty. The way we generally use the word, “hope” can be roughly defined as the expectation of good things that don’t come to us as a matter of course . That’s the distinction between hope and expectation.

The God who creates out of nothing, the God who makes the dead alive, justifies hope that is otherwise unjustifiable.

In his justly famous book Theology of Hope (1964), Jürgen Moltmann, one of the greatest theologians of the second part of the 20th century, made another important distinction, that between hope and optimism. [2] The source of the distinction relates to the specific way some ancient biblical writers understand hope. Optimism, if it is justified, is based on extrapolations we make about the future based upon what we can reasonably discern to be tendencies in the present. Meteorologists observe weather patterns around the globe and release their forecasts for the next day: the day will be unseasonably warm, but in the early afternoon winds will pick up and bring some relief; now you have reason to be optimistic that the afternoon will be pleasant, perhaps you even look forward to sailing your little 12-foot sloop on three-foot swells. Or, to take another scenario, you and your spouse are healthy adults of childbearing age, you have had no trouble conceiving, and the obstetrician tells you that your pregnancy is going well; you have reason to be optimistic that you will give birth to a healthy child. The present contains the seeds of the future, and if it is well with these seeds, the future that will grow will be good as well. That’s reasonable optimism.

Hope, argued Moltmann, is different. Hope is not based on accurate extrapolation about the future from the character of the present; the hoped-for future is not born out of the present. The future good that is the object of hope is a new thing, novum , that comes in part from outside the situation. Correspondingly, hope is, in Emily Dickinson’s felicitous phrase, like a bird that flies in from outside and “perches in the soul.” Optimism in dire situations reveals an inability to understand what is going on or an unwillingness to accept it and is therefore an indication of foolishness or weakness. In contrast, hope during dire situations, hope notwithstanding the circumstances, is a sign of courage and strength.

What is the use of hope not based on evidence or reason, you may wonder? Think of the alternative. What happens when we identify hope with reasonable expectation? Facing the shocking collapse of what we had expected with good reasons, we will slump into hopelessness at the time when we need hope the most! Hope helps us identify signs of hope as signs of hope rather than just anomalies in an otherwise irreparable situation, as indicators of a new dawn rather than the last flickers of a dying light. Hope also helps us to press on with determination and courage. When every course of action by which we could reach the desired future seems destined to failure, when we cannot reasonably draw a line that would connect the terror of the present with future joy, hope remains indomitable and indestructible. When we hope, we always hope against reasonable expectations. That’s why Emily Dickinson’s bird of hope “never stops” singing – in the sore storm, in the chilliest land, on the strangest sea.

Hope Needs Endurance, Endurance Needs Hope

We are most in need of hope under an affliction and menace we cannot control, yet it is in those situations that it is most difficult for us to hold onto hope and not give ourselves over to darkness as our final state. That is where patience and endurance come in. In the same letter to the Romans, in the same passage that celebrates hope and its transformative darkness, Paul writes: “If we hope for what we do not see, we wait for it with patience” (Romans 8:25). “Patience” is here the translation of hypomone , which is better rendered as endurance, or perhaps “patient endurance.” 

Neither patience nor endurance are popular emotions or skills. Our lives are caught in a whirlwind of accelerated changes; we have little endurance for endurance, no patience with patience. Technological advances promise to give us lives of ease; having to endure anything strikes us as a defeat. And yet, when a crisis hits, we need endurance as much as we need hope. Or, more precisely, we need genuine hope, which, to the extent that it is genuine, is marked by endurance.

When the great Apostle says in Romans 8:25 that if we hope, we wait with endurance, he implies that hope generates endurance: because we hope we can endure present suffering. That was his point in the opening statement of the section on suffering in Romans 8:18: “I consider that the sufferings of this present time are not worth comparing with the glory about to be revealed to us.” The hope of future glory makes present suffering bearable. But, in Romans 5:3-5, he inverts the relation between hope and endurance. There he writes, “suffering produces endurance, and endurance produces character, and character produces hope.” Now endurance helps generate hope. Putting the two texts together, Romans 8 and Romans 5, we can say: hope needs endurance and endurance needs hope; genuine endurance is marked by hope; and genuine hope is marked by endurance.

The God of Promises

More than half a century after his Theology of Hope , Jürgen Moltmann has written an essay, On Patience (2018), about two aspects of patience we find in the biblical traditions: forbearance and endurance. Writing as a 92-year-old, he begins the second paragraph of this essay on patience autobiographically:

In my youth, I learned to know “the God of hope” and loved the beginnings of a new life with new ideas. But in my old age I am learning to know “the God of patience” and stay in my place in life . [3]

Youth and old age, Moltmann goes on to say, are not about chronology, but about experiences in life and stances toward life. Hope and patience belong both to youth and to old age; they complement each other. He continues:

Without endurance, hope turns superficial and evaporates when it meets first resistances. In hope we start something new, but only endurance helps us persevere. Only tenacious endurance makes hope sustainable. We learn endurance only with the help of hope. On the other hand, when hope gets lost, endurance turns into passivity. Hope turns endurance into active passivity. In hope we affirm the pain that comes with endurance, and learn to tolerate it. [4]

Hope and endurance – neither can be truly itself without the other. And for the Apostle Paul, both our hope and our ability to endure – our enduring hope – are rooted in the character of God. Toward the end of Romans, he highlights both “the God of endurance” (or steadfastness) and “the God of hope” (Romans 15:5, 13). Those who believe in that God – the God who is the hope of Israel, the God who is the hope of Gentiles and the hope of the whole earth – are able to be steadfast and endure fear-inducing situations they cannot change and in which no good future seems to be in sight. But more than just endure. Paul, the persecuted apostle who experienced himself as “always carrying in the body the death of Jesus,” was hoping for more than just endurance from the God of hope. Toward the very end of his letter to the Christians in Rome – in the second of what looks like four endings of the letter – he writes: “May the God of hope fill you with all joy and peace in believing, so that you may abound in hope by the power of the Holy Spirit” (Romans 15:13). In the midst of affliction, the God of hope opens us up for the possibility of joy and comprehensive well-being.

Our salvation lies in hope, but not in hope that insists on the future good it has imagined, but in hope ready to rejoice in the kind of good that actually comes our way. The God who creates out of nothing, the God who makes dead alive – the God of the original beginning of all things and the God of new beginnings – justifies hope that is otherwise unjustifiable. When that God makes a promise, we can hope.

Miroslav Volf is Henry B. Wright Professor of Theology at YDS and founding director of the Yale Center for Faith & Culture. He is the author of A Public Faith: How Followers of Christ Should Serve the Common Good (Brazos, 2011) and other books.

[1] Martin Luther, Lectures on Romans , edited by Hilton C. Oswald, volume 25 of Luther’s Works , edited by Jaroslav Pelikan and Helmut Lehmann (Concordia Publishing House, 1972), p. 364.

[2] Jürgen Moltmann, Theology of Hope: On the Ground and the Implications of a Christian Eschatology , translated by Margaret Kohl (HarperSanFrancisco, 1991).

[3] Jürgen Moltmann, Über Geduld, Barmherzigkeit und Solidarität (Gütersloher Verlagshaus, 2018), p. 13, my translation.

[4] Moltmann, pp. 13-14.

Michael Milton

Michael Milton and Faith for Living, Inc.

May 25, 2023

A Brief Guide for Writing Theological Reflection Papers

The Ground of Scripture in Theological Reflection

Scripture is replete with a self-understanding of its divine nature. Thus, while it is possible to identify several anchor passages to demonstrate the primacy of scripture in theological reflection, it is simultaneously redundant. For scripture writes of itself as divinely given from God to Man through the Holy Spirit moving through the ordinary lives of men. Consider:

• Psalm 119:105: “Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.” This verse highlights the transformative power of God’s Word in guiding and illuminating our understanding of the human condition and our existence in the world. Through faithful and prayerful engagement with the Bible, we gain insight into life’s challenges and find direction for our lives.
• 2 Timothy 3:16-17: “All Scripture is breathed out by God and profitable for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness, that the man of God may be complete, equipped for every good work.” This passage emphasizes the comprehensive nature of Scripture and its role in shaping our understanding of the human condition. It teaches, reproves, corrects, and trains us, enabling us to navigate the complexities of life and fulfill God’s purposes.
• Romans 15:4: “For whatever was written in former days was written for our instruction, that through endurance and through the encouragement of the Scriptures we might have hope.” This verse emphasizes the instructive nature of the Scriptures and their capacity to provide hope and encouragement. By engaging in theological reflection rooted in the Bible, we gain wisdom and insight that enable us to navigate the challenges of the human condition and find hope in God’s promises.

One of the most striking theological statements among the English-speaking peoples is the Westminster Confession of Faith with its Larger and Shorter Catechisms (teaching guides of the summary of biblical doctrine). John Murray declared that the genius of The Confession and Catechism is its brevity and its succinctness. The product of the meetings from 1643 to 1649 states no more than Scripture affirms. The meetings of the Westminster Divines took place between the years 1643 and 1649 to formulate the Westminster Confession of Faith along with the Larger and Shorter Catechisms. These meetings were convened by the English Parliament and were held at Westminster Abbey in London. The purpose of these gatherings was to produce a comprehensive statement of Reformed Christian doctrine, which would serve as the doctrinal standard for the Church of England and the Church of Scotland. The resulting documents, including the Westminster Confession of Faith, were completed and approved by the Westminster Assembly in 1647 and ratified by the English Parliament in 1648. The Westminster Confession of Faith affirms the divine authority and inspiration of Scripture in several places.

Chapter 1, Article 4 of the Westminster Confession of Faith states: “The authority of the Holy Scripture, for which it ought to be believed and obeyed, dependeth not upon the testimony of any man or Church, but wholly upon God (who is truth itself), the author thereof; and therefore it is to be received because it is the Word of God.”

This article emphasizes that the authority of Scripture is derived from God Himself, who is the ultimate source of truth. It implies that Scripture’s divine nature is self-attesting and does not rely on external human testimony.

Additionally, the WCF, in Chapter 1, Article 5, summarizes the internal evidence for the supernatural nature of Scripture and how the Author of Scripture “recognizes” His undeniable activity in both the Sacred Text and the human soul. The statement is a remarkably concise and precise assertion of the relationship of the Bible to the one who reads it:

We may be moved and induced by the testimony of the Church to an high and reverent esteem of the holy Scripture; and the heavenliness of the matter, the efficacy of the doctrine, the majesty of the style, the consent of all the parts, the scope of the whole (which is to give all glory to God), the full discovery it makes of the only way of man’s salvation, the many other incomparable excellencies, and the entire perfection thereof, are arguments whereby it doth abundantly evidence itself to be the Word of God; yet, notwithstanding, our full persuasion and assurance of the infallible truth and divine authority thereof, is from the inward work of the Holy Spirit, bearing witness by and with the Word in our hearts.

Thus, a distinctly Christian and believing theological reflection affirms the indivisible and immovable nature of the Bible as essential in inaugurating the sequenced of critical thinking that leads to insight applied.

Evaluating Theological Reflection

If one conceives of theological reflection as a sort of vacant mindfulness without intellectual boundaries or cogent classifications, then it follows that any and all attempts to assess this pastoral exercise will be futile. However, our definition of theological reflection includes standards that allow the exercise to be observed, assessed, and, when necessary, amended for the sake of the stated goals (the glory of God and the good of others, i.e., divine worship and human flourishing).

I have prepared a guide to writing and evaluating (a grading “rubric” in the parlance of contemporary pedagogical methodologies) theological reflection papers. For our purposes, theological reflection is a pastoral practice of identifying and responding to a presenting issue in the human condition through faithful engagement with divine revelation in the Word of God. I had one class in my seminary experience that was completely focused on writing theological reflection papers. I found it to be one of the most helpful classes in my education as it related to the everyday work of the pastorate. My appreciation for and desire to teach theological reflection was formed in my ministerial training, residencies, and internships, lifelong learning, the pastoral practice of applying prayerful Bible study to the presenting issues of the human condition, and an adult lifetime of teaching ministerial candidates in theological higher education. No single one of those experiences qualifies one as an expert. Furthermore, this presentation is not intended, nor could be, the last word on the subject of writing theological reflection papers for seminary. However, I trust our submission to the wider theological education community can be of some help to those first-year students entering theological college or seminary this year. If the simple product finds use by colleagues in teaching or ministry, then all the better.

This is a general guide that I use in grading theological reflection papers (“rubric”).

Theological Reflection Attained

A reflection paper, here, assumes an appreciable knowledge of or scholarly interest in a larger category of learning and, thus, an aptitude to interact with others in the field. In Theology and Religious Studies, the student conducts such reflection and composes a theological reflection paper. This kind of research paper is comprised (regardless of other criteria) of the following six measurable components:

  Summary

The work of theological reflection is an act of critical thinking grounded in the inerrant and infallible Word of the living God. Such a process is practiced by all believers at any age. Nevertheless, theological reflection is an invaluable resource and a pastoral activity to be practiced and honed. Beginning with the observation of a presenting issue, the theologian follows a sequence that seeks to move from observation to synthesis and application. The sequence involves at least the following (See Figure 1):

I. Classification

• Identifying
• Integrating

II. Synthesis

Example (abbreviated):

I read Augustine’s Confessions (presenting issue). I found that this classic text raises the perennial concerns of the human condition through self-disclosure, the need to be forgiven, redemption, and God’s love (theological issues). I began to think about how these concepts could apply in my ministry as a student intern at St. Paul’s Church (new insights). I found that as I put the book aside, I could articulate my own ‘confession.’ I began to sense the possibility of release from negative thoughts that had haunted me for some time. Perhaps, Augustine’s Confessions is as powerful today as it was in 398 AD. I began to see that there is a redemption here that transcends Augustine’s own life and touches our own (solutions).

We offer the following Theological Reflection Paper as a template for writing your own paper. This theological reflection paper is a spiritual biographical genre. For an example of theological reflection on journaling as a means of prayerful learning, see:

A Rubric for Theological Reflection

This rubric is designed to assess the key components of theological reflection at the graduate and postgraduate levels.

Criteria for Writing and Evaluating with Points Available

I. Classification 40

• Clearly identifies the presenting issue or topic.
• Demonstrates a thorough understanding of the context and scope of the issue.
• Provides appropriate and accurate terminology related to the issue.
• Demonstrates familiarity with relevant theological concepts and terminology.
• Integrates biblical and theological sources to contextualize the issue.
• Engages with diverse perspectives and sources to provide a comprehensive understanding of the issue.

II. Synthesis 60

• Applies theological principles and insights to the presenting issue.
• Demonstrates critical thinking and creativity in relating theological concepts to real-life situations.
• Analyzes the presenting issue from multiple angles and perspectives.
• Engages in a rigorous examination of the issue using theological, ethical, and philosophical frameworks.
• Demonstrates a deep understanding of the theological concepts relevant to the issue.
• Integrates theological knowledge with practical wisdom and ethical considerations.

Total Points: 100

Table 1: Rubric for Guidance and Evaluation of Theological Reflection in Graduate and Postgraduate Student Papers.

Note: This table provides an overview of the rubric for Theological Reflection.

Ligonier Ministries. “The Westminster Confession of Faith.” Accessed May 25, 2023. https://www.ligonier.org/learn/articles/westminster-confession-faith .

Davis, John Jefferson.  Practicing Ministry in the Presence of God: Theological Reflections on Ministry and the Christian Life. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2015.

George, Timothy.  God the Holy Trinity: Reflections on Christian Faith and Practice.  United States: Baker Publishing Group, 2006.

Murray, John. Collected Writings of John Murray: Volume 1, The Claims of Truth. Edinburgh: The Banner of Truth Trust, 1976.

Other Writing Resources for Theological Reflection

Booth, Wayne C., Gregory Colomb G., Joseph Williams M., and Kate Turabian L.  A Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations: Chicago Style for Students and Researchers .

“The Chicago Manual of Style Online.” The Chicago Manual of Style Online. Accessed February 04, 2017. http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html.

“Citation Builder.” UNC-Chapel Hill Libraries. Accessed February 04, 2017. http://library.unc.edu/citationbuilder/.

Frame, Dr. John. “How to Write a Theological Paper.” How to Write a Theological Paper (John M. Frame). Accessed February 04, 2017. http://www.proginosko.com/docs/frame_theol_paper.html.

“Handouts.” The Writing Center at UNC-Chapel Hill. Accessed February 04, 2017. http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/.

“Research Guides: Style Guide and Templates: Home.” Home – Style Guide and Templates – Research Guides at Southern Baptist Theological Seminary. Accessed February 04, 2017. http://sbts.libguides.com/style.

Smith, Jonathan, and William Scott. Green.  The HarperCollins Dictionary of Religion: Harper Collins Dictionary of Religion . London: HarperSanFrancisco, 1996.

Vyhmeister, Nancy J.  Quality Research Papers: For Students of Religion and Theology . Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2008.

“Westminster Theological Seminary – Becoming a Better Writer.” Westminster Theological Seminary – Becoming a Better Writer. Accessed February 04, 2017. http://www.wts.edu/resources/westminster_center_for_theolog/become_writerhtml.html.

August 14, 2014 at 3:11 pm

This is great Dr. Milton! Thanks so much for sharing it.

August 16, 2014 at 9:11 am

Thank you Dr. Lamerson! The Lord bless you and our friends at Knox Seminary.

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The Connection Between Religion And Culture

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