essay questions about computer technology

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54 Most Interesting Technology Research Topics for 2023

May 30, 2023

Scrambling to find technology research topics for the assignment that’s due sooner than you thought? Take a scroll down these 54 interesting technology essay topics in 10 different categories, including controversial technology topics, and some example research questions for each.

Social technology research topics

Whether you have active profiles on every social media platform, you’ve taken a social media break, or you generally try to limit your engagement as much as possible, you probably understand how pervasive social technologies have become in today’s culture. Social technology will especially appeal to those looking for widely discussed, mainstream technology essay topics.

• How do viewers respond to virtual influencers vs human influencers? Is one more effective or ethical over the other?
• Across social media platforms, when and where is mob mentality most prevalent? How do the nuances of mob mentality shift depending on the platform or topic?
• Portable devices like cell phones, laptops, and tablets have certainly made daily life easier in some ways. But how have they made daily life more difficult?
• How does access to social media affect developing brains? And what about mature brains?
• Can dating apps alter how users perceive and interact with people in real life?
• Studies have proven “doomscrolling” to negatively impact mental health—could there ever be any positive impacts?

Cryptocurrency and blockchain technology research topics

Following cryptocurrency and blockchain technology has been a rollercoaster the last few years. And since Bitcoin’s conception in 2009, cryptocurrency has consistently showed up on many lists of controversial technology topics.

• Is it ethical for celebrities or influential people to promote cryptocurrencies or cryptographic assets like NFTs ?
• What are the environmental impacts of mining cryptocurrencies? Could those impacts ever change?
• How does cryptocurrency impact financial security and financial health?
• Could the privacy cryptocurrency offers ever be worth the added security risks?
• How might cryptocurrency regulations and impacts continue to evolve?
• Created to enable cryptocurrency, blockchain has since proven useful in several other industries. What new uses could blockchain have?

Artificial intelligence technology research topics

We started 2023 with M3GAN’s box office success, and now we’re fascinated (or horrified) with ChatGPT , voice cloning , and deepfakes . While people have discussed artificial intelligence for ages, recent advances have really pushed this topic to the front of our minds. Those searching for controversial technology topics should pay close attention to this one.

• OpenAI –the company behind ChatGPT–has shown commitment to safe, moderated AI tools that they hope will provide positive benefits to society. Sam Altman, their CEO, recently testified before a US Senate He described what AI makes possible and called for more regulation in the industry. But even with companies like OpenAI displaying efforts to produce safe AI and advocating for regulations, can AI ever have a purely positive impact? Are certain pitfalls unavoidable?
• In a similar vein, can AI ever actually be ethically or safely produced? Will there always be certain risks?
• How might AI tools impact society across future generations?
• Countless movies and television shows explore the idea of AI going wrong, going back all the way to 1927’s Metropolis . What has a greater impact on public perception—representations in media or industry developments? And can public perception impact industry developments and their effectiveness?

Beauty and anti-aging technology 

Throughout human history, people in many cultures have gone to extreme lengths to capture and maintain a youthful beauty. But technology has taken the pursuit of beauty and youth to another level. For those seeking technology essay topics that are both timely and timeless, this one’s a gold mine.

• With augmented reality technology, companies like Perfect allow app users to virtually try on makeup, hair color, hair accessories, and hand or wrist accessories. Could virtual try-ons lead to a somewhat less wasteful beauty industry? What downsides should we consider?
• Users of the Perfect app can also receive virtual diagnoses for skin care issues and virtually “beautify” themselves with smoothed skin, erased blemishes, whitened teeth, brightened under-eye circles, and reshaped facial structures. How could advancements in beauty and anti-aging technology affect self-perception and mental health?
• What are the best alternatives to animal testing within the beauty and anti-aging industry?
• Is anti-aging purely a cosmetic pursuit? Could anti-aging technology provide other benefits?
• Could people actually find a “cure” to aging? And could a cure to aging lead to longer lifespans?
• How might longer human lifespans affect the Earth?

Geoengineering technology research topics

An umbrella term, geoengineering refers to large-scale technologies that can alter the earth and its climate. Typically, these types of technologies aim to combat climate change. Those searching for controversial technology topics should consider looking into this one.

• What benefits can solar geoengineering provide? Can they outweigh the severe risks?
• Compare solar geoengineering methods like mirrors in space, stratospheric aerosol injection, marine cloud brightening, and other proposed methods. How have these methods evolved? How might they continue to evolve?
• Which direct air capture methods are most sustainable?
• How can technology contribute to reforestation efforts?
• What are the best uses for biochar? And how can biochar help or harm the earth?
• Out of all the carbon geoengineering methods that exist or have been proposed, which should we focus on the most?

Creative and performing arts technology topics

While tensions often arise between artists and technology, they’ve also maintained a symbiotic relationship in many ways. It’s complicated. But of course, that’s what makes it interesting. Here’s another option for those searching for timely and timeless technology essay topics.

• How has the relationship between art and technology evolved over time?
• How has technology impacted the ways people create art? And how has technology impacted the ways people engage with art?
• Technology has made creating and viewing art widely accessible. Does this increased accessibility change the value of art? And do we value physical art more than digital art?
• Does technology complement storytelling in the performing arts? Or does technology hinder storytelling in the performing arts?
• Which current issues in the creative or performing arts could potentially be solved with technology?

Cellular agriculture technology research topics

And another route for those drawn to controversial technology topics: cellular agriculture. You’ve probably heard about popular plant-based meat options from brands like Impossible and Beyond Meat . While products made with cellular agriculture also don’t require the raising and slaughtering of livestock, they are not plant-based. Cellular agriculture allows for the production of animal-sourced foods and materials made from cultured animal cells.

• Many consumers have a proven bias against plant-based meats. Will that same bias extend to cultured meat, despite cultured meat coming from actual animal cells?
• Which issues can arise from patenting genes?
• Does the animal agriculture industry provide any benefits that cellular agriculture may have trouble replicating?
• How might products made with cellular agriculture become more affordable?
• Could cellular agriculture conflict with the notion of a “ circular bioeconomy ?” And should we strive for a circular bioeconomy? Can we create a sustainable relationship between technology, capitalism, and the environment, with or without cellular agriculture?

Transportation technology research topics

For decades, we’ve expected flying cars to carry us into a techno-utopia, where everything’s shiny, digital, and easy. We’ve heard promises of super fast trains that can zap us across the country or even across the world. We’ve imagined spring breaks on the moon, jet packs, and teleportation. Who wouldn’t love the option to go anywhere, anytime, super quickly? Transportation technology is another great option for those seeking widely discussed, mainstream technology essay topics.

• Once upon a time, Lady Gaga was set to perform in space as a promotion for Virgin Galactic . While Virgin Galactic never actually launched the iconic musician/actor, soon, they hope to launch their first commercial flight full of civilians–who paid $450,000 a pop–on a 90-minute trip into the stars. And if you think that’s pricey, SpaceX launched three businessmen into space for $55 million in April, 2022 (though with meals included, this is actually a total steal). So should we be launching people into space just for fun? What are the impacts of space tourism?
• Could technology improve the way hazardous materials get transported?
• How can the 5.9 GHz Safety Band affect drivers?
• Which might be safer: self-driving cars or self-flying airplanes?
• Compare hyperloop and maglev Which is better and why?
• Can technology improve safety for cyclists?

Gaming technology topics

A recent study involving over 2000 children found links between video game play and enhanced cognitive abilities. While many different studies have found the impacts of video games to be positive or neutral, we still don’t fully understand the impact of every type of video game on every type of brain. Regardless, most people have opinions on video gaming. So this one’s for those seeking widely discussed, mainstream, and controversial technology topics.

• Are different types or genres of video games more cognitively beneficial than others? Or are certain gaming consoles more cognitively beneficial than others?
• How do the impacts of video games differ from other types of games, such as board games or puzzles?
• What ethical challenges and safety risks come with virtual reality gaming?
• How does a player perceive reality during a virtual reality game compared to during other types of video games?
• Can neurodivergent brains benefit from video games in different ways than neurotypical brains?

Medical technology 

Advancements in healthcare have the power to change and save lives. In the last ten years, countless new medical technologies have been developed, and in the next ten years, countless more will likely emerge. Always relevant and often controversial, this final technology research topic could interest anyone.

• Which ethical issues might arise from editing genes using CRISPR-Cas9 technology? And should this technology continue to be illegal in the United States?
• How has telemedicine impacted patients and the healthcare they receive?
• Can neurotechnology devices potentially affect a user’s agency, identity, privacy, and/or cognitive liberty?
• How could the use of medical 3-D printing continue to evolve?
• Are patients more likely to skip digital therapeutics than in-person therapeutic methods? And can the increased screen-time required by digital therapeutics impact mental health

What do you do next?

Now that you’ve picked from this list of technology essay topics, you can do a deep dive and immerse yourself in new ideas, new information, and new perspectives. And of course, now that these topics have motivated you to change the world, look into the best computer science schools , the top feeders to tech and Silicon Valley , the best summer programs for STEM students , and the best biomedical engineering schools .

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Mariya holds a BFA in Creative Writing from the Pratt Institute and is currently pursuing an MFA in writing at the University of California Davis. Mariya serves as a teaching assistant in the English department at UC Davis. She previously served as an associate editor at Carve Magazine for two years, where she managed 60 fiction writers. She is the winner of the 2015 Stony Brook Fiction Prize, and her short stories have been published in Mid-American Review , Cutbank , Sonora Review , New Orleans Review , and The Collagist , among other magazines.

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Computer Science Essay Examples

Explore 15+ Brilliant Computer Science Essay Examples: Tips Included

Published on: May 5, 2023

Last updated on: Jan 30, 2024

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Do you struggle with writing computer science essays that get you the grades you deserve?

If so, you're not alone!

Crafting a top-notch essay can be a daunting task, but it's crucial to your success in the field of computer science.

For that, CollegeEssay.org has a solution for you!

In this comprehensive guide, we'll provide you with inspiring examples of computer science essays. You'll learn everything you need to know to write effective and compelling essays that impress your professors and get you the grades you deserve.

So, let's dive in and discover the secrets to writing amazing computer science essays!

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Computer Science Essays: Understanding the Basics

A computer science essay is a piece of writing that explores a topic related to computer science. It may take different forms, such as an argumentative essay, a research paper, a case study, or a reflection paper. 

Just like any other essay, it should be well-researched, clear, concise, and effectively communicate the writer's ideas and arguments.

Computer essay examples encompass a wide range of topics and types, providing students with a diverse set of writing opportunities. 

Here, we will explore some common types of computer science essays:

Middle School Computer Science Essay Example

College Essay Example Computer Science

University Computer Science Essay Example

Computer Science Extended Essay Example

Uiuc Computer Science Essay Example [

Computer Science Essay Examples For Different Fields

Computer science is a broad field that encompasses many different areas of study. For that, given below are some examples of computer science essays for some of the most popular fields within the discipline. 

By exploring these examples, you can gain insight into the different types of essays within this field.

College Application Essay Examples Computer Science

The Future of Computers Technology

Historical Development of Computer Science

Young Children and Technology: Building Computer Literacy

Computer Science And Artificial Intelligence

Looking for more examples of computer science essays? Given below are some additional examples of computer science essays for readers to explore and gain further inspiration from. 

Computer Science – My Choice for Future Career

My Motivation to Pursue Undergraduate Studies in Computer Engineering

Abstract Computer Science

Computer Science Personal Statement Example

Sop For Computer Science

Computer Science Essay Topics

There are countless computer science essay topics to choose from, so it can be challenging to narrow down your options. 

However, the key is to choose a topic that you are passionate about and that aligns with your assignment requirements.

Here are ten examples of computer science essay topics to get you started:

• The impact of artificial intelligence on society: benefits and drawbacks
• Cybersecurity measures in cloud computing systems
• The Ethics of big data: privacy, bias, and Transparency
• The future of quantum computing: possibilities and challenges
• The Role of computer hardware in Healthcare: current applications and potential innovations
• Programming languages: a comparative analysis of their strengths and weaknesses
• The use of machine learning in predicting human behavior
• The challenges and solutions for developing secure and reliable software
• The Role of blockchain technology in improving supply chain management
• The use of data analytics in business decision-making.

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Tips to Write an Effective Computer Science Essay

Writing an effective computer science essay requires a combination of technical expertise and strong writing skills. Here are some tips to help you craft a compelling and well-written essay:

Understand the Requirements: Make sure you understand the assignment requirements, including the essay type, format, and length.

• Choose a Topic: Select a topic that you are passionate about and that aligns with your assignment requirements.
• Create an Outline: Develop a clear and organized outline that highlights the main points and subtopics of your essay.
• Use Appropriate Language and Tone: Use technical terms and language when appropriate. But ensure your writing is clear, concise, and accessible to your target audience.
• Provide Evidence: Use relevant and credible evidence to support your claims, and ensure you cite your sources correctly.
• Edit and Proofread Your Essay: Review your essay for clarity, coherence, and accuracy. Check for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and formatting issues.

By following these tips, you can improve the quality of your computer science essay and increase your chances of success.

In conclusion, writing a computer science essay can be a challenging yet rewarding experience. 

It allows you to showcase your knowledge and skills within the field and develop your writing and critical thinking abilities. By following the examples provided in this blog, you can create an effective computer science essay, which will meet your requirements.

If you find yourself struggling with the writing process, consider seeking essay writing help online from CollegeEssay.org. 

Our AI essay writer can provide guidance and support in crafting a top-notch computer science essay.

So, what are you waiting for? Hire our computer science essay writing service today!

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As a Digital Content Strategist, Nova Allison has eight years of experience in writing both technical and scientific content. With a focus on developing online content plans that engage audiences, Nova strives to write pieces that are not only informative but captivating as well.

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127 Technology Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

Inside This Article

Technology has become an integral part of our daily lives, shaping the way we communicate, work, and interact with the world around us. As such, it is no surprise that technology has become a popular topic for essays and research papers. If you're struggling to come up with a topic for your next technology essay, fear not! We've compiled a list of 127 technology essay topic ideas and examples to help get your creative juices flowing.

• The impact of social media on society
• The role of artificial intelligence in healthcare
• The future of virtual reality technology
• The ethical implications of gene editing technology
• The rise of remote work and its impact on the workforce
• The benefits and drawbacks of self-driving cars
• The role of technology in education
• The impact of smartphones on mental health
• The potential dangers of deepfake technology
• The benefits of renewable energy technology
• The impact of automation on the job market
• The role of technology in disaster preparedness and response
• The future of space exploration technology
• The impact of 5G technology on communication networks
• The ethics of data mining and surveillance technology
• The impact of biometric technology on security
• The potential of blockchain technology in various industries
• The impact of e-commerce on traditional retail businesses
• The future of wearable technology
• The role of technology in combating climate change
• The implications of quantum computing technology
• The impact of big data on business decision-making
• The benefits and drawbacks of drone technology
• The role of technology in shaping political movements
• The potential of augmented reality technology in education
• The impact of online dating apps on relationships
• The ethics of artificial intelligence in decision-making
• The impact of cybersecurity threats on businesses
• The future of 3D printing technology
• The benefits of telemedicine technology
• The implications of autonomous weapons technology
• The impact of technology on mental health treatment
• The role of technology in disaster recovery efforts
• The future of smart home technology
• The benefits and drawbacks of online learning platforms
• The impact of technology on social relationships
• The ethics of gene editing technology in agriculture
• The potential of virtual reality technology in therapy
• The impact of technology on the music industry
• The role of technology in promoting environmental sustainability
• The implications of artificial intelligence in job automation
• The benefits and drawbacks of cryptocurrency technology
• The future of quantum encryption technology
• The impact of technology on personal privacy
• The role of technology in healthcare data management
• The potential of nanotechnology in medical research
• The ethics of facial recognition technology
• The impact of technology on the entertainment industry
• The benefits and drawbacks of cloud computing technology
• The future of biometric identification technology
• The role of technology in promoting social justice
• The implications of autonomous vehicles in transportation
• The impact of technology on food production and distribution
• The ethics of artificial intelligence in criminal justice
• The potential of blockchain technology in supply chain management
• The benefits and drawbacks of smart city technology
• The future of voice recognition technology
• The impact of technology on the travel industry
• The role of technology in disaster prevention efforts
• The implications of artificial intelligence in creative industries
• The ethics of genetic engineering technology
• The benefits and drawbacks of cloud storage technology
• The future of quantum communication technology
• The impact of technology on online privacy
• The role of technology in improving access to healthcare
• The potential of biometric authentication technology
• The benefits and drawbacks of social media platforms
• The future of artificial intelligence in customer service
• The impact of technology on urban planning and development
• The role of technology in promoting diversity and inclusion
• The implications of autonomous drones in warfare
• The ethics of artificial intelligence in journalism
• The potential of blockchain technology in voting systems
• The benefits and drawbacks of smart grid technology
• The future of virtual assistant technology
• The impact of technology on the gig economy
• The role of technology in promoting financial inclusion
• The implications of artificial intelligence in creative writing
• The ethics of facial recognition technology in law enforcement
• The potential of blockchain technology in healthcare records
• The benefits and drawbacks of smart wearables
• The future of quantum computing in cybersecurity
• The impact of technology on social activism
• The role of technology in improving disaster response times
• The implications of artificial intelligence in art and design
• The ethics of genetic modification technology in agriculture
• The potential of blockchain technology in digital identity
• The benefits and drawbacks of smart transportation systems
• The future of quantum sensors technology
• The impact of technology on online security
• The role of technology in promoting mental wellness
• The implications of artificial intelligence in financial markets
• The ethics of facial recognition technology in public spaces
• The potential of blockchain technology in real estate transactions
• The benefits and drawbacks of smart farming technology
• The future of quantum encryption in data protection
• The impact of technology on workplace productivity
• The role of technology in promoting environmental conservation
• The implications of artificial intelligence in healthcare diagnostics
• The ethics of genetic editing technology in human reproduction
• The potential of blockchain technology in intellectual property rights
• The benefits and drawbacks of smart energy management systems
• The future of quantum computing in scientific research
• The impact of technology on online censorship
• The role of technology in promoting healthy lifestyles
• The implications of artificial intelligence in legal services
• The ethics of facial recognition technology in public safety
• The potential of blockchain technology in cross-border payments
• The benefits and drawbacks of smart manufacturing technology
• The future of quantum communication in secure messaging
• The impact of technology on social inequality
• The role of technology in promoting gender equality
• The implications of artificial intelligence in military operations
• The ethics of genetic engineering technology in human enhancement
• The potential of blockchain technology in digital voting systems
• The benefits and drawbacks of smart water management systems
• The future of quantum sensors in medical diagnostics
• The impact of technology on online addiction
• The role of technology in promoting cultural diversity
• The implications of artificial intelligence in autonomous decision-making
• The ethics of facial recognition technology in immigration control
• The potential of blockchain technology in cryptocurrency regulation
• The benefits and drawbacks of smart waste management systems
• The future of quantum encryption in secure communication
• The impact of technology on social isolation
• The role of technology in promoting global cooperation
• The implications of artificial intelligence in ethical decision-making

In conclusion, technology offers a vast array of essay topics that can be explored from various perspectives. Whether you're interested in the ethical implications of artificial intelligence or the potential of blockchain technology, there is no shortage of ideas to choose from. So, pick a topic that interests you and start writing your next technology essay today!

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649 Technology Essay Topics & Research Titles + Examples

If you are exploring the wonderful world of technology and its issues and need compelling technology title ideas, you’re at the right place! Below, you’ll find plenty of argumentative topics about technology for your essays or presentations and questions for your research papers. Read on to discover the most exciting titles for essays and write an A+ paper.

🤖 7 Technology Essay Topics 2024

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• ✏️ Trending Technology Topics to Write About

💡 Simple Technology Essay Ideas

👨‍💻 creative titles about technology, 🖥️ technology essay titles.

• Are We too Dependent on Technology?
• Essay about New Technology and Its Impact
• How Technology Affects Our Daily Life
• Technology and Its Impact on Humanity
• Information and Communication Technology in Education
• Ancient Ways of Communication Before Technology
• Modern Trends in Information Technology
• Is Digital Technology Making Children’s Life Better? Children have experienced both positive and harmful effects from digital technology. There is a strange connection between creativity and memory.
• The Role of Technology in Operations Management The benefits of technology can be seen directly associated with facilitating the processes and the resources, which operations management is directly handling.
• Technology is the Future of Education The paper aims, through an analysis of literature on the subject, to share recommendations on implementing digital tools into education processes.
• Impact of Technology on the Communication Communication technologies are changing social environments greatly. The paper is going to unveil the main opportunities and disadvantages presented by communication technologies.
• Technology and Interpersonal Communication This article explores the impact of technology on interpersonal communication, discusses how technology has changed the way people interact and communicate with each other.
• Food Technology Importance in Modern Days The Institute of Food Technologists defines food technology as the application of food science, including biological, chemical, and physical makeups.
• How Technology Advances Influences Crime Rates? There is a risk in overuse of technology since it causes mistrust and cynicism where fear of crime is replaced by fear of authority.
• Technology of the Past and Present The Internet and social media shape our mindsets and the perceptions of life goals that we obtain while interacting with others.
• Technology in Nursing Practice The patient care environment has changed significantly because of the introduction of technology in nursing practice. Many nurses use technology to provide quality patient care.
• Children’s Use of Technology and Social Media: Essay Example Research conducted in various nations indicates that children and teenagers spend most of their time on social media sites than they do on other websites and mobile sites.
• Apple Inc. Affected by Globalization and Technology This paper will assess how globalization and technology changes have impacted Apple, as well as its stakeholders’ categories and their roles in its success.
• Using Technology in Everyday Life: Pros and Cons Modern technologies are being actively introduced at a rapid pace, which affects many aspects of everyday life.
• Global Technology: Advantages and Disadvantages The essay considers the advantages and disadvantages of technology and establishes two arguments for how the global issue should be addressed.
• The Impact of Technology on Mental Health The paper uncovers the consequences of technology use on mental health. It examines the relationship between technology use and mental illnesses.
• The Cloud Computing Technology Cloud computing is a new technology that is currently viewed as one of the major items in computing. It involves using information technology as a service over the network.
• Smart House System Technology Explained Smart House is a term used to describe a house that has Computer Controlled Automation System that controls various functions in a house such as appliances and lighting.
• Ethics in Information and Communications Technology Design and application of ICTs in our society also come with serious ethical issues which cause dilemmas on whether to fully adopt such technologies.
• Digital Technology in My Life Digital technology has become a part of my life, but I still differentiate between the digital and real-world, although for some, this line is already blurred.
• Science and Technology in Ancient Civilizations This paper is a consummate discourse on the role of the scientific and technological advancements in the development of the ancient civilizations.
• Science and Technology: Challenges and Opportunities The recent advancement in science and technology has created opportunities and various challenges in different sectors of the economy.
• Population Growth and Technology The ability of the economy to sustain its citizens through the advanced technologies lays a good background for population growth.
• Climate Change: The Impact of Technology The most evident effect of technology on climate change is the possibility of finding new solutions to climate change problems.
• Communication Technology and Globalization Growth in communication networks brought out by information technology witnessed a stream of expansion of products and ideas breaking geographic boundaries.
• Modern Technology for Children: Causes and Effects The 21st century is the most knowledge-intensive period in human history up to date. Computer technology is utilized in virtually every field of labor and practice.
• Virtual Reality: The Technology of the Future The contemporary inclination in virtual reality is to combine the two user interfaces to generate an absolutely immersive and combined experience.
• How Technology Is Destroying Education According to research conducted recently in Britain, many students drop out of school because of over-exposure to the Internet.
• Impacts of Technology on Cognitive Development of Children and Adolescents The extensive increase in web use among teens has given rise to awareness of the effects of the utilization of technology and how it influences children.
• Information Technology Policies of the Healthcare Setting The document delineates the information and communication technology procedures of the healthcare setting and the framework for communicating and implementing these policies.
• Benefits of Sustainable Technology and Living Modern society suffers greatly from technological revolutions and innovations which ruin natural environment and kill out Planet.
• The Effects of Modern Technology on Children The rapid development of the technology industry has various consequences, including both positive implications and negative manifestations of progress.
• Impact of the Light Bulb Invention on Society and Technology It was the light bulb that made people’s society, culture, and world what they are and gave the world not only illuminated cities but also digitalization and the Internet.
• Information Technology Implications for Military A critical association exists between military technology, its tactics, and the psychological characteristics that connect its users into units, dating back to the dawn of history.
• Does Technology Promote Loneliness? Today, most people tend to overuse their smartphones, and they are often more focused on their devices than on communication with each other.
• Do Technologies Harm Our Minds?
• How Can Technology Help Mental Health Professionals?
• Does Technology Help Increase the Level of Participation in Middle School Students?
• How Can Blockchain Technology Disrupt the Existing Business Models?
• Does Technology Hold the Key to Improved Life Expectancy?
• How Did Technology Affect the Plains Indias?
• How Are the American Classrooms Dealing with Technology?
• How Does Technology Help Preserve the History and Make It Accessible While Keeping Its Integrity and Credibility?
• Does Technology Affects Culture or Does Culture Affect Technology?
• How Are Finance Globalisation and Technology Related?
• How Does the Basic Physics of LCD Technology and Plasma Work?
• How Blockchain Technology Would Disrupt the Gig Economy?
• How Computer Technology Changed Individuals’ Lifestyles?
• Does Technology Affect Human Communication?
• How Did Big Data Analytics Merge into Technology?
• How Do Technology Affect Sports and the Athlete’s Performance?
• How Countries Used Technology during World War I?
• How Does Excessive Technology Affect the Academics of Youths?
• Has Technology Compromised Our Sexual and Social Life?
• How Does Digital Technology Reduce Cost in Movie Industrial?
• How Has Technology Contributed to Globalisation?
• Has Technology Hindered the Upcoming Generation’s Ability to Communicate?
• Does the Modern World Place Too Much Reliance on Technology?
• How Does Information Technology Change in Business Environment?
• How Can Cam Technology Aid in Manufacturing?
• How Technology Has Changed Communication? Social networks have made communication simpler, faster and better by enhancing accessibility in both social and business fields.
• Will Technology Eventually Replace Human Labor? Automation of work can lead to an increase in the number of jobs, new job opportunities, and overall prosperity in the future.
• Music Industry: The Impact of Technology While technology has many positive impacts on the music industry, it poses certain obstacles. In recent years, technology has transformed the music industry.
• How Technology Increases One’s Job Productivity Business industries today cannot do without the use of modern technologies. Many industries closely follow the development of science.
• Information Technology and Banking Sector IT has influenced two dissimilar areas in banking, including communication and connectivity, together with business progression reengineering.
• Positive and Negative Impact of Technology on Communication The use of technology in communication has improved the quality and quantity of communication and promoted human relations in the society.
• Career Aspirations in Information Technology In the author’s opinion, being a qualified professional in the field of Information Technology is a challenging yet rewarding task.
• Negative Effects of Technology on Society The speedy insurgency in technology has extremely influenced the societal daily life both negatively and positively. It becomes intolerable to refute technology.
• The Role of Technology in Architecture With the introduction of technology in both techniques and tools used, architecture is not the modern architecture has attained a different status.
• Development of Technology. Future Prospects of Technology in the Next 10 Years Technology has been proved the most significant factor for every businessman how it helps to develop higher productivity and lower labor costs along with the massive profits.
• The Healthcare Manager’s Role in Information Technology Management This article focuses on the role that a healthcare manager plays in ensuring the efficient execution of medical operations through the use of new technologies.
• Is Access to Technology Worth the Potential Loss of Privacy? The problem of data privacy is one of the most worrying topics for modern people since technology and the Internet is used in almost all areas of people’s lives.
• Technology Impact on Generation Z Technology has positively affected the learning and interaction of Gen-Z through various innovations; however, it has shortcomings to the well-being of these individuals.
• The Impact of Technology on Globalization The paper states that advances in technology have contributed to the main forces behind globalization. Organizations are compelled to become global.
• Communications: Technology and Personal Contact Technology is making communication easier in today’s world, but at the expense of personal contact as many people choose to interact from home in front of a computer screen.
• Science and Technology Roles in Society Science and technology have played critical roles in transforming society, particularly in the transport and communication sector.
• Status of Body Shop and Technology Used in Cosmetics Sector Marketing The paper explores the Body Shop’s current use of technology in marketing cosmetic products and how marketing activities and the market are impacted by modern technology.
• Advantages of Computer Technology in Healthcare The emergence of computer technology within healthcare is the catalyst of changes that began to display the improvement of medical procedures and care quality.
• Robotics Technology in the Workplace The research paper discusses different ways in which the development of robotic technology has changed the lives of people in the workplace, both positively and negatively.
• Drones and Robotic Technology Drone technology is an example of a cutting-edge technology. It is the end-result of combining or modifying earlier forms of scientific knowledge.
• The Advancements in Electric Car Technology This paper explores the advancements and improvements in electric car technology based on practical, environmental, and innovative aspects.
• The Impediments to the Diffusion of the New Technology The paper states that simulation and e-learning face various obstacles to becoming fully adopted methods of employee training in business companies.
• Fundamentals of Information Technology Information technology deals with computer-based information systems especially computer hardware and software applications.
• Role of Technology in Business Technology plays a crucial role in modern-day businesses, and it has revolutionized how organizations operate, and interact with customers and stakeholders.
• Role of Information Technology in Airline Business The trend toward more aviation system interconnection and dependency is advantageous. It can also serve as a target for those looking to disrupt the sector and the global economy.
• Using Technology to Enhance Learning Incorporating technology in education is the prerequisite for higher-quality learning since it increases access to interaction between teachers and learners.
• Freshippo Company’s Innovation and Technology-Driven Business Model This paper discusses the innovative business model of Freshippo, a grocery store that started in China in 2016 and has since expanded to 13 cities in the country.
• Technology to Enhance Education in Jamaica The current essay seeks to identify the innovative use of digital tools in Jamaica’s classrooms that were mentioned in the “Innovative use of technology to enhance education.”
• Negative Impacts of Technology and Social Media on Young People’s Lives Social media has caused far-reaching negative repercussions on the lives of young people. Particularly, the negative effects of addition to SNS, related mental health issues, etc.
• How Technology Affects Face-To-Face Interactions One of the greatest hazards of using technology, as a way of communication, is the creation of an illusion in the mind that one has many friends.
• Strengthening Community Health Through Technology: Key Barriers Innovation in technology and science is an area that could help improve access to quality, timely, and personalized medical services.
• The Future of Jobs: Impact of Technology The article underlines the issue of innovative jobs that employees will have to occupy after they lose their current ones when the technology becomes more advanced.
• Technology in Burning Chrome by William Gibson Technology is not only a global achievement but also a phenomenon that can break down the line between man and the real world.
• Technology History: The Cost of Technological Advances Technological growth has led to the development of products that mankind would have never thought. This paper will look at some of the costs associated with technological growth.
• Do Computer Technology Make Financial Intermediaries Extinct? Technological innovations are unlikely to result in the extinction of financial intermediaries; the probable outcome is that they will undergo tremendous changes.
• Technology Impact on Behavior of Different Generations The purpose of this study is to find out why there are such vast disparities between generations and why technology influenced each one.
• Facial Recognition Technology This paper aims at examining the bills regarding facial recognition technology and developing a possible statute that can be adopted by the Texas Legislature.
• Industry and Agriculture: Use of Technology Industry and agriculture are among the areas that have experienced a vast rise in effectiveness and performance quality due to the integration of new types of technology into them.
• Interconnection of Nature, Society, and Technology Technology intertwines with human life and has a mostly positive impact, making life more convenient. It brings many benefits to society.
• Does Technology Mean Progress or Not Technology does not necessarily mean progress, but it can help society progress and develop further if utilized appropriately.
• Does technology contribute to social isolation?
• Society’s development falls behind technological advancements.
• Can violent video games be considered a form of artistic expression?
• Smartphones harm children’s cognitive and social development.
• Is technology contributing to growing income inequality?
• Should social media platforms be responsible for preventing cyberbullying?
• Biometric surveillance: does it enhance security or infringe upon privacy?
• Do automation and robotics threaten job security?
• Should screen time for children and adolescents be legally regulated?
• Should coding and technology literacy classes be mandatory in schools?
• The Impact of Modern Technology on Business In the twentieth century business models and firms cannot properly exist without being introduced to the present technological advancements.
• Education Issues: Differentiation and Technology Differentiated teaching requires instructors to present content that is customized correctly for the range of children in each category.
• How Technology Has Affected Communication Technological development has redefined communication over the years by early age designs such as blowing horns to modern internet communication.
• Technology’s Influences in Our Lives Modern technologies like mobile phones, television or computers, and its information technology have given human society a powerful force to make life more comfortable.
• Technology-Based Crime and Its Management In the modern world of science and technology, new developments and advancements have changed life and style of living tremendously.
• Drones Technology: PESTEL Analysis This study presents a market exploration structure known as the PESTEL analysis model. At the back of the continued pace of aviation technology, drones have become important tools in every industry.
• Science and Technology in Shaping of the Modern World Science refers to the systematic study of how the physical and natural world operates through experiments and observations.
• Modern Technology and Human’s Ability to Think With the rapid improvement of technologies that resolve a substantial number of tasks, a question of deterioration of the human ability to think and make decisions arises.
• Samsung Products and the Impact of Technology on Marketing The paper states that applying novel technologies can prompt the marketing campaigns to become more diverse, covering various devices and platforms.
• The Impact of Technology on the Social Institution of Health Technology changed the approach to health care delivery forever, but it is still unclear if this influence is mainly advantageous or leading to inequality.
• Prolonging Life With Technology The purpose of this article is to consider the idea of life extension through technology, as well as the problems associated with it.
• Information Technology Project Portfolio Management Project portfolio management (PPM) is beneficial to IT professionals in several ways apart from an overall increase in efficiency of monitoring and evaluation of ongoing projects.
• Computer Technology’s Impact on Personal Health The computer has a detrimental effect on health in many aspects. The influence of the Internet on modern society cannot be assessed unambiguously.
• Life Expectancy and Technology Life expectancy has increased significantly with the development and discovery of new devices and medicine in the last century.
• Information Technology Field and Disciplines The information technology field may be currently regarded as a rapidly growing sphere that offers respectable and secure positions for people with related academic credentials.
• Ethical Dilemma of Privacy in Technology The paper argues legal and ethical implications of new technology necessitate new ethical guidelines regarding individuals’ privacy developments.
• Siri: Controversy Technology It is important to point out that Facebook’s policies are not legislative laws, but rather rules created by the company for its users and partners.
• Advancement in Technology: Invention of the Television This paper seeks to discuss the phenomenon of the invention era, the circumstances leading to the invention, and its evolution.
• Impact of Technology on the Healthcare System Over the past ten year there has been a drastic change within the health care set up a factor that has greatly influenced the trend within the health care setup.
• Wireless Charging Technology’s Evaluation This evaluation report addressed to the VP is a critical analysis of the usability of wireless charging technology developed for smart devices.
• Second World War: Cause and Technology This essay discusses the major cause of the WWII. It explains how the technological advancements in the Second World War have shaped modern warfare in the world.
• Fashion and Technology: Modern Fashion The consolidation of fashion and technology is becoming one of the most modern trends in the creative industry that need detailed research and identification of prospects.
• History of Agricultural Technology Development Agricultural technologies were majorly developed during the Medieval period to ensure sufficient product yields for growing populations around the world.
• Issues of Technology: Online Behavior Along with the Web’s obvious benefits, technology has serious barriers and obstacles to development, implemented through the peculiarities of online behavior.
• Technology and Warfare Technology does not produce and develop on its own, but rather is produced and developed quite purposefully and consciously by thinking beings with specific ends in mind.
• The Problem of Technology Addiction Among College Students The rapid development of technologies has impacted every aspect of modern people’s lives, from work and education to leisure and recreation.
• Information Technology Project and Risk Management One technological risk is the shortage of indigenous information technology companies in the area of interest. This shortage leads to a deficiency of technically skilled staff.
• Disney and Information Technology Infrastructure Library This paper provides information about Disney’s experience with ITIL implementations, such as reasons for it, results achieved, possible challenges, and reasons for success.
• Technology in Health Care: Current Trends This paper examines the relevance of technology in health care and how it can be applied in clinical settings to transform patients’ experiences.
• The Effect Technology on International Relations With information technology, different countries have come to realize the benefits of trade; for sustainable trade, good relations among the trading partners are required.
• Renewable Energy Technology in Egypt Climate change has made renewable energy a global priority to replace fossil fuel which continues to impact the environment negatively.
• Americans’ Obsession with Technology: The Key Reasons Americans are obsessed with technology because of accessibility, cultural trend, peer pressure, high levels of stress, and the desire to stay updated.
• The Role of Technology in Social Change In modern times, activism has changed due to the advent of the Internet because it has become much easier to share and spread information.
• Apple Products and Technology Adoption Lifecycle The technology Adoption Model describes the lifecycle of a given product from the moment it first enters the market to the time it saturates it.
• Management of Technology Innovations Technology advancements have been made in every sector of business and managers have a task to comprehend the technological innovations and how they affect business operations.
• How Technology Has Changed the Home Improvement Industry There are three main fields where technologies have brought changes in the home improvement industry: home construction facilitating, safety, and comfortability.
• How Technology Has Affected Education Educational technology has greatly developed and has made both teachers and students successful as well as reforming schools.
• Technology and Communication in Today’s World Information technologies and various means for distant communication have created an opportunity to talk to those who are away.
• Concepts of How Science and Technology has Shaped the Modern World Science and technology will always be highly regarded as a beneficial package to human beings, as it holds the key to the future of societies.
• The Impact of Technology in “The Story of an Hour” by Kate Chopin It is possible to interpret Chopin’s “The Story of an Hour” as a critique and cautionary tale about technology, particularly the railroad and the telegraph.
• The impact of virtual reality on education.
• The role of big data in shaping business strategies.
• The environmental consequences of e-waste.
• The potential applications of blockchain technology in supply chains.
• Inequalities in technology access across socioeconomic groups.
• The role of technology in disaster management.
• The impact of technological innovations on journalism.
• The benefits and challenges of quantum computing.
• Cryptocurrencies’ potential to disrupt financial markets.
• Genetic engineering of plants for biofuel production.
• Nokia-Technology Industry Analysis The Nokia Corporation, its history, the market industry it operates in, its mission and vision, and its leadership are investigated in the study.
• Globalization and Technology Impacts on Ethics The evaluation will center on analyzing how technology and globalization have contributed to the spread of poverty in third-world nations, violated individuals’ rights to privacy.
• RADAR Technology Analysis and Overview This paper explains how RADAR technology is used for operating automated vehicles with insight into sustainability and improvement issues as addressed by the technology.
• Technology in Global Transportation Management The process of implementing modern technologies into the sphere of global transportation management is necessary and inevitable.
• Apple and Technology Adoption Model Apple Inc. is an American tech company producing smartphones, tablets, personal computers, and other devices with a broad range of accessories for them.
• Technology’s Impact on Workplace Conflict Technology is a significant part of modern business because it simplifies several tasks in an organization’s day-to-day functions.
• Criminal Justice Technology The authors of the article acknowledge that improvement in technology has been very critical in facilitating effective resources distribution in the criminal justice system.
• The Impact of Information Technology on the Human Communication This paper discusses the potential impact of information communication technology on human communication in business in the next 10-15 years.
• The Positive and Negative Impact of Technology on Human Life Technology has become part and parcel of our day to day lives, human beings are heavily dependent upon technology. This paper will throw light upon some aspects of the use of technology.
• Wireless Technology and Applications Technology is the application of technical expertise to improve the efficiency and convenience of achieving tasks that would otherwise be burdensome.
• Pop Art and Modern Technology in Artworks In the postmodernism of pop art, the consumer society obtains triumph and manages to colonize every form of art.
• Impact of Technology: Nicholas Carr’s Views Nicholas Carr expresses concerns about the changes in reading patterns that we experience due to the Internet; it makes our reading less deep and shallower.
• Personal Isolation and Technology in Communication Technology is an interruption to physical communication and promotes personal isolation, as well as anti-socialism.
• Has Technology Killed Personal Contact? The benefits of technology to human life are immense, as it is evident in the modern society where everything has become more convenient and easily accessible, due to advances in the trend.
• Communication Technology: Impact on Personal Relationships The use of communication technologies makes information exchange complex because they do not reconcile individuals’ situations during the time of communication.
• Benefits of Health Information Technology Information technology can assist patients in getting their medications, which can be prescribed on video and audio devices.
• Technical Writing in Information Technology The global goal of the course was to acquire and develop the skills of fundamental research and technical writing in information technology.
• Use of Technology in Arts and Music Industry Technology in art is a form of venture where artists use digital technologies to create their works and use tech as part of their creative or presenting process.
• The Impact of Technology on American Popular Culture in the 20th Century The work aims to examine how the development of technology influenced the popular culture of America in the twentieth century.
• Negative Impact of Technology on Children The American society feels anxiety regarding the mass media’s influence on children. The paper examines the negative impact technology and media have on children.
• Effective Use of Technology in the Classroom and at Home It is essential to consider the effectiveness of using technology in diverse circumstances, understanding its integral part in contemporary society.
• Communication in the Era of Technology Modernization has improved the work of many organizations and social institutions, but technology has affected the deterioration of individuals’ communication abilities.
• The Sphere of Information Technology Information technology refers to the use of computers and software in managing information also referred to as management information services.
• Modern Technology and Engineering: The Prospects for the Development Regarded as the most well-developed sphere of industry at the moment, the telecommunication sphere suggests a wide variety of novelties that can ease one’s life and save time.
• Effects of Science and Technology in Modern World History Since 1500 This essay provides evidence in support of the thesis that the benefits of scientific and technological advancements have been higher than the cost as well as the negative effects.
• Dynamics of Ethics, Ethical Principles and the Technology of Ethics Ethical principles guide the behavior of individuals and for the most part, are the concepts of right and wrong. All laws are derived from ethics and are answerable to it.
• Information Technology Impact on the Environment Effects on the environment can be economical. Information technology has transformed the business environment by expediting it instead of enhancing the relationship.
• Digital Technology Is Changing Childhood There is a clear trend towards increased digital technology use in minors. In recent decades everyone has grown attached to their smart device, younger generations in particular.
• The Value of Technology The paper explains that although technology is facilitating better interactions among people of the world, it is also facilitating more wastage of natural resources.
• Information Technology Outsourcing for UK Retailers This work seeks to address instances in which there is successful IT outsourcing as well as instances of IT outsourcing failures within the retail industry of the UK.
• Technology Acceptance Model One of the most successful theories for exploring and examining technology acceptance is the Technology Acceptance Model.
• Business Applications of Blockchain Technology The paper presents a review of twenty research papers focused on the real and potential business applications of blockchain.
• Technology Structures and Social Boundaries Technology structure and social boundaries form the concept of organizational functioning and are aspects to consider when planning activities in companies.
• Information Technology Projects in the Healthcare Sector IT projects in healthcare may appear groundbreaking, yet they must be kept to a reasonable standard in both their size and complexity.
• Technology in the Healthcare System The integrated use of technology in modern realities can significantly facilitate the process of interaction between the patient and the healthcare system.
• Technology Changes and Their Impacts on Industrial Revolution The research will focus on how technological changes increased production by facilitating movement and communication, which influenced the industrial revolution.
• Technology in Healthcare and Care Coordination The article discusses the impact of information technology, clinical services, and social service on treating a 60-year-old obese patient at Cobble Bill Rehabilitation Center.
• Is New Technology Making Us More or Less Intelligent? Although the long-term effects of new technology on human intelligence are yet to be researched and studied, the fact that some strong effect exists remains true.
• Darktrace vs. Crowdstrike: Technology Strategies Darktrace and CrowdStrike seem to be very different as far as their technology and marketing strategies are concerned.
• Technology, Transportation Management and Biblical Worldview There is a continuous development of new TMT technologies that permeate all spheres of human activity and radically change their character.
• Technology Impact on Communication
• Impact of Technology in the Classroom
• S-Curve Technology in 3D Printing
• Bluetooth Wireless Technology and Its Impact on Human’s Life
• Unethical Use of Technology and Biblical Views
• Information Technology Disaster Recovery Planning
• Technology Integration, the Use of Technology
• Information Technology Applications in Healthcare
• Health Information Technology Service Management
• Advancing New Technology for Radiology and Imaging
• Integrating Technology Into the Classroom
• Technology Management: To What Extent Is Collaboration in Networks a Requirement of Today’s Innovation Process?
• Technology and New Media: Transformation of Society
• Identifying Three Trends in Information Technology
• United Parcel Service: Information Technology Management Plan
• Ethical Issues in Information Technology
• Fifth Wave of Technology
• Social Media: Science, Technology and Government
• Goal Line Technology and Football
• Women in Information Technology: Barriers and Challenges
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• How Modern Technology Is Changing Us
• The Health Information Technology
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• Using Information Technology and Artificial Intelligence in Critical Care Medicine
• Engaging and Empowering Learning Through Technology
• Computer Ethics: Information Technology Ethics
• Blockchain Technology: Benefits for Enterprises
• Applying Technology in the Classroom
• The Centrality of Technology in Architecture
• The Paradox of Progress and Technology
• Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• Agriculture: Application of Information Technology
• DBR Technology: Data Networks
• Technology of Synthesis of Genetically Modified Insulin
• Sony Corporation: Technology Design
• Human Resources Management and How It Is Affected by Globalization and Technology?
• Using Technology in Human Resource Management
• Issues with Modern Technology in Airport Security
• Reliance on Technology and Security Staff Skills In Aviation Security
• Modern Technology and Children: Causes and Effects
• Information Technology Personnel’s Skills and Duties
• Information Technology and System Types
• Amazon Company: RFID Technology Implementation Plan
• Journalism Future After Technology Change
• Information Technology Oversight and Governance
• Momenta Pentop Computer’s Design and Technology
• Technology for Human Capability Development
• Information Technology in Emergency Cardiac Care
• Technology and Communication: The Impact of Information Technologies and the Lack of Personal Contact
• Technology in Information Mining
• LED Lighting and the Future of Lighting Technology
• The Implication of Information Technology on Marketing Strategy of Healthcare Industry
• Impact of the Advanced Technology
• Educational Technology Internship Proposal
• Value Proposition of Smart Technology and Self-Driving Cars
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• Apple and Samsung Firms’ Technology Innovation
• Advances in Freight Transportation Technology Throughout History
• Symmetry in Sciences and Technology Studies
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• Pessimism v Progress: Technology and Society
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• Proposal Outline: Being Too Dependent on Technology
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• Biomass and Energy Crops and Technology
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• Innovation and Technology Cycles in Organizations
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• Effect of Information and Communication Technology in a Corporate Organization
• Music Industry and Information Technology
• Information Technology Training in Primary Care by Alpay et al.
• Complex Technology in Reality TV Shows
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• Biomedical Technology and Innovation Issues
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• Starbucks Company’s Information Technology Approaches
• Telehealth: Barriers of the Technology Adoption
• Technology, Distance Education, and Its Quality
• Mobile Telephony and Kranzberg’s Laws of Technology
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• Technology Description Diary: The Use of Smartphone and Diary of Observations
• The Wiley Handbook of Psychology, Technology, and Society
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• Enhancing Construction Safety Through ASTM Standards and Technology
• PowerDoc’s Technology Implementation: Case Study Analysis
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Computer Technology Research Paper Topics

This list of computer technology research paper topics  provides the list of 33 potential topics for research papers and an overview article on the history of computer technology.

1. Analog Computers

Paralleling the split between analog and digital computers, in the 1950s the term analog computer was a posteriori projected onto pre-existing classes of mechanical, electrical, and electromechanical computing artifacts, subsuming them under the same category. The concept of analog, like the technical demarcation between analog and digital computer, was absent from the vocabulary of those classifying artifacts for the 1914 Edinburgh Exhibition, the first world’s fair emphasizing computing technology, and this leaves us with an invaluable index of the impressive number of classes of computing artifacts amassed during the few centuries of capitalist modernity. True, from the debate between ‘‘smooth’’ and ‘‘lumpy’’ artificial lines of computing (1910s) to the differentiation between ‘‘continuous’’ and ‘‘cyclic’’ computers (1940s), the subsequent analog–digital split became possible by the multitudinous accumulation of attempts to decontextualize the computer from its socio-historical use alternately to define the ideal computer technically. The fact is, however, that influential classifications of computing technology from the previous decades never provided an encompassing demarcation compared to the analog– digital distinction used since the 1950s. Historians of the digital computer find that the experience of working with software was much closer to art than science, a process that was resistant to mass production; historians of the analog computer find this to have been typical of working with the analog computer throughout all its aspects. The historiography of the progress of digital computing invites us to turn to the software crisis, which perhaps not accidentally, surfaced when the crisis caused by the analog ended. Noticeably, it was not until the process of computing with a digital electronic computer became sufficiently visual by the addition of a special interface—to substitute for the loss of visualization that was previously provided by the analog computer—that the analog computer finally disappeared.

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Get 10% off with 24start discount code, 2. artificial intelligence.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the field of software engineering that builds computer systems and occasionally robots to perform tasks that require intelligence. The term ‘‘artificial intelligence’’ was coined by John McCarthy in 1958, then a graduate student at Princeton, at a summer workshop held at Dartmouth in 1956. This two-month workshop marks the official birth of AI, which brought together young researchers who would nurture the field as it grew over the next several decades: Marvin Minsky, Claude Shannon, Arthur Samuel, Ray Solomonoff, Oliver Selfridge, Allen Newell, and Herbert Simon. It would be difficult to argue that the technologies derived from AI research had a profound effect on our way of life by the beginning of the 21st century. However, AI technologies have been successfully applied in many industrial settings, medicine and health care, and video games. Programming techniques developed in AI research were incorporated into more widespread programming practices, such as high-level programming languages and time-sharing operating systems. While AI did not succeed in constructing a computer which displays the general mental capabilities of a typical human, such as the HAL computer in Arthur C. Clarke and Stanley Kubrick’s film 2001: A Space Odyssey, it has produced programs that perform some apparently intelligent tasks, often at a much greater level of skill and reliability than humans. More than this, AI has provided a powerful and defining image of what computer technology might someday be capable of achieving.

3. Computer and Video Games

Interactive computer and video games were first developed in laboratories as the late-night amusements of computer programmers or independent projects of television engineers. Their formats include computer software; networked, multiplayer games on time-shared systems or servers; arcade consoles; home consoles connected to television sets; and handheld game machines. The first experimental projects grew out of early work in computer graphics, artificial intelligence, television technology, hardware and software interface development, computer-aided education, and microelectronics. Important examples were Willy Higinbotham’s oscilloscope-based ‘‘Tennis for Two’’ at the Brookhaven National Laboratory (1958); ‘‘Spacewar!,’’ by Steve Russell, Alan Kotok, J. Martin Graetz and others at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (1962); Ralph Baer’s television-based tennis game for Sanders Associates (1966); several networked games from the PLATO (Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations) Project at the University of Illinois during the early 1970s; and ‘‘Adventure,’’ by Will Crowther of Bolt, Beranek & Newman (1972), extended by Don Woods at Stanford University’s Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (1976). The main lines of development during the 1970s and early 1980s were home video consoles, coin-operated arcade games, and computer software.

4. Computer Displays

The display is an essential part of any general-purpose computer. Its function is to act as an output device to communicate data to humans using the highest bandwidth input system that humans possess—the eyes. Much of the development of computer displays has been about trying to get closer to the limits of human visual perception in terms of color and spatial resolution. Mainframe and minicomputers used ‘‘terminals’’ to display the output. These were fed data from the host computer and processed the data to create screen images using a graphics processor. The display was typically integrated with a keyboard system and some communication hardware as a terminal or video display unit (VDU) following the basic model used for teletypes. Personal computers (PCs) in the late 1970s and early 1980s changed this model by integrating the graphics controller into the computer chassis itself. Early PC displays typically displayed only monochrome text and communicated in character codes such as ASCII. Line-scanning frequencies were typically from 15 to 20 kilohertz—similar to television. CRT displays rapidly developed after the introduction of video graphics array (VGA) technology (640 by 480 pixels in16 colors) in the mid-1980s and scan frequencies rose to 60 kilohertz or more for mainstream displays; 100 kilohertz or more for high-end displays. These displays were capable of displaying formats up to 2048 by 1536 pixels with high color depths. Because the human eye is very quick to respond to visual stimulation, developments in display technology have tended to track the development of semiconductor technology that allows the rapid manipulation of the stored image.

5. Computer Memory for Personal Computers

During the second half of the twentieth century, the two primary methods used for the long-term storage of digital information were magnetic and optical recording. These methods were selected primarily on the basis of cost. Compared to core or transistorized random-access memory (RAM), storage costs for magnetic and optical media were several orders of magnitude cheaper per bit of information and were not volatile; that is, the information did not vanish when electrical power was turned off. However, access to information stored on magnetic and optical recorders was much slower compared to RAM memory. As a result, computer designers used a mix of both types of memory to accomplish computational tasks. Designers of magnetic and optical storage systems have sought meanwhile to increase the speed of access to stored information to increase the overall performance of computer systems, since most digital information is stored magnetically or optically for reasons of cost.

6. Computer Modeling

Computer simulation models have transformed the natural, engineering, and social sciences, becoming crucial tools for disciplines as diverse as ecology, epidemiology, economics, urban planning, aerospace engineering, meteorology, and military operations. Computer models help researchers study systems of extreme complexity, predict the behavior of natural phenomena, and examine the effects of human interventions in natural processes. Engineers use models to design everything from jets and nuclear-waste repositories to diapers and golf clubs. Models enable astrophysicists to simulate supernovas, biochemists to replicate protein folding, geologists to predict volcanic eruptions, and physiologists to identify populations at risk of lead poisoning. Clearly, computer models provide a powerful means of solving problems, both theoretical and applied.

7. Computer Networks

Computers and computer networks have changed the way we do almost everything—the way we teach, learn, do research, access or share information, communicate with each other, and even the way we entertain ourselves. A computer network, in simple terms, consists of two or more computing devices (often called nodes) interconnected by means of some medium capable of transmitting data that allows the computers to communicate with each other in order to provide a variety of services to users.

8. Computer Science

Computer science occupies a unique position among the scientific and technical disciplines. It revolves around a specific artifact—the electronic digital computer—that touches upon a broad and diverse set of fields in its design, operation, and application. As a result, computer science represents a synthesis and extension of many different areas of mathematics, science, engineering, and business.

9. Computer-Aided Control Technology

The story of computer-aided control technology is inextricably entwined with the modern history of automation. Automation in the first half of the twentieth century involved (often analog) processes for continuous automatic measurement and control of hardware by hydraulic, mechanical, or electromechanical means. These processes facilitated the development and refinement of battlefield fire-control systems, feedback amplifiers for use in telephony, electrical grid simulators, numerically controlled milling machines, and dozens of other innovations.

10. Computer-Aided Design and Manufacture

Computer-aided design and manufacture, known by the acronym CAD/CAM, is a process for manufacturing mechanical components, wherein computers are used to link the information needed in and produced by the design process to the information needed to control the machine tools that produce the parts. However, CAD/CAM actually constitutes two separate technologies that developed along similar, but unrelated, lines until they were combined in the 1970s.

11. Computer-User Interface

A computer interface is the point of contact between a person and an electronic computer. Today’s interfaces include a keyboard, mouse, and display screen. Computer user interfaces developed through three distinct stages, which can be identified as batch processing, interactive computing, and the graphical user interface (GUI). Today’s graphical interfaces support additional multimedia features, such as streaming audio and video. In GUI design, every new software feature introduces more icons into the process of computer– user interaction. Presently, the large vocabulary of icons used in GUI design is difficult for users to remember, which creates a complexity problem. As GUIs become more complex, interface designers are adding voice recognition and intelligent agent technologies to make computer user interfaces even easier to operate.

12. Early Computer Memory

Mechanisms to store information were present in early mechanical calculating machines, going back to Charles Babbage’s analytical engine proposed in the 1830s. It introduced the concept of the ‘‘store’’ and, if ever built, would have held 1000 numbers of up to 50 decimal digits. However, the move toward base-2 or binary computing in the 1930s brought about a new paradigm in technology—the digital computer, whose most elementary component was an on–off switch. Information on a digital system is represented using a combination of on and off signals, stored as binary digits (shortened to bits): zeros and ones. Text characters, symbols, or numerical values can all be coded as bits, so that information stored in digital memory is just zeros and ones, regardless of the storage medium. The history of computer memory is closely linked to the history of computers but a distinction should be made between primary (or main) and secondary memory. Computers only need operate on one segment of data at a time, and with memory being a scarce resource, the rest of the data set could be stored in less expensive and more abundant secondary memory.

13. Early Digital Computers

Digital computers were a marked departure from the electrical and mechanical calculating and computing machines in wide use from the early twentieth century. The innovation was of information being represented using only two states (on or off), which came to be known as ‘‘digital.’’ Binary (base 2) arithmetic and logic provided the tools for these machines to perform useful functions. George Boole’s binary system of algebra allowed any mathematical equation to be represented by simply true or false logic statements. By using only two states, engineering was also greatly simplified, and universality and accuracy increased. Further developments from the early purpose-built machines, to ones that were programmable accompanied by many key technological developments, resulted in the well-known success and proliferation of the digital computer.

14. Electronic Control Technology

The advancement of electrical engineering in the twentieth century made a fundamental change in control technology. New electronic devices including vacuum tubes (valves) and transistors were used to replace electromechanical elements in conventional controllers and to develop new types of controllers. In these practices, engineers discovered basic principles of control theory that could be further applied to design electronic control systems.

15. Encryption and Code Breaking

The word cryptography comes from the Greek words for ‘‘hidden’’ (kryptos) and ‘‘to write’’ (graphein)—literally, the science of ‘‘hidden writing.’’ In the twentieth century, cryptography became fundamental to information technology (IT) security generally. Before the invention of the digital computer at mid-century, national governments across the world relied on mechanical and electromechanical cryptanalytic devices to protect their own national secrets and communications, as well as to expose enemy secrets. Code breaking played an important role in both World Wars I and II, and the successful exploits of Polish and British cryptographers and signals intelligence experts in breaking the code of the German Enigma ciphering machine (which had a range of possible transformations between a message and its code of approximately 150 trillion (or 150 million million million) are well documented.

16. Error Checking and Correction

In telecommunications, whether transmission of data or voice signals is over copper, fiber-optic, or wireless links, information coded in the signal transmitted must be decoded by the receiver from a background of noise. Signal errors can be introduced, for example from physical defects in the transmission medium (semiconductor crystal defects, dust or scratches on magnetic memory, bubbles in optical fibers), from electromagnetic interference (natural or manmade) or cosmic rays, or from cross-talk (unwanted coupling) between channels. In digital signal transmission, data is transmitted as ‘‘bits’’ (ones or zeros, corresponding to on or off in electronic circuits). Random bit errors occur singly and in no relation to each other. Burst error is a large, sustained error or loss of data, perhaps caused by transmission problems in the connecting cables, or sudden noise. Analog to digital conversion can also introduce sampling errors.

17. Global Positioning System (GPS)

The NAVSTAR (NAVigation System Timing And Ranging) Global Positioning System (GPS) provides an unlimited number of military and civilian users worldwide with continuous, highly accurate data on their position in four dimensions— latitude, longitude, altitude, and time— through all weather conditions. It includes space, control, and user segments (Figure 6). A constellation of 24 satellites in 10,900 nautical miles, nearly circular orbits—six orbital planes, equally spaced 60 degrees apart, inclined approximately 55 degrees relative to the equator, and each with four equidistant satellites—transmits microwave signals in two different L-band frequencies. From any point on earth, between five and eight satellites are ‘‘visible’’ to the user. Synchronized, extremely precise atomic clocks—rubidium and cesium— aboard the satellites render the constellation semiautonomous by alleviating the need to continuously control the satellites from the ground. The control segment consists of a master facility at Schriever Air Force Base, Colorado, and a global network of automated stations. It passively tracks the entire constellation and, via an S-band uplink, periodically sends updated orbital and clock data to each satellite to ensure that navigation signals received by users remain accurate. Finally, GPS users—on land, at sea, in the air or space—rely on commercially produced receivers to convert satellite signals into position, time, and velocity estimates.

18. Gyrocompass and Inertial Guidance

Before the twentieth century, navigation at sea employed two complementary methods, astronomical and dead reckoning. The former involved direct measurements of celestial phenomena to ascertain position, while the latter required continuous monitoring of a ship’s course, speed, and distance run. New navigational technology was required not only for iron ships in which traditional compasses required correction, but for aircraft and submarines in which magnetic compasses cannot be used. Owing to their rapid motion, aircraft presented challenges for near instantaneous navigation data collection and reduction. Electronics furnished the exploitation of radio and the adaptation of a gyroscope to direction finding through the invention of the nonmagnetic gyrocompass.

Although the Cold War arms race after World War II led to the development of inertial navigation, German manufacture of the V-2 rocket under the direction of Wernher von Braun during the war involved a proto-inertial system, a two-gimballed gyro with an integrator to determine speed. Inertial guidance combines a gyrocompass with accelerometers installed along orthogonal axes, devices that record all accelerations of the vehicle in which inertial guidance has been installed. With this system, if the initial position of the vehicle is known, then the vehicle’s position at any moment is known because integrators record all directions and accelerations and calculate speeds and distance run. Inertial guidance devices can subtract accelerations due to gravity or other motions of the vehicle. Because inertial guidance does not depend on an outside reference, it is the ultimate dead reckoning system, ideal for the nuclear submarines for which they were invented and for ballistic missiles. Their self-contained nature makes them resistant to electronic countermeasures. Inertial systems were first installed in commercial aircraft during the 1960s. The expense of manufacturing inertial guidance mechanisms (and their necessary management by computer) has limited their application largely to military and some commercial purposes. Inertial systems accumulate errors, so their use at sea (except for submarines) has been as an adjunct to other navigational methods, unlike aircraft applications. Only the development of the global positioning system (GPS) at the end of the century promised to render all previous navigational technologies obsolete. Nevertheless, a range of technologies, some dating to the beginning of the century, remain in use in a variety of commercial and leisure applications.

19. Hybrid Computers

Following the emergence of the analog–digital demarcation in the late 1940s—and the ensuing battle between a speedy analog versus the accurate digital—the term ‘‘hybrid computer’’ surfaced in the early 1960s. The assumptions held by the adherents of the digital computer—regarding the dynamic mechanization of computational labor to accompany the equally dynamic increase in computational work—was becoming a universal ideology. From this perspective, the digital computer justly appeared to be technically superior. In introducing the digital computer to social realities, however, extensive interaction with the experienced analog computer adherents proved indispensable, especially given that the digital proponents’ expectation of progress by employing the available and inexpensive hardware was stymied by the lack of inexpensive software. From this perspective—as historiographically unwanted it may be by those who agree with the essentialist conception of the analog–digital demarcation—the history of the hybrid computer suggests that the computer as we now know it was brought about by linking the analog and the digital, not by separating them. Placing the ideal analog and the ideal digital at the two poles, all computing techniques that combined some features of both fell beneath ‘‘hybrid computation’’; the designators ‘‘balanced’’ or ‘‘true’’ were preserved for those built with appreciable amounts of both. True hybrids fell into the middle spectrum that included: pure analog computers, analog computers using digital-type numerical analysis techniques, analog computers programmed with the aid of digital computers, analog computers using digital control and logic, analog computers using digital subunits, analog computers using digital computers as peripheral equipment, balanced hybrid computer systems, digital computers using analog subroutines, digital computers with analog arithmetic elements, digital computers designed to permit analog-type programming, digital computers with analog-oriented compilers and interpreters, and pure digital computers.

20. Information Theory

Information theory, also known originally as the mathematical theory of communication, was first explicitly formulated during the mid-twentieth century. Almost immediately it became a foundation; first, for the more systematic design and utilization of numerous telecommunication and information technologies; and second, for resolving a paradox in thermodynamics. Finally, information theory has contributed to new interpretations of a wide range of biological and cultural phenomena, from organic physiology and genetics to cognitive behavior, human language, economics, and political decision making. Reflecting the symbiosis between theory and practice typical of twentieth century technology, technical issues in early telegraphy and telephony gave rise to a proto-information theory developed by Harry Nyquist at Bell Labs in 1924 and Ralph Hartley, also at Bell Labs, in 1928. This theory in turn contributed to advances in telecommunications, which stimulated the development of information theory per se by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver, in their book The Mathematical Theory of Communication published in 1949. As articulated by Claude Shannon, a Bell Labs researcher, the technical concept of information is defined by the probability of a specific message or signal being picked out from a number of possibilities and transmitted from A to B. Information in this sense is mathematically quantifiable. The amount of information, I, conveyed by signal, S, is inversely related to its probability, P. That is, the more improbable a message, the more information it contains. To facilitate the mathematical analysis of messages, the measure is conveniently defined as I ¼ log2 1/P(S), and is named a binary digit or ‘‘bit’’ for short. Thus in the simplest case of a two-state signal (1 or 0, corresponding to on or off in electronic circuits), with equal probability for each state, the transmission of either state as the code for a message would convey one bit of information. The theory of information opened up by this conceptual analysis has become the basis for constructing and analyzing digital computational devices and a whole range of information technologies (i.e., technologies including telecommunications and data processing), from telephones to computer networks.

21. Internet

The Internet is a global computer network of networks whose origins are found in U.S. military efforts. In response to Sputnik and the emerging space race, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) was formed in 1958 as an agency of the Pentagon. The researchers at ARPA were given a generous mandate to develop innovative technologies such as communications.

In 1962, psychologist J.C.R. Licklider from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology’s Lincoln Laboratory joined ARPA to take charge of the Information Processing Techniques Office (IPTO). In 1963 Licklider wrote a memo proposing an interactive network allowing people to communicate via computer. This project did not materialize. In 1966, Bob Taylor, then head of the IPTO, noted that he needed three different computer terminals to connect to three different machines in different locations around the nation. Taylor also recognized that universities working with IPTO needed more computing resources. Instead of the government buying machines for each university, why not share machines? Taylor revitalized Licklider’s idea, securing $1 million in funding, and hired 29-yearold Larry Roberts to direct the creation of ARPAnet.

In 1974, Robert Kahn and Vincent Cerf proposed the first internet-working protocol, a way for datagrams (packets) to be communicated between disparate networks, and they called it an ‘‘internet.’’ Their efforts created transmission control protocol/internet protocol (TCP/IP). In 1982, TCP/IP replaced NCP on ARPAnet. Other networks adopted TCP/IP and it became the dominant standard for all networking by the late 1990s.

In 1981 the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) created Computer Science Network (CSNET) to provide universities that did not have access to ARPAnet with their own network. In 1986, the NSF sponsored the NSFNET ‘‘backbone’’ to connect five supercomputing centers. The backbone also connected ARPAnet and CSNET together, and the idea of a network of networks became firmly entrenched. The open technical architecture of the Internet allowed numerous innovations to be grafted easily onto the whole. When ARPAnet was dismantled in 1990, the Internet was thriving at universities and technology- oriented companies. The NSF backbone was dismantled in 1995 when the NSF realized that commercial entities could keep the Internet running and growing on their own, without government subsidy. Commercial network providers worked through the Commercial Internet Exchange to manage network traffic.

22. Mainframe Computers

The term ‘‘computer’’ currently refers to a general-purpose, digital, electronic, stored-program calculating machine. The term ‘‘mainframe’’ refers to a large, expensive, multiuser computer, able to handle a wide range of applications. The term was derived from the main frame or cabinet in which the central processing unit (CPU) and main memory of a computer were kept separate from those cabinets that held peripheral devices used for input and output.

Computers are generally classified as supercomputers, mainframes, minicomputers, or microcomputers. This classification is based on factors such as processing capability, cost, and applications, with supercomputers the fastest and most expensive. All computers were called mainframes until the 1960s, including the first supercomputer, the naval ordnance research calculator (NORC), offered by International Business Machines (IBM) in 1954. In 1960, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) shipped the PDP-1, a computer that was much smaller and cheaper than a mainframe.

Mainframes once each filled a large room, cost millions of dollars, and needed a full maintenance staff, partly in order to repair the damage caused by the heat generated by their vacuum tubes. These machines were characterized by proprietary operating systems and connections through dumb terminals that had no local processing capabilities. As personal computers developed and began to approach mainframes in speed and processing power, however, mainframes have evolved to support a client/server relationship, and to interconnect with open standard-based systems. They have become particularly useful for systems that require reliability, security, and centralized control. Their ability to process large amounts of data quickly make them particularly valuable for storage area networks (SANs). Mainframes today contain multiple CPUs, providing additional speed through multiprocessing operations. They support many hundreds of simultaneously executing programs, as well as numerous input and output processors for multiplexing devices, such as video display terminals and disk drives. Many legacy systems, large applications that have been developed, tested, and used over time, are still running on mainframes.

23. Mineral Prospecting

Twentieth century mineral prospecting draws upon the accumulated knowledge of previous exploration and mining activities, advancing technology, expanding knowledge of geologic processes and deposit models, and mining and processing capabilities to determine where and how to look for minerals of interest. Geologic models have been developed for a wide variety of deposit types; the prospector compares geologic characteristics of potential exploration areas with those of deposit models to determine which areas have similar characteristics and are suitable prospecting locations. Mineral prospecting programs are often team efforts, integrating general and site-specific knowledge of geochemistry, geology, geophysics, and remote sensing to ‘‘discover’’ hidden mineral deposits and ‘‘measure’’ their economic potential with increasing accuracy and reduced environmental disturbance. Once a likely target zone has been identified, multiple exploration tools are used in a coordinated program to characterize the deposit and its economic potential.

24. Packet Switching

Historically the first communications networks were telegraphic—the electrical telegraph replacing the mechanical semaphore stations in the mid-nineteenth century. Telegraph networks were largely eclipsed by the advent of the voice (telephone) network, which first appeared in the late nineteenth century, and provided the immediacy of voice conversation. The Public Switched Telephone Network allows a subscriber to dial a connection to another subscriber, with the connection being a series of telephone lines connected together through switches at the telephone exchanges along the route. This technique is known as circuit switching, as a circuit is set up between the subscribers, and is held until the call is cleared.

One of the disadvantages of circuit switching is the fact that the capacity of the link is often significantly underused due to silences in the conversation, but the spare capacity cannot be shared with other traffic. Another disadvantage is the time it takes to establish the connection before the conversation can begin. One could liken this to sending a railway engine from London to Edinburgh to set the points before returning to pick up the carriages. What is required is a compromise between the immediacy of conversation on an established circuit-switched connection, with the ad hoc delivery of a store-and-forward message system. This is what packet switching is designed to provide.

25. Personal Computers

A personal computer, or PC, is designed for personal use. Its central processing unit (CPU) runs single-user systems and application software, processes input from the user, sending output to a variety of peripheral devices. Programs and data are stored in memory and attached storage devices. Personal computers are generally single-user desktop machines, but the term has been applied to any computer that ‘‘stands alone’’ for a single user, including portable computers.

The technology that enabled the construction of personal computers was the microprocessor, a programmable integrated circuit (or ‘‘chip’’) that acts as the CPU. Intel introduced the first microprocessor in 1971, the 4-bit 4004, which it called a ‘‘microprogrammable computer on a chip.’’ The 4004 was originally developed as a general-purpose chip for a programmable calculator, but Intel introduced it as part of Intel’s Microcomputer System 4-bit, or MCS-4, which also included read-only memory (ROM) and random-access memory (RAM) memory chips and a shift register chip. In August 1972, Intel followed with the 8-bit 8008, then the more powerful 8080 in June 1974. Following Intel’s lead, computers based on the 8080 were usually called microcomputers.

The success of the minicomputer during the 1960s prepared computer engineers and users for ‘‘single person, single CPU’’ computers. Digital Equipment Corporation’s (DEC) widely used PDP-10, for example, was smaller, cheaper, and more accessible than large mainframe computers. Timeshared computers operating under operating systems such as TOPS-10 on the PDP-10— co-developed by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and DEC in 1972—created the illusion of individual control of computing power by providing rapid access to personal programs and files. By the early 1970s, the accessibility of minicomputers, advances in microelectronics, and component miniaturization created expectations of affordable personal computers.

26. Printers

Printers generally can be categorized as either impact or nonimpact. Like typewriters, impact printers generate output by striking the page with a solid substance. Impact printers include daisy wheel and dot matrix printers. The daisy wheel printer, which was introduced in 1972 by Diablo Systems, operates by spinning the daisy wheel to the correct character whereupon a hammer strikes it, forcing the character through an inked ribbon and onto the paper. Dot matrix printers operate by using a series of small pins to strike a matrix or grid ribbon coated with ink. The strike of the pin forces the ink to transfer to the paper at the point of impact. Unlike daisy wheel printers, dot matrix printers can generate italic and other character types through producing different pin patterns. Nonimpact printers generate images by spraying or fusing ink to paper or other output media. This category includes inkjet printers, laser printers, and thermal printers. Whether they are inkjet or laser, impact or nonimpact, all modern printers incorporate features of dot matrix technology in their design: they operate by generating dots onto paper or other physical media.

27. Processors for Computers

A processor is the part of the computer system that manipulates the data. The first computer processors of the late 1940s and early 1950s performed three main functions and had three main components. They worked in a cycle to gather, decode, and execute instructions. They were made up of the arithmetic and logic unit, the control unit, and some extra storage components or registers. Today, most processors contain these components and perform these same functions, but since the 1960s they have developed different forms, capabilities, and organization. As with computers in general, increasing speed and decreasing size has marked their development.

28. Radionavigation

Astronomical and dead-reckoning techniques furnished the methods of navigating ships until the twentieth century, when exploitation of radio waves, coupled with electronics, met the needs of aircraft with their fast speeds, but also transformed all navigational techniques. The application of radio to dead reckoning has allowed vessels to determine their positions in all-weather by direction finding (known as radio direction finding, or RDF) or by hyperbolic systems. Another use of radio, radar (radio direction and rangefinding), enables vessels to determine their distance to, or their bearing from, objects of known position. Radionavigation complements traditional navigational methods by employing three frames of reference. First, radio enables a vessel to navigate by lines of bearing to shore transmitters (the most common use of radio). This is directly analogous to the use of lighthouses for bearings. Second, shore stations may take radio bearings of craft and relay to them computed positions. Third, radio beacons provide aircraft or ships with signals that function as true compasses.

29. Software Application Programs

At the beginning of the computer age around the late 1940s, inventors of the intelligent machine were not thinking about applications software, or any software other than that needed to run the bare machine to do mathematical calculating. It was only when Maurice Wilkes’ young protégé David Williams crafted a tidy set of initial orders for the EDSAC, an early programmable digital computer, that users could string together standard subroutines to a program and have the execution jump between them. This was the beginning of software as we know it—something that runs on a machine other than an operating system to make it do anything desired. ‘‘Applications’’ are software other than system programs that run the actual hardware. Manufacturers always had this software, and as the 1950s progressed they would ‘‘bundle’’ applications with hardware to make expensive computers more attractive. Some programming departments were even placed in the marketing departments.

30. Software Engineering

Software engineering aims to develop the programs that allow digital computers to do useful work in a systematic, disciplined manner that produces high-quality software on time and on budget. As computers have spread throughout industrialized societies, software has become a multibillion dollar industry. Both the users and developers of software depend a great deal on the effectiveness of the development process.

Software is a concept that didn’t even pertain to the first electronic digital computers. They were ‘‘programmed’’ through switches and patch cables that physically altered the electrical pathways of the machine. It was not until the Manchester Mark I, the first operational stored-program electronic digital computer, was developed in 1948 at the University of Manchester in England that configuring the machine to solve a specific problem became a matter of software rather than hardware. Subsequently, instructions were stored in memory along with data.

31. Supercomputers

Supercomputers are high-performance computing devices that are generally used for numerical calculation, for the study of physical systems either through numerical simulation or the processing of scientific data. Initially, they were large, expensive, mainframe computers, which were usually owned by government research labs. By the end of the twentieth century, they were more often networks of inexpensive small computers. The common element of all of these machines was their ability to perform high-speed floating-point arithmetic— binary arithmetic that approximates decimal numbers with a fixed number of bits—the basis of numerical computation.

With the advent of inexpensive supercomputers, these machines moved beyond the large government labs and into smaller research and engineering facilities. Some were used for the study of social science. A few were employed by business concerns, such as stock brokerages or graphic designers.

32. Systems Programs

The operating systems used in all computers today are a result of the development and organization of early systems programs designed to control and regulate the operations of computer hardware. The early computing machines such as the ENIAC of 1945 were ‘‘programmed’’ manually with connecting cables and setting switches for each new calculation. With the advent of the stored program computer of the late 1940s (the Manchester Mark I, EDVAC, EDSAC (electronic delay storage automatic calculator), the first system programs such as assemblers and compilers were developed and installed. These programs performed oft repeated and basic operations for computer use including converting programs into machine code, storing and retrieving files, managing computer resources and peripherals, and aiding in the compilation of new programs. With the advent of programming languages, and the dissemination of more computers in research centers, universities, and businesses during the late 1950s and 1960s, a large group of users began developing programs, improving usability, and organizing system programs into operating systems.

The 1970s and 1980s saw a turn away from some of the complications of system software, an interweaving of features from different operating systems, and the development of systems programs for the personal computer. In the early 1970s, two programmers from Bell Laboratories, Ken Thompson and Dennis Ritchie, developed a smaller, simpler operating system called UNIX. Unlike past system software, UNIX was portable and could be run on different computer systems. Due in part to low licensing fees and simplicity of design, UNIX increased in popularity throughout the 1970s. At the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center, research during the 1970s led to the development of system software for the Apple Macintosh computer that included a GUI (graphical user interface). This type of system software filtered the user’s interaction with the computer through the use of graphics or icons representing computer processes. In 1985, a year after the release of the Apple Macintosh computer, a GUI was overlaid on Microsoft’s then dominant operating system, MS-DOS, to produce Microsoft Windows. The Microsoft Windows series of operating systems became and remains the dominant operating system on personal computers.

33. World Wide Web

The World Wide Web (Web) is a ‘‘finite but unbounded’’ collection of media-rich digital resources that are connected through high-speed digital networks. It relies upon an Internet protocol suite that supports cross-platform transmission and makes available a wide variety of media types (i.e., multimedia). The cross-platform delivery environment represents an important departure from more traditional network communications protocols such as e-mail, telnet, and file transfer protocols (FTP) because it is content-centric. It is also to be distinguished from earlier document acquisition systems such as Gopher, which was designed in 1991, originally as a mainframe program but quickly implemented over networks, and wide area information systems (WAIS), also released in 1991. WAIS accommodated a narrower range of media formats and failed to include hyperlinks within their navigation protocols. Following the success of Gopher on the Internet, the Web quickly extended and enriched the metaphor of integrated browsing and navigation. This made it possible to navigate and peruse a wide variety of media types effortlessly on the Web, which in turn led to the Web’s hegemony as an Internet protocol.

History of Computer Technology

The modern computer—the (electronic) digital computer in which the stored program concept is realized and hence self-modifying programs are possible—was only invented in the 1940s. Nevertheless, the history of computing (interpreted as the usage of modern computers) is only understandable against the background of the many forms of information processing as well as mechanical computing devices that solved mathematical problems in the first half of the twentieth century. The part these several predecessors played in the invention and early history of the computer may be interpreted from two different perspectives: on the one hand it can be argued that these machines prepared the way for the modern digital computer, on the other hand it can be argued that the computer, which was invented as a mathematical instrument, was reconstructed to be a data-processing machine, a control mechanism, and a communication tool.

The invention and early history of the digital computer has its roots in two different kinds of developments: first, information processing in business and government bureaucracies; and second, the use and the search for mathematical instruments and methods that could solve mathematical problems arising in the sciences and in engineering.

Origins in Mechanical Office Equipment

The development of information processing in business and government bureaucracies had its origins in the late nineteenth century, which was not just an era of industrialization and mass production but also a time of continuous growth in administrative work. The economic precondition for this development was the creation of a global economy, which caused growth in production of goods and trade. This brought with it an immense increase in correspondence, as well as monitoring and accounting activities—corporate bureaucracies began to collect and process data in increasing quantities. Almost at the same time, government organizations became more and more interested in collating data on population and demographic changes (e.g., expanding tax revenues, social security, and wide-ranging planning and monitoring functions) and analyzing this data statistically.

Bureaucracies in the U.S. and in Europe reacted in a different way to these changes. While in Europe for the most part neither office machines nor telephones entered offices until 1900, in the U.S. in the last quarter of the nineteenth century the information-handling techniques in bureaucracies were radically changed because of the introduction of mechanical devices for writing, copying, and counting data. The rise of big business in the U.S. had caused a growing demand for management control tools, which was fulfilled by a new ideology of systematic management together with the products of the rising office machines industry. Because of a later start in industrialization, the government and businesses in the U.S. were not forced to reorganize their bureaucracies when they introduced office machines. This, together with an ideological preference for modern office equipment, was the cause of a market for office machines and of a far-reaching mechanization of office work in the U.S. In the 1880s typewriters and cash registers became very widespread, followed by adding machines and book-keeping machines in the 1890s. From 1880 onward, the makers of office machines in the U.S. underwent a period of enormous growth, and in 1920 the office machine industry annually generated about $200 million in revenue. In Europe, by comparison, mechanization of office work emerged about two decades later than in the U.S.—both Germany and Britain adopted the American system of office organization and extensive use of office machines for the most part no earlier than the 1920s.

During the same period the rise of a new office machine technology began. Punched card systems, initially invented by Herman Hollerith to analyze the U.S. census in 1890, were introduced. By 1911 Hollerith’s company had only about 100 customers, but after it had been merged in the same year with two other companies to become the Computing- Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR), it began a tremendous ascent to become the world leader in the office machine industry. CTR’s general manager, Thomas J. Watson, understood the extraordinary potential of these punched-card accounting devices, which enabled their users to process enormous amounts of data largely automatically, in a rapid way and at an adequate level of cost and effort. Due to Watson’s insights and his extraordinary management abilities, the company (which had since been renamed to International Business Machines (IBM)) became the fourth largest office machine supplier in the world by 1928—topped only by Remington Rand, National Cash Register (NCR), and the Burroughs Adding Machine Company.

Origin of Calculating Devices and Analog Instruments

Compared with the fundamental changes in the world of corporate and government bureaucracies caused by office machinery during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, calculating machines and instruments seemed to have only a minor influence in the world of science and engineering. Scientists and engineers had always been confronted with mathematical problems and had over the centuries developed techniques such as mathematical tables. However, many new mathematical instruments emerged in the nineteenth century and increasingly began to change the world of science and engineering. Apart from the slide rule, which came into popular use in Europe from the early nineteenth century onwards (and became the symbol of the engineer for decades), calculating machines and instruments were only produced on a large scale in the middle of the nineteenth century.

In the 1850s the production of calculating machines as well as that of planimeters (used to measure the area of closed curves, a typical problem in land surveying) started on different scales. Worldwide, less than 2,000 calculating machines were produced before 1880, but more than 10,000 planimeters were produced by the early 1880s. Also, various types of specialized mathematical analog instruments were produced on a very small scale in the late nineteenth century; among them were integraphs for the graphical solution of special types of differential equations, harmonic analyzers for the determination of Fourier coefficients of a periodic function, and tide predictors that could calculate the time and height of the ebb and flood tides.

Nonetheless, in 1900 only geodesists and astronomers (as well as part of the engineering community) made extensive use of mathematical instruments. In addition, the establishment of applied mathematics as a new discipline took place at German universities on a small scale and the use of apparatus and machines as well as graphical and numerical methods began to flourish during this time. After World War I, the development of engineering sciences and of technical physics gave a tremendous boost to applied mathematics in Germany and Britain. In general, scientists and engineers became more aware of the capabilities of calculating machines and a change of the calculating culture—from the use of tables to the use of calculating machines—took place.

One particular problem that was increasingly encountered by mechanical and electrical engineers in the 1920s was the solution of several types of differential equations, which were not solvable by analytic solutions. As one important result of this development, a new type of analog instrument— the so called ‘‘differential analyzer’’—was invented in 1931 by the engineer Vannevar Bush at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). In contrast to its predecessors—several types of integraphs—this machine (which was later called an analog computer) could be used not only to solve a special class of differential equation, but a more general class of differential equations associated with engineering problems. Before the digital computer was invented in the 1940s there was an intensive use of analog instruments (similar to Bush’s differential analyzer) and a number of machines were constructed in the U.S. and in Europe after the model of Bush’s machine before and during World War II. Analog instruments also became increasingly important in several fields such as the firing control of artillery on warships or the control of rockets. It is worth mentioning here that only for a limited class of scientific and engineering problems was it possible to construct an analog computer— weather forecasting and the problem of shock waves produced by an atomic bomb, for example, required the solution of partial differential equations, for which a digital computer was needed.

The Invention of the Computer

The invention of the electronic digital stored-program computer is directly connected with the development of numerical calculation tools for the solution of mathematical problems in the sciences and in engineering. The ideas that led to the invention of the computer were developed simultaneously by scientists and engineers in Germany, Britain, and the U.S. in the 1930s and 1940s. The first freely programmable program-controlled automatic calculator was developed by the civil engineering student Konrad Zuse in Germany. Zuse started development work on program-controlled computing machines in the 1930s, when he had to deal with extensive calculations in static, and in 1941 his Z3, which was based on electromechanical relay technology, became operational.

Several similar developments in the U.S. were in progress at the same time. In 1937 Howard Aiken, a physics student at Harvard University, approached IBM to build a program-controlled calculator— later called the ‘‘Harvard Mark I.’’ On the basis of a concept Aiken had developed because of his experiences with the numerical solution of partial differential equations, the machine was built and became operational in 1944. At almost the same time a series of important relay computers was built at the Bell Laboratories in New York following a suggestion by George R. Stibitz. All these developments in the U.S. were spurred by the outbreak of World War II. The first large-scale programmable electronic computer called the Colossus was built in complete secrecy in 1943 to 1944 at Bletchley Park in Britain in order to help break the German Enigma machine ciphers.

However, it was neither these relay calculators nor the Colossus that were decisive for the development of the universal computer, but the ENIAC (electronic numerical integrator and computer), which was developed at the Moore School of Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. Extensive ballistic calculations were carried out there for the U.S. Army during World War II with the aid of the Bush ‘‘differential analyzer’’ and more than a hundred women (‘‘computors’’) working on mechanical desk calculators. Observing that capacity was barely sufficient to compute the artillery firing tables, the physicist John W. Mauchly and the electronic engineer John Presper Eckert started developing the ENIAC, a digital version of the differential analyzer, in 1943 with funding from the U.S. Army.

In 1944 the mathematician John von Neumann turned his attention to the ENIAC because of his mathematical work on the Manhattan Project (on the implosion of the hydrogen bomb). While the ENIAC was being built, Neumann and the ENIAC team drew up plans for a successor to the ENIAC in order to improve the shortcomings of the ENIAC concept, such as the very small memory and the time-consuming reprogramming (actually rewiring) required to change the setup for a new calculation. In these meetings the idea of a stored-program, universal machine evolved. Memory was to be used to store the program in addition to data. This would enable the machine to execute conditional branches and change the flow of the program. The concept of a computer in the modern sense of the word was born and in 1945 von Neumann wrote the important ‘‘First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC,’’ which described the stored-program, universal computer. The logical structure that was presented in this draft report is now referred to as the ‘‘von Neumann architecture.’’ This EDVAC report was originally intended for internal use but once made freely available it became the ‘‘bible’’ for computer pioneers throughout the world in the 1940s and 1950s. The first computer featuring the von Neumann architecture operated at Cambridge University in the U.K.; in June 1949 the EDSAC (electronic delay storage automatic computer) computer built by Maurice Wilkes—designed according to the EDVAC principles—became operational.

The Computer as a Scientific Instrument

As soon as the computer was invented, a growing demand for computers by scientists and engineers evolved, and numerous American and European universities started their own computer projects in the 1940s and 1950s. After the technical difficulties of building an electronic computer were solved, scientists grasped the opportunity to use the new scientific instrument for their research. For example, at the University of Gottingen in Germany, the early computers were used for the initial value problems of partial differential equations associated with hydrodynamic problems from atomic physics and aerodynamics. Another striking example was the application of von Neumann’s computer at the Institute for Advanced Study (IAS) in Princeton to numerical weather forecasts in 1950. As a result, numerical weather forecasts could be made on a regular basis from the mid-1950s onwards.

Mathematical methods have always been of a certain importance for science and engineering sciences, but only the use of the electronic digital computer (as an enabling technology) made it possible to broaden the application of mathematical methods to such a degree that research in science, medicine, and engineering without computer- based mathematical methods has become virtually inconceivable at the end of the twentieth century. A number of additional computer-based techniques, such as scientific visualization, medical imaging, computerized tomography, pattern recognition, image processing, and statistical applications, have become of the utmost significance for science, medicine, engineering, and social sciences. In addition, the computer changed the way engineers construct technical artifacts fundamentally because of the use of computer-based methods such as computer-aided design (CAD), computer-aided manufacture (CAM), computer-aided engineering, control applications, and finite-element methods. However, the most striking example seems to be the development of scientific computing and computer modeling, which became accepted as a third mode of scientific research that complements experimentation and theoretical analysis. Scientific computing and computer modeling are based on supercomputers as the enabling technology, which became important tools for modern science routinely used to simulate physical and chemical phenomena. These high-speed computers became equated with the machines developed by Seymour Cray, who built the fastest computers in the world for many years. The supercomputers he launched such as the legendary CRAY I from 1976 were the basis for computer modeling of real world systems, and helped, for example, the defense industry in the U.S. to build weapons systems and the oil industry to create geological models that show potential oil deposits.

Growth of Digital Computers in Business and Information Processing

When the digital computer was invented as a mathematical instrument in the 1940s, it could not have been foreseen that this new artifact would ever be of a certain importance in the business world. About 50 firms entered the computer business worldwide in the late 1940s and the early 1950s, and the computer was reconstructed to be a type of electronic data-processing machine that took the place of punched-card technology as well as other office machine technology. It is interesting to consider that there were mainly three types of companies building computers in the 1950s and 1960s: newly created computer firms (such as the company founded by the ENIAC inventors Eckert and Mauchly), electronics and control equipments firms (such as RCA and General Electric), and office appliance companies (such as Burroughs and NCR). Despite the fact that the first digital computers were put on the market by a German and a British company, U.S. firms dominated the world market from the 1950s onward, as these firms had the biggest market as well as financial support from the government.

Generally speaking, the Cold War exerted an enormous influence on the development of computer technology. Until the early 1960s the U.S. military and the defense industry were the central drivers of the digital computer expansion, serving as the main market for computer technology and shaping and speeding up the formation of the rising computer industry. Because of the U.S. military’s role as the ‘‘tester’’ for prototype hard- and software, it had a direct and lasting influence on technological developments; in addition, it has to be noted that the spread of computer technology was partly hindered by military secrecy. Even after the emergence of a large civilian computer market in the 1960s, the U.S. military maintained its influence by investing a great deal in computer in hard- and software and in computer research projects.

From the middle of the 1950s onwards the world computer market was dominated by IBM, which accounted for more than 70 percent of the computer industry revenues until the mid-1970s. The reasons for IBM’s overwhelming success were diverse, but the company had a unique combination of technical and organizational capabilities at its disposal that prepared it perfectly for the mainframe computer market. In addition, IBM benefited from enormous government contracts, which helped to develop excellence in computer technology and design. However, the greatest advantage of IBM was by no doubt its marketing organization and its reputation as a service-oriented firm, which was used to working closely with customers to adapt machinery to address specific problems, and this key difference between IBM and its competitors persisted right into the computer age.

During the late 1950s and early 1960s, the computer market—consisting of IBM and seven other companies called the ‘‘seven dwarves’’—was dominated by IBM, with its 650 and 1401 computers. By 1960 the market for computers was still small. Only about 7,000 computers had been delivered by the computer industry, and at this time even IBM was primarily a punched-card machine supplier, which was still the major source of its income. Only in 1960 did a boom in demand for computers start, and by 1970 the number of computers installed worldwide had increased to more than 100,000. The computer industry was on the track to become one of the world’s major industries, and was totally dominated by IBM.

The outstanding computer system of this period was IBM’s System/360. It was announced in 1964 as a compatible family of the same computer architecture, and employed interchangeable peripheral devices in order to solve IBM’s problems with a hotchpotch of incompatible product lines (which had evoked large problems in the development and maintenance of a great deal of different hardware and software products). Despite the fact that neither the technology used nor the systems programming were of a high-tech technology at the time, the System/360 established a new standard for mainframe computers for decades. Various computer firms in the U.S., Europe, Japan and even Russia, concentrated on copying components, peripherals for System/360 or tried to build System/360-compatible computers.

The growth of the computer market during the 1960s was accompanied by market shakeouts: two of the ‘‘seven dwarves’’ left the computer business after the first computer recession in the early 1970s, and afterwards the computer market was controlled by IBM and BUNCH (Burroughs, UNIVAC, NCR, Control Data, and Honeywell). At the same time, an internationalization of the computer market took place—U.S. companies controlled the world market for computers— which caused considerable fears over loss of national independence in European and Japanese national governments, and these subsequently stirred up national computing programs. While the European attempts to create national champions as well as the more general attempt to create a European-wide market for mainframe computers failed in the end, Japan’s attempt to found a national computer industry has been successful: Until today Japan is the only nation able to compete with the U.S. in a wide array of high-tech computer-related products.

Real-Time and Time-Sharing

Until the 1960s almost all computers in government and business were running batch-processing applications (i.e., the computers were only used in the same way as the punched-card accounting machines they had replaced). In the early 1950s, however, the computer industry introduced a new mode of computing named ‘‘real-time’’ in the business sector for the first time, which was originally developed for military purposes in MIT’s Whirlwind project. This project was initially started in World War II with the aim of designing an aircraft simulator by analog methods, and later became a part of a research and development program for the gigantic, computerized anti-aircraft defense system SAGE (semi-automatic ground environment) built up by IBM in the 1950s.

The demand for this new mode of computing was created by cultural and structural changes in economy. The increasing number of financial transactions in banks and insurance companies as well as increasing airline traveling activities made necessary new computer-based information systems that led finally to new forms of business evolution through information technology.

The case of the first computerized airline reservation system SABRE, developed for American Airlines by IBM in the 1950s and finally implemented in the early 1960s, serves to thoroughly illustrate these structural and structural changes in economy. Until the early 1950s, airline reservations had been made manually without any problems, but by 1953 this system was in crisis because increased air traffic and growing flight plan complexity had made reservation costs insupportable. SABRE became a complete success, demonstrating the potential of centralized real-time computing systems connected via a network. The system enabled flight agents throughout the U.S., who were equipped with desktop terminals, to gain a direct, real-time access to the central reservation system based on central IBM mainframe computers, while the airline was able to assign appropriate resources in response. Therefore, an effective combination of advantages was offered by SABRE—a better utilization of resources and a much higher customer convenience.

Very soon this new mode of computing spread around the business and government world and became commonplace throughout the service and distribution sectors of the economy; for example, bank tellers and insurance account representatives increasingly worked at terminals. On the one hand structural information problems led managers to go this way, and on the other hand the increasing use of computers as information handling machines in government and business had brought about the idea of computer-based accessible data retrieval. In the end, more and more IBM customers wanted to link dozens of operators directly to central computers by using terminal keyboards and display screens.

In the late 1950s and early 1960s—at the same time that IBM and American Airlines had begun the development of the SABRE airline reservation system—a group of brilliant computer scientists had a new idea for computer usage named ‘‘time sharing.’’ Instead of dedicating a multi-terminal system solely to a single application, they had the computer utility vision of organizing a mainframe computer so that several users could interact with it simultaneously. This vision was to change the nature of computing profoundly, because computing was no longer provided to naive users by programmers and systems analysts, and by the late 1960s time-sharing computers became widespread in the U.S.

Particularly important for this development had been the work of J.C.R. Licklider of the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department of Defense. In 1960 Licklider had published a now-classic paper ‘‘Man–Computer Symbiosis’’ proposing the use of computers to augment human intellect and creating the vision of interactive computing. Licklider was very successful in translating his idea of a network allowing people on different computers to communicate into action, and convinced ARPA to start an enormous research program in 1962. Its budget surpassed that of all other sources of U.S. public research funding for computers combined. The ARPA research programs resulted in a series of fundamental moves forward in computer technology in areas such as computer graphics, artificial intelligence, and operating systems. For example, even the most influential current operating system, the general-purpose time-sharing system Unix, developed in the early 1970s at the Bell Laboratories, was a spin-off of an ambitious operating system project, Multics, funded by ARPA. The designers of Unix successfully attempted to keep away from complexity by using a clear, minimalist design approach to software design, and created a multitasking, multiuser operating system, which became the standard operating system in the 1980s.

Electronic Component Revolution

While the nature of business computing was changed by the new paradigms such as real time and time sharing, advances in solid-state components increasingly became a driving force for fundamental changes in the computer industry, and led to a dynamic interplay between new computer designs and new programming techniques that resulted in a remarkable series of technical developments. The technical progress of the mainframe computer had always run parallel to conversions in the electronics components. During the period from 1945 to 1965, two fundamental transformations in the electronics industry took place that were marked by the invention of the transistor in 1947 and the integrated circuit in 1957 to 1958. While the first generation of computers—lasting until about 1960—was characterized by vacuum tubes (valves) for switching elements, the second generation used the much smaller and more reliable transistors, which could be produced at a lower price. A new phase was inaugurated when an entire integrated circuit on a chip of silicon was produced in 1961, and when the first integrated circuits were produced for the military in 1962. A remarkable pace of progress in semiconductor innovations, known as the ‘‘revolution in miniature,’’ began to speed up the computer industry. The third generation of computers characterized by the use of integrated circuits began with the announcement of the IBM System/360 in 1964 (although this computer system did not use true integrated circuits). The most important effect of the introduction of integrated circuits was not to strengthen the leading mainframe computer systems, but to destroy Grosch’s Law, which stated that computing power increases as the square of its costs. In fact, the cost of computer power dramatically reduced during the next ten years.

This became clear with the introduction of the first computer to use integrated circuits on a full scale in 1965: the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) offered its PDP-8 computer for just $18,000, creating a new class of computers called minicomputers—small in size and low in cost—as well as opening up the market to new customers. Minicomputers were mainly used in areas other than general-purpose computing such as industrial applications and interactive graphics systems. The PDP-8 became the first widely successful minicomputer with over 50,000 items sold, demonstrating that there was a market for smaller computers. This success of DEC (by 1970 it had become the world’s third largest computer manufacturer) was supported by dramatic advances in solid-state technology. During the 1960s the number of transistors on a chip doubled every two years, and as a result minicomputers became continuously more powerful and more inexpensive at an inconceivable speed.

Personal Computing

The most striking aspect of the consequences of the exponential increase of the number of transistors on a chip during the 1960s—as stated by ‘‘Moore’s Law’’: the number of transistors on a chip doubled every two years—was not the lowering of the costs of mainframe computer and minicomputer processing and storage, but the introduction of the first consumer products based on chip technology such as hand-held calculators and digital watches in about 1970. More specifically, the market acts in these industries were changed overnight by the shift from mechanical to chip technology, which led to an enormous deterioration in prices as well as a dramatic industry shakeout. These episodes only marked the beginning of wide-ranging changes in economy and society during the last quarter of the twentieth century leading to a new situation where chips played an essential role in almost every part of business and modern life.

The case of the invention of the personal computer serves to illustrate that it was not sufficient to develop the microprocessor as the enabling technology in order to create a new invention, but how much new technologies can be socially constructed by cultural factors and commercial interests. When the microprocessor, a single-chip integrated circuit implementation of a CPU, was launched by the semiconductor company Intel in 1971, there was no hindrance to producing a reasonably priced microcomputer, but it took six years until the consumer product PC emerged. None of the traditional mainframe and minicomputer companies were involved in creating the early personal computer. Instead, a group of computer hobbyists as well as the ‘‘computer liberation’’ movement in the U.S. became the driving force behind the invention of the PC. These two groups were desperately keen on a low-priced type of minicomputer for use at home for leisure activities such as computer games; or rather they had the counterculture vision of an unreservedly available and personal access to an inexpensive computer utility provided with rich information. When in 1975 the Altair 8800, an Intel 8080 microprocessor-based computer, was offered as an electronic hobbyist kit for less than $400, these two groups began to realize their vision of a ‘‘personal computer.’’ Very soon dozens of computer clubs and computer magazines were founded around the U.S., and these computer enthusiasts created the personal computer by combining the Altair with keyboards, disk drives, and monitors as well as by developing standard software for it. Consequently, in only two years, a more or less useless hobbyist kit had been changed into a computer that could easily be transformed in a consumer product.

The computer hobbyist period ended in 1977, when the first standard machines for an emerging consumer product mass market were sold. These included products such as the Commodore Pet and the Apple II, which included its own monitor, disk drive, and keyboard, and was provided with several basic software packages. Over next three years, spreadsheet, word processing, and database software were developed, and an immense market for games software evolved. As a result, personal computers became more and more a consumer product for ordinary people, and Apple’s revenues shot to more than $500 million in 1982. By 1980, the personal computer had transformed into a business machine, and IBM decided to develop its own personal computer, which was introduced as the IBM PC in 1981. It became an overwhelming success and set a new industry standard.

Apple tried to compete by launching their new Macintosh computer in 1984 provided with a revolutionary graphical user interface (GUI), which set a new standard for a user-friendly human–computer interaction. It was based on technology created by computer scientists at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center in California, who had picked up on ideas about human– computer interaction developed at the Stanford Research Institute and at the University of Utah. Despite the fact that the Macintosh’s GUI was far superior to the MS-DOS operating system of the IBM-compatible PCs, Apple failed to win the business market and remained a niche player with a market share of about 10 percent. The PC main branch was determined by the companies IBM had chosen as its original suppliers in 1981 for the design of the microprocessor (Intel) and the operating system (Microsoft). While IBM failed to seize power in the operating system software market for PCs in a software war with Microsoft, Microsoft achieved dominance not only of the key market for PC operating systems, but also the key market of office applications during the first half of the 1990s.

In the early 1990s computing again underwent further fundamental changes with the appearance of the Internet, and for the most computer users, networking became an integral part of what it means to have a computer. Furthermore, the rise of the Internet indicated the impending arrival of a new ‘‘information infrastructure’’ as well as of a ‘‘digital convergence,’’ as the coupling of computers and communications networks was often called.

In addition, the 1990s were a period of an information technology boom, which was mainly based on the Internet hype. For many years previously, it seemed to a great deal of managers and journalists that the Internet would become not just an indispensable business tool, but also a miracle cure for economic growth and prosperity. In addition, computer scientists and sociologists started a discussion predicting the beginning of a new ‘‘information age’’ based on the Internet as a ‘‘technological revolution’’ and reshaping the ‘‘material basis’’ of industrial societies.

The Internet was the outcome of an unusual collaboration of a military–industrial–academic complex that promoted the development of this extraordinary innovation. It grew out of a military network called the ARPAnet, a project established and funded by ARPA in the 1960s. The ARPAnet was initially devoted to support of data communications for defense research projects and was only used by a small number of researchers in the 1970s. Its further development was primarily promoted by unintentional forms of network usage. The users of the ARPAnet became very much attracted by the opportunity for communicating through electronic mail, which rapidly surpassed all other forms of network activities. Another unplanned spin-off of the ARPAnet was the Usenet (Unix User Network), which started in 1979 as a link between two universities and enabled its users to subscribe to newsgroups. Electronic mail became a driving force for the creation of a large number of new proprietary networks funded by the existing computer services industry or by organizations such as the NSF (NSFnet). Because networks users’ desire for email to be able to cross network boundaries, an ARPA project on ‘‘internetworking’’ became the origin for the ‘‘Internet’’—a network of networks linked by several layers of protocols such as TCP/IP (transmission control protocol/internet protocol), which quickly developed into the actual standard.

Only after the government funding had solved many of the most essential technical issues and had shaped a number of the most characteristic features of the Internet, did private sector entrepreneurs start Internet-related ventures and quickly developed user-oriented enhancements. Nevertheless, the Internet did not make a promising start and it took more than ten years before significant numbers of networks were connected. In 1980, the Internet had less than two hundred hosts, and during the next four years the number of hosts went up only to 1000. Only when the Internet reached the educational and business community of PC users in the late 1980s, did it start to become an important economic and social phenomenon. The number of hosts began an explosive growth in the late 1980s—by 1988 there were over 50,000 hosts. An important and unforeseen side effect of this development became the creation of the Internet into a new electronic publishing medium. The electronic publishing development that excited most interest in the Internet was the World Wide Web, originally developed at the CERN High Energy Physics Laboratory in Geneva in 1989. Soon there were millions of documents on the Internet, and private PC users became excited by the joys of surfing the Internet. A number of firms such as AOL soon provided low-cost network access and a range of consumer-oriented information services. The Internet boom was also helped by the Clinton–Gore presidential election campaign on the ‘‘information superhighway’’ and by the amazing news reporting on the national information infrastructure in the early 1990s. Nevertheless, for many observers it was astounding how fast the number of hosts on the Internet increased during the next few years—from more than 1 million in 1992 to 72 million in 1999.

The overwhelming success of the PC and of the Internet tends to hide the fact that its arrival marked only a branching in computer history and not a sequence. (Take, for example, the case of mainframe computers, which still continue to run, being of great importance to government facilities and the private sector (such as banks and insurance companies), or the case of supercomputers, being of the utmost significance for modern science and engineering.) Furthermore, it should be noted that only a small part of the computer applications performed today is easily observable—98 percent of programmable CPUs are used in embedded systems such as automobiles, medical devices, washing machines and mobile telephones.

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Essays on Computer Science

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My Motivation to Pursue Undergraduate Studies in Computer Engineering

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Historical Development of Computer Science

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The Eniac Project: Its Significance in Computer Science and Society

My goal to pursue a career in computer science and engineering, how the movie hackers got me interested in computer science, personal experience in the computer science education, computer science - a stepping stone to your career, why i have decided to apply for the master of computer science program at colorado state university, how mathematics curiosity has brought me to computer science, the role of experimentation in computer science, computer systems and architecture, my fascination for science and technology, my desire to continue learning computer engineering, my goals of becoming a computer scientist for nasa, the role of computers in financial accounting, a research of contemporary issues, opportunities, trends, challenges and innovations within ict industry connected with google company, computing exponentially faster: implementing a non-deterministic universal turing machine using dna, the types of programming languages and the language of a game engine, the possibility of machines to be able to think and feel, multi sensor fusion, my purpose to study information technology in australia, my academic interests in geographic information sciences.

Computer science is the study of computation, automation, and information. Computer science spans theoretical disciplines (such as algorithms, theory of computation, and information theory) to practical disciplines (including the design and implementation of hardware and software).

The four areas of computer science are: theory of computation, algorithms and data structures, programming methodology and languages, and computer elements and architecture. CSAB also identifies fields such as software engineering, artificial intelligence, computer networking and communication, database systems, parallel computation, distributed computation, human-computer interaction, computer graphics, operating systems, and numerical and symbolic computation as being important areas of computer science.

Alan Turing (the “father of modern computing”), Tim Berners-Lee (inventor of the World Wide Web), John McCarthy, Grace Hopper, Julian Assange, Steve Wozniak, etc.

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How to Write the “Why Computer Science?” Essay

What’s covered:, what is the purpose of the “why computer science” essay, elements of a good computer science essay, computer science essay example, where to get your essay edited.

You will encounter many essay prompts as you start applying to schools, but if you are intent on majoring in computer science or a related field, you will come across the “ Why Computer Science? ” essay archetype. It’s important that you know the importance behind this prompt and what constitutes a good response in order to make your essay stand out.

For more information on writing essays, check out CollegeVine’s extensive essay guides that include everything from general tips, to essay examples, to essay breakdowns that will help you write the essays for over 100 schools.

Colleges ask you to write a “ Why Computer Science? ” essay so you may communicate your passion for computer science, and demonstrate how it aligns with your personal and professional goals. Admissions committees want to see that you have a deep interest and commitment to the field, and that you have a vision for how a degree in computer science will propel your future aspirations.

The essay provides an opportunity to distinguish yourself from other applicants. It’s your chance to showcase your understanding of the discipline, your experiences that sparked or deepened your interest in the field, and your ambitions for future study and career. You can detail how a computer science degree will equip you with the skills and knowledge you need to make a meaningful contribution in this rapidly evolving field.

A well-crafted “ Why Computer Science? ” essay not only convinces the admissions committee of your enthusiasm and commitment to computer science, but also provides a glimpse of your ability to think critically, solve problems, and communicate effectively—essential skills for a  computer scientist.

The essay also gives you an opportunity to demonstrate your understanding of the specific computer science program at the college or university you are applying to. You can discuss how the program’s resources, faculty, curriculum, and culture align with your academic interests and career goals. A strong “ Why Computer Science? ” essay shows that you have done your research, and that you are applying to the program not just because you want to study computer science, but because you believe that this particular program is the best fit for you.

Writing an effective “ Why Computer Science ?” essay often requires a blend of two popular college essay archetypes: “ Why This Major? ” and “ Why This College? “.

Explain “Why This Major?”

The “ Why This Major? ” essay is an opportunity for you to dig deep into your motivations and passions for studying Computer Science. It’s about sharing your ‘origin story’ of how your interest in Computer Science took root and blossomed. This part of your essay could recount an early experience with coding, a compelling Computer Science class you took, or a personal project that sparked your fascination.

What was the journey that led you to this major? Was it a particular incident, or did your interest evolve over time? Did you participate in related activities, like coding clubs, online courses, hackathons, or internships?

Importantly, this essay should also shed light on your future aspirations. How does your interest in Computer Science connect to your career goals? What kind of problems do you hope to solve with your degree?

The key for a strong “ Why This Major? ” essay is to make the reader understand your connection to the subject. This is done through explaining your fascination and love for computer science. What emotions do you feel when you are coding? How does it make you feel when you figure out the solution after hours of trying? What aspects of your personality shine when you are coding? 

By addressing these questions, you can effectively demonstrate a deep, personal, and genuine connection with the major.

Emphasize “Why This College?”

The “ Why This College? ” component of the essay demonstrates your understanding of the specific university and its Computer Science program. This is where you show that you’ve done your homework about the college, and you know what resources it has to support your academic journey.

What unique opportunities does the university offer for Computer Science students? Are there particular courses, professors, research opportunities, or clubs that align with your interests? Perhaps there’s a study abroad program or an industry partnership that could give you a unique learning experience. Maybe the university has a particular teaching methodology that resonates with you.

Also, think about the larger university community. What aspects of the campus culture, community, location, or extracurricular opportunities enhance your interest in this college? Remember, this is not about general praises but about specific features that align with your goals. How will these resources and opportunities help you explore your interests further and achieve your career goals? How does the university’s vision and mission resonate with your own values and career aspirations?

It’s important when discussing the school’s resources that you always draw a connection between the opportunity and yourself. For example, don’t tell us you want to work with X professor because of their work pioneering regenerative AI. Go a step further and say because of your goal to develop AI surgeons for remote communities, learning how to strengthen AI feedback loops from X professor would bring you one step closer to achieving your dream.

By articulating your thoughts on these aspects, you demonstrate a strong alignment between the college and your academic goals, enhancing your appeal as a prospective student.

Demonstrate a Deep Understanding of Computer Science

As with a traditional “ Why This Major? ” essay, you must exhibit a deep and clear understanding of computer science. Discuss specific areas within the field that pique your interest and why. This could range from artificial intelligence to software development, or from data science to cybersecurity. 

What’s important is to not just boast and say “ I have a strong grasp on cybersecurity ”, but instead use your knowledge to show your readers your passion: “ After being bombarded with cyber attack after cyber attack, I explained to my grandparents the concept of end-to-end encryption and how phishing was not the same as a peaceful afternoon on a lake. ”

Make it Fun!

Students make the mistake of thinking their college essays have to be serious and hyper-professional. While you don’t want to be throwing around slang and want to present yourself in a positive light, you shouldn’t feel like you’re not allowed to have fun with your essay. Let your personality shine and crack a few jokes.

You can, and should, also get creative with your essay. A great way to do this in a computer science essay is to incorporate lines of code or write the essay like you are writing out code. 

Now we will go over a real “ Why Computer Science? ” essay a student submitted and explore what the essay did well, and where there is room for improvement.

Please note: Looking at examples of real essays students have submitted to colleges can be very beneficial to get inspiration for your essays. You should never copy or plagiarize from these examples when writing your own essays. Colleges can tell when an essay isn’t genuine and will not view students favorably if they plagiarized.

I held my breath and hit RUN. Yes! A plump white cat jumped out and began to catch the falling pizzas. Although my Fat Cat project seems simple now, it was the beginning of an enthusiastic passion for computer science. Four years and thousands of hours of programming later, that passion has grown into an intense desire to explore how computer science can serve society. Every day, surrounded by technology that can recognize my face and recommend scarily-specific ads, I’m reminded of Uncle Ben’s advice to a young Spiderman: “with great power comes great responsibility”. Likewise, the need to ensure digital equality has skyrocketed with AI’s far-reaching presence in society; and I believe that digital fairness starts with equality in education.

The unique use of threads at the College of Computing perfectly matches my interests in AI and its potential use in education; the path of combined threads on Intelligence and People gives me the rare opportunity to delve deep into both areas. I’m particularly intrigued by the rich sets of both knowledge-based and data-driven intelligence courses, as I believe AI should not only show correlation of events, but also provide insight for why they occur.

In my four years as an enthusiastic online English tutor, I’ve worked hard to help students overcome both financial and technological obstacles in hopes of bringing quality education to people from diverse backgrounds. For this reason, I’m extremely excited by the many courses in the People thread that focus on education and human-centered technology. I’d love to explore how to integrate AI technology into the teaching process to make education more available, affordable, and effective for people everywhere. And with the innumerable opportunities that Georgia Tech has to offer, I know that I will be able to go further here than anywhere else.

What the Essay Did Well 

This essay perfectly accomplishes the two key parts of a “ Why Computer Science? ” essay: answering “ Why This Major? ” and “ Why This College? ”. Not to mention, we get a lot of insight into this student and what they care about beyond computer science, and a fun hook at the beginning.

Starting with the “ Why This Major? ” aspect of the response, this essay demonstrates what got the student into computer science, why they are passionate about the subject, and what their goals are. They show us their introduction to the world of CS with an engaging hook: “I held my breath and hit RUN. Yes! A plump white cat jumped out and began to catch the falling pizzas. ” We then see this is a core passion because they spent “ Four years and thousands of hours ,” coding.

The student shows us why they care about AI with the sentence, “ Every day, surrounded by technology that can recognize my face and recommend scarily-specific ads ,” which makes the topic personal by demonstrating their fear at AI’s capabilities. But, rather than let panic overwhelm them, the student calls upon Spiderman and tells us their goal of establishing digital equality through education. This provides a great basis for the rest of the essay, as it thoroughly explains the students motivations and goals, and demonstrates their appreciation for interdisciplinary topics.

Then, the essay shifts into answering “ Why This College? ”, which it does very well by honing in on a unique facet of Georgia Tech’s College of Computing: threads. This is a great example of how to provide depth to the school resources you mention. The student describes the two threads and not only why the combination is important to them, but how their previous experiences (i.e. online English tutor) correlate to the values of the thread: “ For this reason, I’m extremely excited by the many courses in the People thread that focus on education and human-centered technology. ”

What Could Be Improved

This essay does a good job covering the basics of the prompt, but it could be elevated with more nuance and detail. The biggest thing missing from this essay is a strong core to tie everything together. What do we mean by that? We want to see a common theme, anecdote, or motivation that is weaved throughout the entire essay to connect everything. Take the Spiderman quote for example. If this was expanded, it could have been the perfect core for this essay.

Underlying this student’s interest in AI is a passion for social justice, so they could have used the quote about power and responsibility to talk about existing injustices with AI and how once they have the power to create AI they will act responsibly and help affected communities. They are clearly passionate about equality of education, but there is a disconnect between education and AI that comes from a lack of detail. To strengthen the core of the essay, this student needs to include real-world examples of how AI is fostering inequities in education. This takes their essay from theoretical to practical.

Whether you’re a seasoned writer or a novice trying your hand at college application essays, the review and editing process is crucial. A fresh set of eyes can provide valuable insights into the clarity, coherence, and impact of your writing. Our free Peer Essay Review tool offers a unique platform to get your essay reviewed by another student. Peer reviews can often uncover gaps, provide new insights or enhance the clarity of your essay, making your arguments more compelling. The best part? You can return the favor by reviewing other students’ essays, which is a great way to hone your own writing and critical thinking skills.

For a more professional touch, consider getting your essay reviewed by a college admissions expert . CollegeVine advisors have years of experience helping students refine their writing and successfully apply to top-tier schools. They can provide specific advice on how to showcase your strengths, address any weaknesses, and generally present yourself in the best possible light.

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Technology and Computer Science Research Topics

Table of contents

• 1 Research Ideas on Technologies & Computer Science
• 2 Actual Topics in Computer Science
• 3 Genetic Engineering Technologies
• 4 Data Science and Programming Languages
• 5 Natural Language Processing Research Topics
• 6 Health Technologies
• 7 Biotechnology
• 8 Communications and Media
• 9 Energy Power Technologies
• 10 Medical Devices Diagnostics
• 11 Pharmaceutical Technologies
• 12 Data Security Research Paper Topics
• 13 Food Technology
• 14 Artificial Intelligence (AI) Research Paper Topics
• 15 Transportation Technologies
• 16 Computer Science Engineering
• 17 Final Thoughts

Whether you’re looking for technology topics for high school students or college and university attendees, your options are endless. But what is the reason for having so many academic notions you can explore? The answer cannot be more straightforward: technology undergoes constant change. Moreover, some advancements have seen unprecedented growth that technology can’t keep up with the pace.

Most breakthroughs benefit humanity, the animal world, and the planet. However, some inventions have had a negative impact regardless of their initial purpose. Hence, learners have infinite interesting information technology topics to investigate during their academic careers. Tech is the root of all knowledge, from biotechnology and genetics to alternative resources and transportation.

Most students are at liberty to select their preferred technology topic while they are dealing with the task to write my paper . Alternatively, the professor might ask learners to dedicate their work to a specific subject. Whatever the case, choosing a project that could have a favorable effect on humans is vital. Addressing controversial or prospective issues is also a plus in the writing process of articles.

Overall, educators appreciate the effort of selecting appealing ideas that draw worthy conclusions in the respective areas. To help you choose a relevant concept, we list some of the most promising talking points today. Keep reading to find out the best research topics about technology and science.

Research Ideas on Technologies & Computer Science

As discussed, computers are the future of all human ventures, and no sector can move forward without the perks they bring. Hence, essay topics about technology have come at the forefront of numerous discussions for several years. Moreover, the suggested science and technology topics for middle school are ideal for college students, too.

Though some subject matters are more conventional, others are controversial and bound to capture any audience. Undoubtedly, one will probably grab your attention and make for an exceptional project paper. Your articles should include ideas from print and online resources for maximum impact.

• Will cryptocurrencies change financial systems, or it’s just a temporary buzz?
• What is the most impactful technological invention in the 21st century?
• The upsides and downsides of entertainment technology
• How does the Internet of things affect people’s attention span?
• Digital vs. print reading – what are the differences?
• Traditional researching skills today: essential or irrelevant
• How is virtual reality changing education?
• What technologies use humans to explore the universe?
• Do technical advancements oppose nature and turn humans into zombies?
• Critical problems technology solves while creating other gaps.

Actual Topics in Computer Science

As the field of computer science evolves rapidly, it presents an array of trendy topics that are particularly relevant for computer science students. This list features ten topics encompassing the breadth of contemporary computer science research areas.

• Exploring the potential of quantum computing in solving complex problems.
• Advances in cyber-physical systems: blending the digital and physical worlds.
• The rise of green computing: strategies for energy-efficient technology.
• Innovations in 5G technology and its transformative impact.
• Blockchain for secure digital identity management in a digital world.
• The evolution of cloud computing: from storage to cloud-native applications.
• Cryptocurrency technology: understanding blockchain’s backbone.
• Advances in virtual and augmented reality for healthcare applications.
• Big data analytics in environmental conservation efforts.
• The future of robotics: ethical considerations and societal impacts.

Genetic Engineering Technologies

Genetics examines how traits and information transfer from parents to their offspring. As a result, it is a popular technology discipline in many universities worldwide. Moreover, discoveries in the field have seen tremendous progress over the past few decades, so students find these ideas subject super-appealing.

Advanced knowledge about DNA and genes impacts almost all segments of life. Hence, technology topics for research are versatile, and the discovery process is a great pleasure for all fans of genetics. Below are some of the most intriguing dilemmas you can elaborate on:

• Is human cloning taking God’s place?
• What features make human beings irreplaceable?
• The extent to which humankind should control genetics
• Genetic diseases cured – what are the prospects?
• Understanding GE and gene therapy technology
• The perks and risks of engineering genetic information
• Should parents order genetically perfect children?
• Confidentiality of genetic codes and testing
• Is our DNA still evolving, or have we reached our biological peak?
• Does genetics impact homosexuality?

Data Science and Programming Languages

In the realms of data science and programming languages, constant innovation and exploration are key. For students and professionals in technology and computer science, understanding these evolving areas is crucial.

• Rust programming for data-intensive applications: safety and performance.
• Python’s role in emerging machine learning frameworks and libraries.
• Data visualization in R: trends and new libraries.
• Real-time big data processing with Scala and Spark.
• Julia language for high-performance numerical computing.
• Go in cloud-native development: efficiency and scalability.
• Kotlin’s impact on Android app development efficiency.
• Advances in time-series data analysis with Python.
• Exploring functional programming in data science with Haskell.
• JavaScript and D3.js for interactive data visualization in web development.

Natural Language Processing Research Topics

In the dynamic field of Natural Language Processing (NLP), researchers and technologists are continuously exploring new frontiers. This list delves into cutting-edge topics within NLP, ranging from ethical considerations in social media monitoring to the creative applications of AI in literature and art. These topics not only represent the current state of NLP research but also point towards future directions in this ever-evolving field.

• Analyzing NLP’s ethical issues in monitoring tweets for privacy intrusions.
• Developing NLP tools for rare languages: overcoming data scarcity.
• NLP in diagnosing neurological disorders from patient speech patterns.
• Using NLP to identify political bias in online news sources.
• Leveraging NLP for real-time customer feedback analysis in retail.
• Advancing NLP with audio-visual data for enhanced language models.
• NLP-driven adaptive learning platforms for customized educational content.
• Challenges in NLP for detecting sarcasm in online customer reviews.
• Improving speech recognition for the hearing impaired with NLP.
• NLP in generating narrative poetry: pushing AI creative boundaries.

Health Technologies

From root causes of diseases to new treatments, health researchers have limitless options for headway. Undoubtedly, healthcare has become an increasingly appealing area for students. Developments in medical technology and preventive and personalized medicine prove these trends.

This field is also critical if you prefer social science topics for research papers. To do so, check the invaluable insight below.

• Revealing the most significant health technologies
• Genetic advances in autism spectrum disorders
• Can information technology make people fit and healthy without any effort?
• The philosophy of organ donation
• The ethics of using animal tissues in people
• Can disabled people lead an ordinary human life with virtual reality?
• How can modern gadgets impact mental health?
• Cloud technologies for data management in healthcare
• Robots alter healthcare sector perceptions
• Do new technologies lead to an unhealthy lifestyle?

Biotechnology

As a result of modifying the DNA of various products, biotechnology aims to solve imminent issues and make beneficial products. Its reach is all-encompassing and addresses some of the most challenging agricultural, marine, and ecological concerns.

Breakthroughs in biotechnology have gone so far that it allows humans to prevent or cure untreatable diseases. Whatever research topic you pick from the ideas below, prepare to set off on an exciting journey of discoveries.

• The immune response to stem cell therapy
• Can microchip implantation tackle COVID-19?
• Biotechnology can help remove pollutants from the soil
• Restoring biodiversity using tools and technology
• Exploiting photovoltaics to produce crops in the ocean
• Enhancing vitamin levels in genetically modified foods
• Tacking food allergies at the source
• Advantages and limitations of whole-genome sequencing
• The elimination of heat-resistant microorganisms with ultraviolet rays
• Can pesticides contribute to cancer diagnostics?

Communications and Media

The way people communicate and share news has undergone drastic changes with the birth of the Internet and advanced technology. The growth of multiple media channels also contributes to enhanced educational and business opportunities. People can easily interact virtually, work remotely, and even build their entire careers online.

Yet, social media, communication tools, and apps have inherent risks, too. Check the following examples of communications and media affairs that could make an excellent research paper:

• The timeline of virtual connections in the 21st century
• Is the future of communication bright?
• The Internet craze and privacy concerns
• Mass media morality and reliability in times of crisis
• Media etiquette in communication
• Media censoring: Are we all suffering the consequences?
• The severe impact of social media exposure on adolescents
• Virtual communication and personal socialization
• Social media as an advertising tool
• Is freedom of speech harmful?

Energy Power Technologies

Power technologies have long been the focus of research and at the forefront of pioneering solutions. Hydrogen-based energy is one of the most promising technology branches that strive to eradicate fossil fuels. Similarly, scientists are working on new-generation smart grids that track data in real-time and achieve maximum energy use.

Electricity generation is another exciting research project. Besides wind, solar, and hydro energy, the latest trends include power production from tides, photovoltaics, and second-generation biofuels.

Refer to our list of paper topics on energy and power technologies to get an idea of where to start digging. Hopefully, your results will be fruitful and solve a problem millions of people struggle with daily.

• Will alternative energy sources replace oil and coal?
• Hydrogen energy can set the pace in the future
• From waste to energy: novel technologies
• Smart grids can prevent electricity loss and waste
• Advances in nuclear power engineering
• Can smart energy combat climate change?
• 3D printed solar-powered trees
• Current trends in tidal power
• The prospects of biofuels and algae
• Advanced renewable energy technologies

Medical Devices Diagnostics

Have you ever wondered why life expectancy has plummeted over the last few decades? Where did all those deadly diseases like polio and malaria go? Thanks to the numerous innovations in the medical sphere, humans can now cross new boundaries.

For instance, medical devices help save the lives of many people. Advanced equipment and new insight into robotic prosthetics assist even handicapped individuals. Finally, artificial organs can soon become the pinnacle of human knowledge.

Thanks to emerging technologies, operations can now get performed by robots remotely controlled by doctors. Surgeries become highly precise and non-invasive. Plus, medical workers can enjoy enhanced structure and share electronic medical records.

So, if your mission is to save lives, articles in medical technology are food for thought. Consider the ideas below if you wonder how to make a research title that stands out!

• Wearable gadgets and their impact on human health
• Can we rely on robotic surgical procedures?
• Artificial organs are the new frontier
• New ways of asthma treatment with smart inhalers
• How can computers rehabilitate individuals with lost limbs?
• VR devices and machine learning for educational purposes
• The use of technology to control and alter genetics
• How can digital reading devices assist people with disabilities?
• Brain-computer interfaces – an overview
• 3D printing can reduce medical expenses

Pharmaceutical Technologies

The pharmaceutical industry has undergone unprecedented growth in recent times. Processes have become automated and medication distribution optimized. Prescribing drugs is more expeditious due to real-time pharmacy, and patients get personalized treatments.

More so, the production technology of medicines itself has changed. Specialty drugs can treat chronic diseases successfully, and nanomedicine has promising clinical results. Yet, there is always room for development. To keep up with the latest pharma trends, consider these highly intriguing and information-packed subject matters in pharmaceutical technologies:

• Data safety in medication therapy management
• Can prescription drug monitoring programs fight drug abuse?
• Is real-time pharmacy beneficial for patients?
• Health outcomes of cannabis for HIV-positive people
• The vaccine era – advantages and disadvantages
• Antibiotics or superbugs: compare and contrast
• The prospects of personalized medicine: organs-on-chip systems
• Cannabidiol use in pain management
• Can cloud technology trends upscale small pharmaceutical companies?
• Potential applications of plant-derived medicines
• Smart cancer nanomedicine: the future of pharmacology

Data Security Research Paper Topics

In an era where data is increasingly valuable and vulnerable, the field of data security stands at the forefront of technological innovation and challenge. This list features ten unique and current topics within data security, each pinpointing a specific area of interest and concern.

• Blockchain technology in securing digital transactions and records.
• Quantum cryptography: the future of unbreakable data encryption.
• AI-driven threat detection systems in cybersecurity.
• Ethical hacking: proactive strategies for system security.
• IoT device security in the age of connected technologies.
• Cloud storage security: challenges and advancements.
• Biometric authentication methods and privacy concerns.
• Deep learning applications in detecting phishing attacks.
• Protecting data privacy in big data analytics.
• Zero trust architecture: redefining network access and security.

Food Technology

The demand for food is gradually increasing, and humanity has to find new methods to grow and produce foodstuff. In addition, manufacturers struggle to incorporate novel processing and packaging techniques that pollute less and require fewer resources. And while technological developments have given us tools to thrive, other methods damage the environment.

For example, embracing robots and computers into production makes the process cost-efficient and highly secure. Factories get to optimize resources and deliver supplies on time. Similarly, farmers can monitor their crops with the help of drones and do what’s necessary.

Scholars looking for qualitative topics in the food industry should give this list considerable thought. Or look for assistance if you wonder how to pay someone to write my paper on a short note.

• How can robots enhance food safety?
• The use of drones in agriculture
• How can micro packaging become our future?
• The food waste challenge: can technology help?
• Leveraging food technology to fight obesity
• GMO vs. organic food – which one is more beneficial?
• How can technology address global food shortages?
• Conventional or hydroponic farming: compare and contrast
• Can food-borne diseases get eradicated with biotechnology?
• Are polyphenols in food harmful, and how to reduce their intake?

Artificial Intelligence (AI) Research Paper Topics

In the ever-evolving landscape of Artificial Intelligence (AI), the scope of research expands continually, encompassing a myriad of novel and significant domains. This list presents contemporary topics within AI, each shedding light on different facets of the field.

• Evolving AI ethics: balancing innovation with societal impacts.
• Quantum computing’s influence on AI algorithm efficiency.
• AI-driven climate change models: predicting future scenarios.
• Enhancing AI interpretability for transparent decision-making.
• AI in precision agriculture: optimizing crop yield and resources.
• Neurosymbolic AI: merging deep learning with symbolic reasoning.
• AI in autonomous vehicle navigation: addressing complex scenarios.
• AI-powered personalized medicine: transforming patient care.
• Developing AI for space exploration: navigating extraterrestrial environments.
• AI in cybersecurity: predictive threat detection and response.

Transportation Technologies

The future of transport seems bright, but the path has been thorny. Besides trying to conceive faster and more convenient transportation, we must also consider ecological problems. To this end, humanity made a giant leap forward toward electric and self-driving vehicles.

With technology at its peak, transport undergoes drastic changes for improved safety and reduced traffic jams. Innovative solutions include vehicle-sharing apps, electric buses, and trams. Even private cars, scooters, and bikes are on the rise.

If you prefer exploring more intriguing science, technology and society topics, dive deeper into the world of teleportation and water-fueled vehicles. The suggestions on transportation technologies outlined below will surely give you one hell of a ride!

• Hybrid or electric cars: which one has a brighter future?
• Safety concerns with self-driving cars
• How do advanced GPS devices work and adjust traffic routes?
• Solar-powered cars are an all-in-one solution
• Automobile technology on a quest to save the environment
• Are personal transportation pods just a fantasy?
• Is teleportation possible: open ways and constraints
• The challenges with electric scooters
• Use of artificial intelligence in delivery companies
• Can we put our trust in water-fueled cars: possibility or dream?

Computer Science Engineering

Somebody needs to care for the machine’s brain, too, right? That’s where computer scientists that work with algorithms and programming languages come into play.

Research topics in computer science divide into three sub-fields. The first one involves math, the second focuses on software engineering, while the third deals with natural sciences. Whatever subject you pick for your academic paper, you can’t go wrong as the future lies here.

As for trends, AI and VR are probably the predominant ones in recent years. Big data and metadata also offer endless growth opportunities. Last, cybersecurity is taking the lion’s share in the Digital Age.

Whether you are up for a speech or an engineer looking for a potential thesis, here are a few leading notions in computer sciences:

• The limitless potential of virtual and augmented reality
• Can blockchain technology enhance algorithmic regulations?
• Why can high-dimensional data be troublesome?
• Machine control over air defense systems
• The endless possibilities of cloud computing
• The many ways AI can impact the future of work
• From wireless sensor networks to cyber-physical systems
• The upsides and downsides of gaming among teenagers
• Computational thinking can affect scientific information
• Most reliable cryptographic protocols

Final Thoughts

This overview is an ultimate compilation of 110 appealing computer science topics. Anyone keen on deepening their knowledge in this respect will find our list a perfect inspiration source.

We made an effort to include the most relevant technology research topics for high school students. And to ease your paper work, we divided the suggested topics by study fields. With ten interesting technology topics in each category and a brief explanation of the trends, everyone can find their niche. Of course, you can always use the help of our  online paper writer and ease this task for you.

If you’re keen on medicine, opt for a biotechnology, genetics, or diagnostics subject. For tech addicts, a topic on AI, robotics, and computers will be the ideal choice. Finally, make the world a better place by selecting a project on renewable energy, transport, food, or pharmaceuticals. Maybe your technological invention will vest the power to embark on new journeys.

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224 Research Topics on Technology & Computer Science

Are you new to the world of technology? Do you need topics related to technology to write about? No worries, Custom-writing.org experts are here to help! In this article, we offer you a multitude of creative and interesting technology topics from various research areas, including information technology and computer science. So, let’s start!

• 🔝 Top 10 Topics

👋 Introduction

• 💾 Top 10 Computer Science Topics

⚙ Artificial Intelligence

💉 biotechnology, 📡 communications and media.

• 💻Computer Science & Engineering

🔋 Energy & Power Technologies

🍗 food technology, 😷 medical devices & diagnostics, 💊 pharmaceutical technologies.

• 🚈 Transportation

✋ Conclusion

🔍 references, 🔝 top 10 technology topics.

• The difference between VR and AR
• Is genetic engineering ethical?
• Can digital books replace print ones?
• The impact of virtual reality on education
• 5 major fields of robotics
• The risks and dangers of biometrics
• Nanotechnology in medicine
• Digital technology’s impact on globalization
• Is proprietary software less secure than open-source?
• The difference between deep learning and machine learning

Is it a good thing that technologies and computer science are developing so fast? No one knows for sure. There are too many different opinions, and some of them are quite radical! However, we know that technologies have changed our world once and forever. Computer science affects every single area of people’s lives.

Just think about Netflix . Can you imagine that 24 years ago it didn’t exist? How did people live without it? Well, in 2024, the entertainment field has gone so far that you can travel anywhere while sitting in your room. All you would have to do is just order a VR (virtual reality) headset. Moreover, personal computers give an unlimited flow of information, which has changed the entire education system.

Every day, technologies become smarter and smaller. A smartphone in your pocket may be as powerful as your laptop. No doubt, the development of computer science builds our future. It is hard to count how many research areas in technologies and computer science are there. But it is not hard to name the most important of them.

Artificial intelligence tops the charts, of course. However, engineering and biotechnology are not far behind. Communications and media are developing super fast as well. The research is also done in areas that make our lives better and more comfortable. The list of them includes transport, food and energy, medical, and pharmaceutical areas.

So check out our list of 204 most relevant computer science research topics below. Maybe one of them will inspire you to do revolutionary research!

💾 Top 10 Computer Science Research Topics

💡 Technologies & Computer Science: Research Ideas

Many people probably picture robots from the movie “I, Robot” when they hear about artificial intelligence. However, it is far from the truth.

AI is meant to be as close to a rational way of thinking as possible. It uses binary logic (just like computers) to help solve problems in many areas. Applied AI is only aimed at one task. A generalized AI branch is looking into a human-like machine that can learn to do anything.

Applied AI already helps researchers in quantum physics and medicine. You deal with AI every day when online shops suggest some items based on your previous purchases. Siri and self-driving cars are also examples of applied AI.

Generalized AI is supposed to be a copy of multitasking human intelligence. However, it is still in the stage of development. Computer technology has yet to reach the level necessary for its creation.

One of the latest trends in this area is improving healthcare management. It is done through the digitalization of all the information in hospitals and even helping diagnose the patients.

Also, privacy issues and facial recognition technologies are being researched. For example, some governments collect biometric data to reduce and even predict crime.

Research Topics on Artificial Intelligence Technology

Since AI development is exceptionally relevant nowadays, it would be smart to invest your time and effort into researching it. Here are some ideas on artificial intelligence research topics that you can look into:

• What areas of life machine learning are the most influential?
• How to choose the right algorithm for machine learning?
• Supervised vs. unsupervised machine learning: compare & contrast
• Reinforcement machine learning algorithms
• Deep learning as a subset of machine learning
• Deep learning & artificial neural networks
• How do artificial neural networks work?
• A comparison of model-free & model-based reinforcement learning algorithms
• Reinforcement learning: single vs. multi-agent
• How do social robots interact with humans?
• Robotics in NASA
• Natural language processing: chatbots
• How does natural language processing produce natural language?
• Natural language processing vs. machine learning
• Artificial intelligence in computer vision
• Computer vision application: autonomous vehicles
• Recommender systems’ approaches
• Recommender systems: content-based recommendation vs. collaborative filtering
• Internet of things & artificial intelligence: the interconnection
• How much data do the Internet of things devices generate?

Biotechnology uses living organisms to modify different products. Even the simple thing as baking bread is a process of biotechnology. However, nowadays, this area went as far as changing the organisms’ DNA. Genetics and biochemistry are also a part of the biotechnology area.

The development of this area allows people to cure diseases with the help of new medicines. In agriculture, more and more research is done on biological treatment and modifying plants. Biotechnology is even involved in the production of our groceries, household chemicals, and textiles.

There are many exciting trends in biotechnology now that carry the potential of changing our world! For example, scientists are working on creating personalized drugs. This is feasible once they apply computer science to analyze people’s DNA.

Also, thanks to using new technologies, doctors can collect exact data and provide the patients with correct diagnosis and treatment. Now, you don’t even need to leave your place to get a doctor’s check-up. Just use telehealth!

Data management is developing in the biotechnology area as well. Thanks to that, doctors and scientists can store and access a tremendous amount of information.

The most exciting is the fact that new technology enables specialists to assess genetic information to treat and prevent illnesses! It may solve the problem of some diseases that were considered untreatable before.

Research Topics on Biotechnology

You can use the following examples of research questions on biotechnology for presentation or even a PhD paper! Here is a wide range of topics on biotechnology and its relation to agriculture, nanotechnology, and many more:

• Self-sufficient protein supply and biotechnology in farming
• Evaporation vs. evapotranspiration
• DNA cloning and a southern blot
• Pharmacogenetics & personalized drugs
• Is cloning “playing God”?
• Pharmacogenetics: cancer medicines
• How much can we control our genetics, at what point do we cease to be human?
• Bio ethics and stem cell research
• Genetic engineering: gene therapy
• The potential benefits of genetic engineering
• Genetic engineering: dangers and opportunities
• Mycobacterium tuberculosis: counting the proteins
• Plant genetic enhancement: developing resistance to scarcity
• Y-chromosome genotyping: the case of South Africa
• Agricultural biotechnology: GMO crops
• How are new vaccines developed?
• Nanotechnology in treating HIV
• Allergenic potential & biotechnology
• Whole-genome sequencing in biotechnology
• Genes in heavy metal tolerance: an overview
• Food biotechnology & food-borne illnesses
• How to eliminate heat-resistant microorganisms with ultraviolet?
• High-throughput screening & biotechnology
• How do new food processing technologies affect bacteria related to Aspalathus Linearis?
• Is sweet sorghum suitable for the production of bioethanol in Africa?
• How can pesticides help to diagnose cancer?
• How is embelin used to prevent cancer?

One of the first areas that technologies affected was communications and media. People from the last century couldn’t have imagined how easy it would be to get connected with anyone! Internet connection starts appearing even in the most remote places.

Nowadays, media is used not only for social interaction but for business development and educational purposes as well. You can now start an entirely online business or use special tools to promote the existing one. Also, many leading universities offer online degrees.

In communications and media, AI has been playing the role of enhancement recently. The technology helps create personalized content for always demanding consumers.

Developing media also create numerous job opportunities. For instance, recently, an influencer has become a trending career. Influencers always use the most relevant communication tools available. At the moment, live videos and podcasting are on the top.

Now, you just need to reach your smartphone to access all the opportunities mentioned above! You can apply for a college, find a job, or reach out to all your followers online. It is hard to imagine how far communication and media can go…

Communications and Media Technology Research Topics

There are quite a few simple yet exciting ideas for media and communications technology research topics. Hopefully, you will find THE ONE amongst these Information and Communications Technology (ICT) research proposal topics:

• New media: the importance of ethics in the process of communication
• The development of computer-based communication over the last decade
• How have social media changed communication?
• Media during the disasters: increasing panic or helping reduce it?
• Authorities’ media representations in different countries: compare & contrast
• Do people start preferring newspapers to new media again?
• How has the Internet changed media?
• Communication networks
• The impact of social media on super bowl ads
• Communications: technology and personal contact
• New content marketing ideas
• Media exposure and its influence on adolescents
• The impact of mass media on personal socialization
• Internet and interactive media as an advertising tool
• Music marketing in a digital world
• How do people use hype in the media?
• Psychology of videoblog communication
• Media & the freedom of speech
• Is it possible to build trustful relationships in virtual communication?
• How to maintain privacy in social media ?
• Communication technologies & cyberbullying
• How has the interpersonal communication changed with the invention of computers?
• The future of the communication technologies
• Yellow journalism in new media
• How enterprises use ICT to get a competitive advantage?
• Healthcare and ICT
• Can we live without mass media ?
• Mass media and morality in the 21st century

💻 Computer Science & Engineering

If you have ever wondered how computers work, you better ask a professional in computer science and engineering. This major combines two different, yet interconnected, worlds of machines.

Computer science takes care of the computer’s brain. It usually includes areas of study, such as programming languages and algorithms. Scientists also recognize three paradigms in terms of the computer science field.

For the rationalist paradigm, computer science is a part of math. The technocratic paradigm is focused on software engineering, while the scientific one is all about natural sciences. Interestingly enough, the latter can also be found in the area of artificial intelligence!

On the other hand, computer engineering maintains a computer’s body – hardware and software. It relies quite heavily on electrical engineering. And only the combination of computer science and engineering gives a full understanding of the machine.

If talking about trends and innovations, artificial intelligence development is probably the main one in the area of computer science technology. Big data is the field that has been extremely popular in recent years.

Cybersecurity is and will be one of the leading research fields in our Information Age. The latest trend in computer science and engineering is also virtual reality.

Computer Science Research Topics

If you want to find a good idea for your thesis or you are just preparing for a speech, check out this list of research topics in computer science and engineering:

• How are virtual reality & human perception connected?
• The future of computer-assisted education
• Computer science & high-dimensional data modeling
• Computer science: imperative vs. declarative languages
• The use of blockchain and AI for algorithmic regulations
• Banking industry & blockchain technology
• How does the machine architecture affect the efficiency of code?
• Languages for parallel computing
• How is mesh generation used for computational domains?
• Ways of persistent data structure optimization
• Sensor networks vs. cyber-physical system
• The development of computer graphics: non-photorealistic rendering case
• The development of the systems programming languages
• Game theory & network economics
• How can computational thinking affect science?
• Theoretical computer science in functional analysis
• The most efficient cryptographic protocols
• Software security types: an overview
• Is it possible to eliminate phishing?
• Floating point & programming language

Without energy, no technological progress is possible. Scientists are continually working on improving energy and power technologies. Recently, efforts have been aimed at three main areas.

Developing new batteries and fuel types helps create less expensive ways of storing energy. For example, fuel cells can be used for passenger buses. They need to be connected to a source of fuel to work. However, it guarantees the constant production of electricity as long as they have fuel.

One of the potential trends of the next years is hydrogen energy storage. This method is still in the stage of development. It would allow the use of hydrogen instead of electricity.

A smart grid is another area that uses information technology for the most efficient use of energy. For instance, the first-generation smart grid tracks the movement of electric energy on the go and sends the information back. It is a great way to correct the consumption of energy in real-time. More development is also done on the issue of electricity generation. It aims at technologies that can produce power from the sources that haven’t been used. The trends in this area include second-generation biofuels and photovoltaic glass.

Energy Technologies Research Topics

Since humanity cannot be using fossil fuels forever, the research in the area of energy can be extremely fruitful. The following list of energy and power technology research paper topics can give you an idea of where to dig:

• How can fuel cells be used for stationary power generation?
• Lithium-ion vs. lithium-air batteries: energy density
• Are lithium-air batteries better than gasoline?
• Renewable energy usage: advantages and disadvantages
• The nuclear power usage in the UAE
• India’s solar installations
• Gas price increasing and alternative energy sources
• How can methods of energy transformation be applied with hydrogen energy?
• Is hydrogen energy our future?
• Thermal storage & AC systems
• How to load balance using smart grid?
• Distributed energy generation to optimize power waste
• Is the smart energy network a solution to climate change ?
• The future of the tidal power
• The possibility of 3D printing of micro stirling engines
• How can robots be used to adjust solar panels to weather?
• Advanced biofuels & algae
• Can photovoltaic glass be fully transparent?
• Third-generation biofuels : algae vs. crop-based
• Space-based solar power: myth or reality of the future?
• Can smaller nuclear reactors be more efficient?
• Inertial confinement fusion & creal energy
• Renewable energy technologies: an overview
• How can thorium change the nuclear power field?

The way we get our food has changed drastically with the technological development. Manufacturers look for ways to feed 7.5 billion people more efficiently. And the demand is growing every year. Now technology is not only used for packaging, but for producing and processing food as well.

Introducing robots into the process of manufacturing brings multiple benefits to the producer. Not only do they make it more cost-efficient, but they also reduce safety problems.

Surprisingly enough, you can print food on the 3D printer now! This technology is applied to produce soft food for people who can’t chew. NASA decided to use it for fun as well and printed a pizza!

Drones now help farmers to keep an eye on crops from above. It helps them see the full picture and analyze the current state of the fields. For example, a drone can spot a starting disease and save the crop.

The newest eco trends push companies to become more environmentally aware. They use technologies to create safer packaging. The issue of food waste is also getting more and more relevant. Consumers want to know that nothing is wasted. Thanks to the new technologies, the excess food is now used more wisely.

Food Technology Research Topics

If you are looking for qualitative research topics about technology in the food industry, here is a list of ideas you don’t want to miss:

• What machines are used in the food industry?
• How do robots improve safety in butchery?
• Food industry & 3D printing
• 3D printed food – a solution to help people with swallowing disorder?
• Drones & precision agriculture
• How is robotics used to create eco-friendly food packaging?
• Is micro packaging our future?
• The development of edible cling film
• Technology & food waste : what are the solutions? 
• Additives and preservatives & human gut microbiome 
• The effect of citric acid on the orange juice: physicochemical level 
• Vegetable oils in mass production: compare & contrast 
• Time-temperature indicators & food industry 
• Conventional vs. hydroponic farming 
• Food safety: a policy issue in agriculture today
• How to improve the detection of parasites in food? 
• What are the newest technologies in the baking industry? 
• Eliminating byproducts in edible oils production 
• Cold plasma & biofilms 
• How good are the antioxidant peptides derived from plants? 
• Electronic nose in food industry and agriculture 
• The harm of polyphenols in food 

Why does the life expectancy of people get higher and higher every year? One of the main aspects of it is the promotion of innovation in the medical area. For example, the development of equipment helps medical professionals to save many lives.

Thanks to information technology, the work is much more structured now in the medical area. The hospitals use tablets and the method of electronic medical records. It helps them to access and share the data more efficiently.

If talking about medical devices, emerging technologies save more lives than ever! For instance, operations done by robots are getting more and more popular. Don’t worry! Doctors are still in charge; they just control the robots from the other room. It allows operations to be less invasive and precise.

Moreover, science not only helps treat diseases but also prevent them! The medical research aims for the development of vaccines against deadly illnesses like malaria.

Some of the projects even sound more like crazy ideas from the future. But it is all happening right now! Scientists are working on the creation of artificial organs and the best robotic prosthetics.

All the technologies mentioned above are critical for successful healthcare management.

Medical Technology Research Topics

If you feel like saving lives is the purpose of your life, then technological research topics in the medical area are for you! These topics would also suit for your research paper:

• How effective are robotic surgeries?
• Smart inhalers as the new solution for asthma treatment
• Genetic counseling – a new way of preventing diseases?
• The benefits of the electronic medical records
• Erythrocytapheresis to treat sickle cell disease
• Defibrillator & cardiac resynchronization therapy
• Why do drug-eluting stents fail?
• Dissolvable brain sensors: an overview
• 3D printing for medical purposes
• How soon will we be able to create artificial organs?
• Wearable technologies & healthcare
• Precision medicine based on genetics
• Virtual reality devices for educational purposes in medical schools
• The development of telemedicine
• Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats as the way of treating diseases
• Nanotechnology & cancer treatment
• How safe is genome editing?
• The trends in electronic diagnostic tools development
• The future of the brain-machine interface
• How does wireless communication help medical professionals in hospitals?

In the past years, technologies have been drastically changing the pharmaceutical industry. Now, a lot of processes are optimized with the help of information technology. The ways of prescribing and distributing medications are much more efficient today. Moreover, the production of medicines itself has changed.

For instance, electronic prior authorization is now applied by more than half of the pharmacies. It makes the process of acquiring prior authorization much faster and easier.

The high price of medicines is the number one reason why patients stop using prescriptions. Real-time pharmacy benefit may be the solution! It is a system that gives another perspective for the prescribers. While working with individual patients, they will be able to consider multiple factors with the help of data provided.

The pharmaceutical industry also adopts some new technologies to compete on the international level. They apply advanced data analytics to optimize their work.

Companies try to reduce the cost and boost the effectiveness of the medicines. That is why they look into technologies that help avoid failures in the final clinical trials.

The constant research in the area of pharma is paying off. New specialty drugs and therapies arrive to treat chronic diseases. However, there are still enough opportunities for development.

Pharmaceutical Technologies Research Topics

Following the latest trends in the pharmaceutical area, this list offers a wide range of creative research topics on pharmaceutical technologies:

• Electronic prior authorization as a pharmacy technological trend
• The effectiveness of medication therapy management
• Medication therapy management & health information exchanges
• Electronic prescribing of controlled substances as a solution for drug abuse issue
• Do prescription drug monitoring programs really work?
• How can pharmacists help with meaningful use?
• NCPDP script standard for specialty pharmacies
• Pharmaceutical technologies & specialty medications
• What is the patient’s interest in the real-time pharmacy?
• The development of the vaccines for AIDS
• Phenotypic screening in pharmaceutical researches
• How does cloud ERP help pharmaceutical companies with analytics?
• Data security & pharmaceutical technologies
• An overview of the DNA-encoded library technology
• Pharmaceutical technologies: antibiotics vs. superbugs
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🚈 Transportation Technologies

We used to be focused on making transportation more convenient. However, nowadays, the focus is slowly switching to ecological issues.

It doesn’t mean that vehicles can’t be comfortable at the same time. That is why the development of electric and self-driving cars is on the peak.

Transportation technologies also address the issues of safety and traffic jams. There are quite many solutions suggested. However, it would be hard for big cities to switch to the other systems fast.

One of the solutions is using shared vehicle phone applications. It allows reducing the number of private cars on the roads. On the other hand, if more people start preferring private vehicles, it may cause even more traffic issues.

The most innovative cities even start looking for more eco-friendly solutions for public transport. Buses are being replaced by electric ones. At the same time, the latest trend is using private electric vehicles such as scooters and bikes.

So that people use public transport more, it should be more accessible and comfortable. That is why the payment systems are also being updated. Now, all you would need is to download an app and buy a ticket in one click!

Transportation Technologies Research Topics

Here you can find the best information technology research topics related to transportation technologies:

• How safe are self-driving cars?
• Electric vs. hybrid cars : compare & contrast
• How to save your smart car from being hijacked?
• How do next-generation GPS devices adjust the route for traffic?
• Transportation technologies: personal transportation pods
• High-speed rail networks in Japan
• Cell phones during driving: threats and solutions
• Transportation: electric cars effects
• Teleportation: physics of the impossible
• How soon we will see Elon Musk’s Hyperloop?
• Gyroscopes as a solution for convenient public transportation
• Electric trucks: the effect on logistics
• Why were electric scooters banned in some cities in 2018?
• Carbon fiber as an optional material for unit load devices
• What are the benefits of the advanced transportation management systems?
• How to make solar roadways more cost-effective?
• How is blockchain applied in the transportation industry
• Transportation technologies: an overview of the freight check-in
• How do delivery companies use artificial intelligence?
• Water-fueled cars: the technology of future or fantasy?
• What can monitoring systems be used to manage curb space?
• Inclusivity and accessibility in public transport: an overview
• The development of the mobility-as-a-service

All in all, this article is a compilation of the 204 most interesting research topics on technology and computer science. It is a perfect source of inspiration for anyone who is interested in doing research in this area.

We have divided the topics by specific areas, which makes it easier for you to find your favorite one. There are 20 topics in each category, along with a short explanation of the most recent trends in the area.

You can choose one topic from artificial intelligence research topics and start working on it right away! There is also a wide selection of questions on biotechnology and engineering that are waiting to be answered.

Since media and communications are present in our everyday life and develop very fast, you should look into this area. But if you want to make a real change, you can’t miss on researching medical and pharmaceutical, food and energy, and transportation areas.

Of course, you are welcome to customize the topic you choose! The more creativity, the better! Maybe your research has the power to change something! Good luck, and have fun!

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Do you have to write a research proposal and can’t choose one from the professor’s list? This article may be exactly what you need. We will provide you with the most up-to-date undergraduate and postgraduate topic ideas. Moreover, we will share the secrets of the winning research proposal writing. Here,...

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Thanks so much for this! Glad I popped by and I sure did find what I was looking for.

Thanks for your kind words, Sanny! We look forward to seeing you again!

Thank you very for the best topics of research across all science and art projects. The best thing that I am interested to is computer forensics and security specifically for IT students.

Computer science focuses on creating programs and applications, while information technology focuses on using computer systems and networks. What computer science jobs are there. It includes software developers, web developers, software engineers, and data scientists.

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20 Most Prominent Technology Essay Topics And Writing Hints

Table of Contents

So it goes without saying that the scope of technology is an endless sphere to examine. What’s more, as the topic is super wide, you can personalize your essay to make it enjoyable to work on.

Nevertheless, it may be a challenge for you to make up your mind on how and what to write about. In this case, I hope the following hints will be of great help to you!

How to choose a topic about technology for a research paper?

First of all, to write a technology essay , you need to come up with a topic that will not be too wide, yet not too narrow.

Also, remember that it will be much more entertaining and easier for you to work on the questions you actually enjoy.

If you have troubles composing the topic for your research paper, try some o the following guidelines:

• Think of the aspects of technology you’re interested in.
• Choose issues that are up-to-date and newsworthy .
• Examine credible sources ; find out which questions are best covered with relevant information.
• Write down some keywords for the remaining questions, – they will be the basis of the topic. In case you’ve got too many aspects to cover, try choosing 2-3 of them.
• Try crafting a couple of topics . In case of emergency… find some ready-to-use ideas.
• Look through your final ideas and pick the one you like most.
• Do some preliminary research . Correct your topic if needed.

TOP 20 technology essay topics

Can’t come up with the idea for your perfect topic? How about choosing one from a brilliant list we’ve created for you?

• To what extent technology has changed the way people communicate?
• Pick up one technological invention (Internet/television/electro cars/mobile phones, etc.) and describe how it affected people’s lives.
• History of technological progress: the first technological discoveries.
• What would life be without modern technology?
• Do technologies have more pros or cons? Why?
• Is the Internet bringing people closer to each other or separating them?
• Examine the role of technologies in your own life: to what extent you are dependent on them, can you give up using?
• Think of the things we are losing with technological progress.
• Choose one gadget and describe its pros and cons.
• What technology awareness needs to be given to children nowadays?
• Describe a new technology you consider the most prominent. Explain your choice.
• The role of technology in globalization.
• Technology and work: what are the advantages and disadvantages of technology in workplaces?
• Imagine the future of technology: what life will be like in 20 years?
• Human vs computer: who wins?
• Reproduction technologies.
• Health technologies that have changed the world.
• Technology advance in genetic engineering.
• Correlation between technological progress and human identity.
• How has technology changed the rules of war?

Prominent topics about technology for writing

Didn’t like any of the topics above? Well, we’ve got Well, we’ve got another custom Writing list of technology topics. The following topics are more specific, but all of them are definitely thought-provoking.

• The use of technology in education.
• Stunning technology developed currently.
• The most shocking modern technology inventions the majority of people still aren’t aware of.
• Enumerate some technologies that you consider completely destructive and harmful. Explain your choice.
• Technology and space studies.
• The impact of technology on people’s health and values.
• Can robots replace humans completely on the workplaces? Why?
• Specific country and its contribution to the development of modern technology.
• Technology and safety of transport.
• Nanotechnologies and the scopes of their use.
• The use of technologies in medicine.
• Which technologies may influence people’s mental health? How?
• Technologies that have changed our lives.
• Do technologies have a positive or negative effect on personal safety?
• Does modern technology help improve the educational process?

Writing about technology: the what and the why

After you’ve chosen the topic, it’s a perfect time to start working on it.

Remember… To write a successful essay or a research paper on technology, you need to organize it all well.

This means you need a plan! Here are some hints for a perfect structure:

• Search for relevant information . You have to rely on credible sources to have up-to-date and newsworthy data. Remember that some websites may contain fakes!
• Note some crucial aspects of your question. Later you may use them as ideas to highlight.
• Start writing. To make it easier to cope with a lot of information you now encounter, you’d need to craft an outline . Write down a table of contents for your essay, it will be your soil to push off.
• Start with the introduction to give the reader some understanding of the issue. Here you include some background information on the topic, historical aspect, or some definitions if needed.
• Write the main body . Mention all your statements and support them with decent evidence. Remember that the main body should be split into paragraphs to make it readable. As a rule, one paragraph is for one idea or statement.
• End up with a conclusion – an inference of everything said before. It has to be laconic and logical. New ideas aren’t needed here.
• After you’ve written the paper, you may want to check it for grammar and typos . There are lots of websites and programs for this purpose. Even better, leave it for a couple of days and give it a fresh look.

The use of a technology essay example

To reassure you that writing a technology essay isn’t the end of the world, here is a free sample of the essay. It fits all the general recommendations, but you should always keep in mind that your teacher may have own vision on how the essay should be completed!

Still, it’s always great to grab some ideas!

Overall, writing an essay on technology is an incredibly valuable experience. Moreover, the topic is so wide; you most definitely will find something interesting to talk about!

Stick to the structure and don’t hesitate to discover something very specific. Technology is getting more and more stunning every day!

No time to complete your brilliant copy? We’ve got a bunch of writers, who’d be more than happy to write it for you! Any topic, tightest deadline, complete confidentiality. Hit the button to learn more.

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Statistical analysis can detect when ChatGPT is used to cheat on multiple-choice chemistry exams

by McKenzie Harris, Florida State University

As the use of generative artificial intelligence continues to extend into all reaches of education, much of the concern related to its impact on cheating has focused on essays, essay exam questions and other narrative assignments. Use of AI tools such as ChatGPT to cheat on multiple-choice exams has largely gone ignored.

A Florida State University chemist is half of a research partnership whose latest work is changing what we know about this type of cheating, and their findings have revealed how the use of ChatGPT to cheat on general chemistry multiple-choice exams can be detected through specific statistical methods. The work was published in Journal of Chemical Education .

"While many educators and researchers try to detect AI assisted cheating in essays and open-ended responses, such as Turnitin AI detection, as far as we know, this is the first time anyone has proposed detecting its use on multiple-choice exams," said Ken Hanson, an associate professor in the FSU Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry. "By evaluating differences in performances between student- and ChatGPT-based multiple-choice chemistry exams, we were able to identify ChatGPT instances across all exams with a false positive rate of almost zero."

Researchers collected previous FSU student responses from five semesters worth of exams, input nearly 1,000 questions into ChatGPT and compared the outcomes. Average score and raw statistics were not enough to identify ChatGPT-like behavior because there are certain questions that ChatGPT always answered correctly or always answered incorrectly resulting in an overall score that was indistinguishable from students.

"That's the thing about ChatGPT—it can generate content, but it doesn't necessarily generate correct content," Hanson said. "It's simply an answer generator. It's trying to look like it knows the answer, and to someone who doesn't understand the material, it probably does look like a correct answer."

By using fit statistics, researchers fixed the ability parameters and refit the outcomes, finding ChatGPT's response pattern was clearly different from that of the students.

On exams, high-performing students frequently answer difficult and easy questions correctly, while average students tend to answer some difficult questions and most easy questions correctly. Low-performing students typically only answer easy questions correctly. But on repeated attempts by ChatGPT to complete an exam, the AI tool sometimes answered every easier question incorrectly and every hard question correctly. Hanson and Sorenson used these behavior differences to detect the use of ChatGPT with almost 100-percent accuracy.

The duo's strategy of employing a technique known as Rasch modeling and fit statistics can be readily applied to any and all generative AI chat bots, which will exhibit their own unique patterns to help educators identify the use of these chat bots in completing multiple-choice exams.

The research is the latest publication in a seven-year collaboration between Hanson and machine learning engineer Ben Sorenson.

Hanson and Sorenson, who first met in third grade, both attended St. Cloud State University in Minnesota for their undergraduate degrees and stayed in touch after moving into their careers. As a faculty member at FSU, Hanson became curious about measuring how much knowledge his students retained from lectures, courses and lab work.

"This was a conversation that I brought to Ben, who's great with statistics, computer science and data processing ," said Hanson, who is part of a group of FSU faculty working to improve student success in gateway STEM courses such as general chemistry and college algebra. "He said we could use statistical tools to understand if my exams are good, and in 2017, we started analyzing exams."

The core of this Rasch model is that a student's probability of getting any test question correct is a function of two things: how difficult the question is and the student's ability to answer the question. In this case, a student 's ability refers to how much knowledge they have and how many of the necessary components are needed to answer the question they have. Viewing the outcomes of an exam in this way provides powerful insights, researchers said.

"The collaboration between Ken and I, though remote, has been a really seamless, smooth process," Sorenson said. "Our work is a great way to provide supporting evidence when educators might already suspect that cheating may be happening. What we didn't expect was that the patterns of artificial intelligence would be so easy to identify."

Journal information: Journal of Chemical Education

Provided by Florida State University

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Arvind, longtime MIT professor and prolific computer scientist, dies at 77

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Arvind Mithal, the Charles W. and Jennifer C. Johnson Professor in Computer Science and Engineering at MIT, head of the faculty of computer science in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), and a pillar of the MIT community, died on June 17. Arvind, who went by the mononym, was 77 years old.

A prolific researcher who led the Computation Structures Group in the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory (CSAIL), Arvind served on the MIT faculty for nearly five decades.

“He was beloved by countless people across the MIT community and around the world who were inspired by his intellectual brilliance and zest for life,” President Sally Kornbluth wrote in a letter to the MIT community today.

As a scientist, Arvind was well known for important contributions to dataflow computing, which seeks to optimize the flow of data to take advantage of parallelism, achieving faster and more efficient computation.

In the last 25 years, his research interests broadened to include developing techniques and tools for formal modeling, high-level synthesis, and formal verification of complex digital devices like microprocessors and hardware accelerators, as well as memory models and cache coherence protocols for parallel computing architectures and programming languages.

Those who knew Arvind describe him as a rare individual whose interests and expertise ranged from high-level, theoretical formal systems all the way down through languages and compilers to the gates and structures of silicon hardware.

The applications of Arvind’s work are far-reaching, from  reducing the amount of energy and space required by data centers to  streamlining the design of more efficient multicore computer chips .

“Arvind was both a tremendous scholar in the fields of computer architecture and programming languages and a dedicated teacher, who brought systems-level thinking to our students. He was also an exceptional academic leader, often leading changes in curriculum and contributing to the Engineering Council in meaningful and impactful ways. I will greatly miss his sage advice and wisdom,” says Anantha Chandrakasan, chief innovation and strategy officer, dean of engineering, and the Vannevar Bush Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science.

“Arvind’s positive energy, together with his hearty laugh, brightened so many people’s lives. He was an enduring source of wise counsel for colleagues and for generations of students. With his deep commitment to academic excellence, he not only transformed research in computer architecture and parallel computing but also brought that commitment to his role as head of the computer science faculty in the EECS department. He left a lasting impact on all of us who had the privilege of working with him,” says Dan Huttenlocher, dean of the MIT Schwarzman College of Computing and the Henry Ellis Warren Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science.

Arvind developed an interest in parallel computing while he was a student at the Indian Institute of Technology in Kanpur, from which he received his bachelor’s degree in 1969. He earned a master’s degree and PhD in computer science in 1972 and 1973, respectively, from the University of Minnesota, where he studied operating systems and mathematical models of program behavior. He taught at the University of California at Irvine from 1974 to 1978 before joining the faculty at MIT.

At MIT, Arvind’s group studied parallel computing and declarative programming languages, and he led the development of two parallel computing languages, Id   and pH. He continued his work on these programming languages through the 1990s, publishing the book “Implicit Parallel Programming in pH”   with co-author R.S. Nikhil in 2001, the culmination of more than 20 years of research.

In addition to his research, Arvind was an important academic leader in EECS. He served as head of computer science faculty in the department and played a critical role in helping with the reorganization of EECS after the establishment of the MIT Schwarzman College of Computing.

“Arvind was a force of nature, larger than life in every sense. His relentless positivity, unwavering optimism, boundless generosity, and exceptional strength as a researcher was truly inspiring and left a profound mark on all who had the privilege of knowing him. I feel enormous gratitude for the light he brought into our lives and his fundamental impact on our community,” says Daniela Rus, the Andrew and Erna Viterbi Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and the director of CSAIL.

His work on dataflow and parallel computing led to the Monsoon project in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Arvind’s group, in collaboration with Motorola, built 16 dataflow computing machines and developed their associated software. One Monsoon dataflow machine is now in the  Computer History Museum in Mountain View, California.

Arvind’s focus shifted in the 1990s when, as he explained in a 2012 interview for the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), funding for research into parallel computing began to dry up.

“Microprocessors were getting so much faster that people thought they didn’t need it,” he recalled.

Instead, he began applying techniques his team had learned and developed for parallel programming to the principled design of digital hardware.

In addition to mentoring students and junior colleagues at MIT, Arvind also advised universities and governments in many countries on research in parallel programming and semiconductor design.

Based on his work on digital hardware design, Arvind founded Sandburst in 2000, a fabless manufacturing company for semiconductor chips. He served as the company’s president for two years before returning to the MIT faculty, while continuing as an advisor. Sandburst was later acquired by Broadcom.

Arvind and his students also developed Bluespec, a programming language designed to automate the design of chips. Building off this work, he co-founded the startup Bluespec, Inc., in 2003, to develop practical tools that help engineers streamline device design.

Over the past decade, he was dedicated to advancing undergraduate education at MIT by bringing modern design tools to courses 6.004 (Computation Structures) and 6.191 (Introduction to Deep Learning), and incorporating Minispec, a programming language that is closely related to Bluespec.

Arvind was honored for these and other contributions to data flow and multithread computing, and the development of tools for the high-level synthesis of hardware, with membership in the National Academy of Engineering in 2008 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2012. He was also named a distinguished alumnus of IIT Kanpur, his undergraduate alma mater.

“Arvind was more than a pillar of the EECS community and a titan of computer science; he was a beloved colleague and a treasured friend. Those of us with the remarkable good fortune to work and collaborate with Arvind are devastated by his sudden loss. His kindness and joviality were unwavering; his mentorship was thoughtful and well-considered; his guidance was priceless. We will miss Arvind deeply,” says Asu Ozdaglar, deputy dean of the MIT Schwarzman College of Computing and head of EECS.

Among numerous other awards, including membership in the Indian National Academy of Sciences and fellowship in the Association for Computing Machinery and IEEE, he received the Harry H. Goode Memorial Award from IEEE in 2012, which honors significant contributions to theory or practice in the information processing field.

A humble scientist, Arvind was the first to point out that these achievements were only possible because of his outstanding and brilliant collaborators. Chief among those collaborators were the undergraduate and graduate students he felt fortunate to work with at MIT. He maintained excellent relationships with them both professionally and personally, and valued these relationships more than the work they did together, according to family members.

In summing up the key to his scientific success, Arvind put it this way in the 2012 IEEE interview: “Really, one has to do what one believes in. I think the level at which most of us work, it is not sustainable if you don’t enjoy it on a day-to-day basis. You can’t work on it just because of the results. You have to work on it because you say, ‘I have to know the answer to this,’” he said.

He is survived by his wife, Gita Singh Mithal, their two sons Divakar ’01 and Prabhakar ’04, their wives Leena and Nisha, and two grandchildren, Maya and Vikram. 

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