research topic objectives and questions

Educational resources and simple solutions for your research journey

What Are Research Objectives and How to Write Them (with Examples)

Table of Contents

Introduction

Research is at the center of everything researchers do, and setting clear, well-defined research objectives plays a pivotal role in guiding scholars toward their desired outcomes. Research papers are essential instruments for researchers to effectively communicate their work. Among the many sections that constitute a research paper, the introduction plays a key role in providing a background and setting the context. 1 Research objectives, which define the aims of the study, are usually stated in the introduction. Every study has a research question that the authors are trying to answer, and the objective is an active statement about how the study will answer this research question. These objectives help guide the development and design of the study and steer the research in the appropriate direction; if this is not clearly defined, a project can fail!

Research studies have a research question, research hypothesis, and one or more research objectives. A research question is what a study aims to answer, and a research hypothesis is a predictive statement about the relationship between two or more variables, which the study sets out to prove or disprove. Objectives are specific, measurable goals that the study aims to achieve. The difference between these three is illustrated by the following example:

• Research question : How does low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) compare with a placebo device in managing the symptoms of skeletally mature patients with patellar tendinopathy?
• Research hypothesis : Pain levels are reduced in patients who receive daily active-LIPUS (treatment) for 12 weeks compared with individuals who receive inactive-LIPUS (placebo).
• Research objective : To investigate the clinical efficacy of LIPUS in the management of patellar tendinopathy symptoms.

This article discusses the importance of clear, well-thought out objectives and suggests methods to write them clearly.

What is the introduction in research papers?

Research objectives are usually included in the introduction section. This section is the first that the readers will read so it is essential that it conveys the subject matter appropriately and is well written to create a good first impression. A good introduction sets the tone of the paper and clearly outlines the contents so that the readers get a quick snapshot of what to expect.

A good introduction should aim to: 2,3

• Indicate the main subject area, its importance, and cite previous literature on the subject
• Define the gap(s) in existing research, ask a research question, and state the objectives
• Announce the present research and outline its novelty and significance
• Avoid repeating the Abstract, providing unnecessary information, and claiming novelty without accurate supporting information.

Why are research objectives important?

Objectives can help you stay focused and steer your research in the required direction. They help define and limit the scope of your research, which is important to efficiently manage your resources and time. The objectives help to create and maintain the overall structure, and specify two main things—the variables and the methods of quantifying the variables.

A good research objective:

• defines the scope of the study
• gives direction to the research
• helps maintain focus and avoid diversions from the topic
• minimizes wastage of resources like time, money, and energy

Types of research objectives

Research objectives can be broadly classified into general and specific objectives . 4 General objectives state what the research expects to achieve overall while specific objectives break this down into smaller, logically connected parts, each of which addresses various parts of the research problem. General objectives are the main goals of the study and are usually fewer in number while specific objectives are more in number because they address several aspects of the research problem.

Example (general objective): To investigate the factors influencing the financial performance of firms listed in the New York Stock Exchange market.

Example (specific objective): To assess the influence of firm size on the financial performance of firms listed in the New York Stock Exchange market.

In addition to this broad classification, research objectives can be grouped into several categories depending on the research problem, as given in Table 1.

Table 1: Types of research objectives

Characteristics of research objectives

Research objectives must start with the word “To” because this helps readers identify the objective in the absence of headings and appropriate sectioning in research papers. 5,6

• A good objective is SMART (mostly applicable to specific objectives):
• Specific—clear about the what, why, when, and how
• Measurable—identifies the main variables of the study and quantifies the targets
• Achievable—attainable using the available time and resources
• Realistic—accurately addresses the scope of the problem
• Time-bound—identifies the time in which each step will be completed
• Research objectives clarify the purpose of research.
• They help understand the relationship and dissimilarities between variables.
• They provide a direction that helps the research to reach a definite conclusion.

How to write research objectives?

Research objectives can be written using the following steps: 7

• State your main research question clearly and concisely.
• Describe the ultimate goal of your study, which is similar to the research question but states the intended outcomes more definitively.
• Divide this main goal into subcategories to develop your objectives.
• Limit the number of objectives (1-2 general; 3-4 specific)
• Assess each objective using the SMART
• Start each objective with an action verb like assess, compare, determine, evaluate, etc., which makes the research appear more actionable.
• Use specific language without making the sentence data heavy.
• The most common section to add the objectives is the introduction and after the problem statement.
• Add the objectives to the abstract (if there is one).
• State the general objective first, followed by the specific objectives.

Formulating research objectives

Formulating research objectives has the following five steps, which could help researchers develop a clear objective: 8

• Identify the research problem.
• Review past studies on subjects similar to your problem statement, that is, studies that use similar methods, variables, etc.
• Identify the research gaps the current study should cover based on your literature review. These gaps could be theoretical, methodological, or conceptual.
• Define the research question(s) based on the gaps identified.
• Revise/relate the research problem based on the defined research question and the gaps identified. This is to confirm that there is an actual need for a study on the subject based on the gaps in literature.
• Identify and write the general and specific objectives.
• Incorporate the objectives into the study.

Advantages of research objectives

Adding clear research objectives has the following advantages: 4,8

• Maintains the focus and direction of the research
• Optimizes allocation of resources with minimal wastage
• Acts as a foundation for defining appropriate research questions and hypotheses
• Provides measurable outcomes that can help evaluate the success of the research
• Determines the feasibility of the research by helping to assess the availability of required resources
• Ensures relevance of the study to the subject and its contribution to existing literature

Disadvantages of research objectives

Research objectives also have few disadvantages, as listed below: 8

• Absence of clearly defined objectives can lead to ambiguity in the research process
• Unintentional bias could affect the validity and accuracy of the research findings

Key takeaways

• Research objectives are concise statements that describe what the research is aiming to achieve.
• They define the scope and direction of the research and maintain focus.
• The objectives should be SMART—specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound.
• Clear research objectives help avoid collection of data or resources not required for the study.
• Well-formulated specific objectives help develop the overall research methodology, including data collection, analysis, interpretation, and utilization.
• Research objectives should cover all aspects of the problem statement in a coherent way.
• They should be clearly stated using action verbs.

Frequently asked questions on research objectives

Q: what’s the difference between research objectives and aims 9.

A: Research aims are statements that reflect the broad goal(s) of the study and outline the general direction of the research. They are not specific but clearly define the focus of the study.

Example: This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail HR.

Research objectives focus on the action to be taken to achieve the aims. They make the aims more practical and should be specific and actionable.

Example: To observe the retail HR employees throughout the digital transformation.

Q: What are the examples of research objectives, both general and specific?

A: Here are a few examples of research objectives:

• To identify the antiviral chemical constituents in Mumbukura gitoniensis (general)
• To carry out solvent extraction of dried flowers of Mumbukura gitoniensis and isolate the constituents. (specific)
• To determine the antiviral activity of each of the isolated compounds. (specific)
• To examine the extent, range, and method of coral reef rehabilitation projects in five shallow reef areas adjacent to popular tourist destinations in the Philippines.
• To investigate species richness of mammal communities in five protected areas over the past 20 years.
• To evaluate the potential application of AI techniques for estimating best-corrected visual acuity from fundus photographs with and without ancillary information.
• To investigate whether sport influences psychological parameters in the personality of asthmatic children.

Q: How do I develop research objectives?

A: Developing research objectives begins with defining the problem statement clearly, as illustrated by Figure 1. Objectives specify how the research question will be answered and they determine what is to be measured to test the hypothesis.

Q: Are research objectives measurable?

A: The word “measurable” implies that something is quantifiable. In terms of research objectives, this means that the source and method of collecting data are identified and that all these aspects are feasible for the research. Some metrics can be created to measure your progress toward achieving your objectives.

Q: Can research objectives change during the study?

A: Revising research objectives during the study is acceptable in situations when the selected methodology is not progressing toward achieving the objective, or if there are challenges pertaining to resources, etc. One thing to keep in mind is the time and resources you would have to complete your research after revising the objectives. Thus, as long as your problem statement and hypotheses are unchanged, minor revisions to the research objectives are acceptable.

Q: What is the difference between research questions and research objectives? 10

Q: Are research objectives the same as hypotheses?

A: No, hypotheses are predictive theories that are expressed in general terms. Research objectives, which are more specific, are developed from hypotheses and aim to test them. A hypothesis can be tested using several methods and each method will have different objectives because the methodology to be used could be different. A hypothesis is developed based on observation and reasoning; it is a calculated prediction about why a particular phenomenon is occurring. To test this prediction, different research objectives are formulated. Here’s a simple example of both a research hypothesis and research objective.

Research hypothesis : Employees who arrive at work earlier are more productive.

Research objective : To assess whether employees who arrive at work earlier are more productive.

To summarize, research objectives are an important part of research studies and should be written clearly to effectively communicate your research. We hope this article has given you a brief insight into the importance of using clearly defined research objectives and how to formulate them.

• Farrugia P, Petrisor BA, Farrokhyar F, Bhandari M. Practical tips for surgical research: Research questions, hypotheses and objectives. Can J Surg. 2010 Aug;53(4):278-81.
• Abbadia J. How to write an introduction for a research paper. Mind the Graph website. Accessed June 14, 2023. https://mindthegraph.com/blog/how-to-write-an-introduction-for-a-research-paper/
• Writing a scientific paper: Introduction. UCI libraries website. Accessed June 15, 2023. https://guides.lib.uci.edu/c.php?g=334338&p=2249903
• Research objectives—Types, examples and writing guide. Researchmethod.net website. Accessed June 17, 2023. https://researchmethod.net/research-objectives/#:~:text=They%20provide%20a%20clear%20direction,track%20and%20achieve%20their%20goals .
• Bartle P. SMART Characteristics of good objectives. Community empowerment collective website. Accessed June 16, 2023. https://cec.vcn.bc.ca/cmp/modules/pd-smar.htm
• Research objectives. Studyprobe website. Accessed June 18, 2023. https://www.studyprobe.in/2022/08/research-objectives.html
• Corredor F. How to write objectives in a research paper. wikiHow website. Accessed June 18, 2023. https://www.wikihow.com/Write-Objectives-in-a-Research-Proposal
• Research objectives: Definition, types, characteristics, advantages. AccountingNest website. Accessed June 15, 2023. https://www.accountingnest.com/articles/research/research-objectives
• Phair D., Shaeffer A. Research aims, objectives & questions. GradCoach website. Accessed June 20, 2023. https://gradcoach.com/research-aims-objectives-questions/
• Understanding the difference between research questions and objectives. Accessed June 21, 2023. https://board.researchersjob.com/blog/research-questions-and-objectives

R Discovery is a literature search and research reading platform that accelerates your research discovery journey by keeping you updated on the latest, most relevant scholarly content. With 250M+ research articles sourced from trusted aggregators like CrossRef, Unpaywall, PubMed, PubMed Central, Open Alex and top publishing houses like Springer Nature, JAMA, IOP, Taylor & Francis, NEJM, BMJ, Karger, SAGE, Emerald Publishing and more, R Discovery puts a world of research at your fingertips.  

Try R Discovery Prime FREE for 1 week or upgrade at just US$72 a year to access premium features that let you listen to research on the go, read in your language, collaborate with peers, auto sync with reference managers, and much more. Choose a simpler, smarter way to find and read research – Download the app and start your free 7-day trial today !  

Related Posts

What is IMRaD Format in Research?

What is a Review Article? How to Write it?

Have a language expert improve your writing

Run a free plagiarism check in 10 minutes, generate accurate citations for free.

• Knowledge Base
• Starting the research process
• Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples

Published on October 26, 2022 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 21, 2023.

A research question pinpoints exactly what you want to find out in your work. A good research question is essential to guide your research paper , dissertation , or thesis .

All research questions should be:

• Focused on a single problem or issue
• Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
• Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
• Specific enough to answer thoroughly
• Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
• Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly

Table of contents

How to write a research question, what makes a strong research question, using sub-questions to strengthen your main research question, research questions quiz, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research questions.

You can follow these steps to develop a strong research question:

• Choose your topic
• Do some preliminary reading about the current state of the field
• Narrow your focus to a specific niche
• Identify the research problem that you will address

The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.

Using your research problem to develop your research question

Note that while most research questions can be answered with various types of research , the way you frame your question should help determine your choices.

Receive feedback on language, structure, and formatting

Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

• Academic style
• Vague sentences
• Style consistency

See an example

Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your research question.

Focused and researchable

Feasible and specific

Complex and arguable

Relevant and original

Chances are that your main research question likely can’t be answered all at once. That’s why sub-questions are important: they allow you to answer your main question in a step-by-step manner.

Good sub-questions should be:

• Less complex than the main question
• Focused only on 1 type of research
• Presented in a logical order

Here are a few examples of descriptive and framing questions:

• Descriptive: According to current government arguments, how should a European bank tax be implemented?
• Descriptive: Which countries have a bank tax/levy on financial transactions?
• Framing: How should a bank tax/levy on financial transactions look at a European level?

Keep in mind that sub-questions are by no means mandatory. They should only be asked if you need the findings to answer your main question. If your main question is simple enough to stand on its own, it’s okay to skip the sub-question part. As a rule of thumb, the more complex your subject, the more sub-questions you’ll need.

Try to limit yourself to 4 or 5 sub-questions, maximum. If you feel you need more than this, it may be indication that your main research question is not sufficiently specific. In this case, it’s is better to revisit your problem statement and try to tighten your main question up.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

The way you present your research problem in your introduction varies depending on the nature of your research paper . A research paper that presents a sustained argument will usually encapsulate this argument in a thesis statement .

A research paper designed to present the results of empirical research tends to present a research question that it seeks to answer. It may also include a hypothesis —a prediction that will be confirmed or disproved by your research.

As you cannot possibly read every source related to your topic, it’s important to evaluate sources to assess their relevance. Use preliminary evaluation to determine whether a source is worth examining in more depth.

This involves:

• Reading abstracts , prefaces, introductions , and conclusions
• Looking at the table of contents to determine the scope of the work
• Consulting the index for key terms or the names of important scholars

A research hypothesis is your proposed answer to your research question. The research hypothesis usually includes an explanation (“ x affects y because …”).

A statistical hypothesis, on the other hand, is a mathematical statement about a population parameter. Statistical hypotheses always come in pairs: the null and alternative hypotheses . In a well-designed study , the statistical hypotheses correspond logically to the research hypothesis.

Formulating a main research question can be a difficult task. Overall, your question should contribute to solving the problem that you have defined in your problem statement .

However, it should also fulfill criteria in three main areas:

• Researchability
• Feasibility and specificity
• Relevance and originality

Cite this Scribbr article

If you want to cite this source, you can copy and paste the citation or click the “Cite this Scribbr article” button to automatically add the citation to our free Citation Generator.

McCombes, S. (2023, November 21). Writing Strong Research Questions | Criteria & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved August 10, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-questions/

Is this article helpful?

Shona McCombes

Other students also liked, how to define a research problem | ideas & examples, how to write a problem statement | guide & examples, 10 research question examples to guide your research project, what is your plagiarism score.

Research Question 101 📖

Everything you need to know to write a high-quality research question

By: Derek Jansen (MBA) | Reviewed By: Dr. Eunice Rautenbach | October 2023

If you’ve landed on this page, you’re probably asking yourself, “ What is a research question? ”. Well, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll explain what a research question is , how it’s differen t from a research aim, and how to craft a high-quality research question that sets you up for success.

Research Question 101

What is a research question.

• Research questions vs research aims
• The 4 types of research questions
• How to write a research question
• Frequently asked questions
• Examples of research questions

As the name suggests, the research question is the core question (or set of questions) that your study will (attempt to) answer .

In many ways, a research question is akin to a target in archery . Without a clear target, you won’t know where to concentrate your efforts and focus. Essentially, your research question acts as the guiding light throughout your project and informs every choice you make along the way.

Let’s look at some examples:

What impact does social media usage have on the mental health of teenagers in New York?

How does the introduction of a minimum wage affect employment levels in small businesses in outer London?

How does the portrayal of women in 19th-century American literature reflect the societal attitudes of the time?

What are the long-term effects of intermittent fasting on heart health in adults?

As you can see in these examples, research questions are clear, specific questions that can be feasibly answered within a study. These are important attributes and we’ll discuss each of them in more detail a little later . If you’d like to see more examples of research questions, you can find our RQ mega-list here .

Research Questions vs Research Aims

At this point, you might be asking yourself, “ How is a research question different from a research aim? ”. Within any given study, the research aim and research question (or questions) are tightly intertwined , but they are separate things . Let’s unpack that a little.

A research aim is typically broader in nature and outlines what you hope to achieve with your research. It doesn’t ask a specific question but rather gives a summary of what you intend to explore.

The research question, on the other hand, is much more focused . It’s the specific query you’re setting out to answer. It narrows down the research aim into a detailed, researchable question that will guide your study’s methods and analysis.

Let’s look at an example:

Research Aim: To explore the effects of climate change on marine life in Southern Africa.

Research Question: How does ocean acidification caused by climate change affect the reproduction rates of coral reefs?

As you can see, the research aim gives you a general focus , while the research question details exactly what you want to find out.

Need a helping hand?

Types of research questions

Now that we’ve defined what a research question is, let’s look at the different types of research questions that you might come across. Broadly speaking, there are (at least) four different types of research questions – descriptive , comparative , relational , and explanatory . 

Descriptive questions ask what is happening. In other words, they seek to describe a phenomena or situation . An example of a descriptive research question could be something like “What types of exercise do high-performing UK executives engage in?”. This would likely be a bit too basic to form an interesting study, but as you can see, the research question is just focused on the what – in other words, it just describes the situation.

Comparative research questions , on the other hand, look to understand the way in which two or more things differ , or how they’re similar. An example of a comparative research question might be something like “How do exercise preferences vary between middle-aged men across three American cities?”. As you can see, this question seeks to compare the differences (or similarities) in behaviour between different groups.

Next up, we’ve got exploratory research questions , which ask why or how is something happening. While the other types of questions we looked at focused on the what, exploratory research questions are interested in the why and how . As an example, an exploratory research question might ask something like “Why have bee populations declined in Germany over the last 5 years?”. As you can, this question is aimed squarely at the why, rather than the what.

Last but not least, we have relational research questions . As the name suggests, these types of research questions seek to explore the relationships between variables . Here, an example could be something like “What is the relationship between X and Y” or “Does A have an impact on B”. As you can see, these types of research questions are interested in understanding how constructs or variables are connected , and perhaps, whether one thing causes another.

Of course, depending on how fine-grained you want to get, you can argue that there are many more types of research questions , but these four categories give you a broad idea of the different flavours that exist out there. It’s also worth pointing out that a research question doesn’t need to fit perfectly into one category – in many cases, a research question might overlap into more than just one category and that’s okay.

The key takeaway here is that research questions can take many different forms , and it’s useful to understand the nature of your research question so that you can align your research methodology accordingly.

How To Write A Research Question

As we alluded earlier, a well-crafted research question needs to possess very specific attributes, including focus , clarity and feasibility . But that’s not all – a rock-solid research question also needs to be rooted and aligned . Let’s look at each of these.

A strong research question typically has a single focus. So, don’t try to cram multiple questions into one research question; rather split them up into separate questions (or even subquestions), each with their own specific focus. As a rule of thumb, narrow beats broad when it comes to research questions.

Clear and specific

A good research question is clear and specific, not vague and broad. State clearly exactly what you want to find out so that any reader can quickly understand what you’re looking to achieve with your study. Along the same vein, try to avoid using bulky language and jargon – aim for clarity.

Unfortunately, even a super tantalising and thought-provoking research question has little value if you cannot feasibly answer it. So, think about the methodological implications of your research question while you’re crafting it. Most importantly, make sure that you know exactly what data you’ll need (primary or secondary) and how you’ll analyse that data.

A good research question (and a research topic, more broadly) should be rooted in a clear research gap and research problem . Without a well-defined research gap, you risk wasting your effort pursuing a question that’s already been adequately answered (and agreed upon) by the research community. A well-argued research gap lays at the heart of a valuable study, so make sure you have your gap clearly articulated and that your research question directly links to it.

As we mentioned earlier, your research aim and research question are (or at least, should be) tightly linked. So, make sure that your research question (or set of questions) aligns with your research aim . If not, you’ll need to revise one of the two to achieve this.

FAQ: Research Questions

Research question faqs, how many research questions should i have, what should i avoid when writing a research question, can a research question be a statement.

Typically, a research question is phrased as a question, not a statement. A question clearly indicates what you’re setting out to discover.

Can a research question be too broad or too narrow?

Yes. A question that’s too broad makes your research unfocused, while a question that’s too narrow limits the scope of your study.

Here’s an example of a research question that’s too broad:

“Why is mental health important?”

Conversely, here’s an example of a research question that’s likely too narrow:

“What is the impact of sleep deprivation on the exam scores of 19-year-old males in London studying maths at The Open University?”

Can I change my research question during the research process?

How do i know if my research question is good.

A good research question is focused, specific, practical, rooted in a research gap, and aligned with the research aim. If your question meets these criteria, it’s likely a strong question.

Is a research question similar to a hypothesis?

Not quite. A hypothesis is a testable statement that predicts an outcome, while a research question is a query that you’re trying to answer through your study. Naturally, there can be linkages between a study’s research questions and hypothesis, but they serve different functions.

How are research questions and research objectives related?

The research question is a focused and specific query that your study aims to answer. It’s the central issue you’re investigating. The research objective, on the other hand, outlines the steps you’ll take to answer your research question. Research objectives are often more action-oriented and can be broken down into smaller tasks that guide your research process. In a sense, they’re something of a roadmap that helps you answer your research question.

Need some inspiration?

If you’d like to see more examples of research questions, check out our research question mega list here .  Alternatively, if you’d like 1-on-1 help developing a high-quality research question, consider our private coaching service .

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

Submit a Comment Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

• Print Friendly

• Resources Home 🏠
• Try SciSpace Copilot
• Search research papers
• Add Copilot Extension
• Try AI Detector
• Try Paraphraser
• Try Citation Generator
• April Papers
• June Papers
• July Papers

How To Write a Research Question

Academic writing and research require a distinct focus and direction. A well-designed research question gives purpose and clarity to your research. In addition, it helps your readers understand the issue you are trying to address and explore.

Every time you want to know more about a subject, you will pose a question. The same idea is used in research as well. You must pose a question in order to effectively address a research problem. That's why the research question is an integral part of the research process. Additionally, it offers the author writing and reading guidelines, be it qualitative research or quantitative research.

In your research paper , you must single out just one issue or problem. The specific issue or claim you wish to address should be included in your thesis statement in order to clarify your main argument.

A good research question must have the following characteristics.

• Should include only one problem in the research question
• Should be able to find the answer using primary data and secondary data sources
• Should be possible to resolve within the given time and other constraints
• Detailed and in-depth results should be achievable
• Should be relevant and realistic.
• It should relate to your chosen area of research

While a larger project, like a thesis, might have several research questions to address, each one should be directed at your main area of study. Of course, you can use different research designs and research methods (qualitative research or quantitative research) to address various research questions. However, they must all be pertinent to the study's objectives.

What is a Research Question?

A research question is an inquiry that the research attempts to answer. It is the heart of the systematic investigation. Research questions are the most important step in any research project. In essence, it initiates the research project and establishes the pace for the specific research A research question is:

• Clear : It provides enough detail that the audience understands its purpose without any additional explanation.
• Focused : It is so specific that it can be addressed within the time constraints of the writing task.
• Succinct: It is written in the shortest possible words.
• Complex : It is not possible to answer it with a "yes" or "no", but requires analysis and synthesis of ideas before somebody can create a solution.
• Argumental : Its potential answers are open for debate rather than accepted facts.

A good research question usually focuses on the research and determines the research design, methodology, and hypothesis. It guides all phases of inquiry, data collection, analysis, and reporting. You should gather valuable information by asking the right questions.

Why are Research Questions so important?

Regardless of whether it is a qualitative research or quantitative research project, research questions provide writers and their audience with a way to navigate the writing and research process. Writers can avoid "all-about" papers by asking straightforward and specific research questions that help them focus on their research and support a specific thesis.

Types of Research Questions

There are two types of research: Qualitative research and Quantitative research . There must be research questions for every type of research. Your research question will be based on the type of research you want to conduct and the type of data collection.

The first step in designing research involves identifying a gap and creating a focused research question.

Below is a list of common research questions that can be used in a dissertation. Keep in mind that these are merely illustrations of typical research questions used in dissertation projects. The real research questions themselves might be more difficult.

Example Research Questions

The following are a few examples of research questions and research problems to help you understand how research questions can be created for a particular research problem.

Steps to Write Research Questions

You can focus on the issue or research gaps you're attempting to solve by using the research questions as a direction.

If you're unsure how to go about writing a good research question, these are the steps to follow in the process:

• Select an interesting topic Always choose a topic that interests you. Because if your curiosity isn’t aroused by a subject, you’ll have a hard time conducting research around it. Alos, it’s better that you pick something that’s neither too narrow or too broad.
• Do preliminary research on the topic Search for relevant literature to gauge what problems have already been tackled by scholars. You can do that conveniently through repositories like Scispace , where you’ll find millions of papers in one place. Once you do find the papers you’re looking for, try our reading assistant, SciSpace Copilot to get simple explanations for the paper . You’ll be able to quickly understand the abstract, find the key takeaways, and the main arguments presented in the paper. This will give you a more contextual understanding of your subject and you’ll have an easier time identifying knowledge gaps in your discipline.

     Also: ChatPDF vs. SciSpace Copilot: Unveiling the best tool for your research

• Consider your audience It is essential to understand your audience to develop focused research questions for essays or dissertations. When narrowing down your topic, you can identify aspects that might interest your audience.
• Ask questions Asking questions will give you a deeper understanding of the topic. Evaluate your question through the What, Why, When, How, and other open-ended questions assessment.
• Assess your question Once you have created a research question, assess its effectiveness to determine if it is useful for the purpose. Refine and revise the dissertation research question multiple times.

Additionally, use this list of questions as a guide when formulating your research question.

Are you able to answer a specific research question? After identifying a gap in research, it would be helpful to formulate the research question. And this will allow the research to solve a part of the problem. Is your research question clear and centered on the main topic? It is important that your research question should be specific and related to your central goal. Are you tackling a difficult research question? It is not possible to answer the research question with a simple yes or no. The problem requires in-depth analysis. It is often started with "How" and "Why."

Start your research Once you have completed your dissertation research questions, it is time to review the literature on similar topics to discover different perspectives.

Strong  Research Question Samples

Uncertain: How should social networking sites work on the hatred that flows through their platform?

Certain: What should social media sites like Twitter or Facebook do to address the harm they are causing?

This unclear question does not specify the social networking sites that are being used or what harm they might be causing. In addition, this question assumes that the "harm" has been proven and/or accepted. This version is more specific and identifies the sites (Twitter, Facebook), the type and extent of harm (privacy concerns), and who might be suffering from that harm (users). Effective research questions should not be ambiguous or interpreted.

Unfocused: What are the effects of global warming on the environment?

Focused: What are the most important effects of glacial melting in Antarctica on penguins' lives?

This broad research question cannot be addressed in a book, let alone a college-level paper. Focused research targets a specific effect of global heating (glacial  melting), an area (Antarctica), or a specific animal (penguins). The writer must also decide which effect will have the greatest impact on the animals affected. If in doubt, narrow down your research question to the most specific possible.

Too Simple: What are the U.S. doctors doing to treat diabetes?

Appropriately complex: Which factors, if any, are most likely to predict a person's risk of developing diabetes?

This simple version can be found online. It is easy to answer with a few facts. The second, more complicated version of this question is divided into two parts. It is thought-provoking and requires extensive investigation as well as evaluation by the author. So, ensure that a quick Google search should not answer your research question.

How to write a strong Research Question?

The foundation of all research is the research question. You should therefore spend as much time as necessary to refine your research question based on various data.

You can conduct your research more efficiently and analyze your results better if you have great research questions for your dissertation, research paper , or essay .

The following criteria can help you evaluate the strength and importance of your research question and can be used to determine the strength of your research question:

• Researchable
• It should only cover one issue.
• A subjective judgment should not be included in the question.
• It can be answered with data analysis and research.
• Specific and Practical
• It should not contain a plan of action, policy, or solution.
• It should be clearly defined
• Within research limits
• Complex and Arguable
• It shouldn't be difficult to answer.
• To find the truth, you need in-depth knowledge
• Allows for discussion and deliberation
• Original and Relevant
• It should be in your area of study
• Its results should be measurable
• It should be original

Conclusion - How to write Research Questions?

Research questions provide a clear guideline for research. One research question may be part of a larger project, such as a dissertation. However, each question should only focus on one topic.

Research questions must be answerable, practical, specific, and applicable to your field. The research type that you use to base your research questions on will determine the research topic. You can start by selecting an interesting topic and doing preliminary research. Then, you can begin asking questions, evaluating your questions, and start your research.

Now it's easier than ever to streamline your research workflow with SciSpace ResearchGPT . Its integrated, comprehensive end-to-end platform for research allows scholars to easily discover, read, write and publish their research and fosters collaboration.

You might also like

Consensus GPT vs. SciSpace GPT: Choose the Best GPT for Research

Literature Review and Theoretical Framework: Understanding the Differences

Types of Essays in Academic Writing - Quick Guide (2024)

How to write a research question

Last updated

7 February 2023

Reviewed by

Miroslav Damyanov

In this article, we take an in-depth look at what a research question is, the different types of research questions, and how to write one (with examples). Read on to get started with your thesis, dissertation, or research paper .

Make research less tedious

Dovetail streamlines research to help you uncover and share actionable insights

• What is a research question?

A research question articulates exactly what you want to learn from your research. It stems directly from your research objectives, and you will arrive at an answer through data analysis and interpretation.

However, it is not that simple to write a research question—even when you know the question you intend to answer with your study. The main characteristics of a good research question are:

Feasible. You need to have the resources and abilities to examine the question, collect the data, and give answers.

Interesting. Create research questions that offer fascinating insights into your industry.

Novel. Research questions have to offer something new within your field of study.

Ethical. The research question topic should be approved by the relevant authorities and review boards.

Relevant. Your research question should lead to visible changes in society or your industry.

Usually, you write one single research question to guide your entire research paper. The answer becomes the thesis statement—the central position of your argument. A dissertation or thesis, on the other hand, may require multiple problem statements and research questions. However, they should be connected and focused on a specific problem.

• Importance of the research question

A research question acts as a guide for your entire study. It serves two vital purposes:

to determine the specific issue your research paper addresses

to identify clear objectives

Therefore, it helps split your research into small steps that you need to complete to provide answers.

Your research question will also provide boundaries for your study, which help set limits and ensure cohesion.

Finally, it acts as a frame of reference for assessing your work. Bear in mind that research questions can evolve, shift, and change during the early stages of your study or project.

• Types of research questions

The type of research you are conducting will dictate the type of research question to use. Primarily, research questions are grouped into three distinct categories of study:

qualitative

quantitative

mixed-method

Let’s look at each of these in turn:

Quantitative research questions

The number-one rule of quantitative research questions is that they are precise. They mainly include:

independent and dependent variables

the exact population being studied

the research design to be used

Therefore, you must frame and finalize quantitative research questions before starting the study.

Equally, a quantitative research question creates a link between itself and the research design. These questions cannot be answered with simple 'yes' or' no' responses, so they begin with words like 'does', 'do', 'are', and 'is'.

Quantitative research questions can be divided into three categories:

Relationship research questions usually leverage words such as 'trends' and 'association' because they include independent and dependent variables. They seek to define or explore trends and interactions between multiple variables.

Comparative research questions tend to analyze the differences between different groups to find an outcome variable. For instance, you may decide to compare two distinct groups where a specific variable is present in one and absent in the other.

Descriptive research questions usually start with the word 'what' and aim to measure how a population will respond to one or more variables.

Qualitative research questions

Like quantitative research questions, these questions are linked to the research design. However, qualitative research questions may deal with a specific or broad study area. This makes them more flexible, very adaptable, and usually non-directional.

Use qualitative research questions when your primary aim is to explain, discover, or explore.

There are seven types of qualitative research questions:

Explanatory research questions investigate particular topic areas that aren't well known.

Contextual research questions describe the workings of what is already in existence.

Evaluative research questions examine the effectiveness of specific paradigms or methods.

Ideological research questions aim to advance existing ideologies.

Descriptive research questions describe an event.

Generative research questions help develop actions and theories by providing new ideas.

Emancipatory research questions increase social action engagement, usually to benefit disadvantaged people.

Mixed-methods studies

With mixed-methods studies, you combine qualitative and quantitative research elements to get answers to your research question. This approach is ideal when you need a more complete picture. through a blend of the two approaches.

Mixed-methods research is excellent in multidisciplinary settings, societal analysis, and complex situations. Consider the following research question examples, which would be ideal candidates for a mixed-methods approach

How can non-voter and voter beliefs about democracy (qualitative) help explain Town X election turnout patterns (quantitative)?

How does students’ perception of their study environment (quantitative) relate to their test score differences (qualitative)?

• Developing a strong research question—a step-by-step guide

Research questions help break up your study into simple steps so you can quickly achieve your objectives and find answers. However, how do you develop a good research question? Here is our step-by-step guide:

1. Choose a topic

The first step is to select a broad research topic for your study. Pick something within your expertise and field that interests you. After all, the research itself will stem from the initial research question.

2. Conduct preliminary research

Once you have a broad topic, dig deeper into the problem by researching past studies in the field and gathering requirements from stakeholders if you work in a business setting.

Through this process, you will discover articles that mention areas not explored in that field or products that didn’t resonate with people’s expectations in a particular industry. For instance, you could explore specific topics that earlier research failed to study or products that failed to meet user needs.

3. Keep your audience in mind

Is your audience interested in the particular field you want to study? Are the research questions in your mind appealing and interesting to the audience? Defining your audience will help you refine your research question and ensure you pick a question that is relatable to your audience.

4. Generate a list of potential questions

Ask yourself numerous open-ended questions on the topic to create a potential list of research questions. You could start with broader questions and narrow them down to more specific ones. Don’t forget that you can challenge existing assumptions or use personal experiences to redefine research issues.

5. Review the questions

Evaluate your list of potential questions to determine which seems most effective. Ensure you consider the finer details of every question and possible outcomes. Doing this helps you determine if the questions meet the requirements of a research question.

6. Construct and evaluate your research question

Consider these two frameworks when constructing a good research question: PICOT and PEO. 

PICOT stands for:

P: Problem or population

I: Indicator or intervention to be studied

C: Comparison groups

O: Outcome of interest

T: Time frame

PEO stands for:

P: Population being studied

E: Exposure to any preexisting conditions

To evaluate your research question once you’ve constructed it, ask yourself the following questions:

Is it clear?

Your study should produce precise data and observations. For qualitative studies, the observations need to be delineable across categories. Quantitative studies must have measurable and empirical data.

Is it specific and focused?

An excellent research question must be specific enough to ensure your testing yields objective results. General or open-ended research questions are often ambiguous and subject to different kinds of interpretation.

Is it sufficiently complex?

Your research needs to yield substantial and consequential results to warrant the study. Merely supporting or reinforcing an existing paper is not good enough.

• Examples of good research questions

A robust research question actively contributes to a specific body of knowledge; it is a question that hasn’t been answered before within your research field.

Here are some examples of good and bad research questions :

Good: How effective are A and B policies at reducing the rates of Z?

Bad: Is A or B a better policy?

The first is more focused and researchable because it isn't based on value judgment. The second fails to give clear criteria for answering the question.

Good: What is the effect of daily Twitter use on the attention span of college students?

Bad: What is the effect of social media use on people's minds?

The first includes specific and well-defined concepts, which the second lacks.

Ensure all terms within your research question have precise meanings. Avoid vague or general language that makes the topic too broad.

• The bottom line

The success of any research starts with formulating the right questions that ensure you collect the most insightful data. A good research question will showcase the objectives of your systematic investigation and emphasize specific contexts.

Should you be using a customer insights hub?

Do you want to discover previous research faster?

Do you share your research findings with others?

Do you analyze research data?

Start for free today, add your research, and get to key insights faster

Editor’s picks

Last updated: 18 April 2023

Last updated: 27 February 2023

Last updated: 6 February 2023

Last updated: 5 February 2023

Last updated: 16 April 2023

Last updated: 9 March 2023

Last updated: 30 April 2024

Last updated: 12 December 2023

Last updated: 11 March 2024

Last updated: 4 July 2024

Last updated: 6 March 2024

Last updated: 5 March 2024

Last updated: 13 May 2024

Latest articles

Related topics, .css-je19u9{-webkit-align-items:flex-end;-webkit-box-align:flex-end;-ms-flex-align:flex-end;align-items:flex-end;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-direction:row;-ms-flex-direction:row;flex-direction:row;-webkit-box-flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-box-pack:center;-ms-flex-pack:center;-webkit-justify-content:center;justify-content:center;row-gap:0;text-align:center;max-width:671px;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}}@media (max-width: 799px){.css-je19u9{max-width:400px;}.css-je19u9>span{white-space:pre;}} decide what to .css-1kiodld{max-height:56px;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}@media (max-width: 1079px){.css-1kiodld{display:none;}} build next, decide what to build next, log in or sign up.

Get started for free

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

• Publications
• Account settings

Preview improvements coming to the PMC website in October 2024. Learn More or Try it out now .

• Advanced Search
• Journal List
• v.53(4); 2010 Aug

Research questions, hypotheses and objectives

Patricia farrugia.

* Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine, the

Bradley A. Petrisor

† Division of Orthopaedic Surgery and the

Forough Farrokhyar

‡ Departments of Surgery and

§ Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ont

Mohit Bhandari

There is an increasing familiarity with the principles of evidence-based medicine in the surgical community. As surgeons become more aware of the hierarchy of evidence, grades of recommendations and the principles of critical appraisal, they develop an increasing familiarity with research design. Surgeons and clinicians are looking more and more to the literature and clinical trials to guide their practice; as such, it is becoming a responsibility of the clinical research community to attempt to answer questions that are not only well thought out but also clinically relevant. The development of the research question, including a supportive hypothesis and objectives, is a necessary key step in producing clinically relevant results to be used in evidence-based practice. A well-defined and specific research question is more likely to help guide us in making decisions about study design and population and subsequently what data will be collected and analyzed. 1

Objectives of this article

In this article, we discuss important considerations in the development of a research question and hypothesis and in defining objectives for research. By the end of this article, the reader will be able to appreciate the significance of constructing a good research question and developing hypotheses and research objectives for the successful design of a research study. The following article is divided into 3 sections: research question, research hypothesis and research objectives.

Research question

Interest in a particular topic usually begins the research process, but it is the familiarity with the subject that helps define an appropriate research question for a study. 1 Questions then arise out of a perceived knowledge deficit within a subject area or field of study. 2 Indeed, Haynes suggests that it is important to know “where the boundary between current knowledge and ignorance lies.” 1 The challenge in developing an appropriate research question is in determining which clinical uncertainties could or should be studied and also rationalizing the need for their investigation.

Increasing one’s knowledge about the subject of interest can be accomplished in many ways. Appropriate methods include systematically searching the literature, in-depth interviews and focus groups with patients (and proxies) and interviews with experts in the field. In addition, awareness of current trends and technological advances can assist with the development of research questions. 2 It is imperative to understand what has been studied about a topic to date in order to further the knowledge that has been previously gathered on a topic. Indeed, some granting institutions (e.g., Canadian Institute for Health Research) encourage applicants to conduct a systematic review of the available evidence if a recent review does not already exist and preferably a pilot or feasibility study before applying for a grant for a full trial.

In-depth knowledge about a subject may generate a number of questions. It then becomes necessary to ask whether these questions can be answered through one study or if more than one study needed. 1 Additional research questions can be developed, but several basic principles should be taken into consideration. 1 All questions, primary and secondary, should be developed at the beginning and planning stages of a study. Any additional questions should never compromise the primary question because it is the primary research question that forms the basis of the hypothesis and study objectives. It must be kept in mind that within the scope of one study, the presence of a number of research questions will affect and potentially increase the complexity of both the study design and subsequent statistical analyses, not to mention the actual feasibility of answering every question. 1 A sensible strategy is to establish a single primary research question around which to focus the study plan. 3 In a study, the primary research question should be clearly stated at the end of the introduction of the grant proposal, and it usually specifies the population to be studied, the intervention to be implemented and other circumstantial factors. 4

Hulley and colleagues 2 have suggested the use of the FINER criteria in the development of a good research question ( Box 1 ). The FINER criteria highlight useful points that may increase the chances of developing a successful research project. A good research question should specify the population of interest, be of interest to the scientific community and potentially to the public, have clinical relevance and further current knowledge in the field (and of course be compliant with the standards of ethical boards and national research standards).

FINER criteria for a good research question

Adapted with permission from Wolters Kluwer Health. 2

Whereas the FINER criteria outline the important aspects of the question in general, a useful format to use in the development of a specific research question is the PICO format — consider the population (P) of interest, the intervention (I) being studied, the comparison (C) group (or to what is the intervention being compared) and the outcome of interest (O). 3 , 5 , 6 Often timing (T) is added to PICO ( Box 2 ) — that is, “Over what time frame will the study take place?” 1 The PICOT approach helps generate a question that aids in constructing the framework of the study and subsequently in protocol development by alluding to the inclusion and exclusion criteria and identifying the groups of patients to be included. Knowing the specific population of interest, intervention (and comparator) and outcome of interest may also help the researcher identify an appropriate outcome measurement tool. 7 The more defined the population of interest, and thus the more stringent the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the greater the effect on the interpretation and subsequent applicability and generalizability of the research findings. 1 , 2 A restricted study population (and exclusion criteria) may limit bias and increase the internal validity of the study; however, this approach will limit external validity of the study and, thus, the generalizability of the findings to the practical clinical setting. Conversely, a broadly defined study population and inclusion criteria may be representative of practical clinical practice but may increase bias and reduce the internal validity of the study.

PICOT criteria 1

A poorly devised research question may affect the choice of study design, potentially lead to futile situations and, thus, hamper the chance of determining anything of clinical significance, which will then affect the potential for publication. Without devoting appropriate resources to developing the research question, the quality of the study and subsequent results may be compromised. During the initial stages of any research study, it is therefore imperative to formulate a research question that is both clinically relevant and answerable.

Research hypothesis

The primary research question should be driven by the hypothesis rather than the data. 1 , 2 That is, the research question and hypothesis should be developed before the start of the study. This sounds intuitive; however, if we take, for example, a database of information, it is potentially possible to perform multiple statistical comparisons of groups within the database to find a statistically significant association. This could then lead one to work backward from the data and develop the “question.” This is counterintuitive to the process because the question is asked specifically to then find the answer, thus collecting data along the way (i.e., in a prospective manner). Multiple statistical testing of associations from data previously collected could potentially lead to spuriously positive findings of association through chance alone. 2 Therefore, a good hypothesis must be based on a good research question at the start of a trial and, indeed, drive data collection for the study.

The research or clinical hypothesis is developed from the research question and then the main elements of the study — sampling strategy, intervention (if applicable), comparison and outcome variables — are summarized in a form that establishes the basis for testing, statistical and ultimately clinical significance. 3 For example, in a research study comparing computer-assisted acetabular component insertion versus freehand acetabular component placement in patients in need of total hip arthroplasty, the experimental group would be computer-assisted insertion and the control/conventional group would be free-hand placement. The investigative team would first state a research hypothesis. This could be expressed as a single outcome (e.g., computer-assisted acetabular component placement leads to improved functional outcome) or potentially as a complex/composite outcome; that is, more than one outcome (e.g., computer-assisted acetabular component placement leads to both improved radiographic cup placement and improved functional outcome).

However, when formally testing statistical significance, the hypothesis should be stated as a “null” hypothesis. 2 The purpose of hypothesis testing is to make an inference about the population of interest on the basis of a random sample taken from that population. The null hypothesis for the preceding research hypothesis then would be that there is no difference in mean functional outcome between the computer-assisted insertion and free-hand placement techniques. After forming the null hypothesis, the researchers would form an alternate hypothesis stating the nature of the difference, if it should appear. The alternate hypothesis would be that there is a difference in mean functional outcome between these techniques. At the end of the study, the null hypothesis is then tested statistically. If the findings of the study are not statistically significant (i.e., there is no difference in functional outcome between the groups in a statistical sense), we cannot reject the null hypothesis, whereas if the findings were significant, we can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis (i.e., there is a difference in mean functional outcome between the study groups), errors in testing notwithstanding. In other words, hypothesis testing confirms or refutes the statement that the observed findings did not occur by chance alone but rather occurred because there was a true difference in outcomes between these surgical procedures. The concept of statistical hypothesis testing is complex, and the details are beyond the scope of this article.

Another important concept inherent in hypothesis testing is whether the hypotheses will be 1-sided or 2-sided. A 2-sided hypothesis states that there is a difference between the experimental group and the control group, but it does not specify in advance the expected direction of the difference. For example, we asked whether there is there an improvement in outcomes with computer-assisted surgery or whether the outcomes worse with computer-assisted surgery. We presented a 2-sided test in the above example because we did not specify the direction of the difference. A 1-sided hypothesis states a specific direction (e.g., there is an improvement in outcomes with computer-assisted surgery). A 2-sided hypothesis should be used unless there is a good justification for using a 1-sided hypothesis. As Bland and Atlman 8 stated, “One-sided hypothesis testing should never be used as a device to make a conventionally nonsignificant difference significant.”

The research hypothesis should be stated at the beginning of the study to guide the objectives for research. Whereas the investigators may state the hypothesis as being 1-sided (there is an improvement with treatment), the study and investigators must adhere to the concept of clinical equipoise. According to this principle, a clinical (or surgical) trial is ethical only if the expert community is uncertain about the relative therapeutic merits of the experimental and control groups being evaluated. 9 It means there must exist an honest and professional disagreement among expert clinicians about the preferred treatment. 9

Designing a research hypothesis is supported by a good research question and will influence the type of research design for the study. Acting on the principles of appropriate hypothesis development, the study can then confidently proceed to the development of the research objective.

Research objective

The primary objective should be coupled with the hypothesis of the study. Study objectives define the specific aims of the study and should be clearly stated in the introduction of the research protocol. 7 From our previous example and using the investigative hypothesis that there is a difference in functional outcomes between computer-assisted acetabular component placement and free-hand placement, the primary objective can be stated as follows: this study will compare the functional outcomes of computer-assisted acetabular component insertion versus free-hand placement in patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty. Note that the study objective is an active statement about how the study is going to answer the specific research question. Objectives can (and often do) state exactly which outcome measures are going to be used within their statements. They are important because they not only help guide the development of the protocol and design of study but also play a role in sample size calculations and determining the power of the study. 7 These concepts will be discussed in other articles in this series.

From the surgeon’s point of view, it is important for the study objectives to be focused on outcomes that are important to patients and clinically relevant. For example, the most methodologically sound randomized controlled trial comparing 2 techniques of distal radial fixation would have little or no clinical impact if the primary objective was to determine the effect of treatment A as compared to treatment B on intraoperative fluoroscopy time. However, if the objective was to determine the effect of treatment A as compared to treatment B on patient functional outcome at 1 year, this would have a much more significant impact on clinical decision-making. Second, more meaningful surgeon–patient discussions could ensue, incorporating patient values and preferences with the results from this study. 6 , 7 It is the precise objective and what the investigator is trying to measure that is of clinical relevance in the practical setting.

The following is an example from the literature about the relation between the research question, hypothesis and study objectives:

Study: Warden SJ, Metcalf BR, Kiss ZS, et al. Low-intensity pulsed ultrasound for chronic patellar tendinopathy: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Rheumatology 2008;47:467–71.

Research question: How does low-intensity pulsed ultrasound (LIPUS) compare with a placebo device in managing the symptoms of skeletally mature patients with patellar tendinopathy?

Research hypothesis: Pain levels are reduced in patients who receive daily active-LIPUS (treatment) for 12 weeks compared with individuals who receive inactive-LIPUS (placebo).

Objective: To investigate the clinical efficacy of LIPUS in the management of patellar tendinopathy symptoms.

The development of the research question is the most important aspect of a research project. A research project can fail if the objectives and hypothesis are poorly focused and underdeveloped. Useful tips for surgical researchers are provided in Box 3 . Designing and developing an appropriate and relevant research question, hypothesis and objectives can be a difficult task. The critical appraisal of the research question used in a study is vital to the application of the findings to clinical practice. Focusing resources, time and dedication to these 3 very important tasks will help to guide a successful research project, influence interpretation of the results and affect future publication efforts.

Tips for developing research questions, hypotheses and objectives for research studies

• Perform a systematic literature review (if one has not been done) to increase knowledge and familiarity with the topic and to assist with research development.
• Learn about current trends and technological advances on the topic.
• Seek careful input from experts, mentors, colleagues and collaborators to refine your research question as this will aid in developing the research question and guide the research study.
• Use the FINER criteria in the development of the research question.
• Ensure that the research question follows PICOT format.
• Develop a research hypothesis from the research question.
• Develop clear and well-defined primary and secondary (if needed) objectives.
• Ensure that the research question and objectives are answerable, feasible and clinically relevant.

FINER = feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, relevant; PICOT = population (patients), intervention (for intervention studies only), comparison group, outcome of interest, time.

Competing interests: No funding was received in preparation of this paper. Dr. Bhandari was funded, in part, by a Canada Research Chair, McMaster University.

Research Process Guide

• Step 1 - Identifying and Developing a Topic
• Step 2 - Narrowing Your Topic
• Step 3 - Developing Research Questions
• Step 4 - Conducting a Literature Review
• Step 5 - Choosing a Conceptual or Theoretical Framework
• Step 6 - Determining Research Methodology
• Step 6a - Determining Research Methodology - Quantitative Research Methods
• Step 6b - Determining Research Methodology - Qualitative Design
• Step 7 - Considering Ethical Issues in Research with Human Subjects - Institutional Review Board (IRB)
• Step 8 - Collecting Data
• Step 9 - Analyzing Data
• Step 10 - Interpreting Results
• Step 11 - Writing Up Results

Step 1: Identifying and Developing a Topic

Whatever your field or discipline, the best advice to give on identifying a research topic is to choose something that you find really interesting. You will be spending an enormous amount of time with your topic, you need to be invested. Over the course of your research design, proposal and actually conducting your study, you may feel like you are really tired of your topic, however,  your interest and investment in the topic will help you persist through dissertation defense. Identifying a research topic can be challenging. Most of the research that has been completed on the process of conducting research fails to examine the preliminary stages of the interactive and self-reflective process of identifying a research topic (Wintersberger & Saunders, 2020).  You may choose a topic at the beginning of the process, and through exploring the research that has already been done, one’s own interests that are narrowed or expanded in scope, the topic will change over time (Dwarkadas & Lin, 2019). Where do I begin? According to the research, there are generally two paths to exploring your research topic, creative path and the rational path (Saunders et al., 2019).  The rational path takes a linear path and deals with questions we need to ask ourselves like: what are some timely topics in my field in the media right now?; what strengths do I bring to the research?; what are the gaps in the research about the area of research interest? (Saunders et al., 2019; Wintersberger & Saunders, 2020).The creative path is less linear in that it may include keeping a notebook of ideas based on discussion in coursework or with your peers in the field. Whichever path you take, you will inevitably have to narrow your more generalized ideas down. A great way to do that is to continue reading the literature about and around your topic looking for gaps that could be explored. Also, try engaging in meaningful discussions with experts in your field to get their take on your research ideas (Saunders et al., 2019; Wintersberger & Saunders, 2020). It is important to remember that a research topic should be (Dwarkadas & Lin, 2019; Saunders et al., 2019; Wintersberger & Saunders, 2020):

• Interesting to you.
• Realistic in that it can be completed in an appropriate amount of time.
• Relevant to your program or field of study.
• Not widely researched.

Dwarkadas, S., & Lin, M. C. (2019, August 04). Finding a research topic. Computing Research Association for Women, Portland State University. https://cra.org/cra-wp/wp-content/uploads/sites/8/2019/04/FindingResearchTopic/2019.pdf

Saunders, M. N. K., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2019). Research methods for business students (8th ed.). Pearson.

Wintersberger, D., & Saunders, M. (2020). Formulating and clarifying the research topic: Insights and a guide for the production management research community. Production, 30 . https://doi.org/10.1590/0103-6513.20200059

• Last Updated: Jun 29, 2023 1:35 PM
• URL: https://libguides.kean.edu/ResearchProcessGuide

How to Write a Research Question: Types and Examples 

The first step in any research project is framing the research question. It can be considered the core of any systematic investigation as the research outcomes are tied to asking the right questions. Thus, this primary interrogation point sets the pace for your research as it helps collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work.   

Typically, the research question guides the stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. Depending on the use of quantifiable or quantitative data, research questions are broadly categorized into quantitative or qualitative research questions. Both types of research questions can be used independently or together, considering the overall focus and objectives of your research.  

What is a research question?

A research question is a clear, focused, concise, and arguable question on which your research and writing are centered. 1 It states various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the problem the study addresses. These questions also set the boundaries of the study, ensuring cohesion. 

Designing the research question is a dynamic process where the researcher can change or refine the research question as they review related literature and develop a framework for the study. Depending on the scale of your research, the study can include single or multiple research questions. 

A good research question has the following features: 

• It is relevant to the chosen field of study. 
• The question posed is arguable and open for debate, requiring synthesizing and analysis of ideas. 
• It is focused and concisely framed. 
• A feasible solution is possible within the given practical constraint and timeframe. 

A poorly formulated research question poses several risks. 1   

• Researchers can adopt an erroneous design. 
• It can create confusion and hinder the thought process, including developing a clear protocol.  
• It can jeopardize publication efforts.  
• It causes difficulty in determining the relevance of the study findings.  
• It causes difficulty in whether the study fulfils the inclusion criteria for systematic review and meta-analysis. This creates challenges in determining whether additional studies or data collection is needed to answer the question.  
• Readers may fail to understand the objective of the study. This reduces the likelihood of the study being cited by others. 

Now that you know “What is a research question?”, let’s look at the different types of research questions. 

Types of research questions

Depending on the type of research to be done, research questions can be classified broadly into quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods studies. Knowing the type of research helps determine the best type of research question that reflects the direction and epistemological underpinnings of your research. 

The structure and wording of quantitative 2 and qualitative research 3 questions differ significantly. The quantitative study looks at causal relationships, whereas the qualitative study aims at exploring a phenomenon. 

• Quantitative research questions:  
• Seeks to investigate social, familial, or educational experiences or processes in a particular context and/or location.  
• Answers ‘how,’ ‘what,’ or ‘why’ questions. 
• Investigates connections, relations, or comparisons between independent and dependent variables. 

Quantitative research questions can be further categorized into descriptive, comparative, and relationship, as explained in the Table below. 

• Qualitative research questions  

Qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional, and more flexible. It concerns broad areas of research or more specific areas of study to discover, explain, or explore a phenomenon. These are further classified as follows: 

• Mixed-methods studies  

Mixed-methods studies use both quantitative and qualitative research questions to answer your research question. Mixed methods provide a complete picture than standalone quantitative or qualitative research, as it integrates the benefits of both methods. Mixed methods research is often used in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal research, especially in the behavioral, health, and social science fields. 

What makes a good research question

A good research question should be clear and focused to guide your research. It should synthesize multiple sources to present your unique argument, and should ideally be something that you are interested in. But avoid questions that can be answered in a few factual statements. The following are the main attributes of a good research question. 

• Specific: The research question should not be a fishing expedition performed in the hopes that some new information will be found that will benefit the researcher. The central research question should work with your research problem to keep your work focused. If using multiple questions, they should all tie back to the central aim. 
• Measurable: The research question must be answerable using quantitative and/or qualitative data or from scholarly sources to develop your research question. If such data is impossible to access, it is better to rethink your question. 
• Attainable: Ensure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific. 
• You have the expertise 
• You have the equipment and resources 
• Realistic: Developing your research question should be based on initial reading about your topic. It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or discipline. 
• Based on some sort of rational physics 
• Can be done in a reasonable time frame 
• Timely: The research question should contribute to an existing and current debate in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can later build on. 
• Novel 
• Based on current technologies. 
• Important to answer current problems or concerns. 
• Lead to new directions. 
• Important: Your question should have some aspect of originality. Incremental research is as important as exploring disruptive technologies. For example, you can focus on a specific location or explore a new angle. 
• Meaningful whether the answer is “Yes” or “No.” Closed-ended, yes/no questions are too simple to work as good research questions. Such questions do not provide enough scope for robust investigation and discussion. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, and original interpretation and argumentation before providing an answer. 

Steps for developing a good research question

The importance of research questions cannot be understated. When drafting a research question, use the following frameworks to guide the components of your question to ease the process. 4  

• Determine the requirements: Before constructing a good research question, set your research requirements. What is the purpose? Is it descriptive, comparative, or explorative research? Determining the research aim will help you choose the most appropriate topic and word your question appropriately. 
• Select a broad research topic: Identify a broader subject area of interest that requires investigation. Techniques such as brainstorming or concept mapping can help identify relevant connections and themes within a broad research topic. For example, how to learn and help students learn. 
• Perform preliminary investigation: Preliminary research is needed to obtain up-to-date and relevant knowledge on your topic. It also helps identify issues currently being discussed from which information gaps can be identified. 
• Narrow your focus: Narrow the scope and focus of your research to a specific niche. This involves focusing on gaps in existing knowledge or recent literature or extending or complementing the findings of existing literature. Another approach involves constructing strong research questions that challenge your views or knowledge of the area of study (Example: Is learning consistent with the existing learning theory and research). 
• Identify the research problem: Once the research question has been framed, one should evaluate it. This is to realize the importance of the research questions and if there is a need for more revising (Example: How do your beliefs on learning theory and research impact your instructional practices). 

How to write a research question

Those struggling to understand how to write a research question, these simple steps can help you simplify the process of writing a research question. 

Sample Research Questions

The following are some bad and good research question examples 

• Example 1 

• Example 2 

References:  

• Thabane, L., Thomas, T., Ye, C., & Paul, J. (2009). Posing the research question: not so simple.  Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d’anesthésie ,  56 (1), 71-79. 
• Rutberg, S., & Bouikidis, C. D. (2018). Focusing on the fundamentals: A simplistic differentiation between qualitative and quantitative research.  Nephrology Nursing Journal ,  45 (2), 209-213. 
• Kyngäs, H. (2020). Qualitative research and content analysis.  The application of content analysis in nursing science research , 3-11. 
• Mattick, K., Johnston, J., & de la Croix, A. (2018). How to… write a good research question.  The clinical teacher ,  15 (2), 104-108. 
• Fandino, W. (2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls.  Indian Journal of Anaesthesia ,  63 (8), 611. 
• Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions.  ACP journal club ,  123 (3), A12-A13 

Paperpal is a comprehensive AI writing toolkit that helps students and researchers achieve 2x the writing in half the time. It leverages 21+ years of STM experience and insights from millions of research articles to provide in-depth academic writing, language editing, and submission readiness support to help you write better, faster.  

Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

Experience the future of academic writing – Sign up to Paperpal and start writing for free!  

Related Reads:

• Scientific Writing Style Guides Explained
• Ethical Research Practices For Research with Human Subjects
• 8 Most Effective Ways to Increase Motivation for Thesis Writing 
• 6 Tips for Post-Doc Researchers to Take Their Career to the Next Level

Transitive and Intransitive Verbs in the World of Research

Language and grammar rules for academic writing, you may also like, how to write your research paper in apa..., how to choose a dissertation topic, how to write a phd research proposal, how to write an academic paragraph (step-by-step guide), research funding basics: what should a grant proposal..., how to write the first draft of a..., mla works cited page: format, template & examples, academic editing: how to self-edit academic text with..., measuring academic success: definition & strategies for excellence, phd qualifying exam: tips for success .

Handy Tips To Write A Clear Research Objectives With Examples

Introduction.

Research objectives play a crucial role in any research study. They provide a clear direction and purpose for the research, guiding the researcher in their investigation. Understanding research objectives is essential for conducting a successful study and achieving meaningful results.

In this comprehensive review, we will delve into the definition of research objectives, exploring their characteristics, types, and examples. We will also discuss the relationship between research objectives and research questions, as well as provide insights into how to write effective research objectives. Additionally, we will examine the role of research objectives in research methodology and highlight the importance of them in a study. By the end of this review, you will have a comprehensive understanding of research objectives and their significance in the research process.

Definition of Research Objectives: What Are They?

A research objective is defined as a clear and concise statement that outlines the specific goals and aims of a research study. These objectives are designed to be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART), ensuring they provide a structured pathway to accomplishing the intended outcomes of the project. Each objective serves as a foundational element that summarizes the purpose of your study, guiding the research activities and helping to measure progress toward the study’s goals. Additionally, research objectives are integral components of the research framework , establishing a clear direction that aligns with the overall research questions and hypotheses. This alignment helps to ensure that the study remains focused and relevant, facilitating the systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of data.

Characteristics of Effective Research Objectives

Characteristics of research objectives include:

• Specific: Research objectives should be clear about the what, why, when, and how of the study.
• Measurable: Research objectives should identify the main variables of the study that can be measured or observed.
• Relevant: Research objectives should be relevant to the research topic and contribute to the overall understanding of the subject.
• Feasible: Research objectives should be achievable within the constraints of time, resources, and expertise available.
• Logical: Research objectives should follow a logical sequence and build upon each other to achieve the overall research goal.
• Observable: Research objectives should be observable or measurable in order to assess the progress and success of the research project.
• Unambiguous: Research objectives should be clear and unambiguous, leaving no room for interpretation or confusion.
• Measurable: Research objectives should be measurable, allowing for the collection of data and analysis of results.

By incorporating these characteristics into research objectives, researchers can ensure that their study is focused, achievable, and contributes to the body of knowledge in their field.

Types of Research Objectives

Research objective can be broadly classified into general and specific objectives. General objectives are broad statements that define the overall purpose of the research. They provide a broad direction for the study and help in setting the context. Specific objectives, on the other hand, are detailed objectives that describe what will be researched during the study. They are more focused and provide specific outcomes that the researcher aims to achieve. Specific objectives are derived from the general objectives and help in breaking down the research into smaller, manageable parts. The specific objectives should be clear, measurable, and achievable. They should be designed in a way that allows the researcher to answer the research questions and address the research problem.

In addition to general and specific objectives, research objective can also be categorized as descriptive or analytical objectives. Descriptive objectives focus on describing the characteristics or phenomena of a particular subject or population. They involve surveys, observations, and data collection to provide a detailed understanding of the subject. Analytical objectives, on the other hand, aim to analyze the relationships between variables or factors. They involve data analysis and interpretation to gain insights and draw conclusions.

Both descriptive and analytical objectives are important in research as they serve different purposes and contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the research topic.

Examples of Research Objectives

Here are some examples of research objectives in different fields:

1. Objective: To identify key characteristics and styles of Renaissance art.

This objective focuses on exploring the characteristics and styles of art during the Renaissance period. The research may involve analyzing various artworks, studying historical documents, and interviewing experts in the field.

2. Objective: To analyze modern art trends and their impact on society.

This objective aims to examine the current trends in modern art and understand how they influence society. The research may involve analyzing artworks, conducting surveys or interviews with artists and art enthusiasts, and studying the social and cultural implications of modern art.

3. Objective: To investigate the effects of exercise on mental health.

This objective focuses on studying the relationship between exercise and mental health. The research may involve conducting experiments or surveys to assess the impact of exercise on factors such as stress, anxiety, and depression.

4. Objective: To explore the factors influencing consumer purchasing decisions in the fashion industry.

This objective aims to understand the various factors that influence consumers’ purchasing decisions in the fashion industry. The research may involve conducting surveys, analyzing consumer behavior data, and studying the impact of marketing strategies on consumer choices.

5. Objective: To examine the effectiveness of a new drug in treating a specific medical condition.

This objective focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of a newly developed drug in treating a particular medical condition. The research may involve conducting clinical trials, analyzing patient data, and comparing the outcomes of the new drug with existing treatment options.

These examples demonstrate the diversity of research objectives across different disciplines. Each objective is specific, measurable, and achievable, providing a clear direction for the research study.

Aligning Research Objectives with Research Questions

Research objectives and research questions are essential components of a research project. Research objective describe what you intend your research project to accomplish. They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and provide a clear direction for the research. Research questions, on the other hand, are the starting point of any good research. They guide the overall direction of the research and help identify and focus on the research gaps .

The main difference between research questions and objectives is their form. Research questions are stated in a question form, while objectives are specific, measurable, and achievable goals that you aim to accomplish within a specified timeframe. Research questions are broad statements that provide a roadmap for the research, while objectives break down the research aim into smaller, actionable steps.

Research objectives and research questions work together to form the ‘golden thread’ of a research project. The research aim specifies what the study will answer, while the objectives and questions specify how the study will answer it. They provide a clear focus and scope for the research project, helping researchers stay on track and ensure that their study is meaningful and relevant.

When writing research objectives and questions, it is important to be clear, concise, and specific. Each objective or question should address a specific aspect of the research and contribute to the overall goal of the study. They should also be measurable, meaning that their achievement can be assessed and evaluated. Additionally, research objectives and questions should be achievable within the given timeframe and resources of the research project. By clearly defining the objectives and questions, researchers can effectively plan and execute their research, leading to valuable insights and contributions to the field.

Guidelines for Writing Clear Research Objectives

Writing research objective is a crucial step in any research project. The objectives provide a clear direction and purpose for the study, guiding the researcher in their data collection and analysis. Here are some tips on how to write effective research objective:

1. Be clear and specific

Research objective should be written in a clear and specific manner. Avoid vague or ambiguous language that can lead to confusion. Clearly state what you intend to achieve through your research.

2. Use action verbs

Start your research objective with action verbs that describe the desired outcome. Action verbs such as ‘investigate’, ‘analyze’, ‘compare’, ‘evaluate’, or ‘identify’ help to convey the purpose of the study.

3. Align with research questions or hypotheses

Ensure that your research objectives are aligned with your research questions or hypotheses. The objectives should address the main goals of your study and provide a framework for answering your research questions or testing your hypotheses.

4. Be realistic and achievable

Set research objectives that are realistic and achievable within the scope of your study. Consider the available resources, time constraints, and feasibility of your objectives. Unrealistic objectives can lead to frustration and hinder the progress of your research.

5. Consider the significance and relevance

Reflect on the significance and relevance of your research objectives. How will achieving these objectives contribute to the existing knowledge or address a gap in the literature? Ensure that your objectives have a clear purpose and value.

6. Seek feedback

It is beneficial to seek feedback on your research objectives from colleagues, mentors, or experts in your field. They can provide valuable insights and suggestions for improving the clarity and effectiveness of your objectives.

7. Revise and refine

Research objectives are not set in stone. As you progress in your research, you may need to revise and refine your objectives to align with new findings or changes in the research context. Regularly review and update your objectives to ensure they remain relevant and focused.

By following these tips, you can write research objectives that are clear, focused, and aligned with your research goals. Well-defined objectives will guide your research process and help you achieve meaningful outcomes.

The Role of Research Objectives in Research Methodology

Research objectives play a crucial role in the research methodology . In research methodology, research objectives are formulated based on the research questions or problem statement. These objectives help in defining the scope and focus of the study, ensuring that the research is conducted in a systematic and organized manner.

The research objectives in research methodology act as a roadmap for the research project. They help in identifying the key variables to be studied, determining the research design and methodology, and selecting the appropriate data collection methods .

Furthermore, research objectives in research methodology assist in evaluating the success of the study. By setting clear objectives, researchers can assess whether the desired outcomes have been achieved and determine the effectiveness of the research methods employed. It is important to note that research objectives in research methodology should be aligned with the overall research aim. They should address the specific aspects or components of the research aim and provide a framework for achieving the desired outcomes.

Understanding The Dynamic of Research Objectives in Your Study

The research objectives of a study play a crucial role in guiding the research process, ensuring that the study is focused, purposeful, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field. It is important to note that the research objectives may evolve or change as the study progresses. As new information is gathered and analyzed, the researcher may need to revise the objectives to ensure that they remain relevant and achievable.

In summary, research objectives are essential components in writing an effective research paper . They provide a roadmap for the research process, guiding the researcher in their investigation and helping to ensure that the study is purposeful and meaningful. By understanding and effectively utilizing research objectives, researchers can enhance the quality and impact of their research endeavors.

Leave a Comment Cancel reply

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

Related articles

Writing engaging introduction in research papers : tips and tricks.

Understanding Comparative Frameworks: Their Importance, Components, Examples and 8 Best Practices

Revolutionizing Effective Thesis Writing for PhD Students Using Artificial Intelligence!

3 Types of Interviews in Qualitative Research: An Essential Research Instrument and Handy Tips to Conduct Them

Highlight Abstracts: An Ultimate Guide For Researchers!

Crafting Critical Abstracts: 11 Expert Strategies for Summarizing Research

Crafting the Perfect Informative Abstract: Definition, Importance and 8 Expert Writing Tips

Descriptive Abstracts: A Complete Guide to Crafting Effective Summaries in Research Writing

Formulating Research Aims and Objectives

Formulating research aim and objectives in an appropriate manner is one of the most important aspects of your thesis. This is because research aim and objectives determine the scope, depth and the overall direction of the research. Research question is the central question of the study that has to be answered on the basis of research findings.

Research aim emphasizes what needs to be achieved within the scope of the research, by the end of the research process. Achievement of research aim provides answer to the research question.

Research objectives divide research aim into several parts and address each part separately. Research aim specifies WHAT needs to be studied and research objectives comprise a number of steps that address HOW research aim will be achieved.

As a rule of dumb, there would be one research aim and several research objectives. Achievement of each research objective will lead to the achievement of the research aim.

Consider the following as an example:

Research title: Effects of organizational culture on business profitability: a case study of Virgin Atlantic

Research aim: To assess the effects of Virgin Atlantic organizational culture on business profitability

Following research objectives would facilitate the achievement of this aim:

• Analyzing the nature of organizational culture at Virgin Atlantic by September 1, 2022
• Identifying factors impacting Virgin Atlantic organizational culture by September 16, 2022
• Analyzing impacts of Virgin Atlantic organizational culture on employee performances by September 30, 2022
• Providing recommendations to Virgin Atlantic strategic level management in terms of increasing the level of effectiveness of organizational culture by October 5, 2022

Figure below illustrates additional examples in formulating research aims and objectives:

Formulation of research question, aim and objectives

Common mistakes in the formulation of research aim relate to the following:

1. Choosing the topic too broadly . This is the most common mistake. For example, a research title of “an analysis of leadership practices” can be classified as too broad because the title fails to answer the following questions:

a) Which aspects of leadership practices? Leadership has many aspects such as employee motivation, ethical behaviour, strategic planning, change management etc. An attempt to cover all of these aspects of organizational leadership within a single research will result in an unfocused and poor work.

b) An analysis of leadership practices in which country? Leadership practices tend to be different in various countries due to cross-cultural differences, legislations and a range of other region-specific factors. Therefore, a study of leadership practices needs to be country-specific.

c) Analysis of leadership practices in which company or industry? Similar to the point above, analysis of leadership practices needs to take into account industry-specific and/or company-specific differences, and there is no way to conduct a leadership research that relates to all industries and organizations in an equal manner.

Accordingly, as an example “a study into the impacts of ethical behaviour of a leader on the level of employee motivation in US healthcare sector” would be a more appropriate title than simply “An analysis of leadership practices”.

2. Setting an unrealistic aim . Formulation of a research aim that involves in-depth interviews with Apple strategic level management by an undergraduate level student can be specified as a bit over-ambitious. This is because securing an interview with Apple CEO Tim Cook or members of Apple Board of Directors might not be easy. This is an extreme example of course, but you got the idea. Instead, you may aim to interview the manager of your local Apple store and adopt a more feasible strategy to get your dissertation completed.

3. Choosing research methods incompatible with the timeframe available . Conducting interviews with 20 sample group members and collecting primary data through 2 focus groups when only three months left until submission of your dissertation can be very difficult, if not impossible. Accordingly, timeframe available need to be taken into account when formulating research aims and objectives and selecting research methods.

Moreover, research objectives need to be formulated according to SMART principle,

 where the abbreviation stands for specific, measurable, achievable, realistic, and time-bound.

Examples of SMART research objectives

At the conclusion part of your research project you will need to reflect on the level of achievement of research aims and objectives. In case your research aims and objectives are not fully achieved by the end of the study, you will need to discuss the reasons. These may include initial inappropriate formulation of research aims and objectives, effects of other variables that were not considered at the beginning of the research or changes in some circumstances during the research process.

John Dudovskiy

• Privacy Policy

Home » Research Topics – Ideas and Examples

Research Topics – Ideas and Examples

Table of Contents

Research Topic

Definition:

Research topic is a specific subject or area of interest that a researcher wants to investigate or explore in-depth through research. It is the overarching theme or question that guides a research project and helps to focus the research activities towards a clear objective.

How to Choose Research Topic

You can Choose a Research Topic by following the below guide:

Identify your Interests

One of the most important factors to consider when choosing a research topic is your personal interest. This is because you will be spending a considerable amount of time researching and writing about the topic, so it’s essential that you are genuinely interested and passionate about it. Start by brainstorming a list of potential research topics based on your interests, hobbies, or areas of expertise. You can also consider the courses that you’ve enjoyed the most or the topics that have stood out to you in your readings.

Review the Literature

Before deciding on a research topic, you need to understand what has already been written about it. Conducting a preliminary review of the existing literature in your field can help you identify gaps in knowledge, inconsistencies in findings, or unanswered questions that you can explore further. You can do this by reading academic articles, books, and other relevant sources in your field. Make notes of the themes or topics that emerge and use this information to guide your research question.

Consult with your Advisor

Your academic advisor or a mentor in your field can provide you with valuable insights and guidance on choosing a research topic. They can help you identify areas of interest, suggest potential research questions, and provide feedback on the feasibility of your research proposal. They can also direct you towards relevant literature and resources that can help you develop your research further.

Consider the Scope and Feasibility

The research topic you choose should be manageable within the time and resource constraints of your project. Be mindful of the scope of your research and ensure that you are not trying to tackle a topic that is too broad or too narrow. If your topic is too broad, you may find it challenging to conduct a comprehensive analysis, while if it’s too narrow, you may struggle to find enough material to support your research.

Brainstorm with Peers

Discussing potential research topics with your peers or colleagues can help you generate new ideas and perspectives. They may have insights or expertise that you haven’t considered, and their feedback can help you refine your research question. You can also join academic groups or attend conferences in your field to network with other researchers and get inspiration for your research.

Consider the Relevance

Choose a research topic that is relevant to your field of study and has the potential to contribute to the existing knowledge. You can consider the latest trends and emerging issues in your field to identify topics that are both relevant and interesting. Conducting research on a topic that is timely and relevant can also increase the likelihood of getting published or presenting your research at conferences.

Keep an Open Mind

While it’s essential to choose a research topic that aligns with your interests and expertise, you should also be open to exploring new ideas or topics that may be outside of your comfort zone. Consider researching a topic that challenges your assumptions or introduces new perspectives that you haven’t considered before. You may discover new insights or perspectives that can enrich your research and contribute to your growth as a researcher.

Components of Research Topic

A research topic typically consists of several components that help to define and clarify the subject matter of the research project. These components include:

• Research problem or question: This is the central issue or inquiry that the research seeks to address. It should be well-defined and focused, with clear boundaries that limit the scope of the research.
• Background and context: This component provides the necessary background information and context for the research topic. It explains why the research problem or question is important, relevant, and timely. It may also include a literature review that summarizes the existing research on the topic.
• Objectives or goals : This component outlines the specific objectives or goals that the research seeks to achieve. It should be clear and concise, and should align with the research problem or question.
• Methodology : This component describes the research methods and techniques that will be used to collect and analyze data. It should be detailed enough to provide a clear understanding of how the research will be conducted, including the sampling method, data collection tools, and statistical analyses.
• Significance or contribution : This component explains the significance or contribution of the research topic. It should demonstrate how the research will add to the existing knowledge in the field, and how it will benefit practitioners, policymakers, or society at large.
• Limitations: This component outlines the limitations of the research, including any potential biases, assumptions, or constraints. It should be transparent and honest about the potential shortcomings of the research, and how these limitations will be addressed.
• Expected outcomes or findings : This component provides an overview of the expected outcomes or findings of the research project. It should be realistic and based on the research objectives and methodology.

Purpose of Research Topic

The purpose of a research topic is to identify a specific area of inquiry that the researcher wants to explore and investigate. A research topic is typically a broad area of interest that requires further exploration and refinement through the research process. It provides a clear focus and direction for the research project, and helps to define the research questions and objectives. A well-defined research topic also helps to ensure that the research is relevant and useful, and can contribute to the existing body of knowledge in the field. Ultimately, the purpose of a research topic is to generate new insights, knowledge, and understanding about a particular phenomenon, issue, or problem.

Characteristics of Research Topic

some common characteristics of a well-defined research topic include:

• Relevance : A research topic should be relevant and significant to the field of study and address a current issue, problem, or gap in knowledge.
• Specificity : A research topic should be specific enough to allow for a focused investigation and clear understanding of the research question.
• Feasibility : A research topic should be feasible, meaning it should be possible to carry out the research within the given constraints of time, resources, and expertise.
• Novelty : A research topic should add to the existing body of knowledge by introducing new ideas, concepts, or theories.
• Clarity : A research topic should be clearly articulated and easy to understand, both for the researcher and for potential readers of the research.
• Importance : A research topic should be important and have practical implications for the field or society as a whole.
• Significance : A research topic should be significant and have the potential to generate new insights and understanding in the field.

Examples of Research Topics

Here are some examples of research topics that are currently relevant and in-demand in various fields:

• The impact of social media on mental health: With the rise of social media use, this topic has gained significant attention in recent years. Researchers could investigate how social media affects self-esteem, body image, and other mental health concerns.
• The use of artificial intelligence in healthcare: As healthcare becomes increasingly digitalized, researchers could explore the use of AI algorithms to predict and prevent disease, optimize treatment plans, and improve patient outcomes.
• Renewable energy and sustainable development: As the world seeks to reduce its carbon footprint, researchers could investigate the potential of renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power, and how these technologies can be integrated into existing infrastructure.
• The impact of workplace diversity and inclusion on employee productivity: With an increasing focus on diversity and inclusion in the workplace, researchers could investigate how these factors affect employee morale, productivity, and retention.
• Cybersecurity and data privacy: As data breaches and cyber attacks become more common, researchers could explore new methods of protecting sensitive information and preventing malicious attacks.
• T he impact of mindfulness and meditation on stress reduction: As stress-related health issues become more prevalent, researchers could investigate the effectiveness of mindfulness and meditation practices on reducing stress and improving overall well-being.

Research Topics Ideas

Here are some Research Topics Ideas from different fields:

• The impact of social media on mental health and well-being.
• The effectiveness of various teaching methods in improving academic performance in high schools.
• The role of AI and machine learning in healthcare: current applications and future potentials.
• The impact of climate change on wildlife habitats and conservation efforts.
• The effects of video game violence on aggressive behavior in young adults.
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction techniques in reducing anxiety and depression.
• The impact of technology on human relationships and social interactions.
• The role of exercise in promoting physical and mental health in older adults.
• The causes and consequences of income inequality in developed and developing countries.
• The effects of cultural diversity in the workplace on job satisfaction and productivity.
• The impact of remote work on employee productivity and work-life balance.
• The relationship between sleep patterns and cognitive functioning.
• The effectiveness of online learning versus traditional classroom learning.
• The role of government policies in promoting renewable energy adoption.
• The effects of childhood trauma on mental health in adulthood.
• The impact of social media on political participation and civic engagement.
• The effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders.
• The relationship between nutrition and cognitive functioning.
• The impact of gentrification on urban communities.
• The effects of music on mood and emotional regulation.
• The impact of microplastics on marine ecosystems and food webs.
• The role of artificial intelligence in detecting and preventing cyberattacks.
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in managing chronic pain.
• The relationship between personality traits and job satisfaction.
• The effects of social isolation on mental and physical health in older adults.
• The impact of cultural and linguistic diversity on healthcare access and outcomes.
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating depression and anxiety in adolescents.
• The relationship between exercise and cognitive aging.
• The effects of social media on body image and self-esteem.
• The role of corporate social responsibility in promoting sustainable business practices.
• The impact of mindfulness meditation on attention and focus in children.
• The relationship between political polarization and media consumption habits.
• The effects of urbanization on mental health and well-being.
• The role of social support in managing chronic illness.
• The impact of social media on romantic relationships and dating behaviors.
• The effectiveness of behavioral interventions in promoting physical activity in sedentary adults.
• The relationship between sleep quality and immune function.
• The effects of workplace diversity and inclusion programs on employee retention.
• The impact of climate change on global food security.
• The role of music therapy in improving communication and social skills in individuals with autism spectrum disorder.
• The impact of cultural values on the development of mental health stigma.
• The effectiveness of mindfulness-based stress reduction techniques in reducing burnout in healthcare professionals.
• The relationship between social media use and body dissatisfaction among adolescents.
• The effects of nature exposure on cognitive functioning and well-being.
• The role of peer mentoring in promoting academic success in underrepresented student populations.
• The impact of neighborhood characteristics on physical activity and obesity.
• The effectiveness of cognitive rehabilitation interventions in improving cognitive functioning in individuals with traumatic brain injury.
• The relationship between organizational culture and employee job satisfaction.
• The effects of cultural immersion experiences on intercultural competence development.
• The role of assistive technology in promoting independence and quality of life for individuals with disabilities.
• The impact of workplace design on employee productivity and well-being.
• The impact of digital technologies on the music industry and artist revenues.
• The effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy in treating insomnia.
• The relationship between social media use and body weight perception among young adults.
• The effects of green spaces on mental health and well-being in urban areas.
• The role of mindfulness-based interventions in reducing substance use disorders.
• The impact of workplace bullying on employee turnover and job satisfaction.
• The effectiveness of animal-assisted therapy in treating mental health disorders.
• The relationship between teacher-student relationships and academic achievement.
• The effects of social support on resilience in individuals experiencing adversity.
• The role of cognitive aging in driving safety and mobility.
• The effectiveness of psychotherapy in treating post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
• The relationship between social media use and sleep quality.
• The effects of cultural competency training on healthcare providers’ attitudes and behaviors towards diverse patient populations.
• The role of exercise in preventing chronic diseases such as type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
• The impact of the gig economy on job security and worker rights.
• The effectiveness of art therapy in promoting emotional regulation and coping skills in children and adolescents.
• The relationship between parenting styles and child academic achievement.
• The effects of social comparison on well-being and self-esteem.
• The role of nutrition in promoting healthy aging and longevity.
• The impact of gender diversity in leadership on organizational performance.
• The effectiveness of family-based interventions in treating eating disorders.
• The relationship between social media use and perceived loneliness among older adults.
• The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on pain management in chronic pain patients.
• The role of physical activity in preventing and treating depression.
• The impact of cultural differences on communication and conflict resolution in international business.
• The effectiveness of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) in treating anxiety disorders.
• The relationship between student engagement and academic success in higher education.
• The effects of discrimination on mental health outcomes in minority populations.
• The role of virtual reality in enhancing learning experiences.
• The impact of social media influencers on consumer behavior and brand loyalty.
• The effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) in treating chronic pain.
• The relationship between social media use and body image dissatisfaction among men.
• The effects of exposure to nature on cognitive functioning and creativity.
• The role of spirituality in coping with illness and disability.
• The impact of automation on employment and job displacement.
• The effectiveness of dialectical behavior therapy (DBT) in treating borderline personality disorder.
• The relationship between teacher-student relationships and school attendance.
• The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on workplace stress and burnout.
• The role of exercise in promoting cognitive functioning and brain health in older adults.
• The impact of diversity and inclusion initiatives on organizational innovation and creativity.
• The effectiveness of cognitive remediation therapy in treating schizophrenia.
• The relationship between social media use and body dissatisfaction among women.
• The effects of exposure to natural light on mood and sleep quality.
• The role of spirituality in enhancing well-being and resilience in military personnel.
• The impact of artificial intelligence on job training and skill development.
• The effectiveness of interpersonal therapy (IPT) in treating depression.
• The relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement among low-income students.
• The effects of mindfulness-based interventions on emotional regulation and coping skills in trauma survivors.
• The role of nutrition in preventing and treating mental health disorders.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

You may also like

Data Verification – Process, Types and Examples

Critical Analysis – Types, Examples and Writing...

Research Problem – Examples, Types and Guide

Context of the Study – Writing Guide and Examples

Figures in Research Paper – Examples and Guide

Theoretical Framework – Types, Examples and...

• Research Group
• Job Seekers

Research Tips

Understanding the Difference between Research Questions and Objectives

January 13, 2023

When conducting research, clearly understanding the difference between research questions and objectives is important. While these terms are often used interchangeably, they refer to two distinct aspects of the research process.

Research questions are broad statements that guide the overall direction of the research. They identify the main problem or area of inquiry that the research will address. For example, a research question might be, "What is the impact of social media on teenage mental health?" This question sets the stage for the research and helps to define the scope of the study.

• Research questions are more general and open-ended, while objectives are specific and measurable.
• Research questions identify the main problem or area of inquiry, while objectives define the specific outcomes that the researcher is looking to achieve.
• Research questions help define the study's scope, while objectives help guide the research process.
• Research questions are often used to generate hypotheses or identify gaps in existing knowledge, while objectives are used to establish clear and achievable targets for the research.
• Research questions and objectives are not mutually exclusive, but well-defined research questions should lead to specific objectives necessary to answer the question.

On the other hand, research objectives are specific, measurable goals that the research aims to achieve. They are used to guide the research process and help to define the specific outcomes that the researcher is looking to achieve. For example, an objective for the above research question might be "To determine the correlation between social media usage and rates of depression in teenagers." This objective is more specific and measurable than the research question and helps define the specific outcomes that the researcher is looking to achieve.

It is important to note that research questions and objectives are not mutually exclusive; a study can have one or several questions and objectives. A well-defined research question should lead to specific objectives necessary to answer the question.

In summary, research questions and objectives are two distinct aspects of the research process. Research questions are broad statements that guide the overall direction of the research, while research objectives are specific, measurable goals that the research aims to achieve. Understanding these two terms' differences is essential for conducting effective and meaningful research.

Articulating the ultimate objectives of research capacity strengthening programmes: Why this is important and how we might achieve it.

Justin Pulford Roles: Conceptualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing Meshack Nzesei Mutua Roles: Conceptualization, Writing – Review & Editing Imelda Bates Roles: Conceptualization, Writing – Review & Editing Nadia Tagoe Roles: Conceptualization, Writing – Original Draft Preparation, Writing – Review & Editing

‘Research capacity strengthening’ (RCS) is an umbrella term that can be used to describe a wide variety of activities conducted in support of diverse objectives premised upon distinct, potentially opposing, views. Despite this, the ultimate objective of RCS activities is rarely made explicit which can be problematic when diverse objectives are possible. By ‘ultimate’ objective we are referring to the overarching (often long-term) goal an RCS initiative is intended to contribute towards (e.g. better population health) as opposed to the more immediate ‘proximate’ (often short-term) objectives of any such activity (e.g. improved capacity to undertake infectious disease research).

We argue a need for those funding, designing and implementing RCS initiatives to make clear statements as to the ultimate objective that they foresee their respective initiative contributing towards as well as the proposed pathway and associated assumptions that underlie their approach. Examples of distinct ultimate objectives for RCS initiatives are presented alongside fictitious examples of how they may be transparently reported from both a funder and implementor perspective.

Such transparency should be routine within the scope of funding calls for RCS activities (even when such activities are only a minor component of the call), subsequent applications to those calls and any description of an applied RCS activity/ies and/or the associated outcomes thereof. The process of determining one’s ultimate objective will further cause funders and actors to think through their respective initiatives more thoroughly and make informed choices and better designed RCS projects. Doing so would reduce any ambiguity associated with the use of the term ‘research capacity strengthening’ and would provide a stronger foundation for robust programme evaluation.

Research capacity strengthening; evaluation; global South

Introduction

There is a long history of governments, development partners and philanthropic organisations financing research capacity strengthening (RCS) initiatives in the global South. Common examples, among many others, include scholarship schemes, infrastructure grants and collaborative research awards. The cumulative investment in RCS support within the global South has not been calculated but would certainly exceed several billion GBP and counting. As an example, the UK government and Wellcome spent £873 million between 2016-2021 on dedicated RCS initiatives in the global South with a further £1.2 billion expended on research activities with a capacity strengthening component. 1 Benefits of RCS investment have been widely reported in the literature 2 – 4 and gains in Southern research capacity are apparent in measures such as scientific publication output. 5 Nevertheless, much of this investment is based on very little evidence of the effectiveness or impact on long term outcomes. Southern research capacity remains well behind Northern standards on most metrics 6 , 7 and there is still much to be learnt about the value for money of these investments and about the pathways by which impact in the global South is achieved. 4

Limited understanding of RCS impact reflects, in part, a lack of sound evaluation. 8 , 9 RCS is a long-term, multi-faceted and complex undertaking and the tools to support robust, standardised evaluation are only beginning to emerge. 10 – 12 A further factor confounding evaluation efforts is a pervasive ambiguity in the use of the term ‘research capacity strengthening’ itself. RCS is not a construct in its own right; rather, RCS is an umbrella term that can be used to describe a wide variety of activities conducted in support of diverse objectives premised upon distinct, potentially opposing, views (see further below for examples). Despite this, the RCS term is often used with a false assumption of neutrality 13 and without a clear definition being provided. 8 Those definitions that are presented are highly diverse and typically process oriented, yet it is not at all apparent whether different definitions of RCS represent distinct conceptualisations of RCS as an undertaking or whether (as is more likely) they are being used with a broadly consistent (yet often ambiguously stated) meaning (see Box 1 ). Even the term ‘research capacity strengthening’ is often used interchangeably with the terms ‘research capacity building’ and ‘research capacity development’ 8 despite attempts to differentiate their meaning. 9 , 14 Without absolute transparency about the agreed explicit, ultimate objective of an RCS initiative, and the assumptions upon which it is based, then our ability to advance understanding of what works well and why in RCS practice through applied research, evaluation and shared learning is compromised. By ‘ultimate’ objective we are referring to the overarching (often long-term) goal an individual RCS initiative is intended to contribute towards (e.g. better population health) as opposed to the more immediate ‘proximate’ (often short-term) objectives of any such activity (e.g. improved capacity to undertake infectious disease research). Proximate objectives remain important; they are just not the focus of this paper.

Box 1. Defining research capacity strengthening.

A scoping review of health-related RCS papers published in academic journals between 2000-2016 identified a total of 172 papers of which only 19% (33/172) presented some form of RCS definition 8 . In the 33 papers that did so, a total of 25 distinct definitions were provided. Seventeen of these 25 definitions pertained to either ‘health research capacity strengthening’ or ‘research capacity strengthening’ (or variants thereof such as ‘research capacity building’) whilst the remaining eight pertained to broader definitions of ‘capacity strengthening’ (or variants thereof) that were not specific to research. Many of these definitions emphasised RCS as a ‘process’ without specifying an objective beyond strengthened capacity, e.g.

“Process of individual and institutional development which leads to higher levels of skills and greater ability to perform useful research.” 15

“A long-term process that requires a systematic and inter-sectoral approach to developing appropriate regulatory frameworks, building and maintaining physical infrastructure, and investing in human resources, equipment and training in an environment conducive to research commitment and institutional support. ” 16

In definitions where an objective was indicated, this was typically couched in terms of the capacity to identify and resolve ‘problems’, e.g.

“The ongoing process of empowering individuals, institutions, organisations, and nations to: define and prioritise problems systematically; develop and scientifically evaluate appropriate solutions; and share and apply the knowledge generated.” 17

“Strengthening the abilities of individuals, institutions, and countries to perform research functions, defining national problems and priorities, solving national problems, utilizing the results of research in policy making and programme delivery.” 18

The latter examples explicitly draw a link between research capacity and national development (as described below), although this does not then mean that other definitions are used in support of a different objective; it is simply not possible to tell unless the ultimate objective is clearly articulated.

The aim of this paper is to justify and promote the need for transparency in RCS practice in making the ultimate RCS objective(s) explicit and to provide some recommendations as to how this might be achieved. Not only will this support more effective learning and evaluation, greater clarity of purpose for any RCS activity will also help inform the design and implementation processes to ensure that they are compatible with, and contribute towards achieving, the stated objectives. To substantiate our argument, we outline three different ultimate objectives for RCS activities. We also highlight the considerable scope for distinct and potentially divergent pathways through which RCS activities might support these objectives, even when the ultimate objective is agreed, well-defined and shared. In so doing, we are not endorsing any one approach over another, we are merely demonstrating that the common term ‘research capacity strengthening’ can be used to describe a wide range of potentially divergent activities. The examples we provide should not be considered exhaustive. Further examples, with differing implications, are almost certainly possible and we would encourage others to articulate these in the public domain and to challenge and refine those presented here. We will begin with a description of what appears to be the most common ultimate objective for RCS investment in the global South: (inter) national development.

RCS in support of international development

Much contemporary RCS practice in the global South, whether explicitly stated or not, is conducted within an international development context. By ‘international development’ we are referring to any contributory effort towards improving the health and/or development status of the intervention country. This positioning is evidenced in the two statements quoted below. The first from the United Nation’s Development Programme (UNDP) referring to the importance of capacity development more broadly (inclusive of, but not limited to research capacity) and the second from the Council on Health Research Development (COHRED) referring to a specific type of RCS (health):

“A country’s successful development hinges on having sufficient capacity. While financial resources, including official development assistance, are vital, they are not enough to promote sustainable human development. Without supportive strategies, policies, laws and procedures, well-functioning organizations, and educated and skilled people, countries lack the foundation to plan, implement and review their national and local development strategies”. 19

“We find that essential national health research is a critical tool for equitable health and development and therefore recommend that each developing country, taking account of its own circumstances, make careful plans for and carry out sustained, long-term programs for building research capacity and conducting essential national health research.” 20

The ultimate objective of any RCS initiative conducted within an international development context, then, would be a measurable improvement in a nation’s health and/or development status. However, there are diverse views on what factors, processes or systems may best drive national development which will in turn influence decisions as to what specific development objectives should be prioritised and what corresponding research capacities need to be strengthened. Thus, referencing ‘(inter) national development’ as a RCS objective remains obscure if the type of development sought, the specific development objectives and the proposed pathway towards achieving them are not articulated. For example, proponents of market economics might recognise a transition towards a knowledge-based economy as a key driver of socio-economic development and on this basis prioritise RCS in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) as essential precursors to any such transition. Others may prioritise national health research capacity on the basis that population health is fundamental to national development per se, irrespective of the underlying economic model. Alternatively, RCS initiatives may be based on achieving progress against a specific development indicator, such as one or more of the sustainable development goals (SDGs); which scientific disciplines or research fields are then prioritised for capacity strengthening would vary accordingly.

RCS interventions undertaken within an international development context may also vary in terms of design, even when prioritising the same development objective or scientific discipline. RCS initiatives have historically focused on strengthening capacity of individuals, such as researchers and research team members, as opposed to the institutions or broader research systems they work within, 21 yet funders are now increasingly emphasising the importance of institutional and systems level interventions. 22 RCS investments have also often emphasised notions of ‘research excellence’ on the premise that it is innovative, high-quality research that drives development. 23 However, this can result in disproportionately large investment in a smaller number of the comparatively better capacitated universities and research institutions in the global South further exacerbating local, national or regional disparities in research capacity. 24 – 26 Thus, the concept of equity has become a key consideration in the field with a view towards more power and resources being directed towards the less-well capacitated individuals, institutions, and nations across the global South. 27 There is limited evidence-based guidance to inform which of the many possible variations in RCS approach may be most effective in terms of supporting an international development objective whatever the specific objective might be. Rather, legitimate arguments can be made in support of multiple approaches and different RCS initiatives make different choices, even when operating within the same overarching programme. 28

Without clear statements as to the specific development objectives sought and the proposed pathway towards achieving these objectives, it becomes difficult to design and implement optimally conducive RCS activities and evaluate their success. To illustrate, in some of the examples presented above different scientific disciples or research fields are being prioritised for capacity strengthening (STEM vs health research vs SDG appropriate research) yet it would not be possible to make or to understand these prioritisation decisions without at least some understanding of the underlying development objective. Similarly, the approach and ethos to designing and implementing the RCS activities once the specific objective was agreed would also likely vary across these examples. Notions of attaining research excellence within the defined standards of a Northern research tradition may be highly appropriate to RCS activities that prioritise STEM subjects in support of transitioning towards a knowledge economy, yet the same approach may be less compatible with RCS activities undertaken in support of empowering local community health initiatives. No one approach is necessarily more or less appropriate than any other, nor indeed would any one approach be exclusive to any one development objective; however, clarity as to the RCS purpose in each case would likely signal the more suitable implementation approach further enhancing capacity outcomes and providing a clearer basis for subsequent evaluation.

To further complicate the situation, we now argue that RCS in the global South can also be conducted outside of an international development context altogether. We present two such possibilities: 1) RCS in support of knowledge as a common good and 2) RCS in support of decolonisation.

RCS activities outside of an international development context

Knowledge has long been regarded as a form of common or public good 29 as have public Universities. 30 The extent to which (all) scientific knowledge may be considered a common good or the extent to which public universities are genuinely in the public good are open to debate. 30 , 31 However, within the parameters of these ongoing debates, it remains plausible to frame RCS investment (or at least some forms of RCS investment) as a contribution to the common good. This may overlap with an international development approach to some degree, as scientific knowledge that supports international development may also be considered a common good 29 ; yet it also encompasses scientific disciplines and research fields such as Philosophy, Theology or History that are less likely to attract funding within an international development context. The ultimate objective of any such RCS investment would not be the outcome of knowledge application (e.g. such as a development goal), but a measurable increase in the quantity, quality, diversity and/or access to (scientific) knowledge itself.

RCS investments could also potentially be framed within a decolonisation context. It is widely recognised that a consequence of the European colonial era was the disruption, degradation or destruction of traditional customs and bodies of knowledge among colonised people. 32 Colonisation also instituted the imposition of the coloniser’s ideals, practices and standards which ended up suppressing indigenous knowledge practices. 33 It would therefore be reasonable to consider strengthening capacity for research that supports the restitution of traditional knowledge bodies and/or strengthening local systems of research as conceptualised by the formerly colonised peoples or their descendants. The ultimate objective of any RCS activity in such instances would be greater recognition of indigenous knowledge systems and promotion of self-determination at local/national/regional levels regarding capacity goals, needs and the pathways towards achieving specified goals. As with the international development example, the RCS activities conducted in support of either a common good or decolonisation objective, along with the proposed pathways to impact and associated assumptions, would also be open to considerable variation.

These examples demonstrate that activities described as ‘research capacity strengthening’ can be implemented in support of diverse ultimate objectives and premised upon a multitude of legitimate, yet potentially very different, pathways to achieving their respective objective. Distinct scientific disciplines or research fields may be more or less likely to receive capacity strengthening support depending upon what the ultimate objective is and, in some cases, these prioritisation decisions could be diametrically opposed. Hence the call for greater transparency re the ultimate objectives when describing or reporting on future, current or past RCS activities. In practice, RCS programmes may have multiple or over-lapping objectives. For example, Mormina and Istratii recently argued a case for a decolonisation approach to RCS in support of international development objectives 13 and, as noted above, science conducted as a common good may also support development objectives in some instances. This is in no way problematic if the primary or overlapping ultimate objectives are clearly articulated. When such transparency is lacking, as argued above, it becomes difficult to evaluate the outcomes of a RCS intervention or even to design and implement an intervention in a manner optimally conducive to achieving the objective. This is analogous to any other ‘experiment’ i.e. if the ultimate objective is not clearly stated from the outset, alongside any associated assumptions as to how best to achieve that objective, then how can an optimal intervention be designed in the first instance?

Achieving transparency in practice

To aid the appropriate interpretation of RCS activities as well as subsequent learning and evaluation, we propose that those funding, designing and implementing RCS initiatives make clear statements as to the ultimate objective that they foresee their respective initiative contributing towards. They should also describe the proposed pathway and associated assumptions that underlie their approach. Key principles that are expected to be, or were, prioritised in RCS design and implementation such as ‘excellence’, ‘equity’ or ‘collaboration’ may also be emphasised. These statements do not need to be overly complex or lengthy. To illustrate, some fictitious examples of transparent statements about the ultimate RCS objectives from both a funder and implementor perspective are presented below, along with a note on how they support transparent RCS reporting and would inform subsequent evaluation ( Box 2 ).

Box 2. Fictitious examples of transparent RCS reporting.

Example 1: RCS in support of international development

Funder statement: This programme is designed to strengthen research capacity in STEM-related disciplines in ODA-eligible countries. The programme is premised on the view that greater national research capacity in STEM-related disciplines will provide a stronger foundation for the development and uptake of innovative, locally appropriate technical solutions to priority national and regional challenges and contribute towards economic growth through innovation-led commerce and enterprise.

Implementor statement: Our project is designed to strengthen research capacity in computational modelling in [name of focal nation/s]. We will achieve this by supporting the development of a specialist ‘centre of excellence in computational modelling’ housed within the University of X and supporting them to cascade these skills to other institutions. This approach is premised on the view that the fastest and most efficient way to develop research capacity in computational modelling in [nation] is through intensive investment of time and resources within a specialist centre that can then support the development of similar expertise in other institutions throughout the country and region (i.e. a ‘hub and spoke’ model).

Comment: The ultimate objectives (addressing priority national/regional challenges & contributing towards socio-economic development) of the RCS funding are made clear in the funder statement as is the pathway towards achieving these objectives (STEM-derived innovative, locally appropriate technical solutions with potential for commercialisation). The implementor statement makes clear the approach (investment in a computational modelling centre of excellence) with which their project will contribute towards the ultimate objective as well as the assumptions underlying this pathway (fastest way to build capacity in the short-term and efficient in the long-term when considered the’ hub’ for future ‘spokes’). Evaluation of this RCS project would therefore look for examples of technical solutions that the centre for computational modelling has developed (or is currently developing) that have addressed (or could potentially contribute towards addressing) a national/regional challenge and/or that have been (or potentially could be) commercialised.

Example 2. RCS in support of knowledge as a common good

Funder statement: This programme is designed to strengthen research capacity in the Arts and Humanities. The programme is premised on the view that creating, and ensuring access to, new knowledge from across traditional academic disciplines is in the common good. The Arts and Humanities have been prioritised in this instance as, relative to many other academic disciplines, research funding in these fields is scarce.

Implementor statement: Our project is designed to support five early career researchers, one from each of five universities belonging to our consortium, to undertake three-year post-doctoral study within an Arts and Humanities subject of their choosing. Along with the financial resources necessary to undertake their study, each scholar will be provided expert mentorship and specialist leadership training to assist their career development and we will support the production of multiple, publicly accessible outputs (e.g. books, artwork, film) arising from their work. This approach is premised on the view that each University within our consortium should have the right to self-determine which Arts and Humanities discipline is prioritised for funding in their context. Our approach further recognises that early career researchers in the Arts and Humanities need specialist funding and guidance to develop a productive and sustainable career in what is a competitive academic environment and that the value of their work to society will be best served by ensuring that it is made readily accessible in easy to understand and engaging ways.

Comment: The ultimate objective (contributing to the common good) of the RCS funding is made clear in the funder statement as is the premise upon which the Arts and Humanities were prioritised (neglected relative to other academic disciplines). The implementor statement makes clear the pathway (mentored and resourced early career researcher scholarships and support to produce accessible outputs) with which their project will contribute towards the ultimate objective as well as the assumptions underlying this pathway (scholars in Arts and Humanities need specialist funding and support to develop and sustain careers in a competitive environment). Evaluation of this RCS project would therefore look for examples of outputs that represent new knowledge and evidence that this knowledge has been made accessible to, and has been accessed by, the public.

Example 3. RCS in support of decolonisation

Funder statement: This RCS programme is designed to strengthen indigenous knowledge and/or knowledge systems in [nation]. This investment is provided by [donor] in recognition that indigenous knowledge/knowledge systems are a precious national and global resource. All decisions related to how this funding will be used to support RCS within [nation], including how the notion of research is conceptualised, is for [nation] to self-determine.

Implementor statement: Our project is designed to ensure the oral histories of [a people] are recorded for posterity and made accessible for the national good. It is our belief that a full understanding of our nation’s people, our current place in the world and our future pathways is not possible without reference to our own unique histories which are at risk of being lost or neglected if not recorded and communicated in ways that everyone in our society can engage with.

Comment: The ultimate objective (strengthen indigenous knowledge and/or knowledge systems) of the RCS funding is made clear in the funder statement as is the premise upon how the funding will be used to support this objective (for the recipient nation to self-determine). The implementor statement makes clear how the funding will be used in support of this objective (record oral histories) as well as the assumptions underlying this decision (it is in the national good to do so and a risk of oral histories being lost or neglected if the work is not undertaken). Evaluation of this RCS project would therefore look to establish that the work was self-determined independent of funder influence and that there was a measurable increase in, and/or access to or influence of, indigenous knowledge.

These examples illustrate what should be considered a minimum acceptable level of transparency. Understanding of any RCS activity would be further enhanced by fuller descriptions of proposed impact pathways and there are widely used methods and tools for doing so, including the use of programme Theories of Change, 34 logic models 35 and even specialist frameworks intended to support better, more transparent RCS practice and evaluation. 12 Even basic descriptions such as those presented above would represent a considerable improvement in transparent reporting of RCS activities if they were applied in practice. Such transparency should be routine within the scope of funding calls for RCS activities (even when such activities are only a minor component of the call), subsequent applications to those calls and any description of an applied RCS activity/ies and/or the associated outcomes thereof. The process of determining one’s ultimate objective will further cause funders and actors to think through their respective initiatives more thoroughly and make informed choices and better designed RCS projects. Doing so would reduce any ambiguity associated with the use of the term ‘research capacity strengthening’ and would provide a stronger foundation for robust programme evaluation. From such a foundation, and with appropriate investment to support routine evaluation, the research community will be in a strong position to greatly accelerate our ability to understand what works well, and not so well, in our collective RCS endeavours.

Ethics and consent

No ethics and consent required.

Data and software availability

No data are associated with this article.

• 1.   UKCDR: UK funding landscape for research capacity strengthening in low- and middle-income countries: briefing paper, October 2021. London: UK Collaborative on Development Research; 2021.
• 2.   Aiyenigba A, Abomo P, Wiltgen Georgi N, et al. : Enabling research capacity strengthening within a consortium context: a qualitative study. BMJ Glob. Health. 2022; 7 (6): e008763. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 3.   Vicente-Crespo M, Agunbiade O, Eyers J, et al. : Institutionalizing research capacity strengthening in LMICs: A systematic review and meta-synthesis. AAS Open Res. 2020; 3 : 43. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 4.   Buser JM, Capellari E, Wondafrash M, et al. : Unravelling the complexity of research capacity strengthening for health professionals in low- and middle-income countries: A concept analysis. J. Adv. Nurs. 2024. [published Online First: 20240516]. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text
• 5.   Confraria H, Godinho M: The impact of African science: A bibliometric analysis. Scientometrics. 2015; 102 : 1241–1268. Publisher Full Text
• 6.   UNESCO: UNESCO Science Report: the Race Against Time for Smarter Development. Schneegans S STaJL, ed. Paris: UNESCO Publishing; 2021.
• 7.   Nabyonga-Orem J, Asamani J, Olu O: Why are African researchers left behind in global scientific publications? A viewpoint. Int. J. Health Policy Manag. 2024; 13 : 8149.
• 8.   Dean L, Gregorius S, Bates I, et al. : Advancing the science of health research capacity strengthening in low-income and middle-income countries: a scoping review of the published literature, 2000-2016. BMJ Open. 2017; 7 (12): e018718. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 9.   Franzen SR, Chandler C, Lang T: Health research capacity development in low and middle income countries: reality or rhetoric? A systematic meta-narrative review of the qualitative literature. BMJ Open. 2017; 7 (1): e012332. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 10.   Wenham C, Wouters O, Jones C, et al. : Measuring health science research and development in Africa: mapping the available data. Health Res. Policy Syst. 2021; 19 (1): 142. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 11.   Khisa AM, Gitau E, Pulford J, et al. : A framework and indicators to improve research capacity strengthening evaluation practice. Liverpool: Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and the African Population Health Research Centre.2019.
• 12.   Mirzoev T, Topp SM, Afifi RA, et al. : Conceptual framework for systemic capacity strengthening for health policy and systems research. BMJ Glob. Health. 2022; 7 (8): e009764. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 13.   Mormina M, Istratii R: ‘Capacity for what? Capacity for whom?’ A decolonial deconstruction of research caapcity development practices in the Global South and proposal for a value-centred approach. Wellcome Open Res. 2021; 6 (129). Publisher Full Text
• 14.   Zamfir L: Understanding capacity-building/capacity-development: A core concept of development policy. Brussels: European Parliamentary Research Service; 2017.
• 15.   Golenko X, Pager S, Holden L: A thematic analysis of the role of the organisation in building allied health research capacity: a senior managers’ perspective. BMC Health Serv. Res. 2012; 12 : 276. [published Online First: 20120827]. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 16.   Osei-Atweneboana MY, Lustigman S, Prichard RK, et al. : A research agenda for helminth diseases of humans: health research and capacity building in disease-endemic countries for helminthiases control. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 2012; 6 (4): e1602. [published Online First: 20120424]. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 17.   Lansang MA, Dennis R: Building capacity in health research in the developing world. Bull. World Health Organ. 2004; 82 (10): 764–770. PubMed Abstract
• 18.   Kilic B, Phillimore P, Islek D, et al. : Research capacity and training needs for non-communicable diseases in the public health arena in Turkey. BMC Health Serv. Res. 2014; 14 : 373. [published Online First: 20140905]. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 19.   UNDP: Supporting Capacity Development: The UNDP Approach. New York: United Nations Development Programme Bureau for Development Policy; 2009.
• 20.   COHRED: Health research: essential link to equity in development. New York: Commission on Health Research for Development (COHRED); 1990.
• 21.   Mormina M: Science, Technology and Innovation as Social Goods for Development: Rethinking Research Capacity Building from Sen’s Capabilities Approach. Sci. Eng. Ethics. 2019; 25 (3): 671–92. [published Online First: 20180301]. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 22.   ESSENCE on Health Research and CCR: Effective Research Capacity Strengthening: A Quick Guide for Funders.2023.
• 23.   Kraemer-Mbula E, Tijssen R, Wallace M, et al. : Transforming Research Excellence: New Ideas from the Global South. Cape Town, South Africa: African Minds; 2020.
• 24.   Yarmoshuk A, Abomo P, Fitzgerald N, et al. : A mapping of health professional and post-graduate health programs in the WHO African Region. AAS Open Res. 2021; 4 (55). Publisher Full Text
• 25.   Morel T, Maher D, Nyirenda T, et al. : Strengthening health research capacity in sub-Saharan Africa: mapping the 2012-2017 landscape of externally funded international postgraduate training at institutions in the region. Glob. Health. 2018; 14 (1): 77. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 26.   Kilmarx PH, Maitin T, Adam T, et al. : A Mechanism for Reviewing Investments in Health Research Capacity Strengthening in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Ann. Glob. Health. 2020; 86 (1): 92. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 27.   Maher D, Aseffa A, Kay S, et al. : External funding to strengthen capacity for research in low-income and middle-income countries: exigence, excellence and equity. BMJ Glob. Health. 2020; 5 (3): e002212. [published Online First: 20200317]. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 28.   Tagoe N, Pulford J, Kinyanjui S, et al. : A framework for managing health research capacity strengthening consortia: addressing tensions and enhancing capacity outcomes. BMJ Glob. Health. 2022; 7 (10): e009472. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 29.   Stiglitz JE: Knowledge as a Global Public Good.Kaul I, Grunberg I, Stern M, editors. Global Public Goods. New York: Oxfor University Press; 1999.
• 30.   Marginson S: Higher education and the public good. High. Educ. Q. 2011; 65 (4): 411–433. Publisher Full Text
• 31.   Radder H: Which Scientific Knowledge is a Common Good? Soc. Epistemol. 2017; 31 (5): 431–450. Publisher Full Text
• 32.   Ziegler J, Lehner E: Knowledge systems and the colonial legacies in African science education. Cult. Stud. Sci. Educ. 2018; 13 : 1101–1108. Publisher Full Text
• 33.   Koum Besson ES: How to identify epistemic injustice in global health research funding practices: a decolonial guide. BMJ Glob. Health. 2022; 7 (4): e008950. PubMed Abstract | Publisher Full Text | Free Full Text
• 34.   Mayne J: Theory of change analysis: Building robust theories of change. Can. J. Program Eval. 2017; 32 (2): 155–173. Publisher Full Text
• 35.   McLaughlin J, Jordan G: Using Logic Models.Newcomer K, Hatry H, Wholey J, editors. Handbook of Practical Program Evaluation. Wiley; 2015; pp. 62–87.

Comments on this article Comments (0)

Open Peer Review

Reviewer status, comments on this article.

All Comments (0)

Browse by related subjects

Competing Interests Policy

Provide sufficient details of any financial or non-financial competing interests to enable users to assess whether your comments might lead a reasonable person to question your impartiality. Consider the following examples, but note that this is not an exhaustive list:

• Within the past 4 years, you have held joint grants, published or collaborated with any of the authors of the selected paper.
• You have a close personal relationship (e.g. parent, spouse, sibling, or domestic partner) with any of the authors.
• You are a close professional associate of any of the authors (e.g. scientific mentor, recent student).
• You work at the same institute as any of the authors.
• You hope/expect to benefit (e.g. favour or employment) as a result of your submission.
• You are an Editor for the journal in which the article is published.
• You expect to receive, or in the past 4 years have received, any of the following from any commercial organisation that may gain financially from your submission: a salary, fees, funding, reimbursements.
• You expect to receive, or in the past 4 years have received, shared grant support or other funding with any of the authors.
• You hold, or are currently applying for, any patents or significant stocks/shares relating to the subject matter of the paper you are commenting on.

Stay Updated

Sign up for content alerts and receive a weekly or monthly email with all newly published articles

Register with F1000Research

Already registered? Sign in

Not now, thanks

The email address should be the one you originally registered with F1000.

You registered with F1000 via Google, so we cannot reset your password.

To sign in, please click here .

If you still need help with your Google account password, please click here .

You registered with F1000 via Facebook, so we cannot reset your password.

If you still need help with your Facebook account password, please click here .

If your email address is registered with us, we will email you instructions to reset your password.

If you think you should have received this email but it has not arrived, please check your spam filters and/or contact for further assistance.

Information

• Author Services

Initiatives

You are accessing a machine-readable page. In order to be human-readable, please install an RSS reader.

All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess .

Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications.

Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers.

Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal.

Original Submission Date Received: .

• Active Journals
• Find a Journal
• Proceedings Series
• For Authors
• For Reviewers
• For Editors
• For Librarians
• For Publishers
• For Societies
• For Conference Organizers
• Open Access Policy
• Institutional Open Access Program
• Special Issues Guidelines
• Editorial Process
• Research and Publication Ethics
• Article Processing Charges
• Testimonials
• Preprints.org
• SciProfiles
• Encyclopedia

Article Menu

• Subscribe SciFeed
• Recommended Articles
• Google Scholar
• on Google Scholar
• Table of Contents

Find support for a specific problem in the support section of our website.

Please let us know what you think of our products and services.

Visit our dedicated information section to learn more about MDPI.

JSmol Viewer

An influencing factors analysis of road traffic accidents based on the analytic hierarchy process and the minimum discrimination information principle.

1. Introduction

2. literature review, 2.1. study on road traffic accident influencing factors, 2.1.1. research on human-related factors, 2.1.2. research on vehicle-related factors, 2.1.3. research on road-related factors, 2.1.4. research on environment-related factors, 2.2. influencing factors analysis based on the analytic hierarchy process, 3.1. the subjective data, 3.2. the objective data, 4.1. analytic hierarchy process calculation steps, 4.2. principle of minimum discrimination information, 5. hierarchical model and weight calculation of influencing factors, 5.1. hierarchical model of road traffic accident influencing factors, 5.2. weight calculation of road traffic accident influencing factors, 5.2.1. analytic hierarchy process determines the subjective weight, 5.2.2. data normalization determines the objective weight, 5.2.3. the principle of minimum discrimination information determines the comprehensive weight, 5.2.4. weight, its rank, and weight difference of road traffic accident influencing factors, 6. discussion, 6.1. hierarchical model of influencing factors, 6.2. subjective and objective weight difference, 6.3. causative factors, 6.3.1. first-level causative factors, 6.3.2. second-level causative factors, 6.3.3. third-level causative factors, 7. conclusions, author contributions, institutional review board statement, informed consent statement, data availability statement, conflicts of interest.

• WHO. Global Health Estimates 2019: Deaths by Cause, Age, Sex, by Country and by Region, 2000–2019 ; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2019. [ Google Scholar ]
• WHO. Powered Two-and Three-Wheeler Safety: A Road Safety Manual for Decisionmakers and Practitioners ; WHO: Geneva, Switzerland, 2022. [ Google Scholar ]
• Zhang, H.; Wu, C.; Yan, X.; Qiu, T.Z. The effect of fatigue driving on car following behavior. Transp. Res. Part F 2016 , 43 , 80–89. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Chen, Y.; Wang, K.; Lu, J.J. Feature selection for driving style and skill clustering using naturalistic driving data and driving behavior questionnaire. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 185 , 107022. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Rodwell, D.; Watson-Brown, N.; Bates, L. Perceptions of novice driver education needs; Development of a scale based on the Goals for driver education using young driver and parent samples. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 191 , 107190. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Verhaegen, P. Liability of older drivers in collisions. Ergonomics 1995 , 38 , 499–507. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Pitta, L.S.R.; Quintas, J.L.; Trindade, I.O.A.; Belchior, P.; da Silva Duarte Gameiro, K.; Gomes, C.M.; Nóbrega, O.T.; Camargos, E.F. Older drivers are at increased risk of fatal crash involvement: Results of a systematic review and meta-analysis. Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 2021 , 95 , 104414. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yu, Z.; Qu, W.; Ge, Y. Trait anger causes risky driving behavior by influencing executive function and hazard cognition. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2022 , 177 , 106824. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Su, Z.; Woodman, R.; Smyth, J.; Elliott, M. The relationship between aggressive driving and driver performance: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 183 , 106972. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Abdel-Aty, M.A.; Abdelwahab, H.T. Exploring the relationship between alcohol and the driver characteristics in motor vehicle accidents. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2000 , 32 , 473–482. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Escamilla, C.; Bele, M.A.; Picó, A.; Rojo, J.M.; Mateu-Moll, J. A psychological profile of drivers convicted of driving under the influence of alcohol. Transp. Res. Part F 2023 , 95 , 380–390. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Strohl, K.P.; Blatt, J.; Council, F.; Georges, K.; Kiley, J.; Kurrus, R.; MacCartt, A.T.; Merritt, S.L.; Pack, A.I.; Rogus, S.; et al. Drowsy Driving and Automobile Crashes: Reports and Recommendations ; DOT HS 1998, 808 707, III-30; National Center on Sleep Disorders Research & National Highway Traffic Safety Administration: Washington, DC, USA, 1998. [ Google Scholar ]
• Watling, C.N.; Home, M. Hazard perception performance and visual scanning behaviours: The effect of sleepiness. Transp. Res. Part F 2022 , 90 , 243–251. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Tefft, B.C. Prevalence of motor vehicle crashes involving drowsy drivers, United States, 1999–2008. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2012 , 45 , 180–186. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Shao, Y.; Shi, X.; Zhang, Y.; Zhang, Y.; Xu, Y.; Chen, W.; Ye, Z. Adaptive forward collision warning system for hazmat truck drivers: Considering differential driving behavior and risk levels. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 191 , 107221. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Palk, G.; Freeman, J.; Kee, A.G.; Steinhardt, D.; Davey, J. The prevalence and characteristics of self-reported dangerous driving behaviours among a young cohort. Transp. Res. Part F 2011 , 14 , 147–154. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhu, T.; Qin, D.; Jia, W. Examining the associations between urban bus drivers’ rule violations and crash frequency using observational data. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 187 , 107074. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ospina-Mateus, H.; Quintana Jiménez, L.; López-Valdés, F.J. Analyzing traffic conflicts and the behavior of motorcyclists at unsignalized three-legged and four-legged intersections in Cartagena, Colombia. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 191 , 107222. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Zhang, F.; Ji, Y.; Lv, H.; Ma, X. Analysis of factors influencing delivery e-bikes’ red-light running behavior: A correlated mixed binary logit approach. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2021 , 152 , 105977. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Oviedo-Trespalacios, O.; Rubie, E.; Haworth, N. Risky business: Comparing the riding behaviours of food delivery and private bicycle riders. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2022 , 177 , 106820. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wang, X.; Chen, J.; Quddus, M.; Zhou, W.; Shen, M. Influence of familiarity with traffic regulations on delivery riders’ e-bike crashes and helmet use: Two mediator ordered logit models. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2021 , 159 , 106277. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Qian, Q.; Shi, J. Comparison of injury severity between E-bikes-related and other two-wheelers-related accidents: Based on an accident dataset. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 190 , 107189. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Jensen, S.U. Pedestrian safety in Denmark. Transp. Res. Rec. 1999 , 1674 , 61–69. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Haleem, K.; Alluri, P.; Gan, A. Analyzing pedestrian crash injury severity at signalized and non-signalized locations. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2015 , 81 , 14–23. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Zeng, Q.; Wang, Q.; Zhang, K.; Wong, S.C.; Xu, P. Analysis of the injury severity of motor vehicle–pedestrian crashes at urban intersections using spatiotemporal logistic regression models. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 189 , 107119. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Blower, D.; Green, P.; Matteson, A. Condition of trucks and truck crash involvement: Evidence from the large truck crash causation study. Transp. Res. Rec. J. Transp. Res. Board 2010 , 2194 , 21–28. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Schoor, O.V.; Niekerk, J.L.; Grobbelaar, B. Mechanical failures as a contributing cause to motor vehicle accidents—South Africa. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2001 , 33 , 713–721. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Solah, M.S.; Hamzah, A.; Ariffin, A.H.; Paiman, N.F.; Hamid, I.A.; Wahab, M.A.F.A.; Jawi, Z.M.; Osman, M.R. Private vehicle roadworthiness in Malaysia from the vehicle inspection perspective article history. J. Soc. Automot. Eng. Malays. 2017 , 1 , 262–271. [ Google Scholar ]
• Haq, M.T.; Ampadu, V.-M.K.; Ksaibati, K. An investigation of brake failure related crashes and injury severity on mountainous roadways in Wyoming. J. Saf. Res. 2023 , 84 , 7–17. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Quimby, A.R. Comparing UK and European drivers on speed and speeding issues: Some results from SARTRE 3 survey. In Behavioural Research in Road Safety: Fifteenth Seminar ; Department for Transport: London, UK, 2005; pp. 49–68. ISBN 1904763618. [ Google Scholar ]
• Varet, F.; Apostolidis, T.; Granié, M.-A. Social value, normative features and gender differences associated with speeding and compliance with speed limits. J. Saf. Res. 2023 , 84 , 182–191. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Hu, W.; Cicchino, J.B. Effects of a rural speed management pilot program in Bishopville, Maryland, on public opinion and vehicle speeds. J. Saf. Res. 2023 , 85 , 278–286. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Wang, Y.; Tu, H.; Sze, N.N.; Li, H.; Ruan, X. A novel traffic conflict risk measure considering the effect of vehicle weight. J. Saf. Res. 2022 , 80 , 1–13. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Bunn, T.L.; Liford, M.; Turner, M.; Bush, A. Driver injuries in heavy vs. light and medium truck local crashes, 2010–2019. J. Saf. Res. 2022 , 83 , 26–34. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Afghari, A.P.; Vos, J.; Farah, H.; Papadimitriou, E. “I did not see that coming”: A latent variable structural equation model for understanding the effect of road predictability on crashes along horizontal curves. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 187 , 107075. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Elvik, R. International transferability of accident modification functions for horizontal curves. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2013 , 59 , 487–496. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Wen, H.; Ma, Z.; Chen, Z.; Luo, C. Analyzing the impact of curve and slope on multi-vehicle truck crash severity on mountainous freeways. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 181 , 106951. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ma, Y.; Wang, F.; Chen, S.; Xing, G.; Xie, Z.; Wang, F. A dynamic method to predict driving risk on sharp curves using multi-source data. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 191 , 107228. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Ma, Z.; Lu, X.; Chien, S.I.-J.; Hu, D. Investigating factors influencing pedestrian injury severity at intersections. Traffic Inj. Prev. 2018 , 19 , 159–164. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Das, S.; Dutta, A.; Geedipally, S.R. Applying bayesian data mining to measure the effect of vehicular defects on crash severity. J. Transp. Saf. Secur. 2021 , 13 , 605–621. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• DiLorenzo, T.; Yu, X. Use of ice detection sensors for improving winter road safety. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 191 , 107197. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Abdel-Aty, M.; Devarasetty, P.C.; Pande, A. Safety evaluation of multilane arterials in Florida. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2009 , 41 , 777–788. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Zhang, Z.; Akinci, B.; Qian, S. Inferring heterogeneous treatment effects of work zones on crashes. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2022 , 177 , 106811. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Islam, M.; Hosseini, P.; Jalayer, M. An analysis of single-vehicle truck crashes on rural curved segments accounting for unobserved heterogeneity. J. Saf. Res. 2022 , 80 , 148–159. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Uddin, M.; Huynh, N. Injury severity analysis of truck-involved crashes under different weather conditions. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2020 , 141 , 105529. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yasanthi, R.G.N.; Babak Mehran, B.; Alhajyaseen, W.K.M. A reliability-based weather-responsive variable speed limit system to improve the safety of rural highways. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2022 , 177 , 106831. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Abdel-Atya, M.; Al-Ahad, E.; Huang, H.; Choic, K. A study on crashes related to visibility obstruction due to fog and smoke. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2011 , 43 , 1730–1737. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Batouli, G.; Guo, M.; Janson, B.; Marshall, W. Analysis of pedestrian-vehicle crash injury severity factors in Colorado 2006–2016. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2020 , 148 , 105782. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• AlGhamdi, A.S. Experimental evaluation of fog warning system. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2007 , 39 , 1065–1072. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Bee, F. At Least 40 Vehicles Crash in Dense Fog on Highway 198. Available online: http://www.fresnobee.com/news/local/article129797864.html (accessed on 19 July 2017).
• Das, A.; Ali Ghasemzadeh, A.; Ahmed, M.M. Analyzing the effect of fog weather conditions on driver lane-keeping performance using the SHRP2 naturalistic driving study data. J. Saf. Res. 2019 , 68 , 71–80. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Saaty, T.L. A scaling method for priorities in hierarchical structures. J. Math. Psychol. 1977 , 15 , 234–281. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Huang, Y.; Bian, L. A Bayesian network and analytic hierarchy process based personalized recommendations for tourist attractions over the Internet. Expert Syst. Appl. 2009 , 36 , 933–943. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ma, H.; Li, S.; Chan, C.-S. Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP)-based assessment of the value of non- World Heritage Tulou: A case study of Pinghe County, Fujian Province. Tour. Manag. Perspect. 2018 , 26 , 67–77. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Badea, A.; Prostean, G.; Goncalves, G.; Allaoui, H. Assessing risk factors in collaborative supply chain with the analytic hierarchy process (AHP). Procedia-Soc. Behav. Sci. 2014 , 124 , 114–123. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ignaccolo, M.; Inturri, G.; García-Melón, M.; Giuffrida, N.; Le Pira, M.; Torrisi, V. Combining Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) with role-playing games for stakeholder engagement in complex transport decisions. Transp. Res. Procedia 2017 , 27 , 500–507. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ha, J.S.; Seong, P.H. A method for risk-informed safety significance categorization using the analytic hierarchy process and bayesian belief networks. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 2004 , 83 , 1–15. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Abrahamsen, E.B.; Milazzo, M.F.; Selvik, J.T.; Asche, F.; Abrahamsen, H.B. Prioritising investments in safety measures in the chemical industry by using the Analytic Hierarchy Process. Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf. 2020 , 198 , 106811. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Guo, X.; Kapucu, M. Assessing social vulnerability to earthquake disaster using rough analytic hierarchy process method: A case study of Hanzhong City, China. Saf. Sci. 2020 , 125 , 104625. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhao, D.; Wang, Z.-R.; Song, Z.-Y.; Guo, P.-K.; Cao, X.-Y. Assessment of domino effects in the coal gasification process using Fuzzy Analytic Hierarchy Process and Bayesian Network. Saf. Sci. 2020 , 130 , 104888. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Kumar, A.; Sinha, P.K. Human error control in railways. Jordan J. Mech. Ind. Eng. 2008 , 2 , 183–190. [ Google Scholar ]
• Larue, G.S.; Naweed, A.; Rodwell, D. The road user, the pedestrian, and me: Investigating the interactions, errors and escalating risks of users of fully protected level crossings. Saf. Sci. 2018 , 110 , 80–88. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Sangiorgio, V.; Mangini, A.M.; Precchiazzi, I. A new index to evaluate the safety performance level of railway transportation systems. Saf. Sci. 2020 , 131 , 104921. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Paltrinieri, N.; Landucci, G.; Molag, M.; Bonvicini, S.; Spadoni, G.; Cozzani, V. Risk reduction in road and rail LPG transportation by passive fire protection. J. Hazard Mater. 2009 , 167 , 332–344. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Mearns, K.; Yule, S. The role of national culture in determining safety performance: Challenges for the global oil and gas industry. Saf. Sci. 2009 , 47 , 777–785. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ghaleh, S.; Omidvari, M.; Nassiri, P.; Momeni, M.; Lavasani, S.M.M. Pattern of safety risk assessment in road fleet transportation of hazardous materials (oil materials). Saf. Sci. 2019 , 116 , 1–12. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Karahalios, H. The contribution of risk management in ship management: The case of ship collision. Saf. Sci. 2014 , 63 , 104–114. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Yoo, K.E.; Choi, Y.C. Analytic hierarchy process approach for identifying relative importance of factors to improve passenger security checks at airports. J. Air Transp. Manag. 2006 , 12 , 135–142. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Manca, D.; Brambilla, S. A methodology based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process for the quantitative assessment of emergency preparedness and response in road tunnels. Transp. Policy 2011 , 18 , 657–664. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Ahlström, C.; Raimondas Zemblys, R.; Finér, S.; Kircher, K. Alcohol impairs driver attention and prevents compensatory strategies. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 184 , 107010. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Schlueter, D.A.; Austerschmidt, K.L.; Schulz, P.; Beblo, T.; Driessen, M.; Kreisel, S.; Toepper, M. Overestimation of on-road driving performance is associated with reduced driving safety in older drivers. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 187 , 107086. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Hassan, A.; Lee, C.; Cramer, K.; Lafreniere, K. Analysis of driver characteristics, self-reported psychology measures and driving performance measures associated with aggressive driving. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 188 , 107097. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• National Bureau of Statistics of China. Available online: https://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/ndsj/2023/indexch.htm (accessed on 13 June 2024).
• Saaty, T.L. How to make a decision: The analytic hierarchy process. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 1990 , 48 , 9–26. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Saaty, T.L. Multicriteria Decision Making: The Analytic Hierarchy Process ; McGraw-Hill, RSW Publishing: Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 1980. [ Google Scholar ]
• Chang, L.; Chen, W. Data mining of tree-based models to analyze freeway accident frequency. J. Saf. Res. 2005 , 36 , 365–375. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Naik, B.; Tung, L.W.; Zhao, S.; Khattak, A.J. Weather impacts on single-vehicle truck crash injury severity. J. Saf. Res. 2016 , 58 , 57–65. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Knapp, K.; Kroeger, D.; Giese, K. Mobility and Safety Impacts of Winter Storm Events in a Freeway Environment ; Center for Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University: Ames, IA, USA, 2000. [ Google Scholar ]
• Claret, P.L.; del Castillo, J.D.; Moleón, J.J.; Cavanillas, A.B.; Martín, M.G.; Vargas, R.G. Age and sex differences in the risk of causing vehicle collisions in Spain, 1990 to 1999. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2003 , 35 , 261–272. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Md Isa, M.H.; Abu Bakar, S.; Hamzah, A.; Ariffin, A.H.; Mohd Nazri, N.N.; Mohamad Hashim, M.S. Investigating motorcycle turn signal behaviors in mixed- traffic environments. In Recent Trends in Manufacturing and Materials towards Industry 4.0 ; Springer: Singapore, 2021; pp. 711–722. [ Google Scholar ]
• Clarke, D.D.; Ward, P.; Bartle, C.; Truman, W. Killer crashes: Fatal road traffic accidents in the UK. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2010 , 42 , 764–770. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Park, J.; Abdel-Aty, M.; Wang, J.H. Time series trends of the safety effects of pavement resurfacing. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2017 , 101 , 78–86. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Zhai, X.; Huang, H.; Sze, N.N.; Song, Z.; Hon, K.K. Diagnostic analysis of the effects of weather condition on pedestrian crash severity. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2019 , 122 , 318–324. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Retting, R.A.; Weinstein, H.B.; Solomon, M.G. Analysis of motor-vehicle crashes at stop signs in four US cities. J. Saf. Res. 2003 , 34 , 485–489. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ] [ PubMed ]
• Xie, X.; Nikitas, A.; Liu, H. A study of fatal pedestrian crashes at rural low-volume road intersections in southwest China. Traffic. Inj. Prev. 2018 , 19 , 298–304. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]
• Zhang, Q.; Xu, L.; Yan, Y.; Li, G.; Qiao, D.; Tian, J. Distracted driving behavior in patients with insomnia. Accid. Anal. Prev. 2023 , 183 , 106971. [ Google Scholar ] [ CrossRef ]

Share and Cite

Zeng, Y.; Qiang, Y.; Zhang, N.; Yang, X.; Zhao, Z.; Wang, X. An Influencing Factors Analysis of Road Traffic Accidents Based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process and the Minimum Discrimination Information Principle. Sustainability 2024 , 16 , 6767. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166767

Zeng Y, Qiang Y, Zhang N, Yang X, Zhao Z, Wang X. An Influencing Factors Analysis of Road Traffic Accidents Based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process and the Minimum Discrimination Information Principle. Sustainability . 2024; 16(16):6767. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166767

Zeng, Youzhi, Yongkang Qiang, Ning Zhang, Xiaobao Yang, Zhenjun Zhao, and Xiaoqiao Wang. 2024. "An Influencing Factors Analysis of Road Traffic Accidents Based on the Analytic Hierarchy Process and the Minimum Discrimination Information Principle" Sustainability 16, no. 16: 6767. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16166767

Article Metrics

Article access statistics, further information, mdpi initiatives, follow mdpi.

Subscribe to receive issue release notifications and newsletters from MDPI journals

Numbers, Facts and Trends Shaping Your World

Read our research on:

Full Topic List

Regions & Countries

• Publications
• Our Methods
• Short Reads
• Tools & Resources

Read Our Research On:

Americans’ views of offensive speech aren’t necessarily clear-cut

About six-in-ten U.S. adults (62%) say that “people being too easily offended by things others say” is a major problem in the country today.

In a separate question, 47% say that “people saying things that are very offensive to others” is a major problem, according to a Pew Research Center survey conducted in April.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to understand Americans’ views on whether offensive speech – and people being too easily offended by what others say – are major problems for the country. For this analysis, we surveyed 8,709 U.S. adults from April 8 to 14, 2024.

Everyone who took part in this survey is a member of the Center’s American Trends Panel (ATP), an online survey panel that is recruited through national, random sampling of residential addresses. This way nearly all U.S. adults have a chance of selection. The survey is weighted to be representative of the U.S. adult population by gender, race, ethnicity, partisan affiliation, education and other categories. Read more about the ATP’s methodology . Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its methodology .

There are substantial differences in these views between Republicans and Democrats.

• Eight-in-ten Republicans and Republican-leaning independents say people being too easily offended by what others say is a major problem. By comparison, 45% of Democrats and Democratic leaners say the same.
• In contrast, Democrats are more likely than Republicans to say that people saying things that are very offensive is a major problem in the country today. A 59% majority of Democrats say this, compared with 34% of Republicans.

Looking at Americans’ views on these two questions together, about a third (32%) say that people being too easily offended by things others say and people saying very offensive things to others are both major problems.

About as many Americans (30%) say people taking offense too easily is a major problem, but very offensive speech is not. A much smaller share (15%) say that people saying very offensive things is a major problem, but people too easily taking offense isn’t. And another 23% say that neither is a major problem in the country.

Sizable shares within both parties say both issues are major problems – 30% of Republicans and 32% of Democrats say this.

However, half of Republicans, compared with just 12% of Democrats, say people being too easily offended is a major problem, but people saying very offensive things isn’t. Slightly more than half of conservative Republicans (53%) hold this combination of views, along with 44% of moderate and liberal Republicans.

By contrast, about a quarter of Democrats (26%) – and a third of liberal Democrats – say people saying very offensive things is a major problem, but people being too easily offended is not. Just 4% of Republicans hold this combination of views.

Another 29% of Democrats, but just 15% of Republicans, say neither of these is a major problem.

There are also significant demographic differences in attitudes about offensive speech.

Race and ethnicity

While at least half of Americans across racial and ethnic groups say being too easily offended is a major problem in the country, White adults are particularly likely to say this. Nearly two-thirds of White adults (65%) say this is a major problem, as do 59% of Hispanic, 59% of Asian and 50% of Black adults.

No more than about one-in-ten in any of these groups say people getting offended too easily is not a problem in the country today.

Conversely, Black (63%), Asian (58%) and Hispanic (55%) adults are more likely than White adults (42%) to say that people saying very offensive things to others is a major problem.

Men (62%) and women (63%) are about equally likely to say people being too easily offended is a major problem.

But women (54%) are far more likely than men (40%) to say offensive speech is a major problem.

Within political parties, there are some differences by gender, race and ethnicity on these questions.

On whether people being too easily offended is a major problem:

• Hispanic Republicans (71%) are less likely than White Republicans (83%) to say this is a major problem. (The sample size for Black and Asian Republicans is too small to evaluate these groups individually.)
• There are no gaps between men and women in either party.

On whether offensive speech is a major problem:

• Democratic and Republican women are more likely than men in their parties to say offensive speech is a major problem. Among Democrats, 63% of women and 54% of men say this. And in the GOP, 43% of women and 27% of men say the same.
• While roughly two-thirds of Black (67%), Hispanic (65%) and Asian Democrats (64%) say this is a major issue, a narrower majority of White Democrats (54%) share that view.

Note: This is an update of a post originally published Dec. 14, 2021. Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and its methodology .

• Discrimination & Prejudice
• Free Speech & Press
• Political Ideals & Systems

J. Baxter Oliphant is a senior researcher focusing on politics at Pew Research Center .

Many adults in East and Southeast Asia support free speech, are open to societal change

Americans’ views of technology companies, most americans say a free press is highly important to society, ­most americans favor restrictions on false information, violent content online, freedom of speech and lgbt rights: americans’ views of issues in supreme court case, most popular.

901 E St. NW, Suite 300 Washington, DC 20004 USA (+1) 202-419-4300 | Main (+1) 202-857-8562 | Fax (+1) 202-419-4372 |  Media Inquiries

Research Topics

• Email Newsletters

ABOUT PEW RESEARCH CENTER  Pew Research Center is a nonpartisan fact tank that informs the public about the issues, attitudes and trends shaping the world. It conducts public opinion polling, demographic research, media content analysis and other empirical social science research. Pew Research Center does not take policy positions. It is a subsidiary of  The Pew Charitable Trusts .

© 2024 Pew Research Center

Featured Topics

Featured series.

A series of random questions answered by Harvard experts.

Explore the Gazette

Read the latest.

The answer to your search may depend on where you live

Putting human past on the MAPS

Does AI help humans make better decisions?

How did life begin on earth a lightning strike of an idea..

Yahya Chaudhry

Harvard Correspondent

Researchers mimic early conditions on barren planet to test hypothesis of ancient electrochemistry

About four billion years ago, Earth resembled the set of a summer sci-fi blockbuster. The planet’s surface was a harsh and barren landscape, recovering from hellish asteroid strikes, teeming with volcanic eruptions, and lacking enough nutrients to sustain even the simplest forms of life.

The atmosphere was composed predominantly of inert gases like nitrogen and carbon dioxide, meaning they did not easily engage in chemical reactions necessary to form the complex organic molecules that are the building blocks of life. Scientists have long sought to discover the key factors that enabled the planet’s chemistry to change enough to form and sustain life.

Now, new research zeroes in on how lightning strikes may have served as a vital spark, transforming the atmosphere of early Earth into a hotbed of chemical activity. In the study, published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences , a team of Harvard scientists identified lightning-induced plasma electrochemistry as a potential source of reactive carbon and nitrogen compounds necessary for the emergence and survival of early life.

“The origin of life is one of the great unanswered questions facing chemistry,” said George M. Whitesides, senior author and the Woodford L. and Ann A. Flowers University Research Professor in the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology. How the fundamental building blocks of “nucleic acids, proteins, and metabolites emerged spontaneously remains unanswered.”

One of the most popular answers to this question is summarized in the so-called RNA World hypothesis, Whitesides said. That is the idea that available forms of the elements, such as water, soluble electrolytes, and common gases, formed the first biomolecules. In their study, the researchers found that lightning could provide accessible forms of nitrogen and carbon that led to the emergence and survival of biomolecules.

A plasma vessel used to mimic cloud-to-ground lightning and its resulting electrochemical reactions. The setup uses two electrodes, with one in the gas phase and the other submerged in water enriched with inorganic salts.

Credit: Haihui Joy Jiang

Researchers designed a plasma electrochemical setup that allowed them to mimic conditions of the early Earth and study the role lightning strikes might have had on its chemistry. They were able to generate high-energy sparks between gas and liquid phases — akin to the cloud-to-ground lightning strikes that would have been common billions of years ago.

The scientists discovered that their simulated lightning strikes could transform stable gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen into highly reactive compounds. They found that carbon dioxide could be reduced to carbon monoxide and formic acid, while nitrogen could be converted into nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium ions.

These reactions occurred most efficiently at the interfaces between gas, liquid, and solid phases — regions where lightning strikes would naturally concentrate these products. This suggests that lightning strikes could have locally generated high concentrations of these vital molecules, providing diverse raw materials for the earliest forms of life to develop and thrive.

“Given what we’ve shown about interfacial lightning strikes, we are introducing different subsets of molecules, different concentrations, and different plausible pathways to life in the origin of life community,” said Thomas C. Underwood, co-lead author and Whitesides Lab postdoctoral fellow. “As opposed to saying that there’s one mechanism to create chemically reactive molecules and one key intermediate, we suggest that there is likely more than one reactive molecule that might have contributed to the pathway to life.”

The findings align with previous research suggesting that other energy sources, such as ultraviolet radiation, deep-sea vents, volcanoes, and asteroid impacts, could have also contributed to the formation of biologically relevant molecules. However, the unique advantage of cloud-to-ground lightning is its ability to drive high-voltage electrochemistry across different interfaces, connecting the atmosphere, oceans, and land.

The research adds a significant piece to the puzzle of life’s origins. By demonstrating how lightning could have contributed to the availability of essential nutrients, the study opens new avenues for understanding the chemical pathways that led to the emergence of life on Earth. As the research team continues to explore these reactions, they hope to uncover more about the early conditions that made life possible and to improve modern applications.

“Building on our work, we are now experimentally looking at how plasma electrochemical reactions may influence nitrogen isotopes in products, which has a potential geological relevance,” said co-lead author Haihui Joy Jiang, a former Whitesides lab postdoctoral fellow. “We are also interested in this research from an energy-efficiency and environmentally friendly perspective on chemical production. We are studying plasma as a tool to develop new methods of making chemicals and to drive green chemical processes, such as producing fertilizer used today.”

Harvard co-authors included Professor Dimitar D. Sasselov in the Department of Astronomy and Professor James G. Anderson in the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, and the Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences.

The study not only sheds light on the past but also has implications for the search for life on other planets. Processes the researchers described could potentially contribute to the emergence of life beyond Earth.

“Lightning has been observed on Jupiter and Saturn; plasmas and plasma-induced chemistry can exist beyond our solar system,” Jiang said. “Moving forward, our setup is useful for mimicking environmental conditions of different planets, as well as exploring reaction pathways triggered by lightning and its analogs.”

Share this article

You might like.

Researchers find ‘language bias’ in various site algorithms, raising concerns about fallout for social divisions among nations

Harvard digital atlas plots patterns from history ancient and modern

One judge’s track record — with and without algorithm — surprises researchers

Garber to serve as president through 2026-27 academic year

Search for successor will launch in 2026

Finding right mix on campus speech policies

Legal, political scholars discuss balancing personal safety, constitutional rights, academic freedom amid roiling protests, cultural shifts

Good genes are nice, but joy is better

Harvard study, almost 80 years old, has proved that embracing community helps us live longer, and be happier