short essay on food insecurity

What Causes Food Insecurity and What are Solutions to It?

What is food insecurity.

Imagine the entire state of California not knowing where their next meal will come from. For 38.3 million Americans—just shy of California’s 39.5 million population—this uncertainty is a reality of daily life.

The effects of poverty are greatly varied, but many of them like homelessness, a lack of healthcare, and low wages, all are frequently a focus of public conversation. But several go largely undetected. One of these issues is food insecurity.

According to the USDA , food security “means access by all people at all times to enough food for a healthy life.” However, over 10% of the U.S. population struggle with food insecurity. Of these 38.3 million, 11.7 million of them—more than New York City’s population—are children.

Such figures lead to difficult questions: why do so many families and individuals struggle with food insecurity, and who are they? What are the consequences for our society when so many people go hungry? And finally, what can we do to fix this massive issue? In this article, we’ll get to know food insecurity and what we can do about it.

Let’s start with the term itself:

Giving Food Insecurity a Definition

Going by the USDA's definition of food security as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life.” Food insecurity, therefore, can be understood as any time an individual or family doesn’t experience food security.

Many families and individuals experience food insecurity differently. The USDA gives four general ranges of both food security and food insecurity to understand these differences in experiences:

Food Security:

• High Food Security: The USDA defines high food security as individuals or households that don’t report any difficulties with accessing food or suffering from limitations. These households probably don’t worry about food, at least in any significant way.
• Marginal Food Security: According to the USDA, households with marginal food security have reported their occasional anxiety of having enough food, although they don’t indicate any noteworthy changes to their diet or consumption.

Food Insecurity:

• Low Food Security: Households or individuals with low food security report that they consume lower quality food, less variety of foods, and have a generally less desirable diet, although they don’t necessarily consume less food overall.
• Very Low Food Security: Households with very low food security report that their eating patterns and food intake has been reduced or otherwise interrupted. These are people and families who may take actions such as foregoing meals to stretch their food over a longer period of time.

Essentially, food insecurity occurs when a person or group of people can’t access or afford enough quality food. Food insecurity is not hunger, although hunger may be a symptom of food insecurity.

Who is Food Insecure?

We’ve already briefly touched on how children are impacted greatly by food insecurity—you could populate a city larger than New York with all of America’s food-insecure children—but who are the communities most impacted by food insecurity?

Well, the answer is not so simple. With more than one in ten people in the U.S. being food insecure, you will find food insecurity in every community. However, some communities are more impacted by food insecurity than others. Households composed of Black or Hispanic families or individuals are twice as likely to be food insecure than the national average. Communities of color that have been and are still systematically oppressed and impoverished are the most affected by food insecurity.

What Causes Food Insecurity?

The causes that impact food insecurity are wide in scope, and we won’t be able to cover them all here. They are both historical and present-day, deliberate and unintended, but regardless, they are all real and impact a massive portion of our population here in the U.S.

Geography and urban planning has some impact on food insecurity. A food desert is a popular term used to describe areas where the residents can’t access affordable, healthy foods. This means a majority of the population lives a mile or more from an affordable grocery store in urban areas, and 10 miles in rural areas. For areas that have no public transportation or unreliable transport, individuals who don’t own a car, and individuals who struggle with mobility, healthy, nutritious foods are simply out of reach, both physically and economically.

However, despite their impact, pinning the issue of food insecurity on food deserts conveniently ignores the systemic issues contributing to food insecurity. Most people, even low-income individuals, don’t automatically grocery shop at whichever store is closest to them. They may instead opt for a preferred grocery store or chain with lower prices, or instead choose to shop near their workplace, chaining multiple trips together. 

Thus, access, geographic location, and food deserts actually aren’t the main problems facing food-insecure households. The main cause of food insecurity is poverty . While mobility, transportation, and car-centricity are still issues that are deeply connected with poverty, geographic access, as stated by the USDA in a 2014 report , is not “associated with the percentage of households that [are] food insecure.”

The fact is that 38.3 million Americans simply can’t afford food, or enough quality food; living within a mile of a grocery store and having reliable transportation there and back still wouldn’t change that. Low wages and centuries of discrimination have led to a situation where many low-income households spend over a quarter of their income on food , whereas middle and high-income households spend more money, but still a smaller percentage of their income, on food.

The Impact of Food Insecurity

The impacts of food insecurity are wide-ranging. For one thing, considering that food-insecure households spend upwards of 27% of their income on food, it makes budgeting and prioritizing other expenses painfully difficult. When budgeting the cost of food in the face of other necessary expenses like housing, energy, and healthcare, it creates an impossible balancing act: to choose between staying in your apartment, eating, or taking necessary medications.

Medications, too, are related to food insecurity, as food insecurity has ranging health impacts for both children and adults. Food insecure adults may be at higher risk for chronic diseases such as diabetes , obesity , and depression . 

Now, food insecurity is not permanent. It can be brief while a member of the household is between jobs, or during times of other financial hardship, or it can last over an extended period of time, particularly in the case of individuals who can’t work due to disabilities. However, children who experience extended food insecurity are even more at risk, as its effects can compound throughout their life and development. 

Learning outcomes can also be adversely impacted by food insecurity. Inadequate nutrients from their diets can lead to a weakened immune system in children, which can lead to frequent absences. When food-insecure children are at school, they may be unable to focus, resulting in worse performance and retention. Essentially, when children experience food insecurity, it can set them up for challenges for the rest of their lives.

Solutions to Ending Food Insecurity

Systemic changes.

Continue Modernizing SNAP Benefits: The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, often known as SNAP , provides benefits to households and individuals struggling with food insecurity. However, while crucial to helping millions of families, SNAP benefits need to be modernized. They are still based on the USDA’s Thrifty Food Plan (TFP), which is no longer an accurate measure for food expenditures. The TFP doesn’t even meet all the U.S.’s federal nutrition standards .

SNAP benefits are also equal across the country, regardless of differences in cost of living—a feature that is very beneficial to some, while detrimental to others. Many households living in areas where they must devote a larger portion of their income to expenses like housing often have less money available for food, and SNAP benefits are insufficient in these instances. Additionally, SNAP benefits don’t account for the amount of time it takes to cook and prepare meals, a fact that does a great disservice to the many low-wage workers who need to work long, often odd hours to cover expenses such as rent—they’re already stretched for time.

Reduce Food Waste: According to the USDA , between 30 and 40% of the nation’s food supply goes to waste. Globally, the number is closer to about 30%, which would be enough to feed 2 billion people, effectively eliminating hunger. However, there’s a long way to go in reducing and eliminating food waste. 

Food is wasted at various stages of production. Regardless of how products are wasted, be it through spoilage during transportation, being discarded for aesthetic blemishes, or being binned after passing sell-by dates, an astronomical amount of food in the U.S. goes to waste. 

One solution is to improve transparency and clarity for food safety by instituting consistent labeling conventions. The discrepancies between best-by dates, use-by dates, and sell-by dates often cause confusion for customers and lead to food being discarded before it needs to be. According to the USDA , most foods are safe and wholesome until there’s evidence of spoilage, provided that they’re handled properly. 

Additionally, policies should be set in place that protect national grocery retailers from rare liabilities not covered under the Bill Emerson Good Samaritan Food Donation Act , so they can donate surplus and unsold goods to charities and local food banks, greatly reducing hunger within communities. 

Offer Free School Lunches For All: School lunch should be free for all students. It is essential for students' ability to remain focused throughout the day and improve learning outcomes. And while learning is one of the most important parts of school, providing free school lunches to all students would come with a host of benefits :

• Reduced stigma around needing school lunch
• Improved variety and quality of foods in students’ diets, particularly with fresh fruits and vegetables
• Improved health and lowered obesity rates
• Higher attendance rates from low-income, food insecure students

School is most beneficial when students are prepared, both mentally and physically, to learn. When students don’t have access to the necessary food and nutrients they need, especially when they’re growing, it reduces their chances of success.

As we’ve said, food insecurity impacts every community. It’s less common in some places, and more common in others, but every state and community is impacted nonetheless. Helping reduce food insecurity is a great way to effect change for the good of your community. There are a few simple ways to get involved and make an impact, regardless of your own comfort level. 

Volunteer: Volunteering with food banks, co-ops, and mutual aid networks is a great way to both fight food insecurity and strengthen bonds in your community. Volunteering benefits everyone involved: it gives you opportunities to make new friends and connections, learn new skills, and is fun (it really is!).

Contact Your Representatives: To create systemic change effectively, you need power. Your representatives, both nationally and locally, are elected to serve you and your community. Use your voice to contact them with your concerns about food insecurity. You can find your local representative here .

Donate: Donations are always welcome by many organizations fighting food insecurity. Whether in the form of money or food products, your donations can go a long way to helping people in need.

Take Action Against Food Insecurity Today

The U.S. is commonly referred to as the most abundant land on the planet. We produce more food than we can consume, and still over a tenth of our population, including millions of children, go hungry and struggle with food insecurity.

While there are countless factors that lead to food insecurity, none is more obvious and culpable than poverty itself. The benefits and support we provide our impoverished brothers and sisters are not enough, and we can afford to do so much more: after all, we currently end up throwing out over 30% of the food we produce. 

Addressing food insecurity is a massive challenge, but it can be done. Progress can be made systemically and on a community level; they’re often one and the same. 

Nation Data

Food Insecurity

Economic Stability

About This Literature Summary

This summary of the literature on Food Insecurity as a social determinant of health is a narrowly defined examination that is not intended to be exhaustive and may not address all dimensions of the issue. Please note: The terminology used in each summary is consistent with the respective references. For additional information on cross-cutting topics, please see the Access to Foods that Support Healthy Dietary Patterns literature summary.

Related Objectives (4)

Here's a snapshot of the objectives related to topics covered in this literature summary. Browse all objectives .

• Reduce household food insecurity and hunger  — NWS‑01
• Eliminate very low food security in children — NWS‑02
• Increase fruit consumption by people aged 2 years and over — NWS‑06
• Increase vegetable consumption by people aged 2 years and older — NWS‑07

Related Evidence-Based Resources (1)

Here's a snapshot of the evidence-based resources related to topics covered in this literature summary. Browse all evidence-based resources .

• The Role of Law and Policy in Achieving the Healthy People 2020 Nutrition and Weight Status Goals of Increased Fruit and Vegetable Intake in the United States

Literature Summary

Food insecurity is defined as a household-level economic and social condition of limited or uncertain access to adequate food. 1  In 2020, 13.8 million households were food insecure at some time during the year. 2 Food insecurity does not necessarily cause hunger, i but hunger is a possible outcome of food insecurity. 3

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) divides food insecurity into the following 2 categories: 1

• Low food security : “Reports of reduced quality, variety, or desirability of diet. Little or no indication of reduced food intake.”
• Very low food security : “Reports of multiple indications of disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake.”

Food insecurity may be long term or temporary. 4 , 5 , 6  It may be influenced by a number of factors, including income, employment, race/ethnicity, and disability. The risk for food insecurity increases when money to buy food is limited or not available. 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11  In 2020, 28.6 percent of low-income households were food insecure, compared to the national average of 10.5 percent. 2  Unemployment can also negatively affect a household’s food security status. 10  High unemployment rates among low-income populations make it more difficult to meet basic household food needs. 10  In addition, children with unemployed parents have higher rates of food insecurity than children with employed parents. 12  Disabled adults may be at a higher risk for food insecurity due to limited employment opportunities and health care-related expenses that reduce the income available to buy food. 13 , 14  Racial and ethnic disparities exist related to food insecurity. In 2020, Black non-Hispanic households were over 2 times more likely to be food insecure than the national average (21.7 percent versus 10.5 percent, respectively). Among Hispanic households, the prevalence of food insecurity was 17.2 percent compared to the national average of 10.5 percent. 2 Potential factors influencing these disparities may include neighborhood conditions, physical access to food, and lack of transportation.

Neighborhood conditions may affect physical access to food. 15  For example, people living in some urban areas, rural areas, and low-income neighborhoods may have limited access to full-service supermarkets or grocery stores. 16  Predominantly Black and Hispanic neighborhoods may have fewer full-service supermarkets than predominantly White and non-Hispanic neighborhoods. 17  Convenience stores may have higher food prices, lower-quality foods, and less variety of foods than supermarkets or grocery stores. 16 , 18  Access to healthy foods is also affected by lack of transportation and long distances between residences and supermarkets or grocery stores. 16

Residents are at risk for food insecurity in neighborhoods where transportation options are limited, the travel distance to stores is greater, and there are fewer supermarkets. 16  Lack of access to public transportation or a personal vehicle limits access to food. 16  Groups who may lack transportation to healthy food sources include those with chronic diseases or disabilities, residents of rural areas, and some racial/ethnicity groups. 15 , 16 , 19  A study in Detroit found that people living in low-income, predominantly Black neighborhoods travel an average of 1.1 miles farther to the closest supermarket than people living in low-income predominantly White neighborhoods. 20

Adults who are food insecure may be at an increased risk for a variety of negative health outcomes and health disparities. For example, a study found that food-insecure adults may be at an increased risk for obesity. 21  Another study found higher rates of chronic disease in low-income, food-insecure adults between the ages of 18 years and 65 years. 22  Food-insecure children may also be at an increased risk for a variety of negative health outcomes, including obesity. 23 , 24 , 25 They also face a higher risk of developmental problems compared with food-secure children. 12 , 25 , 26  In addition, reduced frequency, quality, variety, and quantity of consumed foods may have a negative effect on children’s mental health. 27

Food assistance programs, such as the National School Lunch Program (NSLP); the Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) program; and the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), address barriers to accessing healthy food. 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 Studies show these programs may reduce food insecurity. 29 , 30 , 31  More research is needed to understand food insecurity and its influence on health outcomes and disparities. Future studies should consider characteristics of communities and households that influence food insecurity. 32  This additional evidence will facilitate public health efforts to address food insecurity as a social determinant of health.

i  The term hunger refers to a potential consequence of food insecurity. Hunger is discomfort, illness, weakness, or pain caused by prolonged, involuntary lack of food.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. (n.d.). Definitions of food security . Retrieved March 10, 2022, from https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-u-s/definitions-of-food-security/

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. (n.d.). Key statistics & graphics. Retrieved March 10, 2022, from https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/food-nutrition-assistance/food-security-in-the-us/key-statistics-graphics.aspx

Carlson, S. J., Andrews, M. S., & Bickel, G. W. (1999). Measuring food insecurity and hunger in the United States: Development of a national benchmark measure and prevalence estimates. Journal of Nutrition, 129 (2S Suppl), 510S–516S. doi:  10.1093/jn/129.2.510S

Jones, A. D., Ngure, F. M., Pelto, G., & Young, S. L. (2013). What are we assessing when we measure food security? A compendium and review of current metrics. Advances in Nutrition, 4(5), 481–505.

Food and Agriculture Organization. (2008). An introduction to the basic concepts of food security . Food Security Information for Action Practical Guides. EC–FAO Food Security Programme.

Nord, M., Andrews, M., & Winicki, J. (2002). Frequency and duration of food insecurity and hunger in U.S. households. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 34 (4), 194–201.

Sharkey, J. R., Johnson, C. M., & Dean, W. R. (2011). Relationship of household food insecurity to health-related quality of life in a large sample of rural and urban women. Women & Health, 51 (5), 442–460.

Seefeldt, K. S., & Castelli, T. (2009). Low-income women’s experiences with food programs, food spending, and food-related hardships (no. 57) . USDA Economic Research Service. https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=84306

Nord, M., Andrews, M., & Carlson, S. (2007). Measuring food security in the United States: household food security in the United States, 2001. Economic Research Report (29).

Nord, M. (2007). Characteristics of low-income households with very low food security: An analysis of the USDA GPRA food security indicator. USDA-ERS Economic Information Bulletin (25).

Klesges, L. M., Pahor, M., Shorr, R. I., Wan, J. Y., Williamson, J. D., & Guralnik, J. M. (2001). Financial difficulty in acquiring food among elderly disabled women: Results from the Women’s Health and Aging Study. American Journal of Public Health, 91 (1), 68.

Nord, M. (2009). Food insecurity in households with children: Prevalence, severity, and household characteristics. USDA-ERS Economic Information Bulletin (56).

Coleman-Jensen, A., & Nord, M. (2013). Food insecurity among households with working-age adults with disabilities. USDA-ERS Economic Research Report (144).

Huang, J., Guo, B., & Kim, Y. (2010). Food insecurity and disability: Do economic resources matter? Social Science Research, 39 (1), 111–124.

Zenk, S. N., Schulz, A. J., Israel, B. A., James, S. A., Bao, S., & Wilson, M. L. (2005). Neighborhood racial composition, neighborhood poverty, and the spatial accessibility of supermarkets in metropolitan Detroit. American Journal of Public Health, 95 (4), 660–667.

Ploeg, M. V., Breneman, V., Farrigan, T., Hamrick, K., Hopkins, D., Kaufman, P., Lin, B.-H., Nord, M., Smith, T. A., Williams, R., Kinnison, K., Olander, C., Singh, A., & Tuckermanty, E. (n.d.). Access to affordable and nutritious food-measuring and understanding food deserts and their consequences: Report to congress. Retrieved March 10, 2022, from http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=42729

Powell, L. M., Slater, S., Mirtcheva, D., Bao, Y., & Chaloupka, F. J. (2007). Food store availability and neighborhood characteristics in the United States. Preventive Medicine, 44 (3), 189–195.

Crockett, E. G., Clancy, K. L., & Bowering, J. (1992). Comparing the cost of a thrifty food plan market basket in three areas of New York State. Journal of Nutrition Education, 24 (1), 71S–78S.

Seligman, H. K., Laraia, B. A., & Kushel, M. B. (2010). Food insecurity is associated with chronic disease among low-income NHANES participants. Journal of Nutrition, 140 (2), 304–310.

Zenk, S. N., Schulz, A. J., Israel, B. A., James, S. A., Bao, S., & Wilson, M. L. (2005). Neighborhood racial composition, neighborhood poverty, and the spatial accessibility of supermarkets in metropolitan Detroit. American Journal of Public Health , 95(4), 660–667.

Hernandez, D. C., Reesor, L. M., & Murillo, R. (2017). Food insecurity and adult overweight/obesity: Gender and race/ethnic disparities. Appetite, 117, 373–378.

Gregory, C. A., & Coleman-Jensen, A. (n.d.). Food insecurity, chronic disease, and health among working-age adults . Retrieved March 10, 2022, from http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=84466

Gundersen, C., & Kreider, B. (2009). Bounding the effects of food insecurity on children’s health outcomes. Journal of Health Economics , 28 (5), 971–983.

Metallinos-Katsaras, E., Must, A., & Gorman, K. (2012). A longitudinal study of food insecurity on obesity in preschool children. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 112 (12), 1949–1958.

Cook, J. T., & Frank, D. A. (2008). Food security, poverty, and human development in the United States. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1136 (1), 193–209.

Cook, J. T. (2013, April). Impacts of child food insecurity and hunger on health and development in children: Implications of measurement approach. In Paper commissioned for the Workshop on Research Gaps and Opportunities on the Causes and Consequences of Child Hunger.

Burke, M. P., Martini, L. H., Çayır, E., Hartline-Grafton, H. L., & Meade, R. L. (2016). Severity of household food insecurity is positively associated with mental disorders among children and adolescents in the United States. Journal of Nutrition , 146(10), 2019–2026.

Bhattarai, G. R., Duffy, P. A., & Raymond, J. (2005). Use of food pantries and food stamps in low‐income households in the United States. Journal of Consumer Affairs , 39(2), 276–298.

Huang, J., & Barnidge, E. (2016). Low-income children's participation in the National School Lunch Program and household food insufficiency. Social Science & Medicine, 150 , 8–14.

Kreider, B., Pepper, J. V., & Roy, M. (2016). Identifying the effects of WIC on food insecurity among infants and children. Southern Economic Journal, 82 (4), 1106–1122.

Ratcliffe, C., McKernan, S. M., & Zhang, S. (2011). How much does the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program reduce food insecurity? American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 93 (4), 1082–1098.

Larson, N. I., & Story, M. T. (2011). Food insecurity and weight status among U.S. children and families: A review of the literature. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 40 (2), 166–173.

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Center for American Progress

The United States Can End Hunger and Food Insecurity for Millions of People

Policymakers must reimagine the United States’ long-term approach to food production and distribution to build an equitable and sustainable system that works for all.

Strengthening Health, Tackling Climate Change and Environmental Injustice, Climate Change, Climate Impacts, Food Insecurity, Poverty +3 More

In this article

Introduction and summary

Food is a fundamental human right, much like air and water. Yet hunger and food insecurity are widespread in the United States. In 2020, almost 14 million households—10.5 percent of the population—did not having enough food to meet their needs, 1 which greatly affected their health, well-being, and quality of life. From June 1 to June 13, 2022, almost 24 million households—including 11.6 million households with children under the age of 18—reported that they sometimes or often did not have enough to eat during the week. More than 7 million households were food insecure despite receiving federal food and nutrition benefits through the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), and almost 4 million of these households included children. Notably, low-income households of color, often led by single mothers, tend to have higher rates of hunger and food insecurity 2 due to historic and structural racism and discrimination in economic opportunity, employment, education, housing, and lending. 3

Defining food insecurity

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) refers to food security as “access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life.” Food insecurity, then, can be understood as the lack of access to or the limited availability of nutritionally adequate foods that prevents all household members from leading active and healthy lives. Food-insecure households are not necessarily food insecure all the time, but food insecurity reflects the choices households sometimes need to make between meeting basic needs such as housing, health and child care, and purchasing nutritionally adequate foods. 4

America’s acute hunger crisis hinders the success of its people—especially children and youth 5 —as well as its economic growth. The ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent economic crisis, coupled with supply chain issues and other challenges, have resulted in rising prices for goods and services—including food. This has worsened the U.S. hunger crisis, shining a light on decades of policy failures in the U.S. food system and the racial and poverty-related disparities that have existed for far too long. 6

Read for an example of how the U.S. food system fails those most in need

Addressing the Nation’s Infant Formula Crisis

May 26, 2022

Arohi Pathak , Hailey Gibbs

Policymakers must immediately take action to combat food insecurity and eliminate the root causes and barriers that prevent millions of individuals and families from succeeding. With several key pieces of food and nutrition legislation coming up for reauthorization in Congress, and with the recent White House announcement that a national conference on hunger, nutrition, and health will be held in September 2022, 7 the United States has a once-in-a-generation opportunity to reform all of the connected systems that address domestic hunger and food insecurity, focusing on building a whole-of-government, cross-sectoral approach to eliminating hunger.

This report outlines the long-term strategies necessary to end hunger in the United States:

Reduce poverty as an integral step to reducing hunger

Create more accessible and affordable food production and distribution systems.

• Address the impacts of climate change and improve market competition to ensure long-term food sustainability for all

The report explains why, with the right interventions, hunger is wholly preventable and highlights interviews with Americans who have experienced hunger and food insecurity.

Hunger and food insecurity are wholly preventable

This nation knows how to fix the problem of hunger and food insecurity. Plenty of programs and services attack hunger and food insecurity from various angles—supporting mothers and babies, school-aged children, older adults, low-income workers, and more. These programs are designed to reduce hunger by supplementing incomes and lifting individuals and families out of poverty. 8

But reducing hunger is quite different from eliminating it entirely. The United States has the resources to build an equitable, sustainable food system that ensures no individual, child, or family goes hungry within its borders. However, this is impossible without the political will necessary to make bold decisions that prioritize the health, well-being, and economic security of everyone, not just the lucky few.

No one should have to wonder where their next meal will come from. We must take bold steps now—with government, the private sector, nonprofits, and communities working together—to build a healthier future for every American. Susan E. Rice, director of the White House Domestic Policy Council and former ambassador

Two upcoming legislative opportunities would allow Congress to take meaningful action to build a food system that is more affordable, accessible, and resilient. In 2022, Congress is due to reauthorize the USDA Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), 9 which authorizes all the federal child nutrition programs that reach millions of children and their families every day. In 2023, Congress is set to reauthorize the Farm Bill, which includes funding for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program. SNAP is the nation’s largest anti-hunger program, supplementing the food budget of vulnerable families so they can purchase healthy food and move toward self-sufficiency. And, as stated above, the upcoming White House conference offers an unprecedented opportunity to discuss a whole-of-government, cross-sectoral approach to reforming food systems and eliminating hunger.

Hunger’s impact on poverty and economic growth

Hunger plays a pivotal role in how economies function and thrive. When individuals, families, and their children are hungry, they struggle with high levels of toxic stress and have little bandwidth to do much more than meet their basic needs. 10 Food-insecure adults and children have higher rates of mental health issues, including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder, and are at high risk for chronic diseases. 11 Hungry children are sick more often and can suffer from physical, developmental, and cognitive impairments, resulting in lower academic achievement than that of their peers. 12 In short, hunger weakens individuals and families; impairs their ability to reach their full potential; and creates a drag on the economy in the long term through increased health care costs, increased reliance on government programs, and high levels of economic precarity. 13 And the burden of hunger and food insecurity falls most heavily on low-income people, rural communities, people of color, women, children, older adults, and disabled people. Families with children, especially single-parent families, are also more likely to face hunger.

Fortunately, the United States has tools to address hunger. The USDA has a range of hunger and nutrition programs designed to meet the needs of the most vulnerable and underserved, including infants and toddlers in child care, school-aged children, mothers and their infants, older adults, people with disabilities, Native communities, rural communities, and more. 14 The main goal of the USDA’s food programs is to improve access to nutritious foods and reduce food insecurity. 15 Furthermore, the agency’s food and nutrition programs can also help in reducing the hardship of poverty. When low-income and working Americans receive federal food and nutrition benefits, they can use money from their food budget for other necessities, including housing, child care, utilities, and transportation. This can help individuals and families become more financially stable.

Yet the USDA still has room to improve access and service delivery to meet the needs of all people. Its programs have limitations; they target the consequences of hunger, rather than its root causes. Policymakers must do more to confront the choices that have led to poverty and food insecurity in the United States.

The root causes of hunger are the policy choices that prioritize profits over people

America’s hunger crisis is not due to a lack of food production or scarcity in food supply. 16 Rather, hunger and food insecurity in the United States are symptoms of policy choices and an economic system that prioritizes the needs of corporations and the wealthy over those of the general population. 17 Across the nation, households experience hunger due to a combination of factors, including limited income from jobs that pay less than living wages; underemployment or unemployment, which has been exacerbated by the pandemic; few economic opportunities within communities; low rates of educational attainment; the nation’s history of discrimination based on race, gender, and disability; and more. 18 Millions of Americans who work full time or even at multiple jobs still find themselves in poverty due to low wages, unstable work schedules, and the high costs of child care, housing, education, transportation, and health care. Furthermore, policy choices that underfund state safety net programs or require individuals and families to jump through burdensome hoops to prove need have weakened the effectiveness of food safety net programs, resulting in a hunger crisis that is unprecedented in any peer industrial nation. 19 For example, to reload WIC benefits, some states require participants to mail in their benefit cards or travel to local offices every few months. In part because it was unsafe for many people to engage in such travel at the height of the pandemic, WIC saw a 9.3 percent decline from March 2020 to January 2021 despite increasing rates of child hunger. 20

How To Address the Administrative Burdens of Accessing the Safety Net

May 5, 2022

Justin Schweitzer

Simply put, while hunger is a direct result of poverty, it is further exacerbated by policy decisions that reduce funding, restrict eligibility, put time limits on participation, and create other onerous burdens that force low-income people to prove need. Such policy decisions serve to undermine the effectiveness of food and nutrition safety net programs, frequently leaving many of the most vulnerable Americans without access to lifesaving supports. 21 Although policymakers can make specific choices to address hunger, effective anti-hunger strategies must be centered in addressing the economic conditions that lead to hunger and reforming the policies that create systematic barriers.

Strategies to address hunger and food insecurity in the United States

The nation has a once-in-a-generation opportunity to take bold action to create an equitable, sustainable food system that meets the needs of all individuals and communities. To inform these opportunities, this report offers the following strategies to eliminate food insecurity and hunger in the United States by anchoring solutions in the lived experiences of food-insecure mothers living in different areas of the country. 22

I would say 100 times over, it’s impossible to make policies that will be effective if you don’t include the people that will be impacted. If you’ve never lived it, then you don’t know. Stormy Johnson, single mother of three from Kingwood, West Virginia

Financial stability and economic empowerment is a necessary condition to ensure that everyone can meet their food and nutrition needs. Poverty and hunger are inextricably linked, and when individuals and families face financial precarity, they often must make tough decisions between putting food on the table and paying for necessities such as rent, electricity bills, child care, and more.

There should never be a situation where families need food and don’t have access. There shouldn’t be situations where people have to steal food. Deanna Branch, single mother of two from Milwaukee, Wisconsin

As federal nutrition programs alone cannot eliminate hunger, policies that focus on reducing poverty are essential. At the federal, state, and local levels, broad-based solutions that address poverty—such as increasing the federal minimum wage; offering workers paid family and medical leave and health care benefits; 23 and providing affordable housing and transportation as well as quality child care and educational settings—are necessary to help individuals and families build financial stability and meet their needs. Employers, too, can play a crucial role in increasing economic stability through workplace strategies, including by offering living wages, flexible schedules and paid leave, and affordable higher education and other opportunities for upward mobility. Research shows that more than half of food-insecure adults would experience a major positive impact on their household finances if they had access to higher-quality jobs. 24 As Stormy Johnson of West Virginia said, “Let’s change our programs to help those who are … working poor. We need programs to help people keep their heads above water.” 25

In addition, income supplement or cash assistance programs can go a long way toward helping low-income Americans increase labor force participation, build economic security, and better manage their family’s needs. 26 Consider the child tax credit (CTC), a program designed to help taxpayers with children support their families. The CTC was greatly expanded under the Biden administration’sAmerican Rescue Plan (ARP); it was made fully refundable, and full benefits were extended to approximately 27 million low-income children and children of color who would have otherwise received a partial benefit or none at all. 27 The ARP also increased the credit amount and distributed benefits on a monthly—rather than yearly—basis to help families meet ongoing needs. When the federal government began to distribute monthly CTC payments in July 2021, child poverty and food insufficiency among families with children dropped dramatically and immediately. The expanded CTC reduced monthly child poverty by almost 30 percent, and in December 2021, it reached 61.2 million children, keeping 3.7 million children out of poverty. 28

Millions of parents used their CTC payments to meet their families’ basic needs, including by using the credit for their food budgets, which helped decrease food insecurity by 26 percent in eligible households. 29 Yet despite the proven success of the expanded CTC, the monthly payments ended in December 2021 as the ARP’s temporary expansions expired. According to a May 2022 survey of 500 parents conducted by Parents Together Action, nearly half of respondents who received monthly CTC checks now say they cannot afford enough food to feed their families. 30 Javona Brownlee, a single mother of three from Virginia, understands this struggle. She is currently experiencing homelessness after losing her apartment because of black mold. As Javona explains, “The child tax credit helped a lot with groceries. When I was getting the CTC, it was definitely making a difference. I want the government to bring that [income support] back. I could really use that not just for groceries.” 31

Johnson concurs:

I’m kind of back to the situation I had before the monthly child tax credit, which was not eating so that my kids can eat, especially with the increasing cost of everything these days. The little bit of money I had left for food and gas after paying for everything else is now even less. Unfortunately, I’ve been having digestive and stomach issues recently, and I wonder if that’s connected to not eating. But if doing that means my kids can eat, I will do that every time.

A permanent, fully refundable CTC would improve the well-being and prospects of all American children and is one of the best anti-poverty investments the United States could make. Strengthening income support programs gives parents more financial stability and allows them to better manage their food budgets and meet the food and nutritional needs of their loved ones. An expanded earned income tax credit (EITC) and housing assistance are also critical means of support that can ensure stability and safety while individuals and families build financial security. 32

The Biden administration’s actions in 2021 did not eliminate hunger, but they certainly helped prevent severe hunger and food insecurity for millions of people. 33 Still, as the USDA points out, food assistance programs do not reach all populations equally. 34 Households with children, for example, are twice as likely to experience food insecurity as households without children. In 2020, Black and Hispanic Americans were 3.2 times and 2.5 times more likely, respectively, to be food insecure than white households. 35

Southern states experience higher hunger rates than northern states, on average, 36 mostly due to deliberate policy choices that have weakened their safety nets and suppressed wages. 37 Rural households are more likely than urban ones to face food insecurity and lack access to food in their communities. 38 And disabled adults faced food insecurity at more than twice the rate of their nondisabled counterparts in 2020, with non-working disabled adults three times more likely to be food insecure than nondisabled adults. 39

Food deserts are regions in which people have limited access to healthy, affordable food. The USDA defines food deserts as low-income census tracts where at least 500 people, or 33 percent of the population, live more than a half-mile from the nearest supermarket, supercenter, or large grocery store in an urban area or more than 10 miles from a grocery store in a rural area. Food deserts result from disinvestment, underinvestment, and historical exclusion of marginalized communities. 40 These inequities exist in rural, 41 Indigenous, 42 and urban 43 areas, all of which have unique characteristics that policymakers must address in order to promote access to affordable and culturally relevant foods. Estimates indicate that 18.8 million people, or 6.1 percent of the U.S. population, reside in a food desert, 44 putting them at great risk of diet-related health conditions, such as obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Consider this: A family that uses SNAP assistance must drive 25 to 30 miles to the nearest Walmart for their food and grocery needs. They require not only access to a car but also money for gas and time for the trip itself. Low-wage workers, many of whom rely on SNAP, work in poor conditions, marked by inconsistent hours and the inability to schedule their shifts in advance. 45 These barriers only compound for marginalized groups, such as single mothers of color who are less likely to have access to child care 46 or disabled people who may be unable to drive, use public transportation, or transport groceries.

For the U.S. food and nutrition systems to work effectively to eliminate hunger and food insecurity, they need a strong and diverse distribution network that considers the unique needs of different communities, individuals, and families. People need access to grocery stores in their communities and within their neighborhoods. They need cars or affordable and accessible transportation that enables them to bring groceries home. They need jobs with livable wages, benefits, and consistent hours so that they can meet their families’ food and nutritional needs more effectively. People with disabilities need access to services such as online ordering and grocery delivery; as parent Deanna Branch told the authors, “I can have groceries delivered to my door through an app. And we can get fresh, quality food delivered to our door. I like that I don’t necessarily have to go out and go shopping, especially with my disability now.” 47

Due to the failures of the food system, individuals and families across the nation must rely on local nonprofits, food banks, and other charitable entities to meet their food needs. The spike in food insecurity during the pandemic increased reliance on food banks and pantries to supplement family food budgets and federal benefits that fell short of need. 48 But as food costs have increased by more than 10 percent in the past 12 months, 49 food banks, too, have struggled to maintain the increased demand for food supplies, 50 while taxing resources needed to cover the increased costs of refrigeration, vehicle maintenance, gas costs, and staff capacity. Reliance on food banks also sometimes means that people cannot get appropriate food, including food that is allergen free or that meets a specific nutritional need.

Lifting communities out of poverty is a long-term solution to food insecurity, but alleviating barriers to food access is the next step to achieving a community-based food system where communities develop their own foodways that are self-sustaining and less vulnerable to societal shocks. Strategies to take this step include:

• Pass financing initiatives or zoning regulation changes to incentivize building supermarkets and local grocery stores in food deserts and underserved areas, similar to the S. Department of Treasury’s New Markets Tax Credit Program or a range of local policies around zoning. 51
• Create food hubs by partnering with schools, community colleges, hotels, and other food-related businesses that can act as community food kitchens to provide storage and distribution capacity in communities that lack such infrastructure.
• Incentivize food companies to sell to smaller, local grocers  in addition to supermarket chains and corporations.
• Connect federal food programs with local family farms, community gardens, and community-supported agriculture to provide fresh vegetables and fruits to individuals in food deserts.
• Incentivize local grocers to accept food benefits such as SNAP, WIC, and others.
• Pass a universal free school meals program so that all school-aged children have access to food.
• Enable eligible participants to use their SNAP and WIC funds for online grocery delivery to make food more easily accessible.

Strengthen government safety net programs to make them more responsive

Strong safety net programs reduce poverty and hunger, improve health, increase economic mobility, and strengthen the national economy. These programs are intended to protect individuals and families from the effect of economic shocks, natural disasters, and other emergencies. Low-income and working people frequently turn to SNAP and WIC when grappling with hunger and food insecurity caused by job loss, underemployment, low wage employment, pregnancy, or other life events that necessitate additional support to weather economic precarity. 52 Such programs can be essential for low-income parents such as Deanna Branch, who attests to WIC’s lifesaving impact on her life: “When I was pregnant and a breastfeeding mom, [WIC] had so many nutritious foods available. A healthy pregnancy takes a lot of healthy nutritious foods. And it’s hard to find what to eat when breastfeeding. WIC really looked out for me … WIC really saved my life.” 53

SNAP, WIC, and other food programs also spur the economy. Every dollar in new SNAP benefits resulted in $1.74 in economic activity during the last recession. Eligible beneficiaries get $56 in value from every $1 the government spends on SNAP benefits. This money is immediately spent in local communities with around 80 percent of benefits redeemed within two weeks, and 97 percent spent within a month. 54 Despite the clear return on investment and the necessity of food security for survival, SNAP and other food safety net programs have not been comprehensively modernized in decades. The country’s outdated food safety net has resulted in a huge failure to get food to those in need during this crisis.

Even in good economic times, the nation’s fragmented safety net fails to serve all low-income individuals and families equally. 55 As mother Javona Brownlee puts it: “I receive food stamps [SNAP benefits], but sometimes I still have to go to the food bank … The food stamps are not enough to feed my family, especially with them being out of school [during the summer] and having to feed them three plus meals a day. I’m going to the food bank at least one a month.” 56

Safety net programs, including SNAP and WIC, frequently come under threat of reduced funding and expanded eligibility requirements—such as additional, punitive work requirements or the restriction of personal choice in the kinds of foods people can buy with their benefits—especially when conservative policymakers propose budget cuts to safety net programs in order to offset tax cuts for the wealthy or other spending priorities. Former President Donald Trump’s FY 2021 budget, for example, proposed more than $180 billion in cuts to SNAP, a nearly 30 percent reduction to the program over 10 years, 57 that underscored decades of attempts by conservative Republican leaders in Congress to restrict access to food assistance.

Not surprisingly, weakening safety net programs undermines their efficacy. SNAP, for example, is an automatic stabilizer and is available to individuals and families who are struggling with unemployment or temporary economic precarity. 58 But even before the pandemic, SNAP benefits fell short of meeting a family’s typical needs; in fiscal years 2019 and 2020, they averaged less than $1.40 per person, per meal, severely underestimating the cost of a healthy diet. 59 Furthermore, unlike other safety net programs, the maximum SNAP benefit amounts are fixed across the United States, despite regional differences in food costs. As a result, the maximum SNAP benefit per meal does not cover the average cost of a modestly priced meal in most regions of the country. Even when the USDA updated the SNAP benefit amounts in October 2021, the maximum benefit amount still fell short of the cost of meals in 21 percent of U.S. counties. 60

The Biden administration and the USDA addressed this shortcoming in pandemic-related legislation, including the  Families First Coronavirus Response Act and American Rescue Plan Act, which temporarily removed barriers to receiving food assistance. 61 The administration also reevaluated SNAP benefits to account for inflation and family needs, modernizing the program and increasing benefits by about 25 percent—an average of $36.24 per person each month, or $1.19 per day. 62 This change represents the single-largest permanent increase in benefits in SNAP’s history, but it still does not provide adequate support to all who need it. 63 Receiving more food assistance through SNAP or other food programs allows households to use their limited food budgets to meet other basic needs such as rent, utilities, child care, and more. 64 But as many of the temporary pandemic-related safety net expansions—such as unemployment insurance and the eviction moratorium—expired in the last year, 65 low-income Americans again struggled to make ends meet. This further demonstrates the need for a robust and responsive safety net. 66

The federal government should expand and strengthen existing safety net programs by addressing gaps in access and making them more responsive to emergencies. Additional strategies to modernize food and hunger-related programs are discussed below.

Provide maximum access to federal food programs

Expanded access would give everyone, especially the most vulnerable, access to food and nutrition during times of emergencies or economic precarity. Policymakers should expand the emergency flexibilities—such as online enrollment and grocery access—included in pandemic-related legislation to ensure better access to program benefits. Furthermore, policymakers should codify a “no wrong door” approach. 67 for struggling residents to provide them with cash, food, and housing assistance as needed, link their eligibility to multiple benefit programs, and provide an authentic safety net. They should also incentivize collaboration and coordination between key government agencies to ensure that individuals and families struggling with economic precarity can quickly access the food benefits they need to stabilize their lives. Finally, the federal government should work alongside state and local government agencies and nonprofits to expand and improve participation in food, nutritional, and other government support programs.

Tailor SNAP and WIC benefits to where families live

Tailoring benefits would stabilize families’ access to food and give them more purchasing power to stretch their food budgets. States should provide people with more flexibility to access a wider range of food and nutrition products that meet familial and cultural needs. States should also expand benefits to low-income immigrants, students, Puerto Ricans, and citizens in other U.S. territories, 68 as well as enable eligible participants to use their SNAP dollars for online grocery delivery. Finally, policymakers should raise the WIC age limit for children from age 5 to age 6, to eliminate the gap in eligibility between WIC and being old enough to go to school, where children will receive school meals.

Focus on equity

The use of an equity lens when considering solutions would ensure that communities of color, single parents, older adults, LGBTQ people, people with disabilities, college students, and residents of rural communities have access to affordable food and nutrition within their communities or along close and accessible transportation routes. Furthermore, federal and state policymakers should incentivize improved data collection and sharing across all programs that serve children and their parents or caregivers living in poverty to ensure that resources reach the most at-need populations.

Strengthen food and nutrition infrastructure

Policymakers should invest in food delivery services, food banks, mobile food pantries, and community-based food distribution sites such as schools and health centers. They should also incentivize stronger collaboration between federal, state, and local governments and private and nonprofit partners to build a wider, more resilient infrastructure for the provision of food and nutrition benefits. Additionally, federal and state policymakers should focus on updating their benefit infrastructure to ensure that participants have simplified access to enrollment and benefits, which will not only ease administrative oversight on case workers but also save costs through increased efficiencies.

Reduce administrative burdens that make accessing food programs so cumbersome

The federal and state governments must eliminate work requirements and asset limits, ease ID requirements, and reduce verification requests so that participants can access programs and benefits more easily, especially when they are dealing with economic precarity or a crisis in their life that necessitates reliance on benefits in the first place. The federal government should also incentivize collaboration and coordination with other relevant government agencies to streamline eligibility for, enrollment in, and access to benefits programs, especially during emergencies or when people need help stabilizing their lives. Finally, the federal government should waive time limits on how long people can receive benefits and expand eligibility during emergencies and climate-related events—such as flooding or wildfires—to ensure that no one goes hungry while trying to rebuild their life.

Strengthen coordination between the private, nonprofit, and public sectors

States and localities must expand and improve participation in federal nutrition programs to include all who need them by expanding food distribution, reducing food waste, and providing more accommodations, such as access to hot, prepared foods and beverages or online grocery ordering.

Address the impacts of climate change and improve market competition

Providing equitable and long-term access to food also requires a production system that is resilient and innovative in the face of future changes. This means adapting food production to meet the realities of a changing climate, a reduced dependence on fossil fuels in production and transportation, and a reversal of trends toward consolidation across the sector.

While the increases in overall agricultural production over the past half century are impressive, maintaining food availability in the face of a changing climate presents significant challenges. Food prices have risen over the past year due to climate change-driven droughts, 69 climbing input prices, 70 and the Russian invasion of Ukraine. 71 These price fluctuations are felt most acutely by food-insecure households.

Achieving national commitments to reduce emissions and address climate change would have significant implications for maintaining food security. There are also sector-specific opportunities to decouple current levels of food production from fossil fuel-derived inputs and make production systems more resilient to climate change. The agriculture sector is responsible for approximately 10 percent of annual emissions in the United States, and agricultural land also has the potential to sequester atmospheric carbon. Strategies that would make the food system more resilient to climate change and resilient to fossil fuel-driven price fluctuations include investing in decarbonization throughout the food production system—including inputs, harvesting, processing, and distribution—and offering technical assistance and incentives to agricultural producers that scale up climate-smart agricultural practices and conservation and restoration of nature to increase long-term sequestration and storage of carbon.

In addition to climate change affecting food prices and availability, the rising cost of food is due in part to competitive conditions at various steps of the food production and distribution process. When there is healthy competition in the market, prices tend to be lower. When competition is limited, however, prices can rise. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the impact of limited competition in the food supply chain. The U.S. meat processing industry, for example, is dominated by four large corporations that supply 55 to 85 percent of all beef, pork, and poultry consumed in the United States. In 2021, during the height of the pandemic, supply chain issues resulted in shortages across the country, and these corporations responded by dramatically increasing their price-cost margins—raising prices more rapidly than costs to take advantage of demand and increasing their profits accordingly. 72 This occurred even as millions of people were struggling to put food on their tables.

Headline-generating shortages of infant formula have also illustrated the risks of highly concentrated supply. Since a single manufacturing plant that provided the bulk of specialty and infant formulas was shut down in February 2022, parents and caregivers across the country have faced severe shortages and price gouging while seeking a vital necessity. 73

The National Baby Formula Shortage and the Inequitable U.S. Food System

Jun 17, 2022

Arohi Pathak , Marc Jarsulic , Osub Ahmed , 3 More Jill Rosenthal , Caroline Medina , Emily DiMatteo

Competition is limited in important parts of the agricultural supply chain, including in the production of important inputs such as seeds, fertilizer, and fuel, 74 in the processing of foods such as beef and pork, and in many local retail markets. This means that food prices are higher, and it is more difficult for consumers to buy basic food necessities. 75

Because farmers must plant and produce food without knowing sales prices in advance, higher costs of inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, and fuel increase farmers’ risk, causing them to produce less. When there is less competition in the market for inputs, the costs of those inputs increase, which in turn raises the price of food and causes food availability to decrease. 76 Six corporations now dominate the global market for seeds and agricultural chemicals such as herbicides and insecticides, and consolidation has contributed to higher prices. 77 Competitive conditions also affect fuel prices, an important agricultural input. Reduced U.S. refinery capacity since 2020 appears to have increased refiners’ market power, allowing them to increase the price of gasoline and diesel more than in proportion to already rising crude oil prices. 78 This year, fuel prices have also been affected by Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, and increased refiner market power will lead to increased food costs.

A food system that only works for those who can pay premium prices or breaks down when confronted with a national emergency is a failure of massive proportions, threatening the health and well-being of millions of people across the country. Policymakers must address issues of market competition that hamper access to the nation’s food system, fostering a more sustainable and resilient system that ensures universal access to food and nutrition. They can do so by taking the following steps:

• Address issues of market concentration by bringing new entrants into the food production system to decrease production costs and increase supply, availability, and affordability of critical foods.
• Provide capital, loans, and other investments to small farmers, meat processors, food producers, and distributors to diversify the food system.
• Reduce highly concentrated production of essential goods by encouraging antitrust enforcers to prevent additional consolidation and identify anti-competitive behavior by existing firms.
• Direct relevant government agencies such as the U.S. Federal Trade Commission to monitor manufacturers and resellers for food price gouging behaviors , especially during times of emergencies and shortages.

Food is a fundamental human right necessary for survival, but the United States does not consider access to affordable, healthy food a right that necessitates governmental protection. As a result, the nation has a fragmented, broken food production and distribution system that fails to meet the basic needs of millions of people.

Yet it does not have to be this way. Traditionally, combating hunger is a bipartisan issue, 79 with many conservative policymakers supporting the programs and interventions designed to reduce hunger and food insecurity. As the United States stands on the precipice of several federal opportunities, including the reauthorization of the Child Nutrition Act and the Farm Bill, to address hunger in a more substantive and resilient way, policymakers can build a food system that prioritizes eliminating hunger as a key criterion of reducing poverty and increasing well-being.

Building a long-term, equitable, and sustainable food system that focuses on unmet needs is critical to the nation’s economic growth and success. When people’s basic needs are met, they can focus on building their own financial stability and realizing their American dreams. This helps build a stronger, more resilient economy. But public nutrition assistance programs alone cannot eliminate hunger and food insecurity. To truly eliminate hunger, the United States needs a plethora of interventions and strategies that encompass a whole-of-government approach, with coordinated and collaborative partnerships with the private and nonprofit sectors to meet the unique food needs of various communities and populations.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank Javona Brownlee, Deanna Branch, and Stormy Johnson for their invaluable insight and generosity in sharing their stories. The authors would also like to extend their gratitude to Anona Neal, Justin Dorazio, Calli Singer, Don Wolford, Kyle Ross, Suzanne Harms, Emily DiMatteo, and American Progress’ Editorial team for their invaluable support and guidance on this report.

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• Deanna Branch, single mother of two from Milwaukee, Wisconsin, interview with author, June 30, 2022, on file with author; Stormy Johnson, single mother of three from Kingwood, West Virginia, interview with author, June 30, 2022, on file with author; Javona Brownlee, single mother of three from Virginia, interview with author, June 24, 2022, on file with author.
• Arohi Pathak and Kyle Ross, “The Top 12 Solutions To Cut Poverty in the United States,” Center for American Progress, June 30, 2021, available at https://www.americanprogress.org/article/top-12-solutions-cut-poverty-united-states/ .
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• Stormy Johnson, interview with author, June 30, 2022.
• Alex Samuels and Neil Lewis Jr., “Democrats Helped Build The Social Safety Net. Why Are Many Now Against Expanding It?”, FiveThirtyEight, February 15, 2022, available at https://fivethirtyeight.com/features/democrats-helped-build-the-social-safety-net-why-are-many-now-against-expanding-it/ .
• The American Rescue Plan Act’s CTC expansion was modeled on the American Family Act, the House version of which is H.R. 928, co-sponsored by Reps. Rosa DeLauro (D-CT), Suzan DelBene (D-WA), and Ritchie Torres (D-NY). See American Family Act of 2021, H.R. 928, 117th Cong., 1st sess. (February 8, 2021), available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/928?q=%7B%22search%22%3A%22american+family+act%22%7D&s=1&r=1 . For further discussion of the dramatic effects of the 2021 CTC expansion, see Sharon Parrott “Robust COVID Relief Achieved Historic Gains Against Poverty and Hardship, Bolstered Economy,” June 14, 2022, available at https://www.cbpp.org/sites/default/files/6-14-22pov-testimony.pdf ; Kyle Ross and others, “The ARP Grew the Economy, Reduced Poverty, and Eased Financial Hardship for Millions,” Center for American Progress, March 14, 2022, available at https://www.americanprogress.org/article/the-arp-grew-the-economy-reduced-poverty-and-eased-financial-hardship-for-millions/ .
• Zachary Parolin, Sophie Collyer, and Megan A. Curran, “Sixth Child Tax Credit Payment Kept 3.7 Million Children Out of Poverty in December” (New York: Columbia University Center on Poverty and Social Policy, 2022), available at https://www.povertycenter.columbia.edu/publication/montly-poverty-december-2021 .
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• Carmen Reinicke, “Nearly half of families with kids can no longer afford enough food 5 months after child tax credit ended,” CNBC, June 3, 2022, available at https://www.cnbc.com/2022/06/03/48-percent-of-families-cant-afford-enough-food-without-child-tax-credit.html .
• Javona Brownlee, interview with author,June 24, 2022.
• Pathak and Ross, “The Top 12 Solutions To Cut Poverty in the United States.”
• Ross and others, “The ARP Grew the Economy, Reduced Poverty, and Eased Financial Hardship for Millions.”
• Food and Nutrition Service, “USDA Supports Equity, Inclusion in Nutrition Assistance Programs,” Press release, January 20, 2022, available at https://www.fns.usda.gov/news-item/fns-0003.22 .
• Alisha Coleman-Jensen and others, “Household Food Security in the United States in 2020” (Washington: Economic Research Service, 2021), available at https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/102076/err-298.pdf?v=5663.5 .
• Laura Reiley, “New federal study shows safety net helped prevent widespread hunger during the pandemic,” The Washington Post , September 8, 2021, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2021/09/08/usda-food-insecurity-report/ .
• Alexandra Cawthorn Gaines, Bradley Hardy, and Justin Schweitzer, “How Weak Safety Net Policies Exacerbate Regional and Racial Inequality” (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2021), available at https://www.americanprogress.org/article/weak-safety-net-policies-exacerbate-regional-racial-inequality/ .
• Food Research & Action Center, “Rural Hunger in America: Get the Facts” (Washington: 2018), available at https://frac.org/wp-content/uploads/rural-hunger-in-america-get-the-facts.pdf .
• Mia Ives-Rublee and Christine Sloane, “Alleviating Food Insecurity in the Disabled Community: Lessons Learned From Community Solutions During the Pandemic” (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2021), available at https://www.americanprogress.org/article/alleviating-food-insecurity-in-the-disabled-community/ .
• Renée Johnson and Nyah Stewart, “Defining Low-Income, Low-Access Food Areas ( Food Deserts )” (Washington: Congressional Research Service Reports, 2021), available at https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF11841 .
• Lindsay Haynes-Maslow and others, “Examining Food Insecurity in the Rural United States: A Qualitative Study” (Washington: No Kid Hungry and Chicago: Feeding America, 2020), available at https://bestpractices.nokidhungry.org/sites/default/files/2020-02/Rural%20Food%20Insecurity%20Qualitative%20Research%20Brief.pdf .
• First Nations Development Institute, “Food Deserts, Food Insecurity and Poverty in Native Communities” (Longmont, CO), available at https://www.firstnations.org/wp-content/uploads/publication-attachments/8%20Fact%20Sheet%20Food%20Deserts%2C%20Food%20Insecurity%20and%20Poverty%20in%20Native%20Communities%20FNDI.pdf (last accessed August 2022).
• Dr. Richard C. Sadler and others, “Linking Historical Discriminatory Housing Patterns to the Contemporary Environment in Baltimore,” Spatial and Spatio-temporal Epidemiology 36 (2020): 100387, available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7846820/ .
• Economic Research Service, “Food Access Research Atlas,” available at  https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/food-access-research-atlas/ (last accessed August 2022).
• “Average gross cash income for all SNAP households was $872 per month, up from FY 2018.” See Food and Nutrition Service, “Characteristics of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Households: Fiscal Year 2019” (Washington: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2021), available at https://fns-prod.azureedge.us/sites/default/files/resource-files/Characteristics2019-Summary-1.pdf ; Adewale Maye and Asha Banerjee, “The Struggles of Low-Wage Work” (Washington: Center for Law and Social Policy, 2021), available at https://www.clasp.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/CLASP_struggleslowwagework2021_factsheet.pdf .
• Sarah Jane Glynn, “Raising the Minimum Wage Is Key To Supporting the Breadwinning Mothers Who Drive the Economy,” Center for American Progress, February 23, 2021, available at https://www.americanprogress.org/article/raising-minimum-wage-key-supporting-breadwinning-mothers-drive-economy/ .
• Deanna Branch, interview with author, June 30, 2022.
• Amanda Little, “Hunger Is Getting Worse Since the Pandemic,” The Washington Post , June 23, 2022, available at https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/hunger-isgetting-worse-since-the-pandemic/2022/06/23/a050e00a-f2e8-11ec-ac16-8fbf7194cd78_story.html .
• U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Consumer Price Index Summary,” Press release, July 13, 2022, available at https://www.bls.gov/news.release/cpi.nr0.htm .
• Jennifer Ludden, “Demand at food banks is way up again. But inflation makes it harder to meet need,” NPR, June 2, 2022, available at https://www.npr.org/2022/06/02/1101473558/demand-food-banks-inflation-supply-chain .
• Daniel Chapple, “Grocery Store Development in Recognized Food Deserts,” Sustainable Development Code, available at https://sustainablecitycode.org/brief/grocery-store-development-in-recognized-food-deserts/ (last accessed August 2022).
• Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, “Policy Basics: The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP)” (Washington: 2022), available at https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/the-supplemental-nutrition-assistance-program-snap .
• Dottie Rosenbaum, Stacy Dean, and Zoë Neuberger, “The Case for Boosting SNAP Benefits in Next Major Economic Response Package” (Washington: Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 2020), available at https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/the-case-for-boosting-snap-benefits-in-next-major-economic-response .
• Food and Nutrition Service, “USDA Supports Equity, Inclusion In Nutrition Assistance Programs.”
• Javona Brownlee, interview with author, June 24, 2022.
• Dottie Rosenbaum and Zoë Nueberger, “President’s 2021 Budget Would Cut Food Assistance for Millions and Radically Restructure SNAP” (Washington: Center for Budget and Policy Priorities, 2020), available at https://www.cbpp.org/research/food-assistance/presidents-2021-budget-would-cut-food-assistance-for-millions-and .
• Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, “A Quick Guide to SNAP Eligibility and Benefits” (Washington: 2022), available at https://www.cbpp.org/sites/default/files/11-18-08fa.pdf .
• Berkeley Institute for Data Science, “SNAP Benefit Adequacy,” available at https://bids.berkeley.edu/research/snap-benefit-adequacy#:~:text=SNAP%20benefits%20%28or%20food%20stamps%29%20are%20set%20at,country%20with%20the%20exception%20of%20Alaska%20and%20Hawaii (last accessed August 2022); Areeba Haider, “5 Details About the Largest Increase to SNAP Benefits in the Program’s History,” Center for American Progress, August 25, 2021, available at https://www.americanprogress.org/article/5-details-largest-increase-snap-benefits-programs-history/ .
• Haider, “5 Details About the Largest Increase to SNAP Benefits in the Program’s History.”
• Food Research & Action Center, “The Case for Making SNAP Benefits Adequate: Reflections from Interviews with Older Adults” (Washington: 2022), available at https://frac.org/wp-content/uploads/The-Case-for-Making-SNAP-Benefits-Adequate-Report.pdf .
• Jennifer Liu, “Pandemic Unemployment Benefits End in September—Here’s Who Loses Aid,” CNBC, August 10, 2021, available at https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/10/pandemic-unemployment-insurance-ends-in-septemberheres-who-loses-aid.html ; Irina Ivanova, “As Eviction Moratorium Expires, Here Are the States Where Renters Are At Most Risk,” CBS News, August 2, 2021, available at https://www.cbsnews.com/news/eviction-moratorium-2021-expiration-renters-risk-states/ .
• The “no wrong door” approach or policy enables people seeking basic needs supports—such as housing, food, or health care coverage—to complete one application that determines eligibility for a range of social service programs that they or their family are eligible for.The White House, “Putting the Public First: Improving Customer Experience and Service Delivery for the American People,” Press release, December 13, 2021, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/12/13/fact-sheet-putting-the-public-first-improving-customer-experience-and-service-delivery-for-the-american-people/ .
• Hispanic Federation, “Increase in Federal Food Stamp Program Is Overdue,” Press release, September 3, 2021, available at https://www.hispanicfederation.org/media/press_releases/increase_in_federal_food_stamp_program_is_overdue/ .
• David Condos, “Western Kansas wheat crops are failing just when the world needs them the most,” NPR, June 9, 2022, available at https://www.kcur.org/news/2022-06-09/western-kansas-wheat-crops-are-failing-just-when-the-world-needs-them-most .
• Keith Good, “Food, Gas Prices Soar, While Fertilizer Prices Show Signs of Moderating,” Farm Policy News, June 12, 2022, available at https://farmpolicynews.illinois.edu/2022/06/food-gas-prices-soar-while-fertilizer-prices-show-signs-of-moderating/ .
• The Economist , “The Coming Food Catastrophe,” May 19, 2022, available at https://www.economist.com/leaders/2022/05/19/the-coming-food-catastrophe .
• Brian Deese, Sameera Fazili, and Bharat Ramamurti, “Recent Data Show Dominant Meat Processing Companies Are Taking Advantage of Market Power to Raise Prices and Grow Profit Margins,” The White House, December 10, 2021, available at https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/blog/2021/12/10/recent-data-show-dominant-meat-processing-companies-are-taking-advantage-of-market-power-to-raise-prices-and-grow-profit-margins/ .
• Arohi Pathak and others, “The National Baby Formula Shortage and the Inequitable U.S. Food System” (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2022), available at https://www.americanprogress.org/article/the-national-baby-formula-shortage-and-the-inequitable-u-s-food-system/ .
• Stella Nordhagen, “The Impact of Higher Input Prices for Farmers, Food Security, and the Planet,” FoodTank, June 2022, available at https://foodtank.com/news/2022/06/the-impact-of-higher-input-prices-for-farmers-food-security-and-the-planet/ .
• Pathak and others, “The National Baby Formula Shortage and the Inequitable U.S. Food System”; Pathak and Khattar, “Fighting Hunger.”
• James M. MacDonald, “Mergers in Seeds and Agricultural Chemicals: What Happened?”, Economic Research Service, February 15, 2019, available at https://www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2019/february/mergers-in-seeds-and-agricultural-chemicals-what-happened/ .
• Mohammad Torshizi and Jennifer Clapp, “Price Effects of Common Ownership in the Seed Sector,” The Antitrust Bulletin , 66 (1) (2021): 39–67, available at https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0003603X20985783 .
• John Kingston, “The Loss of US refining capacity is helping drive record diesel prices—and it probably won’t improve anytime soon,” Freight Waves, June 14, 2022, available at https://www.freightwaves.com/news/as-diesel-prices-soar-past-crude-refining-squeeze-challenges-oil-markets .
• Erik Stegman and Nicole Williams, “30 Years of Tackling Hunger on a Bipartisan Basis Is in Danger of Failing This Fall,” Center for American Progress, September 16, 2013, available at https://www.americanprogress.org/article/30-years-of-tackling-hunger-on-a-bipartisan-basis-is-in-danger-of-failing-this-fall/ .

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Food Insecurity - Essay Examples And Topic Ideas For Free

Food Insecurity refers to the lack of reliable access to sufficient quantities of affordable, nutritious food. Essays could delve into the causes, effects, and possible solutions to food insecurity both in the United States and globally, addressing issues like poverty, agricultural practices, and climate change. A substantial compilation of free essay instances related to Food Insecurity you can find at PapersOwl Website. You can use our samples for inspiration to write your own essay, research paper, or just to explore a new topic for yourself.

Child Food Insecurity

It is wrong to think that child food insecurity, malnourishment, and other food issues are only present in "third-world" countries because in reality, they occur worldwide ("Woodhouse"). They are especially prevalent in the United States ("Morrissey"), which is considered to be one of the most advanced and affluent countries in the world. Children from low-income families feel the greatest effects of food insecurity in the United States because they have minimal access to fresh foods, which is caused by the […]

Food Insecurity on College Campuses: Prevalence, Consequences and Solutions

Food insecurity in the United Sates has become a topic of high concern due to the rapid rate at which it has increased in recent years. Food insecurity is defined as "the limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or limited or uncertain ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways" (Holben & Marshall 2017). Food insecurity is an issue that must be addressed, as the consequences are devastating for those that are affected. Until recently, […]

Escherichia Coli – an Overview

Escherichia coli is coliform bacterium of the genus Escherichia and is a Gram negative, facultative anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria. E. coli lives a life of luxury in the lower intestines of warm blooded animals, including humans but when forced out, it lives a life of deprivation and hazard in water, sediment and soil. Most E. coli strain are harmless and are an important part of a healthy human intestinal tract. However, some E. coli are pathogenic cause either diarrhea or illness […]

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The Effects of Food Insecurity in the Community

Abstract Food insecurity is not having the ability to acquire nutritious foods essential for a healthy diet and life (Feeding America, 2011). This problem is a common issue in the Monterey County Salinas Valley, especially among the Latinos, African Americans, single mothers, senior citizens, and children who live in low-income households (Kresge, 2011). Factors that indicate food insecurity are location, unemployment, availability of nutritious foods, and conditions of markets. Effects of food insecurity are health problems, emotional stress, behavior issues, […]

Food Insecurity Among Asian Americans

This study evaluated the prevalence and burden of food insecurity among disaggregated Asian American populations. In this research, prevalence of food insecurity among Asian American subgroups was assessed, with the primary exposure variable of interest being acculturation. This assessment utilized the California Health Interview Survey, the largest state health survey. The results demonstrated that the highest prevalence of food insecurity was found among Vietnamese (16.42%), while the lowest prevalence was among Japanese (2.28%). A significant relationship was noted between the […]

Poor Nutrition and its Effects on Learning

Nutrition is essential to human welfare, however, numerous number of people are badly affected by poor nutrition especially children. Malnutrition is a major concern which ranges from undernutrition to problems of overweight and obesity. It’s usually caused by deficiency in essential vitamins and nutrients needed for intellectual development and learning. The most critical stage for brain development is mainly from conception to the first 2 years of life. It’s highly important that pregnant mothers are given the necessary vitamins and […]

What is Food Insecurity in America?

Throughout the United States, access to healthy food is a privilege. Cumulative institutionalized racism is deeply embedded in the foundation of the country, throughout historical and present public policies, ultimately manifesting injustice within many entities throughout the nation, specifically the food industry (American Civil Liberties Union). This oppressive industry, which includes fast food corporations and agricultural components, takes advantage of vulnerable minority and low-income populations. They do this in many ways, some of which include manipulating the market, pushing out […]

Food Insecurity at Berkeley

During their time in college, many UC Berkeley undergraduate and graduate students experience some type of basic need insecurity. Contrary to basic needs security, basic needs insecurity refers to the inability to obtain food, housing, and financial stability. Students who face food insecurity undergo the struggles of skipping meals or consuming unhealthy food due to their financial inability to afford healthier or complete meals. According to the “2016 UC Food Access & Security Study”, 48% of undergraduate students across the […]

Hunger in ?olleges

Introduction: The Problem Hunger in colleges is a serious issue that has been existing for years as student's lack access to reliable and affordable food. Food insecurity is "a household-level economic and social condition of limited or uncertain access to adequate food (USDA)." Students in colleges, not only hunger for knowledge but also for food. The food insecurity issue has the potential of undermining academic success. Most students do not get enough to eat and are hence fatigued and worried. […]

Food Insecurity in African American Elders

Food insecurity occurs when the availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or the ability to acquire them in socially acceptable ways is limited or uncertain. It is a growing problem in older adults (Sengupta, 2016). Nine percent of older persons who live alone are food insecure, and about 15 percent are at risk. This issue is particularly concerning in African American older adults who are at a greater risk compared to their Hispanic and non-Hispanic white counterparts (16.66%, 13.26%, […]

College Food Insecurity: how Big is the Problem?

Working while attending college or university is also associated with food insecurity. 4,5,9 Higher rates of food insecurity have been reported among students working longer hours. 4,5 Rates of food insecurity for students working over 20 hours per week have ranged from 38-46%. 4,5 In addition, university students who live off campus and those who do not have a meal plan tend to have an increased risk for food insecurity as compared to students living on campus and those with […]

Food Insecurity in Mozambique: Going to Bed in Debt and Waking up Hungry

Abstract Food insecurity is a global problem that varies in magnitude on regional and local levels. It is also a problem that does not receive equal representation or efforts between and within nations. Some of the problems facing food insecurities, however, overlap between nations, for example, climate change, distribution of resources, and governmental roles and impacts. When compared to other nations of the world, which may or may not have dire food insecurities, Mozambique has its unique set of challenges, […]

Food Insecurity in the Bronx

The story of Jettie Young illustrates the widespread problem of food insecurity and how it affects individuals from any area or economic background across the United States. When Jettie Young was looking to purchase a house for her small family in Austin, Texas, affordability was foremost on her mind. She and her husband decided on a starter home in the Hornsby Bend area, a neighborhood made up of many families with young children, much like her own. What she did […]

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The gap between the poor and the rich across the globe is getting broader. As a result, a vast proportion of the world’s population suffers from malnutrition, or worse, is on the verge of hunger and starvation. The United States is no exception, and the number of undernourished is continuously increasing.

So how are developed and developing countries tackling the problem of poor nutrition and food security? Why has food become a means of getting rich instead of ensuring people’s well-being and safety? Is healthy food a privilege of the wealthy?

To draw attention to the issue, educational institutions often assign argumentative essays about food insecurity in America. College students should express their views on essay topics like food insecurity and scarcity, its causes and effects, GMOs, and sustainability. They can also work on new methods to ensure we produce enough food for everyone.

When writing your research paper, ensure your introduction contains an intriguing thesis statement for food insecurity. For instance, pose a question or challenge an approach in tackling the problem. Once you frame the hook, continue with the body paragraphs to present your views supported by evidence and credible sources. The final section of your manuscript is the conclusion which wraps up your ideas and offers an overview or solution to the issue.

As always, PapersOwl has the best essay examples on food insecurity solutions you can read for free. These ideas will help you outline the perfect cause-and-effect paper. If your work needs improvement, contact the expert team at PapersOwl, and they will be more than happy to assist you.

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Food Security Essay

Table of contents

Defining food security: a multidimensional perspective, the sociocultural significance of food, global population growth and food demand, challenges to achieving global food security, addressing food insecurity: global efforts and challenges, the future of food systems and sustainability.

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Having access to nutritious food is a basic human need.

• Food security means having access to enough food for an active, healthy life.
• Nutrition security means consistent access, availability, and affordability of foods and beverages that promote well-being, prevent disease, and, if needed, treat disease.

On the other hand, food and nutrition insecurity is an individual-, household-, and neighborhood-level economic and social condition describing limited or uncertain access to adequate and affordable nutritious foods and is a major public health concern.

Food insecurity and the lack of access to affordable nutritious food are associated with increased risk for multiple chronic health conditions such as diabetes , obesity, heart disease, mental health disorders and other chronic diseases . In 2020, almost 15% of U.S. households were considered food insecure at some point in time, meaning not all household members were able to access enough food to support active, healthy lifestyles. In nearly half of these households, children were also food insecure ( see chart above ), which has implications for human development and school experience . Food insecurity disproportionately affects persons from racial and ethnic minority and socioeconomically disadvantaged populations:

• 20% of Black/African American households were food insecure at some point in 2021 , as were 16% of Hispanic/Latino households when compared to 7% of White households.
• Food insecurity for U.S. Hispanic/Latino adults differs by origin. Current national data is not available but from 2011-2014 food insecurity was highest among those identifying from Puerto Rico (25.3%), followed by Mexico (20.8%) Central and South America (20.7%) and Cuba (12.1%).
• In the past 20 years, American Indian/Alaskan Native (AI/AN) households have also been at least twice as likely to have experienced food insecurity when compared with White households, often exceeding rates of 25% across different regions and AI/AN communities.
• Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander (NHPI) adults also experience a high food insecurity prevalence (20.5%) and had significantly higher odds of experiencing low and very low food security compared with White households.
• While national data on specific Asian American national origin populations is not readily available, among Asian Americans living in California from 2001-2012 , food insecurity was highest among Vietnamese households (16.4%), followed by Filipino (8.3%), Chinese (7.6%), Korean (6.7%), South Asian (3.14%), and Japanese households (2.3%), highlighting considerable variation across Asian American communities.
• Food insecurity is inextricably linked to poverty , with 35.3 % of households with incomes below the federal poverty line being food insecure.
• Although the graph below on national trends in food insecurity does not capture the full impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, food insecurity is likely to increase, and racial and ethnic disparities in food insecurity experiences could worsen.

Healthy food accessibility and insecurity is a social determinant of health.

Food and nutrition insecurity are predominantly influenced by the local environment, including surrounding neighborhood infrastructure, accessibility, and affordability barriers. Access to grocery stores that carry healthy food options (such as fresh fruit, vegetables, low-fat fish and poultry) are not located equitably across residential and regional areas in the United States.

Areas that lack access to affordable, healthy foods are known as food deserts . Food deserts are:

• Found in urban or suburban neighborhoods that lack grocery stores (supermarkets or small grocery stores) that offer healthy food options.
• Found in rural areas and neighborhoods where the nearest grocery stores are too far away to be convenient or accessible.
• More prevalent in neighborhoods that are comprised of a majority of racial or ethnic minority residents or in rural AI/AN communities.
• More likely found in areas with a higher percentage of residents experiencing poverty , regardless of urban or rural designation.

Urban, suburban, and rural areas can also be overwhelmed with stores that sell unhealthy calorie-dense and inexpensive junk foods, including soda, snacks, and other high sugar foods. This is known as a food swamp . Food swamps:

• Reduce access to nutritional foods and provide easier access to unhealthy foods .
• Are a predictor of obesity , particularly in communities where residents have limited access to their own or public transportation and experience the greatest income inequality.

Reducing food and nutrition insecurity in the U.S. will require a multifaceted approach that considers, among other possibilities:

• Strategies that engage communities in local health programs; for example, recruiting community partners to assist in addressing gaps between food access and intake .
• Interventions that utilize federal food and nutritional supplemental programs, including the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program ( SNAP ) and the Special Supplemental Nutritional Program for Women, Infants, and Children ( WIC ).
• Leveraging local and federal policies targeting food insecurity; for example, retail store interventions , where healthy food placement, promotion and price influence healthier choices; sweetened beverage taxes to reduce the purchase appeal to consumers; and junk food taxes balanced with removal of taxes on water and fruits and vegetables.

NIMHD is studying and addressing issues related to food and nutrition insecurity through a variety of initiatives:

NIH Publication

Research Opportunities to Address Nutrition Insecurity and Disparities Coauthored by Shannon N. Zenk, Lawrence A. Tabak and Eliseo J. Pérez-Stable, JAMA 2022

NIMHD Events on Food Insecurity

Food Insecurity, Neighborhood Food Environment, and Nutrition Health Disparities: State of the Science NIMHD co-sponsored this September 2021 workshop led by the NIH Office of Nutrition Research and its Nutrition and Health Disparities Implementation Working Group

NIMHD Hosts Senior Research Investigators to Present on Food Insecurity and Related Topics:

NIMHD co-sponsored the November 2020 virtual workshop NIH Rural Health Seminar: Challenges in the Era of COVID-19 . This workshop focused on long-standing health disparities and social inequities experienced by rural populations, and featured experts on food insecurity, including:

• Dr. Brenda Eskenazi , Professor in Maternal and Child Health and Epidemiology, Brian and Jennifer Maxwell Endowed Chair in Public Health and Director of the Center for Environmental Research and Children’s Health, University of California, Berkeley, who spoke on the topic of COVID-19 and the impact on health of Californian farmworkers .
• Dr. Alice Ammerman , Mildred Kaufman Distinguished Professor of Nutrition, Director, Center for Health Promotion and Disease Prevention, University of North Carolina, who spoke on interventions to address job loss and food security in rural communities during COVID .

NIMHD Content on Food Insecurity

Nimhd science visioning and research strategies.

As part of the Scientific Visioning Research Process , NIMHD developed a set of 30 strategies to transform minority health and health disparities research . Several of these strategies focus on issues related to food security and accessibility, including:

• Assessing how environment and neighborhood structures such as areas where people have limited access to a variety of healthy and affordable foods (or food deserts) influence health behaviors.
• Promoting multi-sectoral interventions that address the structural drivers of food deserts.
• Promoting interventions that address the social determinants of health within health care systems, including food insecurity.

Publications

Food Insecurity and Obesity: Research Gaps, Opportunities, and Challenges Dr. Derrick Tabor, NIMHD Program Officer, co-authored “Food insecurity and obesity: research gaps, opportunities” in Translational Behavioral Medicine . This review highlights NIH funding for grants related to food insecurity and obesity, identifies research gaps, and presents upcoming research opportunities to better understand the health impact of food insecurity.

NIMHD Research Framework

Native Hawaiian Health Adaptation The NIMHD Research Framework was adapted by Keawe’aimoku Kaholokula, Ph.D., University of Hawai’i at Mānoa, to reflect social and cultural influences of Native Hawaiian health . Ka Mālama Nohona (nurturing environments) to support Native Hawaiian health include strategic goals of food sovereignty and security to promote a strong foundation for healthy living.

NIMHD Articles

NIMHD Research Features

• The Osage Community Supported Agriculture Program: A Tribal Nation’s Effort Toward Food Security and Food Sovereignty
• The Navajo Nation Junk Food Tax and the Path to Food Sovereignty
• Fighting Cancer—and Reducing Disparities—Through Food Policy
• Fresh Food for the Osage Nation: Researchers and a Native Community Work Toward Improved Food Resources and Food Sovereignty

NIMHD Insights Blog

• Amplifying the Voice of Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander Communities Amid the COVID-19 Crisis by Joseph Keawe‘aimoku Kaholokula, Ph.D.
• Racism and the Health of Every American by NIMHD Director Eliseo J. Pérez-Stable, M.D.
• The Future of Minority Health and Health Disparities Research by Tany Agurs-Collins, Ph.D., R.D., and Susan Persky, Ph.D.
• Addressing Social Needs and Structural Inequities to Reduce Health Disparities: A Call to Action for Asian American and Pacific Islander Heritage Month by Marshall H. Chin, M.D., M.P.H.
• “Insights” on Simulation Modeling and Systems Science, New Research Funding Opportunity by Xinzhi Zhang, M.D., Ph.D.

NIMHD Funding Resources and Opportunities

Funding opportunity announcements (foas).

NIMHD supports many FOAs that include topics related to food security as an area of research interest:

• Request for Information: Food Is Medicine Research Opportunities
• Notice of Special Interest: Stimulating Research to Understand and Address Hunger, Food and Nutrition Insecurity
• Community Level Interventions to Improve Minority Health and Reduce Health Disparities (R01 Clinical Trial Optional)
• Addressing Health Disparities Among Immigrant Populations through Effective Interventions (R01 Clinical Trial Optional)
• Health Services Research on Minority Health and Health Disparities (R01 Clinical Trial Optional)
• Long-Term Effects of Disasters on Health Care Systems Serving Populations Experiencing Health Disparities (R01 Clinical Trial Optional)
• Please see our list of Active NIMHD Funding Opportunities for more.

NIMHD-Supported Research Projects

See a list of active NIMHD-supported research projects studying food security and related topics .

NIMHD-Supported, NIH-Wide Initiatives

The PhenX Toolkit provides recommended and established data collection protocols for conducting biomedical research. There are PhenX protocols available for assessing and understanding food insecurity and food swamps .

The Strategic Plan for NIH Nutrition Research is the first NIH-wide strategic plan for nutrition research that highlights crosscutting, innovative opportunities to advance nutrition research from basic science to experimental design to research training. The plan emphasizes the need for studies on minority health and nutrition-related health disparities research.

Additional Resources and Data

The Centers for Disease Control’s Healthier Food Environments: Improving Access to Healthier Foods discusses CDC efforts to improve food access within the community.

The United States Department of Agriculture has two databases that compile national data on food accessibility:

• The Food Access Research Atlas provides food access data for populations within census tracts and mapped overviews of food access for low-income communities.
• The Food Environment Atlas assembles statistics on food environment indicators to stimulate research on the determinants of food choice and diet quality.

The Healthy People initiative provides 10-year, measurable public health objectives and useful tools to help track progress. The Healthy People 2030 includes food insecurity as a social determinant of health.

Page updated July 3, 2024

Page updated February 24, 2023

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Food Security Crisis Resolution Essay

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• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Global governance, importance and aids by global governance, works cited.

Food is one of the fundamental needs of human. Food security is the ability to access food by those who need it. Every household is termed as secured food wise if it has access to safe and enough food hence freedom from hunger. The World Food Organization describes this security as access to nutritious, safe and sufficient food to cater for the basic human desires.

The rapid increase of population all over the world is the major result for food insecurity (Harman 18). To ensure the situation does not run out of hand, the global body Food and Agricultural Organization has been at the forefront since time immemorial to cater for issues related to this basic human need. Central to this organization is governance. This can ensure that even if there is increased population, there can be enough resources or produce to cater for the increase and even shortages.

Food security has become a complex task to achieve with the development of globalization. Initially the main focus of the governing body was on agriculture. This ensured carefully monitoring of production and even the surplus that are stored. Today, different issues of concern have cropped up. These are in terms of food processing, food distribution and food consumption. Governance of food security has become challenging with the forms of contradictory policies that exist.

Most third world countries have weak connections with the global governance (Harman 18). These countries are always the worst hit groups when there is hunger breakout. On the other hand America and most of its environs have high influence in the global governance. Their exports have greatly increased while other third world countries exports have reduced. These countries used to export in a massive way but have since declined in production.

These countries are not promising at all. Therefore they have less influence of the global investment kitties. One will find that those countries that are stable in terms of agricultural production and are also doing great in the processing have much attraction to investment and are therefore considered a priority by the governing bodies

Several methods have been employed to cater for increasing cases of food insecurity. One of these methods is research. The cases of reduced land for tenure have been the main cause of low agricultural production. Currently, researchers have introduced novel ways of producing crops.

This has been aided greatly by biotechnology. This new research concept has enabled the production of crops that can resist adverse conditions. In addition, other crops can also do well in green houses. Unfortunately, other countries cannot afford this. Although global governance has given out these good options, some countries cannot afford. This is because their government cannot afford the finances in one way or another (Harman 18). This paints a bad picture of the governance while it is evident that it is not their fault.

Other forms of governance that would improve food security include Rule of law, internal peace, improvement of infrastructure from rural areas and support from the government for research. These proposals are best when employed on the ground. Developed countries have already put these practices in place and are ahead. There have been problems caused by global warming and other related disaster but this has been solved by having alternative methods. This does not mean that the conventional methods have been neglected.

Adoption measures have been for the purpose of bridging the gap between production and consumption. There is need for all countries to be stakeholders of global food programmes and government. This will ensure that there is a legitimate process for handling problems and also providing solutions for future activities. Unfortunately, the developing countries do not take part in the same footing. This therefore calls for a better government that will have honor for legitimate, political and democratic process.

Current Global Economic Situation

This is an economy which comprises all the economies of the world. The issue of globalization brought a great revolution in the economy of the world. This revolution comprised of merging of trade markets, free trade in international stock markets and many more. Initially, this impacted nations in a positive way (Harman 18). There was expansion of markets and industries, creation of employment opportunities for both the young and old the people and a paradigm shift from job search to creation of jobs. More so was the issue of innovation that brought about great investment both in foreign and indigenous countries.

Developed and developing countries have had different effects due to the dynamic global economy. Currently, the economy is at its worst. The economic metrics stand at a free fall at the moment. Some are quite rapid that it has become so scary. The situation has continued to deepen day by day from banks bail out to individual country bail outs.

Central to this crisis is the unavailability of basic commodities such as food. In addition, oil prices have posed the hardest hit to most countries. The oil crisis was brought about by the unstable situation in Japan and Northern part of America. These unrests led to reduced production of oil from the main oil producing countries such as Libya. The rising oil prices have been due to the scarce in the commodity or the raw material. This crisis has also translated to the current energy crisis

On the other hand is food crisis. This has also arisen due to globalization of the economy. Increased industries led to the deterioration of the environment. This consequently led to global warming. Global warming has had a great impact on Agriculture. The climate of the globe has changed tremendously towards the negative. This has contributed to the accumulation of greenhouse gases hence global warming.

Therefore the climate has changed affecting the agricultural activities. This has directly affected food prices mostly for people living in poor countries and the Asian community. This has since resulted in high increase in food prices. For instance, in Asia the food prices have increased to 10%. This has affected about sixty five million people in the country.

Another factor that has put the current economy at risk is the weakening of the Dollar. This has led to the rapid rise in market prices. The American people have huge debts to pay hence this has greatly affected their economy and even the grand global economy. Goods traded across the global market are as expensive as has never been experienced before.

The most affected are the developing countries which have to add an extra coin to get goods across the global market. There has been cumulative unemployment for fresh college students in both developing and developed nations. Also there has been a rebound in the trade globally. In 2010 the increase in trade was about 12% which was positive.

Resolution for the Crisis

The main resolution strategy to the current economic crisis is the issue of changing policies. This can be achieved by using neutral bodies that can help save the matter starting with the matters that are of priorities. First of all the weakening of the Dollar is one crisis that should be resolved. It actually affects the global markets and hence touches every part of the world. The crisis in the economic sector unfortunately combines almost all international affairs from trade, agriculture, social status, political status and many more affairs.

This then means that there is need to restructure the financial operations. As mentioned above, a policy reform is the ways to go. International organizations dealing with specific global issues should sit down and allow room for policy interventions that will be able to advocate for the independence of countries in terms of control of each country resources (Pacula etal., 276).

For instance, every country should have the sovereign authority to strategize on self sufficiency. That is, every country should have the capacity to state their productivity, consumption and even surplus without being influenced externally. Central regulation has proven to lack transparency hence failure in the part of governance.

The issue of central control can be avoided by having each country regulate their resources and present what they have to the international organizations. This does not mean that the mandates of these international organizations are being neglected but it means that the essence of external interventions is nullified.

Another critical sector that needs quick salvaging is the financial sector. There are policies that were imposed by the World health organization, World Bank, international Monetary Fund and the regional and bilateral trade (Pacula etal., 276).

These policies have tremendously caused the current financial crisis that has been predicted to last for about two years before it picks up in a steady state. It is speculated that the years 2012 and 2013 will be bad years for more so the developed countries. Controls such as the forced quotas, regulated market prizes, control of imports should be solely left within the agreements by countries.

In the case of finances, the issue of financial literacy needs to be worked out. The current crisis means that there has been inefficiency in management of money matters. It there was a well sophisticated system able to work out the financial problem and even speculate the trends in an actual way then the issue of global crisis could not be a pandemic at the moment. For example, the issue of high mortgage ownership in developed countries has led to the banks running in huge debts hence a need for bailouts.

If there were plans put in place to train the consumers who were taking credits then there would not be the issue of debt default. This would mean that the consumers would be aware of the steps they are taking and would only participate in taking debts that they are able to clear. This can also translate in the global credit acquisition by countries. There have been increasing complexities in the financial markets both in individual countries and globally. Having financial literacy would solve the issue of this crisis.

Approach to Crisis Resolution

Fortunately, these approaches are underway as there have been non partisan groups that are lobbying for reforms and policy change in international organizations. Having and ear for the cry of these lobbyists will be a good step taken by the developed countries and even the international organization in working out the crisis. Therefore, to have success, there should be great interest by these organizations and countries to take part in reforms especially on the issue of financial education which is very important.

Harman, Chris. “Financial and Economic Crisis”. The Guardian Weekly 3 Aug. 2007: 18. Print.

Pacula etal. “Politics of the United Nations”. Journal of Political Economy . 95.2 (2006): 107-300. Print.

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Public Health

Millions of american families struggle to get food on the table, report finds.

Maria Godoy

The increase in food insecurity in 2022 reverses a decade-long decline in the number of U.S. households experiencing hunger. Justin Sullivan/Getty Images hide caption

The increase in food insecurity in 2022 reverses a decade-long decline in the number of U.S. households experiencing hunger.

Just putting three meals a day on the table was a struggle for millions of people in the U.S. last year. That's the sobering conclusion of a new report from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which found hunger in the U.S. rose sharply in 2022.

The report found that 44.2 million people lived in households that had difficulty getting enough food to feed everyone in 2022, up from 33.8 million people the year prior. Those families include more than 13 million children experiencing food insecurity, a jump of nearly 45 percent from 2021.

"These numbers are more than statistics. They paint a picture of just how many Americans faced the heartbreaking challenge last year of struggling to meet a basic need for themselves and their children," U.S. Secretary of Agriculture Tom Vilsack said in a statement.

The findings reverse a decade-long decline in hunger and food insecurity in the U.S. And they reflect the loss of several pandemic-era measures designed to strengthen the social safety net, says Elaine Waxman , a senior fellow at the Urban Institute who studies food insecurity and federal nutrition programs.

" A lot of the programs that had buffered people's experience during the pandemic were retired or rolled back in some way ," Waxman says.

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Pandemic food assistance that held back hunger comes to an end.

Those programs included an expanded child tax credit that gave families with children extra money, temporarily increased benefits from the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program, or SNAP – formerly known as food stamps – and free school meals for every child.

At the same time, food prices and housing costs have shot up, says Kelly Horton , chief program officer at the Food Research and Action Center. And she points out an increasing number of Americans are working in unstable gig-economy jobs, like delivering groceries, driving for ride-share services or completing tasks on demand.

" So all of these things converging...we have a lot of people who are living on the edge," Horton says.

In its report, the USDA found that nearly 7 million households were so financially squeezed last year that they had to skip meals at times because there wasn't enough food to go around. Almost all of these households said they couldn't afford to eat balanced meals. In some 381,000 households with children, kids also experienced the pangs of hunger – skipping meals or going the whole day without eating. Waxman notes this could have significant health consequences, especially for kids.

"In particular, we worry about that for children because their trajectory now influences what happens to them later," says Waxman. She notes research has found children who experience food insecurity are more likely to experience worse health outcomes down the road, including cognitive or developmental delays and higher rates of hospitalization.

Overall, households with children and those of color experienced food insecurity at significantly higher rates than the national average. The rates of hunger for Black and Latino households were both more than double the rates for white households.

Congress tackles food stamp changes in the farm bill

Food access advocates say the findings underscore the importance of protecting social safety-net programs. Right now, there's particular concern when it comes to the fate of the food assistance program known as WIC , which serves pregnant mothers and young children up to age 5.

Since the pandemic-era increases to SNAP benefits ended, more families have been turning to WIC for help with food, says Nell Menefee-Libey , public policy manager at the National WIC Association.

" We know that more families are turning to the program and find themselves needing support from WIC who may previously have not been using WIC services," Menefee-Libey says.

But some lawmakers have proposed funding cuts to WIC benefits, even as the program needs additional funding to serve the increased number of families that are seeking assistance, says Horton of FRAC.

"So there could be a case where WIC runs out of money if Congress does not give them additional funds," Horton says.

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Food Security Update | World Bank Response to Rising Food Insecurity

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Latest Update – July 1, 2024

Domestic food price inflation remains high in many low- and middle-income countries. Inflation higher than 5% is experienced in 59.1% of low-income countries (no change since the last update on May 30, 2024), 63% of lower-middle-income countries (no change), 36% of upper-middle-income countries (5.0 percentage points higher), and 10.9 percent of high-income countries (3.6 percentage points lower). In real terms, food price inflation exceeded overall inflation in 46.7% of the 167 countries where data is available.

Download the latest brief on rising food insecurity and World Bank responses

Since the last update on May 30, 2024, the agricultural, cereal, and export price indices closed 8%, 10%, and 9% lower, respectively. A fall in cocoa (16%) and cotton (11%) prices drove the decrease in the export price index. Maize and wheat prices closed 8% and 23% lower, respectively, and rice closed at the same level. Maize prices are 28% lower, wheat prices 8% higher, and rice prices 18% higher on a year-on-year basis. Maize prices are 10% higher, wheat prices 5% lower, and rice prices 46% higher than in January 2020. (See “ pink sheet”  data for agricultural commodity and food commodity prices indices, updated monthly.)

In the latest Hunger Hotspots report covering the period between June and October 2024, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and World Food Programme (WFP) have issued a joint warning about the escalating food insecurity crisis in 18 critical hotspots comprising 17 countries or territories and one regional cluster. Mali, the Palestinian Territories, South Sudan, and Sudan are of the highest concern, and Haiti is newly added because of escalating violence by non-state armed groups. These areas are experiencing famine or are at severe risk, requiring urgent action to prevent catastrophic conditions. The report emphasizes the critical need for expanded humanitarian assistance in all 18 hotspots to protect livelihoods and increase access to food. Early intervention is crucial to mitigate food gaps and prevent further deterioration into famine conditions. The international community is urged to invest in integrated solutions that address the multifaceted causes of food insecurity, ensuring sustainable support beyond emergency responses to build resilience and stability in affected regions.

A new report from the Integrated Food Security Phase Classification (IPC) confirms that the food insecurity situation in Gaza continues to be catastrophic. High risk of famine will persist across the whole Gaza Strip as long as conflict continues, and humanitarian access is restricted. The report finds that 96% of the population, equivalent to 2.15 million people, face acute food insecurity (IPC Phase 3 or above), with 495,000 individuals experiencing catastrophic levels of food insecurity (IPC Phase 5) through September 2024. The gravity of the situation is a reminder of the urgent need to make sure food and other supplies reach all people in Gaza. Only cessation of hostilities in conjunction with sustained humanitarian access to the entire Gaza Strip can reduce the risk of famine occurring in the Gaza Strip, the report argues.

The AMIS Market Monitor for June 2024 highlights the initial forecasts for global cereal production released in May, underscoring significant uncertainty because planting of many crops is pending in the Northern hemisphere. The report scrutinizes the validity of early projections for 2024/25 wheat production, now challenged by adverse weather conditions such as drought and prolonged frost in key Russian regions that affect yield expectations. Consequently, world wheat export prices rose in May, driven by mounting concerns over production constraints, particularly in the Black Sea region. Given wheat's critical role as a staple food with limited substitutes, importing nations are closely monitoring developments for potential impacts on food security.

Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, trade-related policies imposed by countries have surged. The global food crisis has been partially made worse by the growing number of food and fertilizer trade restrictions put in place by countries with a goal of increasing domestic supply and reducing prices. As of June 26, 2024, 16 countries have implemented 22 food export bans, and 8 have implemented 15 export-limiting measures.

World Bank Action

Our food and nutrition security portfolio now spans across 90 countries. It includes both short term interventions such as expanding social protection, also longer-term resilience such as boosting productivity and climate-smart agriculture. The Bank's intervention is expected to benefit 296 million people. Some examples include:

• In Honduras, the Rural Competitiveness Project series (COMRURAL II and III) aims to generate entrepreneurship and employment opportunities while promoting a climate-conscious, nutrition-smart strategy in agri-food value chains. To date, the program is benefiting around 6,287 rural small-scale producers (of which 33% are women, 15% youth, and 11% indigenous) of coffee, vegetables, dairy, honey, and other commodities through enhanced market connections and adoption of improved agricultural technologies and has created 6,678 new jobs.
• In Honduras, the Corredor Seco Food Security Project (PROSASUR) strives to enhance food security for impoverished and vulnerable rural households in the country’s Dry Corridor. This project has supported 12,202 extremely vulnerable families through nutrition-smart agricultural subprojects, food security plans, community nutrition plans, and nutrition and hygiene education. Within the beneficiary population, 70% of children under the age of five and their mothers now have a dietary diversity score of at least 4 (i.e., consume at least four food groups).
• The $2.75 billion  Food Systems Resilience Program for Eastern and Southern Africa , helps countries in Eastern and Southern Africa increase the resilience of the region’s food systems and ability to tackle growing food insecurity. Now in phase three, the program will enhance inter-agency food crisis response also boost medium- and long-term efforts for resilient agricultural production, sustainable development of natural resources, expanded market access, and a greater focus on food systems resilience in policymaking.
• A  $95 million credit from IDA for the Malawi Agriculture Commercialization Project (AGCOM) to increase commercialization of select agriculture value chain products and to provide immediate and effective response to an eligible crisis or emergency.
• The  $200 million IDA grant for Madagascar  to strengthen decentralized service delivery, upgrade water supply, restore and protect landscapes, and strengthen the resilience of food and livelihood systems in the drought-prone ‘Grand Sud’ .
• A $60 million credit for the Integrated Community Development Project that works with refugees and host communities in four northern provinces of Burundi to improve food and nutrition security, build socio-economic infrastructure, and support micro-enterprise development through a participatory approach.
• The $175 million Sahel Irrigation Initiative Regional Support Project is helping build resilience and boost productivity of agricultural and pastoral activities in Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, and Senegal. More than 130,000 farmers and members of pastoral communities are benefiting from small and medium-sized irrigation initiatives. The project is building a portfolio of bankable irrigation investment projects of around 68,000 ha, particularly in medium and large-scale irrigation in the Sahel region.
• Through the $50 million Emergency Food Security Response project , 329,000 smallholder farmers in Central Africa Republic have received seeds, farming tools and training in agricultural and post-harvest techniques to boost crop production and become more resilient to climate and conflict risks.
• The $15 million Guinea Bissau Emergency Food Security Project is helping increase agriculture production and  access to food to vulnerable families. Over 72,000 farmers have received drought-resistant and high-yielding seeds, fertilizers, agricultural equipment; and livestock vaccines for the country-wide vaccination program. In addition, 8,000 vulnerable households have received cash transfer to purchase food and tackle food insecurity.
• The $60 million Accelerating the Impact of CGIAR Research for Africa (AICCRA) project has reached nearly 3 million African farmers (39% women) with critical climate smart agriculture tools and information services in partnership with the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers (CGIAR). These tools and services are helping farmers to increase production and build resilience in the face of climate crisis. In Mali, studies showed that farmers using recommendations from the AICCRA-supported RiceAdvice had on average 0.9 ton per hectare higher yield and US$320 per hectare higher income.
• The $766 million West Africa Food Systems Resilience Program is working to increase preparedness against food insecurity and improve the resilience of food systems in West Africa. The program is increasing digital advisory services for agriculture and food crisis prevention and management, boosting adaption capacity of agriculture system actors, and investing in regional food market integration and trade to increase food security. An additional $345 million is currently under preparation for Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togo.
• A $150 million grant for the second phase of the Yemen Food Security Response and Resilience Project, which will help address food insecurity, strengthen resilience and protect livelihoods.
• $50 million grant of additional financing for Tajikistan  to mitigate food and nutrition insecurity impacts on households and enhance the overall resilience of the agriculture sector.
• A $125 million project in Jordan aims to strengthen the development the agriculture sector by enhancing its climate resilience, increasing competitiveness and inclusion, and ensuring medium- to long-term food security.
• A  $300 million project in Bolivia  that will contribute to increasing food security, market access and the adoption of climate-smart agricultural practices.
• A  $315 million loan to support Chad, Ghana and Sierra Leone  to increase their preparedness against food insecurity and to improve the resilience of their food systems.
• A  $500 million Emergency Food Security and Resilience Support Project  to bolster Egypt's efforts to ensure that poor and vulnerable households have uninterrupted access to bread, help strengthen the country's resilience to food crises, and support to reforms that will help improve nutritional outcomes.
• A  $130 million loan for Tunisia , seeking to lessen the impact of the Ukraine war by financing vital soft wheat imports and providing emergency support to cover barley imports for dairy production and seeds for smallholder farmers for the upcoming planting season.

In May 2022, the World Bank Group and the G7 Presidency co-convened  the Global Alliance for Food Security , which aims to catalyze an immediate and concerted response to the unfolding global hunger crisis. The Alliance has developed the publicly accessible Global Food and Nutrition Security Dashboard , which provides timely information for global and local decision-makers to help improve coordination of the policy and financial response to the food crisis.

The heads of the FAO, IMF, World Bank Group, WFP, and WTO released a Third Joint Statement on February 8, 2023. The statement calls to prevent a worsening of the food and nutrition security crisis, further urgent actions are required to (i) rescue hunger hotspots, (ii) facilitate trade, improve the functioning of markets, and enhance the role of the private sector, and (iii) reform and repurpose harmful subsidies with careful targeting and efficiency. Countries should balance short-term urgent interventions with longer-term resilience efforts as they respond to the crisis.

Last Updated: Jul 01, 2024

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Food Insecurity and Hunger in the United States: An Assessment of the Measure (2006)

Chapter: executive summary, executive summary.

T he United States is viewed by the world as a country with plenty of food, yet not all households in America are food secure, meaning access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life. A proportion of the population experiences food insecurity at some time in a given year because of food deprivation and lack of access to food due to economic resource constraints. Still, food insecurity in the United States is not of the same intensity as in some developing countries.

Since 1995 the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has annually published statistics on the extent of food insecurity and food insecurity with hunger in U.S. households. These estimates are based on a survey measure developed by the U.S. Food Security Measurement Project, an ongoing collaboration among federal agencies, academic researchers, and private organizations. It is an experiential measure based on reported behaviors, experiences, and conditions in response to questions in a household survey. The measure was developed over the course of several years in response to the National Nutrition Monitoring and Related Research Act of 1990 (NNMRR). The legislation specifically called for development of a standardized mechanism and instrument(s) for defining and obtaining data on the prevalence of food insecurity in the United States and methodologies that can be used across the NNMRR programs and at the state and local levels.

The USDA estimates of food insecurity are based on data collected annually in the Food Security Supplement (FSS) to the Current Population Survey (CPS). On the basis of the number of food-insecure conditions reported, households are classified into one of three categories for purposes

of monitoring and statistical analysis of the food security of the U.S. population: (1) food secure , (2) food insecure without hunger , and (3) food insecure with hunger.

The USDA estimates, published in a series of annual reports, are widely used by government agencies, the media, and advocacy groups to report the extent of food insecurity and hunger in the United States, to monitor progress toward national objectives, to evaluate the impact of particular public policies and programs, as a standard by which the performance of USDA programs is measured, and as a basis for a diverse body of research relating to food assistance programs.

In addition, USDA has a program of research for improving the measurement and understanding of food security. Despite these efforts, some major questions continue to be raised regarding the underlying concepts, the estimation methods, and the design and clarity of the questions used to construct the food insecurity scale.

PANEL CHARGE

USDA requested the Committee on National Statistics of the National Academies to convene a panel of experts to undertake a two-year study in two phases to review at this 10-year mark the concepts and methodology for measuring food insecurity and hunger and the uses of the measures. The specific tasks to be addressed in Phase 1 of the study were:

the appropriateness of a household survey as a vehicle for monitoring on a regular basis the prevalence of food insecurity among the general population and within broad population subgroups, including measuring frequency and duration;

the appropriateness of identifying hunger as a severe range of food insecurity in such a survey-based measurement method;

the appropriateness, in principle and in application, of item response theory and the Rasch model as a statistical basis for measuring food insecurity;

the appropriateness of the threshold scores that demarcate food insecurity categories—particularly the categories “food insecure with hunger” and “food insecure with hunger among children”—and the labeling and interpretation of each category;

the applicability of the current measure of the prevalence of food insecurity with hunger for assessing the effectiveness of USDA food assistance programs, in connection with the Government Performance and Results Act performance goals for the Food and Nutrition Service; and

future directions to consider for strengthening measures of hunger prevalence for monitoring, evaluation, and related research purposes.

In Phase 2 of the study the panel was to consider in more depth the issues raised in Phase 1 relating to the concepts and methods used to measure food security and make recommendations as appropriate. In addition, the panel was asked to address and make recommendations on:

the content of the 18 items and the set of food security scales based on them currently used by USDA to measure food insecurity;

how best to incorporate and represent information about food security of both adults and children at the household level;

how best to incorporate information on food insecurity in prevalence measures;

needs and priorities for developing separate, tailored food security scales for population subgroups, for example, households versus individuals, all individuals versus children, and the general population versus homeless persons; and

future directions to consider for strengthening measures of food insecurity prevalence for monitoring, evaluation, and related research purposes throughout the national nutrition monitoring system.

The Committee on National Statistics appointed a panel of 10 experts to examine the above issues. In order to provide timely guidance to USDA, the panel issued an interim Phase 1 report, Measuring Food Insecurity and Hunger: Phase 1 Report . That report presented the panel’s preliminary assessments of the food security concepts and definitions; the appropriateness of identifying hunger as a severe range of food insecurity in such a survey-based measurement method; questions for measuring these concepts; and the appropriateness of a household survey for regularly monitoring food security in the U.S. population. It provided interim guidance for the continued production of the food security estimates. This final report primarily focuses on the Phase 2 charge. The major findings and conclusions based on the panel’s review and deliberations are summarized below, followed by the text of all of the recommendations.

FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

Concepts and definitions.

The broad conceptual definitions of food security and insecurity developed by the expert panel convened in 1989 by the Life Sciences Research Office (LSRO) of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental

Biology have served as the basis for the standardized operational definitions used for estimating food security in the United States. Food security according to the LSRO definition means access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life. Food insecurity exists whenever the availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods or the ability to acquire acceptable foods in socially acceptable ways is limited or uncertain. Food insecurity as measured in the United States refers to the social and economic problem of lack of food due to resource or other constraints, not voluntary fasting or dieting or because of illness or for other reasons. Although lack of economic resources is the most common constraint, food insecurity can also be experienced when food is available and accessible but cannot be used because of physical or other constraints, such as limited physical functioning by elderly people or those with disabilities.

Food insecurity is measured as a household-level concept that refers to uncertain, insufficient, or unacceptable availability, access, or utilization of food. It is therefore households that are classified as food secure or food insecure. It means that one can measure and report the number of people who are in food-insecure households (even though not everyone in the household need be food insecure themselves). When a household contains one or more food-insecure persons, the household is considered food insecure.

A full understanding of food insecurity requires the incorporation of its frequency and duration because more frequent or longer duration of periods of food insecurity indicate a more serious problem. Frequency and duration are therefore important elements for USDA to consider in the concept, operational definition, and measurement of household food insecurity and individual hunger.

The LSRO conceptual definition of hunger adopted by the interagency group on food security measurement is: “The uneasy or painful sensation caused by a lack of food, the recurrent and involuntary lack of access to food. Hunger may produce malnutrition over time…. Hunger … is a potential, although not necessary, consequence of food insecurity” (Anderson, 1990, pp. 1575, 1576). This language does not provide a clear conceptual basis for what hunger should mean as part of the measurement of food insecurity. The first phrase “the uneasy or painful sensation caused by a lack of food” refers to a possible consequence of food insecurity. The second phrase “the recurrent and involuntary lack of access to food” refers to the whole problem of food insecurity, the social and economic problem of lack of food as defined above.

Unlike food insecurity, which is a household-level concept, hunger is an individual-level concept. The Household Food Security Survey Module (HFSSM) in the Food Security Supplement to the CPS measures food insecurity at the household level; it does not measure the condition of hunger at

the individual level. The HFSSM does include items that are related to being hungry. Some or all of these items are probably appropriate in the food insecurity scale, but they contribute to the measurement of food insecurity and not the measurement of hunger.

The panel therefore concludes that hunger is a concept distinct from food insecurity, which is an indicator of and possible consequence of food insecurity, that can be useful in characterizing severity of food insecurity. Hunger itself is an important concept that should be measured at the individual level distinct from, but in the context of, food insecurity.

The broad conceptual definition of household food insecurity includes more elements than are included in the current USDA measure of food insecurity. Not all elements of the consensus conceptual definition of food insecurity have been incorporated into the USDA measurement of food insecurity in the United States. It was a decision of the Food Security Measurement Project to limit the operational definition and measurement approach to only those aspects of food insecurity that can be captured in a household-level survey. The other conceptually separable aspects of food insecurity are potentially distinct empirical dimensions. For example, the measurement does not include the supply of food or its safety or nutritional quality; these additional aspects would require developing measures and fielding separate surveys to measure them. Moreover, the food supply in the United States is generally regarded as safe, and nutritional adequacy is already assessed by other elements of the nutrition monitoring system, in particular the continuing National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. The panel therefore concludes that it is neither required nor necessarily appropriate for USDA to attempt to measure all the elements of the broad conceptual definition of food insecurity as part of the HFSSM.

The labeling used to categorize food insecurity is at the heart of the criticism of the current measurement system. In particular, the category “food insecure with hunger” has come under scrutiny because of disagreement over whether hunger is actually measured. The rationale for including hunger in the label for the classification is understandable. Hunger is a politically sensitive and evocative concept that conjures images of severe deprivation, and the HFSSM does include some items that are specifically related to hunger. However, the measurement of food insecurity rather than hunger is the primary focus of the HFSSM. As an indication of the severity of food insecurity, the HFSSM asks the household respondent if in the past 12 months she or he has experienced being hungry because of lack of food due to resource constraints. This is not the same as evaluating individual members of the household in a survey as to whether or not they have experienced hunger . The panel urges USDA to consider alternate labels to convey the severity of food insecurity without the problems inherent in the current labels.

Survey Measurement of Food Insecurity and Hunger

The panel reviewed the current questions used to measure food insecurity and hunger, considered the relationship among the three major aspects of food insecurity and hunger embodied in the questions (whether the household experienced uncertainty, the perception of insufficiency in quality of diet, and reduced food intake or the feeling of hunger), and identified several design issues in the HFSSM that should be addressed.

USDA’s food security scale measures the severity of food insecurity in surveyed households and classifies their food security status during the previous year. The frequency of food insecurity and the duration of spells of insecurity are not assessed directly in the HFSSM questions that are used to classify households by food security status. Although some of the response options do offer the choice of “often, sometimes, or never,” these response options are not sufficient measures of frequency, and they are not included in the construction of the scale. In addition to the items in the HFSSM, the full supplement includes questions that focus on duration. However, these questions are not part of the 18-item HFSSM, although they have been used in research to estimate the percentage of the population that is food insecure on a given day in a given month. A recent study undertaken by USDA researchers examined the extent to which food insecurity and hunger are occasional, recurring, or frequent in the U.S. households that experience them. The panel recommends further research on the frequency and duration of food insecurity.

The panel reviewed the 18 items that constitute the food insecurity scales as well as the entire questionnaire module in which these are embedded and found many issues of questionnaire design. Consistent terminology, clustering questions so as to focus on a specific reference person or reference group (e.g., the respondent, all adults in the household, all children in the household) and on a specific reference period (e.g., 12 months versus 30 days), and developing response options that most closely map to the respondent’s representation of the behavior or attitude are all means by which questions can be designed to reduce cognitive burden and thereby improve the validity and reliability of the measures. Inevitably, questionnaire design requires balancing multiple intents and principles, and there is no perfect questionnaire design. Nevertheless, the panel concludes that the questions in the HFSSM in particular and the FSS in general can be improved by attending to these design principles to the extent possible.

Item Response Theory

USDA uses the Rasch model, a specific type of item response theory (IRT) model, to estimate the food insecurity of households. Several issues

have been raised about the use of IRT models in the measurement of food insecurity and, in particular, the use of the Rasch model.

The panel reviewed IRT and related statistical models and discussed their use and applicability to the development of such classifications as food insecurity. The panel recommends modifications of the current IRT methodology used by USDA to increase the amount of information that is used and to make the methodology more appropriate to the types of data that are currently collected using the Food Security Supplement to the Current Population Survey.

The panel reviewed how the latent variable models are estimated and issues of identifiability of these models and how IRT models are used by USDA in the measurement of food insecurity. On the basis of this review, the panel suggests how the models might be used in better ways to accomplish this measurement and recommends a simple way to modify the existing models currently used by USDA to take into account the polytomous nature of the data collected.

Survey Vehicles to Measure Food Insecurity and Hunger

USDA bases its annual report and estimates of the prevalence of food insecurity on data collected from the Food Security Supplement to the Current Population Survey. The Household Food Security Survey Module, or a modification of it, is or has been used in several surveys. One of the main objectives of the annual food insecurity measure is to monitor the estimated prevalence of food insecurity, as well as changes in its prevalence over time, at the national and state levels to assess both program policies and the possible need for program development.

After reviewing the key features of selected national surveys—the Current Population Survey, the National Health Interview Survey, the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, and the Survey of Income and Program Participation—the panel compared the relative merits of each, for either carrying the Food Security Supplement or conducting research to supplement the information obtained from it. The panel recommends research and testing to understand better the strengths and weaknesses of each survey in relation to the Current Population Survey, leading to the selection of a specific survey vehicle for the Food Security Supplement, or for supplementing that information for research purposes.

Food Insecurity Estimates as a Measure of Program Performance Assessment

Currently, the Food and Nutrition Service in USDA uses trends in the prevalence of food insecurity with hunger based on the HFSSM as a mea-

sure of its annual performance to implement the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (GPRA). That law requires government agencies to account for progress toward intended results of their activities. It requires that specific performance goals be established and that annual measurement of these output goals be undertaken to determine the success or failure of the program. The panel was asked to comment on the applicability of these data for this purpose.

The panel concludes that an overall national estimate of food insecurity is not appropriate as a measure for meeting the requirements of the GPRA. Even an appropriate measure of food insecurity or hunger using appropriate samples would not be a useful performance indicator of food assistance programs, because their performance is only one of many factors that result in food insecurity or hunger. Consequently, changes in food insecurity and hunger could be due to many factors other than the performance of the food safety net.

The panel concludes that relying exclusively on trends in prevalence estimates of food insecurity as an indicator of program results is inappropriate. To assess program results, a better understanding is needed of the transitions into and out of poverty made by low-income households and the kind of unexpected changes that frequently bring about alterations—for good or bad—in households participating in food assistance programs.

The panel is impressed with the extensive research thus far undertaken, and with the continuing research carried out by USDA. The panel urges that the research program be continued and makes several recommendations for its direction in the future.

The panel concludes that the measurement both of food insecurity and of hunger is important. The recommendations in the report are intended to improve these measurements, so that policy makers and the public can be better informed. Toward this end, the panel has recommended research efforts that should lead to improved concepts, definitions, and measurement of food insecurity and hunger. The panel has provided a detailed discussion of the analytical methods used by USDA and made recommendations for further research to improve the accuracy of the food insecurity scale and on survey alternatives. The panel recognizes that such research will take time.

RECOMMENDATIONS

On the basis of its findings and conclusions, the panel presents recommendations in five areas: concepts and definitions, labeling of food insecu-

rity data outcomes, survey measurement, item response theory and food insecurity, and survey vehicles to measure food insecurity and hunger. The text of the recommendations, grouped according to these areas, follows, keyed to the chapter in which they appear in the body of the report.

This page intentionally left blank.

The United States is viewed by the world as a country with plenty of food, yet not all households in America are food secure, meaning access at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life. A proportion of the population experiences food insecurity at some time in a given year because of food deprivation and lack of access to food due to economic resource constraints. Still, food insecurity in the United States is not of the same intensity as in some developing countries. Since 1995 the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has annually published statistics on the extent of food insecurity and food insecurity with hunger in U.S. households. These estimates are based on a survey measure developed by the U.S. Food Security Measurement Project, an ongoing collaboration among federal agencies, academic researchers, and private organizations.

USDA requested the Committee on National Statistics of the National Academies to convene a panel of experts to undertake a two-year study in two phases to review at this 10-year mark the concepts and methodology for measuring food insecurity and hunger and the uses of the measure. In Phase 2 of the study the panel was to consider in more depth the issues raised in Phase 1 relating to the concepts and methods used to measure food security and make recommendations as appropriate.

The Committee on National Statistics appointed a panel of 10 experts to examine the above issues. In order to provide timely guidance to USDA, the panel issued an interim Phase 1 report, Measuring Food Insecurity and Hunger: Phase 1 Report. That report presented the panel's preliminary assessments of the food security concepts and definitions; the appropriateness of identifying hunger as a severe range of food insecurity in such a survey-based measurement method; questions for measuring these concepts; and the appropriateness of a household survey for regularly monitoring food security in the U.S. population. It provided interim guidance for the continued production of the food security estimates. This final report primarily focuses on the Phase 2 charge. The major findings and conclusions based on the panel's review and deliberations are summarized.

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Food Insecurity and Health: Practices and Policies to Address Food Insecurity among Children

Heather hartline-grafton.

a Food Research & Action Center (H Hartline-Grafton), Washington, DC

Sandra G. Hassink

b AAP Institute for Healthy Childhood Weight (SG Hassink), Itasca, Ill

Pediatricians can and should play a critical role in addressing food insecurity, a health-related social need with harmful impacts on child health, development, and well-being. 1 Food insecurity is a term defined by the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) that indicates that the availability of nutritionally adequate and safe food, or the ability to acquire such food, is limited or uncertain for a household. 2 A variety of strategies exist for pediatricians to address food insecurity among children in the United States, including screening for food insecurity in health care settings, connecting children and their families to the benefits in the federal nutrition programs, and advocating for policies to alleviate food insecurity and its root causes. 1 This commentary will briefly describe the prevalence of and risk factors for food insecurity among children, consequences of food insecurity for children, federal nutrition programs that improve household food security and child health, and actions pediatricians can take in their practice and through advocacy to meaningfully address food insecurity among children.

Food Insecurity Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Consequences

Food insecurity is a significant public health concern given the high prevalence and negative consequences for nutrition, health, and well-being. In 2018, approximately 11.2 million children lived in food-insecure households. 2 This represents 15.2% of all children. Research shows that certain households with children are more vulnerable to food insecurity, including those headed by a single female, Black or Hispanic, and households with incomes under 185% of the federal poverty line. 2 US-citizen children of immigrant mothers also face an increased risk of household food insecurity. 3 Furthermore, an emerging body of evidence indicates that the COVID-19 pandemic has increased food insecurity among US families and children, with one report concluding that, based on April 2020 data, “young children are experiencing food insecurity to an extent unprecedented in modern times.” 4 , 5

While food insecurity has direct and indirect consequences across the lifespan, food insecurity—and even marginal food security (a less severe level of food insecurity) 6 , 7 —is especially detrimental to the health, development, and well-being of children. 1 , 8 Research shows a link for children between food insecurity and low birth weight, 9 , 10 birth defects, 11 iron deficiency anemia, 12 , 13 poor or fair health status, 14 , 15 poor dietary quality and less physical activity, 16 cardiometabolic risk factors, 17 high blood pressure, 18 more frequent colds and stomachaches, 19 asthma, 20 lower bone density (among boys), 21 untreated dental caries (ie, tooth decay), 22 developmental risk, 23 behavioral and social-emotional problems (eg, hyperactivity), 24 , 25 mental health problems (eg, depression, anxiety, suicidal ideation), 26 , 27 poor educational performance and academic outcomes, 28 , 29 and increased hospitalizations and hospital charges. 6 , 30

Research also links food insecurity in households with young children to unfavorable outcomes for the family unit, including increased maternal depressive symptoms and parental arguing. 31 These findings are not surprising given the heightened stress and pressure facing parents with low incomes who struggle to feed their families. 1 Furthermore, because of limited financial resources, families who are food insecure may use coping strategies to stretch budgets that are harmful for health and nutrition, such as diluting or rationing infant formula 32 or making trade-offs between food and other basic necessities (eg, housing, medicine). 33

Finally, food insecurity can complicate and compound the health challenges and expenses faced by households with children who have special health care needs—populations at high risk for food insecurity. 34 , 35 For example, children with epilepsy living in food-insecure households have significantly worse health-related quality of life and more medication side effects than their counterparts in food-secure households. 36

Federal Nutrition Programs That Improve Child Health and Well-Being

One critical strategy to address food insecurity and its negative consequences is to connect children and their families to the major federal nutrition programs that benefit children and their families – that is, the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP); Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC); National School Lunch Program; School Breakfast Program; Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP); Summer Nutrition Programs; and Afterschool Nutrition Programs. The Table provides descriptions of these programs, all of which are administered by the USDA.

Federal Nutrition Programs Available to Children *

There is considerable evidence about the effective role that participation in the federal nutrition programs plays in alleviating food insecurity and poverty. For instance, children in households that participated in SNAP for 6 months are approximately one-third less likely to be food insecure than children in households recently approved for SNAP but not yet receiving it, based on a national sample of SNAP households with children. 37 WIC reduces the prevalence of household food insecurity by at least 20%, based on a national sample of children under the age of 5 who lived in households that were income-eligible for WIC. 38 Additional peer-reviewed studies demonstrate improvements in food security with school breakfast, 39 , 40 school lunch, 41 , 42 summer meals, 43 , 44 and CACFP 45 participation.

In terms of poverty, SNAP, school lunch, and WIC lifted 3.2 million, 1.4 million, and 302,000 people above the poverty line in 2018, respectively, based on Census Bureau data on poverty and income in the United States. 46 These national figures include approximately 1.3 million, 800,000, and 169,000 children, respectively.

Beyond their antihunger and antipoverty impacts, the federal nutrition programs are important health interventions for children in the short and long terms. For instance, children participating in SNAP are less likely to have obesity, underweight, developmental risk, nutritional risk, or fair or poor health status 47 , 48 ; less likely to be hospitalized 49 ; and their families are less likely to report health cost sacrifices. 48 Access to SNAP in utero and in early childhood also reduces the incidence of metabolic syndrome in adulthood and, for women, increases economic self-sufficiency and reports of being in good health in adulthood. 50

Prenatal or early childhood participation in WIC is associated with improved dietary intake and quality, 51 , 52 weight outcomes, 53 immunization rates, 54 , 55 cognitive development and school performance, 56 and birth outcomes (including a lower risk of preterm birth, low birth weight, and perinatal death). 57 , 58 WIC is cost-saving, too, investing $1 in prenatal WIC services saves about $2.48 in medical, educational, and productivity costs over a newborn's lifetime by preventing preterm birth, based on simulations of WIC participation in California. 59

Participation in CACFP, a program primarily targeting infants and young children, is associated with better dietary intake, 60 , 61 improved weight outcomes, 60 , 62 and a lower likelihood of being hospitalized or in fair or poor health. 63

For school-aged children, national and local studies demonstrate the value of school breakfast and lunch in improving student dietary intake and quality. 64 , 65 The programs support and improve student health, including weight-related outcomes such as overweight or obesity, 41 , 66 and program participation, particularly for school breakfast, is associated with improved school attendance and academic performance. 67 , 68 Furthermore, summer nutrition programs are an important strategy for preventing summer weight gain 69 , 70 and learning loss among school-aged children. 71 , 72 Similarly, the afterschool nutrition programs provide good nutrition and enrichment activities during out-of-school time periods. 73

Pediatricians’ Role in Addressing Food Insecurity

In a 2015 policy statement, Promoting Food Security for All Children , the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) recommended that “pediatricians engage in efforts to mitigate food insecurity at the practice level and beyond,” including connecting families to and advocating for the federal nutrition programs. 1 To assist pediatricians in implementing the policy statement, AAP partnered with the Food Research & Action Center (FRAC) to develop, Addressing Food Insecurity: A Toolkit for Pediatricians (available at https://frac.org/aaptoolkit ) . The toolkit provides a variety of tools and resources to help pediatricians and their practice teams engage in the following activities: screen, intervene, and advocate.

First, pediatricians should screen for food insecurity in their practice settings using the Hunger Vital Sign, a two-question, validated tool that is widely used in clinical and community-based settings across the nation. 74 , 75 Next, when a child or family screens positive for food insecurity risk in a practice setting, or otherwise shows an interest in or need for food resources, the health care team should intervene by connecting the family to emergency food resources and the federal nutrition programs to address short-term and long-term food needs, respectively. These connections can happen at the practice level, or through referrals or partnerships with external organizations. However, research shows that not every family who reports food insecurity will want to be connected to food resources, and, conversely, some families may not endorse food insecurity in a screening tool yet desire a referral for food resources. 76 The latter reinforces the importance of an open dialogue with patients. The toolkit provides more details on strategies for effectively addressing food insecurity in clinical settings.

Policy Recommendations for Protecting and Strengthening the Federal Nutrition Programs

While screening and intervening are critical actions, it also is essential for pediatricians to advocate for systems- and policy-level changes that address food insecurity and its root causes, such as poverty. “Upstream” strategies for tackling food insecurity include creating jobs (especially full-time jobs), raising wages, improving government income-support programs for struggling families, and improving access to and strengthening the federal nutrition programs. A more detailed discussion of the latter follows.

Given the effectiveness and importance of the federal nutrition programs to child health and development, pediatricians should engage in efforts to protect and strengthen these programs during program reauthorization and other legislative vehicles at the state and federal levels. These are important opportunities for pediatricians to weigh in and provide their unique expertise and perspective. Typically, every 5 years SNAP is reauthorized by Congress as part of the Farm Bill. The reauthorization establishes who is eligible for SNAP and addresses program access, benefit levels, and other matters. Similarly, WIC, school meals, and the other Child Nutrition Programs typically are reauthorized every 5 years by Congress as part of the Child Nutrition and WIC Reauthorization Act (CNR). CNR provides an opportunity to improve and strengthen the Child Nutrition Programs so that they better meet the needs of the nation's children in early care and education, preschool, school-based, and out-of-school time settings.

In addition to the reauthorization process, federal or state regulatory or administrative actions, budgets and annual appropriations can positively or negatively affect the programs and their participants. For instance, annual appropriations efforts secure funding to support WIC participation and the important targeted funding for breastfeeding education, research, peer counseling, and public health partnerships.

Pediatricians can engage in advocacy in a number of ways during program reauthorization and other legislative opportunities, such as writing an op-ed in their local newspaper about food insecurity and time-sensitive legislation, providing expert testimony to legislators about the consequences of food insecurity and the importance of the federal nutrition programs for their patients, or submitting written comments to government agencies during public comment periods on proposed rules that could harm or improve federal nutrition programs. The aforementioned toolkit provides additional information on and examples of advocacy actions for pediatricians.

Regardless of the legislative or administrative vehicle used to address or modify program eligibility, access, or benefits, key policy recommendations to protect and strengthen the federal nutrition programs are provided below.

• • Improve the adequacy of monthly SNAP benefits. The inadequacy of SNAP monthly benefit allotments — SNAP's key shortcoming — severely limit the program's ability to do even more to improve the food security, health, and well-being of the nation's children and their families. For most households, SNAP benefits are not enough to get through the entire month without hunger or being forced to sacrifice nutrition quality. 77 , 78
• • Oppose rollbacks on policies that allow states to get SNAP benefits to people in need. A number of harmful proposals have been issued in recent years that would reduce or eliminate SNAP benefits for certain individuals and households, including those who are unemployed, underemployed, or earning their way up the economic ladder. 79 For example, a proposal to restrict broad-based categorical eligibility for SNAP would have implications for more than 2 million people living in households with children. 80 The proposal will contribute not only to the loss of SNAP benefits, but also compromise access to school meals for students who are directly certified (ie, automatically eligible for free school meals because they live in a household receiving SNAP benefits). In short, the loss of SNAP benefits from this proposal will make it more difficult for affected children to access free school meals.
• • Improve Child Nutrition Program access and participation by underserved children and communities. Too many children, especially children from low-income households, are missing out on the nutritional and health benefits from participating in WIC and federal food programs in school, summer, afterschool, and child care settings. Fortunately, a number of evidence-based strategies exist to connect more children to these effective programs, such as the Community Eligibility Provision for school meals. 81 Under the Community Eligibility Provision created by the Healthy, Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010, high-poverty schools and school districts can offer school meals at no charge to all students.
• • Ensure nutrition quality in the Child Nutrition Programs through science-based standards. This is especially relevant for the school meals program. Schools and advocates have made tremendous progress in improving the nutrition quality of foods and beverages available to students during the school day, but this progress is being undermined. Despite widespread support, overwhelming evidence of compliance, and positive nutrition impacts, efforts have been underway to rollback the science-based school meal nutrition standards issued in January 2012. 82 , 83 If successful, the end result will be a weakening of the standards for whole grains, sodium, milk, fruits, and vegetables. These rollbacks, some of which have been contested in lawsuits, are inconsistent with the current scientific literature as well as the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, which recommends serving whole-grain foods, fruits and vegetables, and limiting sodium and saturated fat.
• • Protect immigrant families from policies that, directly or indirectly, threaten their health, nutrition, and well-being. One in 4 children in the United States has at least one foreign-born parent. 84 A host of anti-immigrant threats are creating a climate of fear in many immigrant communities, making it more difficult for families to access federal nutrition programs and other safety net programs. 85 , 86 Pediatricians should provide up-to-date information to immigrant families about their eligibility for program benefits as well as what benefits do not count against immigration status. The Table provides information on eligibility for the federal nutrition programs (see footnote for immigrant eligibility).

Pediatricians can stay abreast of the latest news, research, and policy action on these and other pressing issues related to food insecurity by subscribing to policy updates from national health and advocacy groups, such as AAP, FRAC, or Children's HealthWatch.

Conclusions

Food insecurity has serious consequences on the health, development, and well-being of children, and has negative effects on the health care system and economy. Pediatricians can support and improve the health of their patients, as well as children across the nation, by addressing food insecurity and its root causes at the practice level and through policy advocacy.

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

The Plague of Mediocre Leadership

H ave you ever been taught by a teacher who couldn’t teach? We have, and it wasn’t the result of them lacking motivation and desire. Neither was it them missing a teacher-training course module on Friday afternoon one semester. These teachers, although well-intended, should be no where near children and education. They might have always wanted to become a teacher, but they lack the natural talent to be on—even an average one.

It’s the same for managers and leaders. Just like bad teachers, we’ve all met too many examples of these during our careers—bullies, narcissists, micromanagers, and those who graduated cum laude in crass insensitivity. Insecurity lies at the heart of their incompetence, and they see their position as an exercise in authority and control, insisting and directing rather than delegating and trusting. They inflict their mediocrity on everyone in their care. We have both experienced leaders and managers who, in different ways, nearly succeeded in destroying our sense of self-worth and caused us to question our whole reason for being. With managers and leaders, the vast majority are unfit for their roles.

Research has shown that, from as long ago as 2014 , 82% of managers lack the talent to be effective in their jobs, and the evidence has become more robust since, where engagement data (arguably the best proxy for management and leadership effectiveness) has barely moved in 10 years, and in the last year has dropped significantly .

Given the motivations of so many to climb the corporate ladder into top management and leadership positions, there is a huge disconnect. Our research into top performing leadership and management targets this disconnect, and our analysis revealed the talents that the very best leaders and managers possessed. We call them the “Five Talents That Really Matter.” In them, we captured and described these characteristic traits and dispositions as follows: Setting Direction, Harnessing Energy, Exerting Pressure, Building Connectivity and Directing Traffic. Having distilled these five talents from studying the very best leaders, and then assessing everyone else (58k and counting), the vast majority fall well short. Only 4% score in the top quartile. Forty eight score in the bottom quartile. Mediocrity clearly rules.

Read More: What I Learned About Leadership from Leading Leaders

In our research, we have seen a disproportionate weighting of leaders in a narrow set of attributes and traits, such as action orientation (a predisposition to act before fully thinking things through) and relationship building (connecting to people because of a mutual liking of each other). As strong as these attributes are, they seem to come at the expense of other important traits and dispositions, such as strategic thinking. These two findings combine to produce outcomes that lead to ineffective execution and project missteps.

An example of this occurs when leaders, because of the relationships they build, find it hard to performance manage team members by holding them to account for sub-standard work. Rather than terminate these employees, weaker leaders never address the performance issues and poor behavior and unacceptable performance is tolerated.

Why, then, do so many mediocre managers and leaders get promoted to the highest positions where they fail in large numbers?

Let’s frame our answer by making one thing clear: Exceptional leadership is rare. Mediocre and poor leadership is the norm.

In fact, organizational psychologist Tomas Chamorro-Premuzik argues that confident, rather than competent , people are more likely to be appointed. We agree but would take his argument a stage further going to the source—to the very top of the corporate food chain. Decision makers are usually more swayed by candidates they like. In our research, we factored differences between the individuals in our database and found that “likeability” was the main reason why so many (otherwise substandard) individuals succeed in being promoted or appointed. They didn’t need to be liked by everyone, but they were liked by the interviewer who owned the decision.

The typical face-to-face interviews (that are featured in nearly every selection process intended to evaluate external candidates) are a poor method for cutting through the congenial and charismatic fraud. Of the 48% of leaders sitting in the bottom quartile of our database, 31% measured strongest in relational connectivity—presenting themselves as positive, upbeat, friendly, and socially adept leaders, yet lacking so many other critically important aspects of leadership, without which success is beyond reach.

The problem is made worse by the fact that the constellation of leadership talents essential to top leadership performance are extremely difficult to detect from resumes and interviews. We also see the overwhelming majority of companies having no clue about identifying the characteristics of leadership that matter or developing questions to assess these characteristics accurately. CEO’s and hiring executives further argue that no candidate is perfect, often as an excuse to explain the deficiencies they see in the candidate in front of them, whom they then find poor reasons to appoint. When you don’t know what you are looking for, it’s remarkable how many people meet that standard.

From the candidate perspective applying for a top leadership position, the entire charade is eminently predictable and therefore easy to prepare for. While CEO’s and top executives wrack their brains to come up with difficult and esoteric questions, candidates know they’ll be asked to describe a difficult situation they faced and how they dealt with it, a tricky employee and how they “cured” them, a negative situation and how they turned it around, a time when they started in a minority of one, but still succeeded—the list goes on. Even though hiring managers also know this, they persist anyway.

Every failed executive came highly recommended by a search firm and received the support of referees vouching for their capabilities. Even the candidates who organizations know the most about—internal candidates—fail at a rate that is staggering . Crucially, if we conclude one thing about human judgment in candidate selection, it is that it’s exceptionally poor. Yet ask any executive to describe their hiring effectiveness, and the worst response we hear is that an executive is “pretty good.”

Hiring managers, recognizing these valid criticisms, make the most banal statement of all: “I don’t place an over-reliance on any one factor, I try to balance them all.” The average of 10 inaccurate data sources is an inaccurate conclusion, with the degree of inaccuracy magnified. Looking for the Five Talents not only has high validity, but it also ensures a very high level of fairness. It is fair by sex, race, disability, age, country of origin, first language, as well as industry, size of organization, and market maturity.

We all talk about the importance of getting hiring decisions right, but practices to achieve this are flawed. Placing high weighting on imperfect sources has created the leadership challenges that most organizations face—mediocre performance, lack of demographic diversity, too much focus on functional excellence at the expense of critical leaders, and an over-investment in management and leadership development (through programs and coaching) that fail to move the needle. It’s time for organizations to upgrade their entire hiring process. That begins by acknowledging that their current approaches are failing.

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