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Academic literature on the topic 'Educational technology'

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Journal articles on the topic "Educational technology":

Shomirzayev, M. Kh. "Technology Of Educational Process In School Technology Education." American Journal of Social Science and Education Innovations 02, no. 07 (July 30, 2020): 212–23. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/tajssei/volume02issue07-28.

Shomirzayev, M. Kh. "Developing Educational Technologies In School Technology Education." American Journal of Engineering And Techonology 02, no. 07 (July 30, 2020): 51–57. http://dx.doi.org/10.37547/tajet/volume02issue07-08.

Krynitz, Roy. "Educational Technology." IALLT Journal of Language Learning Technologies 5, no. 3 (January 17, 2019): 14–22. http://dx.doi.org/10.17161/iallt.v5i3.8803.

House, Jess E. "Educational Technology." Journal of Research on Computing in Education 27, no. 3 (March 1995): 371–72. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08886504.1995.10782139.

Lawless, Kimberly A. "Educational Technology." Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3, no. 2 (June 21, 2016): 169–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/2372732216630328.

Wager, Walter. "Educational Technology." Education and Urban Society 24, no. 4 (August 1992): 454–65. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0013124592024004003.

Chow, Clement. "Educational technology and educational reform." ECTJ 35, no. 4 (December 1987): 245–47. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02766969.

Ajmal, Fozia, Momena Batool, and Muhammad Hafeez. "Application of Educational Technology in Higher Educational Institutions." University of Wah Journal of Social Sciences 5, no. 1 (June 8, 2022): 81–94. http://dx.doi.org/10.56220/uwjss2022/0501/05.

Pour, Marzieh Ghobadi. "The Role of Educational Research in Educational Technology." Paripex - Indian Journal Of Research 2, no. 2 (January 15, 2012): 98–99. http://dx.doi.org/10.15373/22501991/feb2013/32.

Sancho Gil, Juana Mª. "Information Technology or Educational Technology?" Educar 25 (July 1, 1999): 205. http://dx.doi.org/10.5565/rev/educar.326.

Dissertations / Theses on the topic "Educational technology":

Boyd, William Patrick. "Bring your own technology| The effect of student-owned technology on student engagement." Thesis, Trevecca Nazarene University, 2015. http://pqdtopen.proquest.com/#viewpdf?dispub=3706805.

The purpose of this ethnographic research study was to investigate the effect of a Bring Your Own Technology (BYOT) policy on student engagement in a high school setting through classroom observations, cross-sectional surveys, and a focus group of technology teacher leaders. The qualitative and quantitative data gleaned from this study indicated no significant difference in student engagement levels when student-owned technology was used for instructional purposes, but student engagement increased with teacher support and efficacy with technology, student-directed learning, and utilization of Web 2.0 applications. The findings of this study will inform future decision making by school districts considering BYOT policies, assist teachers with technology-based instructional design, and contribute to the literature on student engagement with instructional technology.

Galla, Anthony James. "Educational Technology: Leadership and Implementation." Digital Commons at Loyola Marymount University and Loyola Law School, 2009. https://digitalcommons.lmu.edu/etd/257.

Ritzenthaler, Mark D. "Integrating Technology into Classroom Instruction." Ashland University / OhioLINK, 2009. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ashland1245087949.

Kozloski, Kristen C. Haslam Elizabeth L. "Principal leadership for technology integration : a study of principal technology leadership /." Philadelphia, Pa. : Drexel University, 2006. http://dspace.library.drexel.edu/handle/1860%20/886.

Al-Musawi, Ali Sharaf Ali. "Perceptions of quality in British higher education centres for educational technology and their implications for educational technology at Sultan Qaboos University." Thesis, University of Southampton, 1995. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.294695.

Loverro, Ian James. "Toward a pedagogy of educational technology for teacher education programs /." Thesis, Connect to this title online; UW restricted, 2006. http://hdl.handle.net/1773/7552.

O'Neil, Kason, and Jennifer M. Krause. "Physical Education Faculty Use and Self-efficacy Towards Educational Technology." Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University, 2017. https://dc.etsu.edu/etsu-works/4023.

King, Melanie R. N. "The realist evaluation of educational technology." Thesis, Loughborough University, 2017. https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/27554.

Rintala, Gerald O. "A preliminary educational technology maturity model." Diss., The University of Arizona, 2000. http://hdl.handle.net/10150/289159.

Roberts, Heidi E. "Technology in education." Online version, 2000. http://www.uwstout.edu/lib/thesis/2000/2000robertsh.pdf.

Books on the topic "Educational technology":

Gordon, Anthony, Michael Hacker, and Marc de Vries, eds. Advanced Educational Technology in Technology Education . Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 1993. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-58055-0.

NATO Advanced Study Institute on Advanced Educational Technology in Technology Education (1992 Salford, England). Advanced educational technology in technology education . Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1993.

Wang, Yuanzhi, ed. Education and Educational Technology . Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-24775-0.

International Conference on Education and Educational Technology (2nd 2011 Chengdu, China). Education and educational technology . Berlin: Springer, 2011.

Huang, Ronghuai, J. Michael Spector, and Junfeng Yang. Educational Technology . Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-6643-7.

Li, Kam Cheong, Tak-Lam Wong, Simon K. S. Cheung, Jeanne Lam, and Kwan Keung Ng, eds. Technology in Education. Transforming Educational Practices with Technology . Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-46158-7.

Riko, Kobayashi, ed. New educational technology . New York: Nova Science Publishers, 2008.

Miśra, Ramākānta. Śaikṣikapravidhiḥ: Educational technology . Vārāṇasī: Caukhambā Surabhāratī Prakāśana, 2006.

Tecnology, Open University Institute of Educational. Institute of Educational Technology. Milton Keynes: Open University, 1995.

Ely, Donald P. Trends in educational technology. 5th ed. Syracuse, N.Y: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology, Syracuse University, 2002.

Book chapters on the topic "Educational technology":

Loveland, Thomas. "Educational Technology and Technology Education." In Technology Education for Teachers , 115–36. Rotterdam: SensePublishers, 2012. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6209-161-0_6.

Wiegel, Vincent. "Educational Technology." In Lean in the Classroom , 23–38. New York : Taylor & Francis, 2020.: Productivity Press, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429837012-2.

Chaves, Eduardo. "Educational Technology (I)." In Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory , 1–7. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-532-7_312-1.

Bruce, Bertram C. "Educational Technology (II)." In Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory , 1–3. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2016. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-532-7_313-1.

Chaves, Eduardo. "Educational Technology (I)." In Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory , 680–86. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-588-4_312.

Bruce, Bertram C. "Educational Technology (II)." In Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory , 686–88. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2017. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-588-4_313.

McGrath, Cormac, and Anna Åkerfeldt. "Educational technology (EdTech)." In Digital Transformation and Public Services , 143–57. Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2020.: Routledge, 2019. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780429319297-9.

Morel, Gwendolyn M., and J. Michael Spector. "Defining Educational Technology." In Foundations of Educational Technology , 3–15. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, 2022. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003268406-2.

Bozkurt, Aras. "Postdigital Educational Technology." In Encyclopedia of Postdigital Science and Education , 1–6. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2024. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35469-4_57-1.

Wegerif, Rupert, and Louis Major. "Researching Educational Technology." In The Theory of Educational Technology , 174–94. London: Routledge, 2023. http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9781003198499-10.

Artificial Intelligence and Education: A Reading List

A bibliography to help educators prepare students and themselves for a future shaped by AI—with all its opportunities and drawbacks.

How should education change to address, incorporate, or challenge today’s AI systems, especially powerful large language models? What role should educators and scholars play in shaping the future of generative AI? The release of ChatGPT in November 2022 triggered an explosion of news, opinion pieces, and social media posts addressing these questions. Yet many are not aware of the current and historical body of academic work that offers clarity, substance, and nuance to enrich the discourse.

Linking the terms “AI” and “education” invites a constellation of discussions. This selection of articles is hardly comprehensive, but it includes explanations of AI concepts and provides historical context for today’s systems. It describes a range of possible educational applications as well as adverse impacts, such as learning loss and increased inequity. Some articles touch on philosophical questions about AI in relation to learning, thinking, and human communication. Others will help educators prepare students for civic participation around concerns including information integrity, impacts on jobs, and energy consumption. Yet others outline educator and student rights in relation to AI and exhort educators to share their expertise in societal and industry discussions on the future of AI.

Nabeel Gillani, Rebecca Eynon, Catherine Chiabaut, and Kelsey Finkel, “ Unpacking the ‘Black Box’ of AI in Education ,” Educational Technology & Society 26, no. 1 (2023): 99–111.

Whether we’re aware of it or not, AI was already widespread in education before ChatGPT. Nabeel Gillani et al. describe AI applications such as learning analytics and adaptive learning systems, automated communications with students, early warning systems, and automated writing assessment. They seek to help educators develop literacy around the capacities and risks of these systems by providing an accessible introduction to machine learning and deep learning as well as rule-based AI. They present a cautious view, calling for scrutiny of bias in such systems and inequitable distribution of risks and benefits. They hope that engineers will collaborate deeply with educators on the development of such systems.

Jürgen Rudolph, Samson Tan, and Shannon Tan, “ ChatGPT: Bullshit Spewer or the End of Traditional Assessments in Higher Education? ” The Journal of Applied Learning and Teaching 6, no. 1 (January 24, 2023).

Jürgen Rudolph et al. give a practically oriented overview of ChatGPT’s implications for higher education. They explain the statistical nature of large language models as they tell the history of OpenAI and its attempts to mitigate bias and risk in the development of ChatGPT. They illustrate ways ChatGPT can be used with examples and screenshots. Their literature review shows the state of artificial intelligence in education (AIEd) as of January 2023. An extensive list of challenges and opportunities culminates in a set of recommendations that emphasizes explicit policy as well as expanding digital literacy education to include AI.

Emily M. Bender, Timnit Gebru, Angela McMillan-Major, and Shmargaret Shmitchell, “ On the Dangers of Stochastic Parrots: Can Language Models Be Too Big? 🦜 ,” FAccT ’21: Proceedings of the 2021 ACM Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (March 2021): 610–623.

Student and faculty understanding of the risks and impacts of large language models is central to AI literacy and civic participation around AI policy. This hugely influential paper details documented and likely adverse impacts of the current data-and-resource-intensive, non-transparent mode of development of these models. Bender et al. emphasize the ways in which these costs will likely be borne disproportionately by marginalized groups. They call for transparency around the energy use and cost of these models as well as transparency around the data used to train them. They warn that models perpetuate and even amplify human biases and that the seeming coherence of these systems’ outputs can be used for malicious purposes even though it doesn’t reflect real understanding.

The authors argue that inclusive participation in development can encourage alternate development paths that are less resource intensive. They further argue that beneficial applications for marginalized groups, such as improved automatic speech recognition systems, must be accompanied by plans to mitigate harm.

Erik Brynjolfsson, “ The Turing Trap: The Promise & Peril of Human-Like Artificial Intelligence ,” Daedalus 151, no. 2 (2022): 272–87.

Erik Brynjolfsson argues that when we think of artificial intelligence as aiming to substitute for human intelligence, we miss the opportunity to focus on how it can complement and extend human capabilities. Brynjolfsson calls for policy that shifts AI development incentives away from automation toward augmentation. Automation is more likely to result in the elimination of lower-level jobs and in growing inequality. He points educators toward augmentation as a framework for thinking about AI applications that assist learning and teaching. How can we create incentives for AI to support and extend what teachers do rather than substituting for teachers? And how can we encourage students to use AI to extend their thinking and learning rather than using AI to skip learning?

Kevin Scott, “ I Do Not Think It Means What You Think It Means: Artificial Intelligence, Cognitive Work & Scale ,” Daedalus 151, no. 2 (2022): 75–84.

Brynjolfsson’s focus on AI as “augmentation” converges with Microsoft computer scientist Kevin Scott’s focus on “cognitive assistance.” Steering discussion of AI away from visions of autonomous systems with their own goals, Scott argues that near-term AI will serve to help humans with cognitive work. Scott situates this assistance in relation to evolving historical definitions of work and the way in which tools for work embody generalized knowledge about specific domains. He’s intrigued by the way deep neural networks can represent domain knowledge in new ways, as seen in the unexpected coding capabilities offered by OpenAI’s GPT-3 language model, which have enabled people with less technical knowledge to code. His article can help educators frame discussions of how students should build knowledge and what knowledge is still relevant in contexts where AI assistance is nearly ubiquitous.

Laura D. Tyson and John Zysman, “ Automation, AI & Work ,” Daedalus 151, no. 2 (2022): 256–71.

How can educators prepare students for future work environments integrated with AI and advise students on how majors and career paths may be affected by AI automation? And how can educators prepare students to participate in discussions of government policy around AI and work? Laura Tyson and John Zysman emphasize the importance of policy in determining how economic gains due to AI are distributed and how well workers weather disruptions due to AI. They observe that recent trends in automation and gig work have exacerbated inequality and reduced the supply of “good” jobs for low- and middle-income workers. They predict that AI will intensify these effects, but they point to the way collective bargaining, social insurance, and protections for gig workers have mitigated such impacts in countries like Germany. They argue that such interventions can serve as models to help frame discussions of intelligent labor policies for “an inclusive AI era.”

Todd C. Helmus, Artificial Intelligence, Deepfakes, and Disinformation: A Primer (RAND Corporation, 2022).

Educators’ considerations of academic integrity and AI text can draw on parallel discussions of authenticity and labeling of AI content in other societal contexts. Artificial intelligence has made deepfake audio, video, and images as well as generated text much more difficult to detect as such. Here, Todd Helmus considers the consequences to political systems and individuals as he offers a review of the ways in which these can and have been used to promote disinformation. He considers ways to identify deepfakes and ways to authenticate provenance of videos and images. Helmus advocates for regulatory action, tools for journalistic scrutiny, and widespread efforts to promote media literacy. As well as informing discussions of authenticity in educational contexts, this report might help us shape curricula to teach students about the risks of deepfakes and unlabeled AI.

William Hasselberger, “ Can Machines Have Common Sense? ” The New Atlantis 65 (2021): 94–109.

Students, by definition, are engaged in developing their cognitive capacities; their understanding of their own intelligence is in flux and may be influenced by their interactions with AI systems and by AI hype. In his review of The Myth of Artificial Intelligence: Why Computers Can’t Think the Way We Do by Erik J. Larson, William Hasselberger warns that in overestimating AI’s ability to mimic human intelligence we devalue the human and overlook human capacities that are integral to everyday life decision making, understanding, and reasoning. Hasselberger provides examples of both academic and everyday common-sense reasoning that continue to be out of reach for AI. He provides a historical overview of debates around the limits of artificial intelligence and its implications for our understanding of human intelligence, citing the likes of Alan Turing and Marvin Minsky as well as contemporary discussions of data-driven language models.

Gwo-Jen Hwang and Nian-Shing Chen, “ Exploring the Potential of Generative Artificial Intelligence in Education: Applications, Challenges, and Future Research Directions ,” Educational Technology & Society 26, no. 2 (2023).

Gwo-Jen Hwang and Nian-Shing Chen are enthusiastic about the potential benefits of incorporating generative AI into education. They outline a variety of roles a large language model like ChatGPT might play, from student to tutor to peer to domain expert to administrator. For example, educators might assign students to “teach” ChatGPT on a subject. Hwang and Chen provide sample ChatGPT session transcripts to illustrate their suggestions. They share prompting techniques to help educators better design AI-based teaching strategies. At the same time, they are concerned about student overreliance on generative AI. They urge educators to guide students to use it critically and to reflect on their interactions with AI. Hwang and Chen don’t touch on concerns about bias, inaccuracy, or fabrication, but they call for further research into the impact of integrating generative AI on learning outcomes.

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Lauren Goodlad and Samuel Baker, “ Now the Humanities Can Disrupt ‘AI’ ,” Public Books (February 20, 2023).

Lauren Goodlad and Samuel Baker situate both academic integrity concerns and the pressures on educators to “embrace” AI in the context of market forces. They ground their discussion of AI risks in a deep technical understanding of the limits of predictive models at mimicking human intelligence. Goodlad and Baker urge educators to communicate the purpose and value of teaching with writing to help students engage with the plurality of the world and communicate with others. Beyond the classroom, they argue, educators should question tech industry narratives and participate in public discussion on regulation and the future of AI. They see higher education as resilient: academic skepticism about former waves of hype around MOOCs, for example, suggests that educators will not likely be dazzled or terrified into submission to AI. Goodlad and Baker hope we will instead take up our place as experts who should help shape the future of the role of machines in human thought and communication.

Kathryn Conrad, “ Sneak Preview: A Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights for Education ,” Critical AI 2.1 (July 17, 2023).

How can the field of education put the needs of students and scholars first as we shape our response to AI, the way we teach about it, and the way we might incorporate it into pedagogy? Kathryn Conrad’s manifesto builds on and extends the Biden administration’s Office of Science and Technology Policy 2022 “Blueprint for an AI Bill of Rights.” Conrad argues that educators should have input into institutional policies on AI and access to professional development around AI. Instructors should be able to decide whether and how to incorporate AI into pedagogy, basing their decisions on expert recommendations and peer-reviewed research. Conrad outlines student rights around AI systems, including the right to know when AI is being used to evaluate them and the right to request alternate human evaluation. They deserve detailed instructor guidance on policies around AI use without fear of reprisals. Conrad maintains that students should be able to appeal any charges of academic misconduct involving AI, and they should be offered alternatives to any AI-based assignments that might put their creative work at risk of exposure or use without compensation. Both students’ and educators’ legal rights must be respected in any educational application of automated generative systems.

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This encyclopedia is a living volume that provides an entry point for learning about the educational technology field and that evolves over time with additional contributions and resources. Representing the perspectives of educational technology researchers, instructors, designers, developers, and practitioners throughout the world, it includes short, focused articles on foundational topics ranging from learning and design concepts to emerging technologies to policies shaping the future of educational technology. Each article is peer-reviewed and intended to provide an expert and up-to-date understanding of the topic, while also providing a space for community contributors to share helpful resources related to the topic.

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EdTech Books

CC BY : This work is released under a CC BY license, which means that you are free to do with it as you please as long as you properly attribute it.

The publisher EdTech Books does not have a physical location, but its primary support staff operate out of Provo, UT, USA.

The publisher EdTech Books makes no copyright claim to any information in this publication and makes no claim as to the veracity of content. All content remains exclusively the intellectual property of its authors. Inquiries regarding use of content should be directed to the authors themselves.

DOI: 10.59668/371

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Artificial Intelligence and Learning

Introduction.

• Overviews of AI Trends, Challenges, and Issues
• The Role of the Human Mind and Education in the AI Age
• Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence
• Big Data in Education and Machine Learning
• Intelligent Tutoring Systems
• Predictive Models: Early Warning Systems
• Automated Essay Evaluation, Natural Language Processing, and Games

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Artificial Intelligence and Learning by Jaekyung Lee , Richard Lamb , Sunha Kim LAST REVIEWED: 12 January 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 12 January 2021 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0269

Rapid technological advances, particularly recent artificial intelligence (AI) revolutions such as digital assistants (e.g., Alexa, Siri), self-driving cars, and cobots and robots, have changed human lives and will continue to have even bigger impact on our future society. Some of those AI inventions already shocked people across the world by wielding their power of surpassing human intelligence and cognitive abilities; see, for example, the examples of Watson (IBM’s supercomputer) and AlphaGo (Google DeepMind’s AI program) beating the human champions of Jeopardy and Go games, respectively. Then many questions arise. How does AI affect human beings and the larger society? How should we educate our children in the AI age? What changes are necessary to help humans better adapt and flourish in the AI age? What are the key enablers of the AI revolution, such as big data and machine learning? What are the applications of AI in education and how do they work? Answering these critical questions requires interdisciplinary research. There is no shortage of research on AI per se, since it is a highly important and impactful research topic that cuts across many fields of science and technology. Nevertheless, there are no effective guidelines for educational researchers and practitioners that give quick summaries and references on this topic. Because the intersection of AI and education/learning is an emerging field of research, the literature is in flux and the jury is still out. Thus, our goal here is to give readers a quick introduction to this broad topic by drawing upon a limited selection of books, reports, and articles. This entry is organized into three major sections, where we present commentaries along with a list of annotated references on each of the following areas: (1) AI Impacts on the Society and Education ; (2) AI Enablers: Big Data in Education and Machine Learning ; and (3) Applications of AI in Education: Examples and Evidence .

AI Impacts on the Society and Education

This section presents an overview of AI-related changes and issues at the societal level. We provide commentary accompanied by annotated references, organized into the following sections: Overviews of AI Trends, Challenges, and Issues ; and the Role of the Human Mind and Education in the AI Age .

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Technology Integration Research Review: Annotated Bibliography

Dig deeper into the specific articles, studies, and reports included in our technology integration research review.

Adams, W.K. (2010). Student Engagement and Learning with PhET Interactive Simulations (PDF) . Presented at the International Conference on Multimedia in Physics Teaching and Learning. This study focuses on understanding how students use Physics Education Technology (PhET) simulations to construct a mental framework about concepts and the effect levels of guidance have on students' use of simulations. Hundreds of individual student interviews were conducted during which the students described what they were thinking as they interacted with simulations. Careful analysis reveals that showing the invisible and use of analogy both facilitate students' construction of their understanding, while the nature of guidance influences the amount of student engagement.

Arena, D.A. (2012). Commercial Video Games as Preparation for Future Learning [Abstract] . Stanford University, Stanford, CA. Doctoral dissertation, presented at the Games for Learning Conference , in the session on "Games in Schools," June 2012. In a randomized-control experiment, community-college students were assigned to one of three conditions: to play the video game Civilization for as much as 15 hours over five weeks, to play Call of Duty for as much as 15 hours over five weeks, or to play no game. All participants took a pretest which indicated no significant differences in their history knowledge. The participants then attended a World War II history slide show/lecture, followed by a posttest with content about World War II history. Students who had played computer games with thematic connections to World War II (e.g., thinking as a nation or being exposed to the historical context of World War II) significantly outscored those who hadn't played a game, indicating that the game-playing students learned and retained more information from the lecture. The research highlights the role that computer games play in creating informal knowledge, which creates better traction for school-based knowledge to take hold in memory. See a slide-show summary of this presentation.

Arici, A. (2008). Meeting Kids at Their Own Game: A Comparison of Learning and Engagement in Traditional and 3D MUVE Educational-Gaming Contexts [Abstract] . (Doctoral dissertation) Indiana University Bloomington, Bloomington, IN. Sixth-grade science classes taught by the same teacher were randomly assigned to either the video game Quest Atlantis (QA) or a traditional version of a two-week water-quality unit. Pretests showed no significant differences by condition. Posttests showed significant learning gains for both conditions, with the students in the QA condition scoring significantly higher than the students in the traditional condition, and retaining significantly more information at the time of a delayed posttest. Students in the QA condition were also more engaged, as demonstrated by qualitative analysis as well as the fact that approximately 75 percent of the students in the QA condition chose to complete optional activities in the game for no credit, whereas only four percent of the students in the traditional condition completed a similar optional assignment for extra credit.

Bai, H., Pan, W., Hirumi, A., and Kebritchi, M. (2012).> Assessing the Effectiveness of a 3D Instructional Game on Improving Mathematics Achievement and Motivation of Middle School Students [Abstract] . British Journal of Educational Technology 43 (6), 993-1003. A total of 437 eighth graders were randomly assigned by classroom to the treatment group, which utilized the computer game DimensionM as a supplement to regular classroom instruction, or to the control group, which received regular class instruction without any computer activities. Results of the analysis on the pretest-posttest data revealed that the DimensionM game increased mathematical knowledge acquisition in algebra and maintained student motivation to learn, and suggest that the implementation of DimensionM can greatly benefit middle school students learning algebra.

Bakia, M., Shear, L., Toyama, Y., and Lassseter, A. (2012). Understanding the Implications of Online Learning for Educational Productivity (PDF) . Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology. Evidence from a 2009 meta-analysis by the Department of Education shows that hybrid models, which combine online curriculum with face-to-face teacher time, produce better outcomes than either face-to-face time alone or online learning alone. The authors conclude that the meta-analysis supports "redesigning instruction to incorporate additional learning opportunities online," but is based on a dearth of empirical research on K-12 learning environments. The hybrid model receives the strongest evidence, but much research remains to be done to define the conditions in which digital tools enhance learning -- for whom, in what contexts, and to what ends.

Barab, S.A., Scott, B., Siyahhan, S., Goldstone, R., Ingram-Goble, A., Zuiker, S., and Warren, S. (2009). Transformational Play as a Curricular Scaffold: Using Videogames to Support Science Education (PDF) . Journal of Science Education and Technology, 18 , 305-320. Students in the game-based version of the course performed significantly better on related standardized tests than their peers in textbook and descriptive-framing versions of the class.

Bebell, D., and O'Dwyer, L.M. (2010). Educational Outcomes and Research from 1:1 Computing Settings [Abstract] . The Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 9 (1). This review synthesizes results from four multischool empirical studies of K-12 1:1 computer programs, which varied in their settings and unique attributes. Teachers played a critical role in the effective implementation of 1:1 programs. Schools with higher 1:1 implementation tended to have more committed leaders, greater teacher buy-in, preliminary professional development, and a commitment to the transformation of the student. Participation in the 1:1 programs was associated with increased student and teacher technology use, increased student engagement and interest level, and modest increases in student achievement.

Black, P., and Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and Classroom Learning [Abstract] . Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 5 (1). A review of the literature on classroom formative assessment indicates that frequent feedback yields substantial gains in student learning.

Bransford, J.D., Brown, A.L., and Cocking, R.R. (2000). How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Technology can be used to advance learning by bringing exciting curricula based on real-world problems into the classroom, providing scaffolds and tools to enhance learning, such as modeling programs and visualization tools, giving students and teachers more opportunities for feedback, reflection, and revision, and building local and global communities that include teachers, administrators, students, parents, practicing scientists, and other interested people expanding opportunities for teacher learning.

Caldwell, J.E. (2007). Clickers in the Large Classroom: Current Research and Best-Practice Tips (PDF) . CBE -- Life Sciences Education, 6 (1), 9-20. Audience response systems (ARS), or clickers as they are commonly called, have been used in a variety of fields and at all levels of education, offering a tool for engaging students in a large classroom. When used in classes, clickers typically have either a benign or positive effect on student performance on exams, depending on the method and extent of their use, and they create a more positive and active atmosphere in a large classroom. These systems are especially valuable as a means of introducing and monitoring peer learning methods in a large lecture classroom. So that the reader may use clickers effectively in his or her own classroom, the report provides a set of guidelines for writing good questions and a list of best-practice tips culled from the literature.

Center for Children and Technology (2004). Television Goes to School: The Impact of Video on Student Learning in Formal Education (PDF) . New York, NY: Education Department, Corporation for Public Broadcasting. A large body of research indicates that the type of television content children watch is a truer determinant of students' future academic success than the amount of time they spend watching. The report argues, "Children's viewing of educational television has been shown to support significant and lasting learning gains, while too much viewing of other types of programming may be associated with a lack of academic achievement." The report describes examples drawn from the research literature of educational video use across academic disciplines, including: science shows (e.g., Mr. Wizard, Bill Nye the Science Guy ); news and drama shows with scientific themes; fictional and factual historical representations (e.g., BBC-produced Teacher' Notes , PBS-produced Renaissance ); documentaries for geography; films, news stories, soap operas for writing and foreign language learning activities; and math learning shows (e.g., Sesame Street , Square One TV , Cyberchase ). To enhance the educational effectiveness of video in the schools, educators are urged to promote active viewing and critical analysis of media texts, assign video as homework, use segments of no more than ten to 15 minutes, and use television programming as a bridge to public television, museums, community groups, cultural organizations, and professional and industry associations. Broadcasters are urged to use accompanying websites for teacher materials and to consider aligning with core curricula. The report concludes that a long history of research clearly shows that "video is now and will continue to be an effective, engaging, and essential tool in our nation's classrooms."

Cheung, A., and Slavin, R.E. (2011). The Effectiveness of Educational Technology Applications for Enhancing Mathematics Achievement in K-12 Classrooms: A Meta-Analysis . Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Research and Reform in Education. A meta-analysis (including 74 rigorous studies and over 56,000 K-12 students) found that mathematics computer applications produce a small but positive effect on mathematics achievement, and, specifically, programs that supplement traditional math instruction with additional instruction at students' individualized assessed levels of need showed greater effects on math achievement. These supplemental math programs (e.g., Jostens , PLATO , Larson Pre-Algebra , and SRA Drill and Practice ) were equally effective across elementary and secondary levels, and using them for more than 30 minutes per week increased the beneficial impacts on math achievement.

Cheung, A., and Slavin, R.E. (2012). The Effectiveness of Educational Technology Applications for Enhancing Reading Achievement in K-12 Classrooms: A Meta-Analysis . Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Research and Reform in Education. This meta-analysis includes 84 rigorous studies (with over 60,000 K-12 participants) that examine the impacts of technologies designed to improve K-12 reading achievement. The largest effects on reading achievement scores were found for comprehensive models, including READ 180 , Voyager Passport , and Writing to Read . Such models integrate computer and noncomputer instruction in the classroom with extensive professional-development support. For example, in READ 180 classrooms, "Each period begins with a 20-minute shared reading and skills lesson, and then students in groups of five rotate among three activities: computer-assisted instruction in reading, modeled or independent reading, and small-group instruction with the teacher" (p. 19). Accelerated Reader is a unique reading achievement program which students do not use but which teachers use to assess student progress and assign curriculum that is appropriate to the students' level. Accelerated Reader showed moderate effects on reading achievement. Supplemental computer-assisted instruction programs augment regular classroom instruction with additional instruction at students' individualized assessed levels of need. Consistent with previous research, supplemental programs (e.g., Destination Reading , Plato Focus , Waterford Early Reading Program , Headsprout , Academy of Reading , and LeapTrack ) did not show meaningful effects on reading achievement for K-12 students. .

Curley, J., and Taylor, A., (2010). Exploring Government Through Interactive Games: Evaluation of iCivics Games: Executive Summary. Presentation at the We the People Coordinator Conference, June 2010.

Darling-Hammond, L., Zielezinski, M. B., & Goldman, S. (2014). Using Technology to Support At-Risk Students’ Learning . Stanford Center for Opportunity Policy in Education. A review of more than 70 studies that examined approaches to using technology for high school students that are at risk for failing courses or dropping out. The report finds that a successful educational technology program typically supports active learning, provides opportunities to explore and create content, and blends technology with face-to-face instruction.

Ertmer, P.A., and Ottenbreit-Leftwich, A.T. (2010). Teacher technology change: How Knowledge, Confidence, Beliefs, and Culture Intersect (PDF) . Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 42 (3), 255-284. The authors assert that teachers cannot be effective without integrating technology into their practice. To integrate technology effectively, teachers must apply knowledge of both their learners and the subject to select appropriate information and communication technology resources that enable their students to meet the required learning goals. Knowledge is not enough to change normal teaching routines; teachers must also have confidence in their own ability to integrate technology successfully and confidence that doing so will benefit student learning. Culture is the proposed vehicle for developing teachers' confidence and behavior change. The authors provide a list of research-based recommendations for facilitating teacher change through preservice and professional-development contexts (p. 266). These recommendations resonate around participating in professional learning communities and job-embedded training, which starts with small-scale forms of technology integration that address immediate needs and yield positive experiences. The authors define "good teaching" as "teaching that facilitates student learning by leveraging relevant ICT resources," and they argue that this new definition should be nurtured and embraced in cultures where teachers learn and work.

Finkelstein, N.D., Adams, W.K., Keller, C.J., Kohl, P.B., Perkins, K.K., Podolefsky, N.S., and Reid, S. (2005). When Learning About the Real World is Better Done Virtually: A Study of Substituting Computer Simulations for Laboratory Equipment. Physical Review Special Topics -- Physics Education Research 1 (1), 1-8. In this study, the direct-current-circuit laboratory was modified to compare the effects of using computer simulations with those of using real lightbulbs, meters, and wires. Two groups of students, those who used real equipment and those who used a computer simulation that explicitly modeled electron flow, were compared in terms of their mastery of physics concepts and skills with real equipment. Students who used the simulated equipment outperformed their counterparts both on a conceptual survey of the domain and in the coordinated tasks of assembling a real circuit and describing how it worked.

Fisch, S.M., Lesh, R. Motoki, E., Crespo, S., and Melfi, V. (2010). Children's Learning from Multiple Media in Informal Mathematics Education (PDF) . Educational Broadcasting Corporation. This research uses Cyberchase (a multiple-media, informal mathematics project for eight- to 11-year-olds) to investigate synergy among multiple media components and how they interact to yield cumulative educational outcomes. The study incorporated both naturalistic and experimental methods. In the naturalistic setting, children who chose to use one form of Cyberchase media (e.g., television) were significantly more likely to use another (e.g., the Cyberchase website). During the experimental phase, children exposed to Cyberchase media improved significantly more in mathematical problem solving than children who were not. Finally, more consistent gains were observed among children who used multiple media. Children showed evidence of transfer of learning, not only from the treatment to the posttest, but also from one medium to another.

Fleischer, H. (2012). What Is Our Current Understanding of One-to-One Computer Projects: A Systematic Narrative Research Review [Abstract] . Educational Research Review, 7 , 107-122. The article reviews cross-disciplinary empirical studies on 1:1 computer projects in school settings published in peer-reviewed journals between 2005 and 2010 and is the most recent review of 1:1 laptop research from 2006 to 2010. Overall, the prominent uses of laptops were for searching and exploration (i.e., using physics simulations), student expression (i.e., student presentations and written reports using PowerPoint and Word), communication (i.e., via email, discussion boards, and IM, between students and between students and teachers), and organization (e.g., OneNote helped students organize thoughts, plan, and complete homework). In general, studies found that laptops tended to improve student motivation and engagement in learning and that this was due to the students' greater sense of control over their learning experience. Students also showed use of laptops for learning outside of school. Studies suggest that 1:1 programs slightly improved students' writing and seemed to improve students' skills in using digital tools; there was some evidence that 1:1 programs very slightly improved students' scores on high-stakes tests. The introduction of 1:1 laptops changed the classrooms from traditional and lecture-oriented to more student-centered and constructivist learning environments. Teachers had mixed reactions to the change; some welcomed it, and others felt concerned about how it would affect their practice. Schools that provided teachers with the most support in integrating technology were the most successful. The author points out that as schools award contracts to computer vendors such as Apple, Dell, and HP, market interests influence the body of research on 1:1 laptop programs, and despite a great deal of research over the five years studied, there remains a lack of understanding of the value added by the 1:1 programs for students' knowledge formation and the teaching practices that support such knowledge formation.

Foster, A. (2011). The Process of Learning in a Simulation Strategy Game: Disciplinary Knowledge Construction [Abstract] . Journal of Educational Computing Research, 45 (1) 1-27. This research provided one view of learning through the situative perceptive. The learning was conceptualized as construction of disciplinary knowledge while valuing the content and game and showing the process of learning through navigational strategies and player types from a representative simulation strategy game. Finally, this research showed that despite doubts regarding learning "school" content through games, participants developed their knowledge in core economics concepts as well as skills with technology. The combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis of data allowed researchers to develop a richer conception of how this learning occurs and the kinds of player characteristics that support the process of learning despite a small sample size.

Gerard, L.F., Varma, K., Corliss, S.B., and Linn, M.C. (2011). Professional Development for Technology-Enhanced Inquiry Science [Abstract] . Review of Educational Research, 81 (3), 408-448. A literature search using the keywords technology, professional development, and science identified 360 studies from the past 25 years, 43 of which included multiple data sources and reported results for teachers and/or students. Findings suggest that professional-development programs that engaged teachers in a comprehensive, constructivist-oriented learning process and were sustained beyond one year significantly improved students' inquiry-learning experiences in K-12 science classrooms. In professional-development programs of one year or less, researchers encountered common technical and instructional obstacles related to classroom implementation that hindered success. Programs varied most considerably in terms of their support for teachers' use of evidence to distinguish effective technology-enhanced practices.

Hargittati, E. (2010). Digital Na(t)ives? Variation in Internet Skills and Uses Among Members of the "Net Generation" (PDF) . Sociological Inquiry, 80 (1), 92-113. This study finds that even when controlling for Internet access and experiences, people differ in their online abilities and activities. Higher levels of parental education, being a male, and being white or Asian American are associated with higher levels of Web-use skill. This study surveyed a first-year class at a public research university. A bivariate analysis to illustrate the relationship between variables was conducted, along with an ordinary least squares regression to look for predictors of skill level and diversity of Web usage while controlling for various social and use context factors.

Helsper, E., and Enyon, R. (2010). Digital Natives: Where is the Evidence? [Abstract] . British Educational Research Journal, 36 (3), 503-520. This paper shows that breadth of use, experience, gender, and education are just as, if not more, important than generation in explaining how people become digital natives. Data used in the study was from a 2007 Oxford Internet Survey (2,350 respondents and a response rate of 77 percent). The multistage probability sample surveys were carried out face to face.

Innovative Teaching and Learning Research (2011). Findings and Implications (PDF) . A survey of innovative teaching practices across seven countries found that innovative teaching varies more within schools than it does between schools. Teachers used Information Communication Technology (ICT) most commonly to present information, while students most commonly used ICT to find information, practice routine skills, and take tests. Such practices do not necessarily support higher-order thinking skills, such as critical thinking, complex problem solving, collaboration, creativity, or technological fluency. Examples of activities that integrate ICT to advance 21st-century skills include: analyzing data or information, writing and editing stories or reports, creating multimedia presentations, using and creating simulations or animations, collaborating with peers on learning, and working with others outside of class. Teachers who use innovative teaching methods are becoming more common but were few and far between, and opportunities for students to develop problem-solving and collaboration skills remain quite low across the seven countries studied. In order to increase innovative teaching practices, the report recommends increased collaboration among teachers, a school culture that offers a common vision of innovation and support for new types of teaching, and professional development that provides teachers opportunities to experiment and apply innovative teaching methods.

Kay, R.H., and LeSage, A. (2009). Examining the Benefits and Challenges of Using Audience Response Systems: A Review of the Literature (Abstract) . Computers & Education 53 , 819-827. The authors conducted a review of research on audience response systems (ARS) and conclude that the evidence supports benefits of ARS, including improvements to the classroom environment (increases in attendance, attention levels, participation, and engagement), learning (interaction, discussion, contingent teaching, quality of learning, and learning performance), and assessment (feedback, formative, and normative). Challenges for teachers using ARS include time needed to learn and set up the ARS technology, creating effective ARS questions, adequate coverage of course material, and ability to respond to instantaneous student feedback. Student challenges include adjusting to a new method of learning, increased confusion when multiple perspectives are discussed, and negative reactions to being monitored. However, more research is needed to develop effective practices.

Kebritchi, M., Hirumi, A., and Bai, H. (2010). The Effects of Modern Mathematics Computer Games on Mathematics Achievement and Class Motivation [Abstract] . Computers & Education, 55 (2), 427-443. This study examined the effects of a computer game, DimensionM, on public high school students' mathematics achievement and motivation. A total of 193 students and 10 teachers participated in this study. The teachers were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. A mixed method of quantitative analysis and interviews were used with multivariate analysis of co-variance to analyze the data. The results indicated significant improvement in the achievement of the experimental group versus the control group. No significant improvement was found in the motivation of the groups. Students who played the games in their classrooms and school labs reported greater motivation compared to the ones who played the games only in the school labs. Prior knowledge, computer skill, and English-language skill did not play significant roles in achievement and motivation of the experimental group.

Klisch, Y., Miller, L.M., Wang, S., and Epstein, J. (2012). The Impact of a Science Education Game on Students' Learning and Perception of Inhalants as Body Pollutants (Abstract) . Journal of Science Education and Technology, 21 (2), 295-303. The online science education game Uncommon Scents was developed to teach middle school students about the biological consequences of exposure to toxic chemicals in an environmental science context, as well as the risks associated with abusing these chemicals as inhalants. Middle school students (n = 444) in grades six through eight participated in the study consisting of a pretest, three game-play sessions, and a delayed posttest. After playing the game, students demonstrated significant gains in science content knowledge, with game usability ratings emerging as the strongest predictor of posttest content knowledge scores. The intervention also resulted in a shift to more negative attitudes toward inhalants, with the most negative shift occurring among eighth graders and posttest knowledge gains as the strongest predictor of attitude change across all grade levels.

Klisch, Y., Miller, L.M., Beier, M.E., and Wang, S. (2012). Teaching the biological consequences of alcohol abuse through an online game: Impacts among secondary students . Life Sciences Education, 11 (1), 94-102. A multimedia game was designed to serve as an intervention that aligned with National Science Content Standards, attempting to convey knowledge about alcohol consumption and positively impact adolescents' attitudes toward science. In a pretest/delayed posttest design, middle school and high school students, both male and female, demonstrated significant gains on measures of content knowledge and attitudes toward science. The best predictors of these outcomes were the players' ratings of the game's usability and satisfaction with the game. The outcomes suggest that game interventions can successfully teach standards-based science content, target age-appropriate health messages, and impact students' attitudes toward science.

Law, N., Pelgrum, W.J., Plomp, T. Eds., (2006). Pedagogy and ICT Use in Schools Around the World: Findings from the IEA SITES 2006 Study Series. University of Hong Kong. Results of a cross-national study found that teachers' self-perceived competence in using technology and the amount of their training in uses of technology for instruction were associated with greater use of technology for instruction.

Lemke, C., Coughlin, E., and Reifsneider, D. (2009). Technology in Schools: What the Research Says (PDF) . Culver City, CA: Commissioned by Cisco. This report reviews evidence on K-12 classroom technology use and is organized according to media platforms: interactive whiteboards, classroom response systems (clickers), video games, simulations, modeling, augmented reality, virtual worlds, mobile devices, data analysis tools, calculators, 1:1 ratio of computers to students, computer-assisted instruction (where a computer presents instruction or remediation), virtual learning, and educational television. Educational television and video games (e.g., DimensionM, MathBlaster, Quest Atlantis) had consistent and rigorous evidence supporting small, significant increases in learning (when implemented with fidelity and appropriate shifts in teaching). However, the authors acknowledge that much remains to be understood in terms of identifying the gaming attributes that contribute to lasting gains in student learning. The authors found incomplete but promising evidence in support of calculators, virtual learning (i.e., geographically separated teacher and learner), modeling (e.g., STELLA, Model-IT, My World, StarLogo, Worldmaker), simulations (e.g., Civilization, Supercharged), and data analysis/visualization tools (i.e., tools for conducting original research). Mobile devices (to facilitate collaboration) and augmented reality (to improve understanding and thinking skills, e.g., Mad City Mystery) showed promising results. Calculators promote mathematics learning when they are used during instruction and assessment and integrated for over nine weeks; however, calculators can negatively impact learning if students do not know many multiplication facts. Clickers were found to promote student engagement; however, the authors caution that the teaching and learning strategies used with clickers are more effective than the clickers themselves in promoting student achievement. These strategies include: checking for real-time student understanding of content being taught, diagnosing student misconceptions and misunderstandings, displaying responses of the group to trigger discussion and reflection, gathering formative data to guide instruction, and saving time in administering and scoring quizzes.

Levin, T., and Wadmany, R. K. (2008). Teachers' Views on Factors Affecting Effective Integration of Information Technology in the Classroom: Developmental Scenery . Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 16 (2), 233-263. This exploratory, longitudinal study examined six teachers' views on the factors that affect technology use in classrooms, studying teachers of grades 4-6 for three years, as a group and as individual case studies. Three case studies were selected for analysis to explore how changes in the teachers' educational views and practices resulted from their exposure to teaching and learning with technology. The case studies reveal that teachers must be involved in at least two radical changes: They must learn to use technology, and they must fundamentally change how they teach. The study encourages educators and teacher educators to be sensitive to the influences that teachers' educational views (on learning, teaching, and technology) have on their practices and on their capabilities and need to interact with others (authority figures and colleagues). The authors recommend that professional development for technology integration should consider providing both individual and group learning opportunities, which show respect and appreciation for teachers' unique interpretations of using technology, and that teachers also reflect on their own beliefs, knowledge, and experiences.

Li, Q., and Ma, X. (2010). A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Computer Technology on School Students' Mathematics Learning (PDF) . Educational Psychology Review, 22 (3), 215-243. This meta-analysis examines the impacts of technology on K-12 math learning and finds it can have generally positive effects for technology integration. In particular, use with special needs students as opposed to general education students had a stronger effect, as did use with elementary students compared to secondary students. The greatest effects occurred when teachers used constructivist as opposed to traditional teaching methods. The paper also describes several studies that examined virtual manipulative tools in mathematics classrooms. These studies generally found positive impacts of such tools on student achievement in and attitude toward mathematics. When virtual manipulatives were used in combination with physical manipulatives, researchers also found positive results. The paper also reviews research on The Adventures of Jasper Woodbury , reporting that the program had a positive impact on students' attitudes toward math, problem-solving skills, and math learning.

Light, D., and Polin, D.K., Center for Children and Technology. (2010). Integrating Web 2.0 Tools into the Classroom: Changing the Culture of Learning (PDF) . New York, NY: Education Department, Corporation for Public Broadcasting. Twenty-two schools were observed and over 30 educators were interviewed and observed, to document Web 2.0 and social networking technology use in classrooms across the United States. As the paper is descriptive, only hypotheses are offered. The paper provides a trove of Web resources, while describing how teachers use them in K-12 classrooms. In general, interactive and asynchronous features of Web 2.0 tools seem to extend and deepen the educational environment when they facilitate meaningful communication among teachers, students, parents, and larger communities toward authentic goals.

Linebarger, D. L. (2009). Evaluation of the Between the Lions Mississippi Literacy Initiative 2007-2008 (PDF) . Children's Media Lab, Annenberg School for Communication, University of Pennsylvania. A treatment, maintenance, and control group existed. The treatment group was teachers beginning use of Between the Lions material, while the maintenance group was teachers who had previously used the material. Both the treatment and maintenance groups received mentoring, with the treatment group receiving 96 hours and the maintenance receiving 24 hours. No child had been introduced to the material in the classroom prior to the experiment. Teachers using the material and receiving mentoring support positively changed the literacy environment, the general classroom environment, the literacy activities, and the language, literacy, and curriculum. Children between 46 and 59 months in the treatment group scored higher on most indicators than children between 46 and 59 months in the maintenance and control groups. Older children in the maintenance group scored higher than older children in the treatment and control group. The study also concluded that the favorable changes in daily environment and teacher behavior were linked to positive changes and accelerated growth of at-risk preschoolers' early literacy skills.

Livingstone, S. (2008). Internet Literacy: Young People's Negotiation of New Online Opportunities (PDF) . In T. McPherson (Ed.), Digital Youth, Innovation, and the Unexpected (pp. 101-122). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. This chapter is about a case study of three children and their Internet usage over time, along with a literature review on both the digital divide and literacy. Internet skills are conceptualized as a form of literacy. The article challenges myths about the "cyberkid" or the "digital generation" in order to point out that Internet usage and literacy vary among children. Society must first recognize this variance in order to support children's Internet literacy through design, education, and regulation.

Marsh, J.A., Pane, J.F., and Hamilton, L.S. (2006). Making Sense of Data-Driven Decision Making in Education Evidence from Recent RAND Research (PDF) . Four studies provide evidence that illuminates data-driven decision making (DDDM) practices in a variety of contexts across the country. They included three statewide samples in one case, large districts in a second, small districts in a third, and a large educational management organization in the fourth. Finally, like most of the literature to date on DDDM, these studies are primarily descriptive and do not address the effects of DDDM on student outcomes. Together they create a foundation for ongoing and future research on the topic by helping to understand how data are being used, the conditions affecting use, and issues that arise in the process -- information that will be crucial for effective implementation of DDDM and evaluations of its effects.

Martin, T., and Schwartz, D.L. (2005). Physically Distributed Learning: Adapting and Re-interpreting Physical Environments in the Development of Fraction Concepts (PDF) . Cognitive Science, K. 587-625. Five studies examine how interacting with the physical environment can support the development of fraction concepts.

McKagan, S.B., Perkins, K., Dubson, M., Malley, C., Reid, S., LeMaster, R., and Weiman, C.E. (2008). Developing and Researching PhET Simulations for Teaching Quantum Mechanics (PDF) . American Journal of Physics. 76 (1) 406-417. The research looked at 18 simulations on quantum mechanics designed to improve learning from the Physics Education Technology (PhET) Project. Several key features help students build mental models: visual representations that cannot be directly observed, interactive environments, connections to everyday life, and efficient calculations so students focus on concepts. This paper provides an overview of the PhET simulations, research on their effectiveness, and insights about student thinking.

McLeod, S. (2005). Data-Driven Teachers (PDF) . School Technology Leadership Initiative, University of Minnesota.

Means, B., Padilla, C., and Gallagher, L. (2009). Use of Education Data at the Local Level: From Accountability to Instructional Improvement (PDF) . Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation, and Policy Development. A total of 36 schools provided the case-study data for this report from 2005-2008. The report describes features of data systems and data usage that are essential to yielding value for students and educators. These features are described as follows: data, regular meetings, training, support, and leadership and alignment. Data: Timely, credible, interim assessments that generate actionable data were among the most powerful strategies districts used and key to engaging teachers in using data. State test results are often not useful to teachers because they arrive too late to inform instructional decisions, and in many cases, teachers cannot access student performance by content standard. States and test vendors should improve their efforts to ensure that schools have access to actionable student assessment results in time to inform their planning activities. District data systems should also support routine evaluation of instructional programs, practices, and decisions by linking student participation in specific endeavors with standards-based assessments. "Just 42 percent of districts have systems that can generate reports showing student performance linked to participation in specific instructional programs." Regular meetings: Schools and districts that are leaders in data-driven decision making set time aside within the regular work week for the analysis of student data and use student data to develop instructional decisions. Training: The report emphasizes "the use of data in decision making cannot have a positive impact on instruction without a linkage to effective instructional practices." Yet, teachers often lack ideas about how to teach differently based on student assessment results. Many teachers in the case studies responded to student data by grouping students according to their performance level and readdressing content that a majority of students understood poorly. Case studies also showed that data discussions have become an accepted method in teacher professional development, planning, and collaboration time. Support: School-based "data coaches" help teachers to interpret data and link data to instructional decisions. In a number of the case study schools, data coaches brought valuable insight to teachers, especially in the area of early literacy. Fifty percent of districts say they have provided data coaches for at least some of their schools, and 32 percent say that they have done so for all of their schools. Teachers also benefit from opportunities to examine student data with their colleagues, but they "only want to do so if they feel confident that they will not be opening themselves up to harsh judgments." Small groups of teachers who typically work together as part of a grade-level, department, or project team appeared to work best for data-analysis meetings. "It is also important to separate data reflection activities from performance management activities (which could affect salary or job status)." Leadership and alignment: According to the report, a criterion for hiring school leaders should be their ability to lead schools in continuous improvement processes informed by data. School leaders play an important role in modeling the use of data and in developing school practices where teachers are expected to use data to guide their instruction. School leaders should participate in ongoing training in using data to inform school improvement and instructional decision making and in motivating their staff to engage in these practices. District leadership is also critical to ensuring that districts have interim assessment tools and practices that foster data use. District policies that require interim assessments should not have contradictory pacing requirements that prohibit teachers from going back to reteach content that the students have not yet mastered. District policies should reflect an achievable plan for teachers to cover district curriculum. Surveys from district staff indicate a need for exemplary models of how to analyze student data to determine which practices work best for which students, adapt instructional practices to meet students' individual needs, and develop curriculum-embedded formative assessments. Finally, "many states have assembled collections of digitized resources for planning and implementing instruction around their state standards." Ideally, local interim assessment data would be linked with instructional resources geared to state standards and state data systems so that "teachers using a district data system to examine students' performance on a specific standard would be just a click or two away from instructional resources for that standard."

Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., & Baki, M. (2013). The effectiveness of online and blended learning: A meta-analysis of the empirical literature . Teachers College Record, 115 (3), 1-47. This 2013 meta-analysis examines 45 studies of online, blended learning, and face-to-face programs and found that purely online learning is equivalent to face-to-face instruction in effectiveness, while blended approaches are more effective than both online and face-to-face instruction.

Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., Bakia, M., and Jones, K. (2009). Evaluation of Evidence-Based Practices in Online Learning: A Meta-Analysis and Review of Online Learning Studies (PDF) . Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Planning, Evaluation and Policy Development. A systematic search of the research literature from 1996 through July 2008 identified more than a thousand empirical studies of online learning. Analysts screened these studies to find those that contrasted an online to a face-to-face condition, measured student learning outcomes, used a rigorous research design, and provided adequate information to calculate an effect size. As a result of this screening, 51 independent effects were identified that could be subjected to meta-analysis. The meta-analysis found that, on average, students in online learning conditions performed better than those receiving face-to-face instruction. The findings suggest that the positive effects associated with blended learning should not be attributed to the media, per se. An unexpected finding was the small number of rigorous published studies contrasting online and face-to-face learning conditions for K-12 students.

Miller, L. M., Chang, C. , Wang, S., Beier, M.E., and Klisch, Yvonne. (2011). Learning and Motivational Impacts of a Multimedia Science Game [Abstract] . Computers & Education. 57 (1) 1425-1433. The power of a Web-based forensic-science game to teach content and motivate careers in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) was tested among secondary students. More than 700 secondary school students were exposed to one of the three Web-based forensic cases for approximately 60 minutes. Gain scores from pretest to a delayed posttest indicated significant gains in content knowledge. In addition, the game's usability ratings were a strong predictor of learning. A positive relationship between role-play experience and science career motivation was observed, which suggests a role for authentic virtual experiences in inspiring students to consider STEM careers.

Miller, L.M., Moreno, J., Estrera, V., Lane, D. (2004). Efficacy of MedMyst : An Internet Teaching Tool for Middle School Microbiology (PDF) . Microbiology Education, 5 , 13-20. The central hypothesis examines whether brief exposure to a Web adventure format containing virtual lab experiments and computer games within an engaging story line can impact student learning. An episodic adventure series, MedMyst focuses on infectious diseases and the microbes that cause them. In the online adventure, the player (student) enters a futuristic world in which he or she becomes a "reconstructor," a member of an elite team charged with preventing the spread of infectious disease. The series consists of three "missions," each lasting approximately 30 to 40 minutes and designed to address a limited set of learning objectives. Middle school students, classroom teachers, scientists, and clinicians assisted the game development process. A field test involving over 700 students from nine schools assessed the knowledge gains attributable to playing MedMyst. Gain scores from pretest to posttest indicated that middle school students retained important information by interacting with the online material for as little as 30 minutes per adventure; however, gains for high school students were less persuasive, perhaps indicating a different learning tool or content is required for this age audience.

Miller, L., Moreno, J., Willcockson, I., Smith, D., Mayes, J. (2006). An Online, Interactive Approach to Teaching Neuroscience to Adolescents [Abstract] . Life Sciences Education, 5 (2), 137-143. At the Rice University Center for Technology in Teaching and Learning, a project was undertaken through a Science Education Drug Abuse Partnership Award (R25 DA15063) from the National Institute on Drug Abuse to inform adolescents about the neurobiology of substance abuse and the current research dealing with a class of drugs known as club drugs. Problem-based learning, multimedia pedagogy, and the National Science Content Standards were integrated to produce The Reconstructors , an episodic series. A field test of students from five schools assessed the retention of content after playing The Reconstructors series titled Nothing to Rave About. Gain scores indicated that middle school students' knowledge about club drugs and the basic neuroscience concepts that explain their effects improved significantly.

Miller, L., Schweingruber, H., Oliver, R., Mayes, J., Smith, D. (2002). Teaching Neuroscience Through Web Adventures: Adolescents Reconstruct the History and Science of Opioids [Abstract] . The Neuroscientist 8 (1):16-21. This is an experimental project to transmit aspects of problem-based learning and the National Science Content Standards through an episodic Web-based adventure series titled Medicinal Mysteries from History. Through the use of multimedia technologies, middle school students enter a futuristic world in which they become "reconstructors," members of an elite scientific unit charged with recovering lost medical knowledge about analgesic drugs. Two of the four episodes have been evaluated through a comprehensive review process involving middle school students, teachers, neuroscience researchers, and clinicians. Analysis of the pretest and posttest scores demonstrated significant knowledge gain that validly can be attributed to use of the game. These data provide evidence that science content can be transmitted through innovative online techniques without sacrificing compelling content or effective pedagogical strategies.

Moeller, B., and Reitzes, T. (2011). Integrating Technology with Student-Centered Learning. Education Development Center, Inc. (EDC). Quincy, MA: Nelle Mae Education Foundation. The report identifies effective ways that technology may be used to personalize a student's learning experience and examines the integration of computer- and Web-based tools, applications, and games.

Paulsen, C.A., and Bransfield, C.P. (2010). Evaluation of Design Squad, Season 3: Final Report (PDF) . Concord, MA: Concord Evaluation Group, LLC. Concord Evaluation Group conducted an experiment (randomized block design) to evaluate the impacts of the Design Squad materials on learning and attitudes of teachers and students. A total of 559 students at eight middle schools participated. The specific materials tested included a teacher's guide, video animations, live-action videos and video profiles, and an interactive online game. Teachers were encouraged, but not required, to use the website for any other resources on an as-needed basis. Teachers reported that they used Design Squad to supplement their units on buoyancy, difference in gases, electricity and circuits, force, graphing, gravity, lift, mass motion, surface area, and volume. Teachers reported that Design Squad enabled them to encourage problem solving and teamwork among students, as well as their desire use inquiry-based learning in the classroom. Students exposed to Design Squad demonstrated greater gains than students who were not exposed to Design Squad and learned more about key science constructs (i.e., electrical circuits, sound, Newton's laws, force, and air pressure). Teachers in the treatment group reported that they observed positive changes in their students' behaviors after using Design Squad .

Perkins, K.K., Adams, W.K., Wieman, C.E., and PhET Team. (2006). PhET's Research-Based Guidelines for Design and Use of Interactive Simulations [Abstract] . Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society, 38 , 977. The article presents existing literature and interview results from over 165 students who used PhET simulations. The article presents guidelines for designing effective simulations and activities to engage students in effective learning.

Prince, D. L., Grace, C., Linebarger, D.L., Atkinson, R., and Huffman, J.D. (2002). Between the Lions : Mississippi Literacy Initiative - A Final Report to Mississippi Educational Television (PDF) . This study examined whether integrating the viewing of Between the Lions television episodes into classroom curriculum had an effect on early literacy skills. The treatment group watched two episodes weekly, read a book related to the episode, and then participated in a hands-on activity to reinforce the theme or skills in the episode. The results indicate the Between the Lions television series could be a meaningful part of reading interventions and is potentially most beneficial in kindergarten.

Rockman et al. (2010). PBS Kids iPod App Study: Executive Summary (PDF) . iPod touch devices with the applications Super Why and Martha Speaks: Dog Party were given to 90 children ages 3-7. Parents completed daily observations as well as prestudy and poststudy surveys, while the children were given prestudy and poststudy tests. The study found average gains of 20 percent on the short and comprehensive vocabulary assessments for Martha Speaks .

Smith, M.K., Wood, W.B., Adams, W.K., Wieman, C., Knight, J.K., Guild, N., and Su, T.T. (2009). Why Peer Discussion Improves Student Performance on In-Class Concept Questions (PDF) . Science, 323 (5910), 122-124. This study finds that using audience response system (ARS) with peer discussion improves the understanding of science concepts among students in an undergraduate genetics course. Students answered in-class conceptual questions individually using clickers, then discussed with their neighbors, and then revoted on the same question or a conceptually similar question. Whether the question was the same or conceptually similar, correct answers increased following peer discussion, indicating that it was an effective method for engaging and addressing students' underlying misconceptions.

Squire, K., Giovanetto, L., Devane, B., and Durga, S. (2005). From Users to Designers: Building a Self-Organizing Game-Based Learning Environment (PDF) . TechTrends, 49 (5), 34-42. Using design-based methodology, the researchers studied cognitive consequences of playing the historical simulation game Civilization III. Eleven students, 80 percent of whom were African-American and most of whom were socioeconomically disadvantaged, attended two-hour sessions, twice per week, and were observed for five weeks. The students began playing the historical simulation game Civilization III in pairs. Students talked as they played, asking questions, quizzing each other, offering suggestions, and generally helping one another play. Working in pairs also led to better reflections and less confusion in figuring out the game. The authors argue that the students showed increased knowledge of maps, timelines, and historical terms, as well as flexible, systemic knowledge of a game system.

Tamim, R.M., Bernard, R.M., Borokhovski, E., Abrami, P.C., Schmid, R. F. (2011). What Forty Years of Research Says About the Impact of Technology on Learning: A Second-Order Meta-Analysis and Validation Study [Abstract] . Review of Educational Research, 81 (1), 4-28. . A second-order meta-analysis of 25 meta-analyses encompassing over 1,000 studies and 40 years of research on technology and classroom learning found that the use of technology in the classrooms shows a small to moderate positive effect on student learning, as compared to technology-free traditional instruction. Using technology to support knowledge formation had a greater effect than using technology for the presentation of content. Teacher effectiveness and fidelity of technology implementation may have a greater effect on student learning than the nature of the technology intervention.

Thissen-Roe, A., Hunt, E., and Minstrell, J. (2004). The DIAGNOSER Project: Combining Assessment and Learning [Abstract] . Behavioral Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers 36 (2), 234-240. The article explains the use of the DIAGNOSER and physics learning. DIAGNOSER is an Internet-based tool for classroom instruction in science and math. The tool allows for individually tailored feedback through computer-administered quizzes and a database of student responses.

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Technology. (2010). Transforming American Education: Learning Powered by Technology: National Education Technology Plan. The plan calls for using technologies already prevalent in our personal and professional lives to transform public education by improving student learning, scaling best practices, and using data for continuous improvement. The plan outlines a vision "to leverage the learning sciences and modern technology to create engaging, relevant, and personalized learning experiences for all learners that mirror students' daily lives and the reality of their futures. In contrast to traditional classroom instruction, this requires that we put students at the center and empower them to take control of their own learning by providing flexibility on several dimensions." The plan also calls for "connected teaching," in which educators connect to "resources and expertise that improve their own instructional practices and guide them in becoming facilitators and collaborators in their students' increasingly self-directed learning."

Warschauer, M., and Matuchniak, T. (2010). New Technology and Digital Worlds: Analyzing Evidence of Equity in Access, Use, and Outcomes (PDF) . Review of Research in Education, 34 (1), 179-225. This review takes a broad perspective on issues of technology and equity for youth in the United States, illustrating how issues of access, use, and outcomes are intertwined. The authors start with access, considering whether diverse groups of youth have digital media available to them and how technological and social factors support or constrain their access. They then analyze the ways in which diverse youth use new media for education, social interaction, and entertainment. Finally, the authors consider the gains achieved by diverse groups through the usage of new media as measured by academic achievement, acquisition of 21st-century learning skills, and participation in technology-related careers.

Wieman, C., Adams, W., Loeblein, P., Perkins, K.K. (2010). Teaching Physics Using PhET Simulations (PDF) . Physics Teacher, 48 (4), 225-227. This article highlights ways to use PhET simulations in teaching based on research and experiences in high schools and colleges. PhET simulations are tools that enhance a well-designed curriculum and teacher efforts but cannot replace them. The simulations need to be integrated with the curriculum with appropriate activities.

Wieman, C., Adams, W.K., Perkins, K.K. (2008). PhET: Simulations That Enhance Learning (PDF) . Science, 322 , 682-683. This article highlights ways to use PhET simulations in teaching based on research and experiences in high schools and colleges. PhET simulations are tools that enhance a well-designed curriculum and teacher efforts but cannot replace them. The simulations need to be integrated with the curriculum with appropriate activities.

Young, M.F., Slota, S., Cutter, A.B., Jalette, G., Mullin, G., Lai, B., Yukhymenko, M. (2012). Our Princess Is in Another Castle: A Review of Trends in Serious Gaming for Education [Abstract] . Review of Educational Research, 82 (1), 61-89. The authors define digital learning games as those that "target the acquisition of knowledge as its own end, and foster habits of mind and understanding that are generally useful within an academic context." After an exhaustive search, they find promising but inconclusive evidence that games promote learning in some K-12 education contexts. The strongest evidence for promoting learning was found in language learning in video games, physical education and tactile video games (e.g., Wii), and history (e.g., role-playing video games). The review found little support for their value in science and mathematics. This is partially attributed to the lack of empirical research and also to the ways that the formal school environment differs from that of naturalistic game playing.

Zucker, A.A., and Light, D. (2009). Laptop Programs for Students (PDF) . Science, 323 , 82-85. This article reviews the research on 1:1 computing programs in schools, where 1:1 is defined as students having ownership of the computer. Providing computers to schools increases the technology skills of teachers and students in both the developed and the developing world. Laptop programs increase students' engagement with academic work and school, improve technology skills, and have positive effects on students' writing. Research in many nations suggests that laptop programs will be most successful as part of comprehensive initiatives that also address changes in education goals, curricula, teacher training, and assessment.

Go to the first section of the Tech Integration Research Review, Introduction and Learning Outcomes .

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Teaching About Technology in Schools Through Technoskeptical Inquiry

June 3, 2024 | victorialynn | Harvard Educational Review Contributors , Voices in Education

By Jacob Pleasants, Daniel G. Krutka, and T. Philip Nichols

New technologies are rapidly transforming our societies, our relationships, and our schools. Look no further than the intense — and often panicked — discourse around generative AI , the metaverse , and the creep of digital media into all facets of civic and social life . How are schools preparing students to think about and respond to these changes?

In various ways, students are taught how to use technologies in school. Most schools teach basic computing skills and many offer elective vocational-technical classes. But outside of occasional conversations around digital citizenship, students rarely wrestle with deeper questions about the effects of technologies on individuals and society.

Decades ago, Neil Postman (1995) argued for a different form of technology education focused on teaching students to critically examine technologies and their psychological and social effects. While Postman’s ideas have arguably never been more relevant, his suggestion to add technology education as a separate subject to a crowded curriculum gained little traction. Alternatively, we argue that technology education could be an interdisciplinary endeavor that occurs across core subject areas. Technology is already a part of English Language Arts (ELA), Science, and Social Studies instruction. What is missing is a coherent vision and common set of practices and principles that educators can use to align their efforts.

To provide a coherent vision, in our recent HER article , we propose “technoskepticism” as an organizing goal for teaching about technology. We define technoskepticism as a critical disposition and practice of investigating the complex relationships between technologies and societies. A technoskeptical person is not necessarily anti-technology, but rather one who deeply examines technological issues from multiple dimensions and perspectives akin to an art critic.

We created the Technoskepticism Iceberg as a framework to support teachers and students in conducting technological inquiries. The metaphor of an iceberg conveys how many important influences of technology lie beneath our conscious awareness. People often perceive technologies as tools (the “visible” layer of the iceberg), but technoskepticism requires that they be seen as parts of systems (with interactions that produce many unintended effects) and embedded with values about what is good and desirable (and for whom). The framework also identifies three dimensions of technology that students can examine. The technical dimension concerns the design and functions of a technology, including how it may work differently for different people. The psychosocial dimension addresses how technologies change our individual cognition and our larger societies. The political dimension considers who makes decisions concerning the terms, rules, or laws that govern technologies.

To illustrate these ideas, how might we use the Technoskeptical Iceberg to interrogate generative AI such as ChatGPT in the core subject areas?

A science/STEM classroom might focus on the technical dimension by investigating how generative AI works and demystifying its ostensibly “intelligent” capabilities. Students could then examine the infrastructures involved in AI systems , such as immense computing power and specialized hardware that in turn have profound environmental consequences. A teacher could ask students to use their values to weigh the costs and potential benefits of ChatGPT.

A social studies class could investigate the psychosocial dimension through the longer histories of informational technologies (e.g., the printing press, telegraph, internet, and now AI) to consider how they shifted people’s lives. They could also explore political questions about what rules or regulations governments should impose on informational systems that include people’s data and intellectual property.

In an ELA classroom, students might begin by investigating the psychosocial dimensions of reading and writing, and the values associated with different literacy practices. Students could consider how the concept of “authorship” shifts when one writes by hand, with word processing software, or using ChatGPT. Or how we are to engage with AI-generated essays, stories, and poetry differently than their human-produced counterparts. Such conversations would highlight how literary values are mediated by technological systems . 

Students who use technoskepticism to explore generative AI technologies should be better equipped to act as citizens seeking to advance just futures in and out of schools. Our questions are, what might it take to establish technoskepticism as an educational goal in schools? What support will educators need? And what might students teach us through technoskeptical inquiries?

Postman, N. (1995). The End of Education: Redefining the Value of School. Vintage Books.

About the Authors

Jacob Pleasants is an assistant professor of science education at the University of Oklahoma. Through his teaching and research, he works to humanize STEM education by helping students engage with issues at the intersection of STEM and society.

Daniel G. Krutka is a dachshund enthusiast, former high school social studies teacher, and associate professor of social studies education at the University of North Texas. His research concerns technology, democracy, and education, and he is the cofounder of the Civics of Technology project ( www.civicsoftechnology.org ).

T. Philip Nichols is an associate professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at Baylor University. He studies the digitalization of public education and the ways science and technology condition the ways we practice, teach, and talk about literacy.

They are the authors of “ What Relationships Do We Want with Technology? Toward Technoskepticism in Schools ” in the Winter 2023 issue of Harvard Educational Review .

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