culture and language essay

Along with Stanford news and stories, show me:

• Student information
• Faculty/Staff information

We want to provide announcements, events, leadership messages and resources that are relevant to you. Your selection is stored in a browser cookie which you can remove at any time using “Clear all personalization” below.

Speaking, writing and reading are integral to everyday life, where language is the primary tool for expression and communication. Studying how people use language – what words and phrases they unconsciously choose and combine – can help us better understand ourselves and why we behave the way we do.

Linguistics scholars seek to determine what is unique and universal about the language we use, how it is acquired and the ways it changes over time. They consider language as a cultural, social and psychological phenomenon.

“Understanding why and how languages differ tells about the range of what is human,” said Dan Jurafsky , the Jackson Eli Reynolds Professor in Humanities and chair of the Department of Linguistics in the School of Humanities and Sciences at Stanford . “Discovering what’s universal about languages can help us understand the core of our humanity.”

The stories below represent some of the ways linguists have investigated many aspects of language, including its semantics and syntax, phonetics and phonology, and its social, psychological and computational aspects.

Understanding stereotypes

Stanford linguists and psychologists study how language is interpreted by people. Even the slightest differences in language use can correspond with biased beliefs of the speakers, according to research.

One study showed that a relatively harmless sentence, such as “girls are as good as boys at math,” can subtly perpetuate sexist stereotypes. Because of the statement’s grammatical structure, it implies that being good at math is more common or natural for boys than girls, the researchers said.

Language can play a big role in how we and others perceive the world, and linguists work to discover what words and phrases can influence us, unknowingly.

How well-meaning statements can spread stereotypes unintentionally

New Stanford research shows that sentences that frame one gender as the standard for the other can unintentionally perpetuate biases.

Algorithms reveal changes in stereotypes

New Stanford research shows that, over the past century, linguistic changes in gender and ethnic stereotypes correlated with major social movements and demographic changes in the U.S. Census data.

Exploring what an interruption is in conversation

Stanford doctoral candidate Katherine Hilton found that people perceive interruptions in conversation differently, and those perceptions differ depending on the listener’s own conversational style as well as gender.

Cops speak less respectfully to black community members

Professors Jennifer Eberhardt and Dan Jurafsky, along with other Stanford researchers, detected racial disparities in police officers’ speech after analyzing more than 100 hours of body camera footage from Oakland Police.

How other languages inform our own

People speak roughly 7,000 languages worldwide. Although there is a lot in common among languages, each one is unique, both in its structure and in the way it reflects the culture of the people who speak it.

Jurafsky said it’s important to study languages other than our own and how they develop over time because it can help scholars understand what lies at the foundation of humans’ unique way of communicating with one another.

“All this research can help us discover what it means to be human,” Jurafsky said.

Stanford PhD student documents indigenous language of Papua New Guinea

Fifth-year PhD student Kate Lindsey recently returned to the United States after a year of documenting an obscure language indigenous to the South Pacific nation.

Students explore Esperanto across Europe

In a research project spanning eight countries, two Stanford students search for Esperanto, a constructed language, against the backdrop of European populism.

Chris Manning: How computers are learning to understand language​

A computer scientist discusses the evolution of computational linguistics and where it’s headed next.

Stanford research explores novel perspectives on the evolution of Spanish

Using digital tools and literature to explore the evolution of the Spanish language, Stanford researcher Cuauhtémoc García-García reveals a new historical perspective on linguistic changes in Latin America and Spain.

Language as a lens into behavior

Linguists analyze how certain speech patterns correspond to particular behaviors, including how language can impact people’s buying decisions or influence their social media use.

For example, in one research paper, a group of Stanford researchers examined the differences in how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online to better understand how a polarization of beliefs can occur on social media.

“We live in a very polarized time,” Jurafsky said. “Understanding what different groups of people say and why is the first step in determining how we can help bring people together.”

Analyzing the tweets of Republicans and Democrats

New research by Dora Demszky and colleagues examined how Republicans and Democrats express themselves online in an attempt to understand how polarization of beliefs occurs on social media.

Examining bilingual behavior of children at Texas preschool

A Stanford senior studied a group of bilingual children at a Spanish immersion preschool in Texas to understand how they distinguished between their two languages.

Predicting sales of online products from advertising language

Stanford linguist Dan Jurafsky and colleagues have found that products in Japan sell better if their advertising includes polite language and words that invoke cultural traditions or authority.

Language can help the elderly cope with the challenges of aging, says Stanford professor

By examining conversations of elderly Japanese women, linguist Yoshiko Matsumoto uncovers language techniques that help people move past traumatic events and regain a sense of normalcy.

Essays About Language: Top 5 Examples and 7 Prompts

Language is the key to expressive communication; let our essay examples and writing prompts inspire you if you are writing essays about language.

When we communicate with one another, we use a system called language. It mainly consists of words, which, when combined, form phrases and sentences we use to talk to one another. However, some forms of language do not require written or verbal communication, such as sign language. 

Language can also refer to how we write or say things. For example, we can speak to friends using colloquial expressions and slang, while academic writing demands precise, formal language. Language is a complex concept with many meanings; discover the secrets of language in our informative guide.

5 Top Essay Examples

1. a global language: english language by dallas ryan , 2. language and its importance to society by shelly shah, 3. language: the essence of culture by kelsey holmes.

• 4.  Foreign Language Speech by Sophie Carson
• 5. ​​Attitudes to Language by Kurt Medina

1. My Native Language

2. the advantages of bilingualism, 3. language and technology, 4. why language matters, 5. slang and communication, 6. english is the official language of the u.s..

“Furthermore, using English, people can have more friends, widen peer relationships with foreigners and can not get lost. Overall, English becomes a global language; people may have more chances in communication. Another crucial advantage is improving business. If English was spoken widespread and everyone could use it, they would likely have more opportunities in business. Foreign investments from rich countries might be supported to the poorer countries.”

In this essay, Ryan enumerates both the advantages and disadvantages of using English; it seems that Ryan proposes uniting the world under the English language. English, a well-known and commonly-spoken language can help people to communicate better, which can foster better connections with one another. However, people would lose their native language and promote a specific culture rather than diversity. Ultimately, Ryan believes that English is a “global language,” and the advantages outweigh the disadvantages

“Language is a constituent element of civilization. It raised man from a savage state to the plane which he was capable of reaching. Man could not become man except by language. An essential point in which man differs from animals is that man alone is the sole possessor of language. No doubt animals also exhibit certain degree of power of communication but that is not only inferior in degree to human language, but also radically diverse in kind from it.”

Shah writes about the meaning of language, its role in society, and its place as an institution serving the purposes of the people using it. Most importantly, she writes about why it is necessary; the way we communicate through language separates us as humans from all other living things. It also carries individual culture and allows one to convey their thoughts. You might find our list of TOEFL writing topics helpful.

“Cultural identity is heavily dependent on a number of factors including ethnicity, gender, geographic location, religion, language, and so much more.  Culture is defined as a “historically transmitted system of symbols, meanings, and norms.”  Knowing a language automatically enables someone to identify with others who speak the same language.  This connection is such an important part of cultural exchange”

In this short essay, Homes discusses how language reflects a person’s cultural identity and the importance of communication in a civilized society. Different communities and cultures use specific sounds and understand their meanings to communicate. From this, writing was developed. Knowing a language makes connecting with others of the same culture easier. 

4.   Foreign Language Speech by Sophie Carson

“Ultimately, learning a foreign language will improve a child’s overall thinking and learning skills in general, making them smarter in many different unrelated areas. Their creativity is highly improved as they are more trained to look at problems from different angles and think outside of the box. This flexible thinking makes them better problem solvers since they can see problems from different perspectives. The better thinking skills developed from learning a foreign language have also been seen through testing scores.”

Carson writes about some of the benefits of learning a foreign language, especially during childhood. During childhood, the brain is more flexible, and it is easier for one to learn a new language in their younger years. Among many other benefits, bilingualism has been shown to improve memory and open up more parts of a child’s brain, helping them hone their critical thinking skills. Teaching children a foreign language makes them more aware of the world around them and can open up opportunities in the future.

5. ​​ Attitudes to Language by Kurt Medina

“Increasingly, educators are becoming aware that a person’s native language is an integral part of who that person is and marginalizing the language can have severe damaging effects on that person’s psyche. Many linguists consistently make a case for teaching native languages alongside the target languages so that children can clearly differentiate among the codes”

As its title suggests, Medina’s essay revolves around different attitudes towards types of language, whether it be vernacular language or dialects. He discusses this in the context of Caribbean cultures, where different dialects and languages are widespread, and people switch between languages quickly. Medina mentions how we tend to modify the language we use in different situations, depending on how formal or informal we need to be. 

6 Prompts for Essays About Language

In your essay, you can write about your native language. For example, explain how it originated and some of its characteristics. Write about why you are proud of it or persuade others to try learning it. To add depth to your essay, include a section with common phrases or idioms from your native language and explain their meaning.

Bilingualism has been said to enhance a whole range of cognitive skills, from a longer attention span to better memory. Look into the different advantages of speaking two or more languages, and use these to promote bilingualism. Cite scientific research papers and reference their findings in your essay for a compelling piece of writing.

In the 21st century, the development of new technology has blurred the lines between communication and isolation; it has undoubtedly changed how we interact and use language. For example, many words have been replaced in day-to-day communication by texting lingo and slang. In addition, technology has made us communicate more virtually and non-verbally. Research and discuss how the 21st century has changed how we interact and “do language” worldwide, whether it has improved or worsened. 

We often change how we speak depending on the situation; we use different words and expressions. Why do we do this? Based on a combination of personal experience and research, reflect on why it is essential to use appropriate language in different scenarios.

Different cultures use different forms of slang. Slang is a type of language consisting of informal words and expressions. Some hold negative views towards slang, saying that it degrades the language system, while others believe it allows people to express their culture. Write about whether you believe slang should be acceptable or not: defend your position by giving evidence either that slang is detrimental to language or that it poses no threat.

English is the most spoken language in the United States and is used in government documents; it is all but the country’s official language. Do you believe the government should finally declare English the country’s official language? Research the viewpoints of both sides and form a conclusion; support your argument with sufficient details and research. 

Check out our guide packed full of transition words for essays .If you’re stuck picking your next essay topic, check out our guide on how to write an essay about diversity .

• History & Society
• Science & Tech
• Biographies
• Animals & Nature
• Geography & Travel
• Arts & Culture
• Games & Quizzes
• On This Day
• One Good Fact
• New Articles
• Lifestyles & Social Issues
• Philosophy & Religion
• Politics, Law & Government
• World History
• Health & Medicine
• Browse Biographies
• Birds, Reptiles & Other Vertebrates
• Bugs, Mollusks & Other Invertebrates
• Environment
• Fossils & Geologic Time
• Entertainment & Pop Culture
• Sports & Recreation
• Visual Arts
• Demystified
• Image Galleries
• Infographics
• Top Questions
• Britannica Kids
• Saving Earth
• Space Next 50
• Student Center
• Introduction
• Definitions of language
• Historical attitudes toward language
• Phonetics and phonology
• Pidgins and creoles
• Sign language
• Paralinguistics
• Symbolic and computer language
• Speech production
• Language acquisition
• Structural, or grammatical, meaning
• Lexical meaning
• General and specific designations
• Language and conceptualization

Transmission of language and culture

• Language and social differentiation and assimilation
• Second-language learning
• Nationalistic influences on language
• Translation
• Messages and codes
• Bilingualism
• Evolution of writing systems
• Written versus spoken languages
• Changes through time
• Changes through geographical movement
• Tendencies against change
• Language typology

• What was Noam Chomsky’s early life like?
• How did Noam Chomsky influence the field of linguistics?
• What are Noam Chomsky’s politics?
• Where did writing first develop?
• Why was writing invented?

Language and culture

Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.

• Ancient Origins - How Does Language Emerge? Answer: Spontaneously
• American Speech-Language-Hearing Association - What is Speech? What is Language?
• University of Minnesota Libraries - Reading Rhetorical Theory - The Symbol
• National Center for Biotechnology Information - PubMed Central - Language evolution and human history: what a difference a date makes
• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Knowledge of Language
• Linguistic Society of America - How Did Language Begin?
• Social Sciences LibreTexts - Symbols and Language
• Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History - Language and Symbols
• language - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)
• language - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)
• Table Of Contents

It has been seen that language is much more than the external expression and communication of internal thoughts formulated independently of their verbalization. In demonstrating the inadequacy and inappropriateness of such a view of language, attention has already been drawn to the ways in which one’s native language is intimately and in all sorts of details related to the rest of one’s life in a community and to smaller groups within that community. This is true of all peoples and all languages; it is a universal fact about language.

Recent News

Anthropologists speak of the relations between language and culture . It is indeed more in accordance with reality to consider language as a part of culture . Culture is here being used, as it is throughout this article, in the anthropological sense, to refer to all aspects of human life insofar as they are determined or conditioned by membership in a society. The fact that people eat or drink is not in itself cultural; it is a biological necessity for the preservation of life. That they eat particular foods and refrain from eating other substances, though they may be perfectly edible and nourishing, and that they eat and drink at particular times of day and in certain places are matters of culture, something “acquired by man as a member of society,” according to the classic definition of culture by the English anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor . As thus defined and envisaged , culture covers a very wide area of human life and behaviour, and language is manifestly a part, probably the most important part, of it.

Although the faculty of language acquisition and language use is innate and inherited, and there is legitimate debate over the extent of this innateness, every individual’s language is “acquired by man as a member of society,” along with and at the same time as other aspects of that society’s culture in which people are brought up. Society and language are mutually indispensable. Language can have developed only in a social setting, however this may have been structured, and human society in any form even remotely resembling what is known today or is recorded in history could be maintained only among people utilizing and understanding a language in common use.

Language is transmitted culturally; that is, it is learned . To a lesser extent it is taught , when parents, for example, deliberately encourage their children to talk and to respond to talk, correct their mistakes, and enlarge their vocabulary . But it must be emphasized that children very largely acquire their first language by “grammar construction” from exposure to a random collection of utterances that they encounter. What is classed as language teaching in school either relates to second-language acquisition or, insofar as it concerns the pupils’ first language, is in the main directed at reading and writing , the study of literature , formal grammar , and alleged standards of correctness, which may not be those of all the pupils’ regional or social dialects . All of what goes under the title of language teaching at school presupposes and relies on the prior knowledge of a first language in its basic vocabulary and essential structure, acquired before school age.

If language is transmitted as part of culture, it is no less true that culture as a whole is transmitted very largely through language, insofar as it is explicitly taught. The fact that humankind has a history in the sense that animals do not is entirely the result of language. So far as researchers can tell, animals learn through spontaneous imitation or through imitation taught by other animals. This does not exclude the performance of quite complex and substantial pieces of cooperative physical work, such as a beaver’s dam or an ant’s nest, nor does it preclude the intricate social organization of some species, such as bees. But it does mean that changes in organization and work will be the gradual result of mutation cumulatively reinforced by survival value; those groups whose behaviour altered in any way that increased their security from predators or from famine would survive in greater numbers than others. This would be an extremely slow process, comparable to the evolution of the different species themselves.

There is no reason to believe that animal behaviour has materially altered during the period available for the study of human history—say, the last 5,000 years or so—except, of course, when human intervention by domestication or other forms of interference has itself brought about such alterations. Nor do members of the same species differ markedly in behaviour over widely scattered areas, again apart from differences resulting from human interference. Bird songs are reported to differ somewhat from place to place within species, but there is little other evidence for areal divergence. In contrast to this unity of animal behaviour, human cultures are as divergent as are human languages over the world, and they can and do change all the time, sometimes with great rapidity, as among the industrialized countries of the 21st century.

The processes of linguistic change and its consequences will be treated below. Here, cultural change in general and its relation to language will be considered. By far the greatest part of learned behaviour, which is what culture involves, is transmitted by vocal instruction, not by imitation. Some imitation is clearly involved, especially in infancy, in the learning process, but proportionately this is hardly significant.

Through the use of language, any skills, techniques, products, modes of social control, and so on can be explained, and the end results of anyone’s inventiveness can be made available to anyone else with the intellectual ability to grasp what is being said. Spoken language alone would thus vastly extend the amount of usable information in any human community and speed up the acquisition of new skills and the adaptation of techniques to changed circumstances or new environments . With the invention and diffusion of writing, this process widened immediately, and the relative permanence of writing made the diffusion of information still easier. Printing and the increase in literacy only further intensified this process. Modern techniques for broadcast or almost instantaneous transmission of communication all over the globe, together with the tools for rapidly translating between the languages of the world, have made it possible for usable knowledge of all sorts to be made accessible to people almost anywhere in the world. This accounts for the great rapidity of scientific, technological, political, and social change in the contemporary world. All of this, whether ultimately for the good or ill of humankind, must be attributed to the dominant role of language in the transmission of culture.

The Relationship Between Language & Culture and the Implications for Language Teaching

The relationship between language and culture is deeply rooted. Language is used to maintain and convey culture and cultural ties. Different ideas stem from differing language use within one’s culture and the whole intertwining of these relationships start at one’s birth.

When an infant is born, it is not unlike any other infant born, in fact, quite similar. It is not until the child is exposed to their surroundings that they become individuals in and of their cultural group. This idea, which describes all people as similar at birth, has been around for thousands of years and was discussed by Confucius as recorded in the book by his followers, Analects (Xu, 1997). From birth, the child’s life, opinions, and language are shaped by what it comes in contact with. Brooks (1968) argues that physically and mentally everyone is the same, while the interactions between persons or groups vary widely from place to place. Patterns which emerge from these group behaviours and interactions will be approved of, or disapproved of. Behaviours which are acceptable will vary from location to location (Brooks, 1968) thus forming the basis of different cultures. It is from these differences that one’s view of the world is formed. Hantrais (1989) puts forth the idea that culture is the beliefs and practices governing the life of a society for which a particular language is the vehicle of expression. Therefore, everyone’s views are dependent on the culture which has influenced them, as well as being described using the language which has been shaped by that culture. The understanding of a culture and its people can be enhanced by the knowledge of their language. This brings us to an interesting point brought up by Emmitt and Pollock (1997), who argue that even though people are brought up under similar behavioural backgrounds or cultural situations but however speak different languages, their world view may be very different. As Sapir-Whorf argues, different thoughts are brought about by the use of different forms of language. One is limited by the language used to express one’s ideas. Different languages will create different limitations, therefore a people who share a culture but speak different languages, will have different world views. Still, language is rooted in culture and culture is reflected and passed on by language from one generation to the next (Emmitt & Pollock 1997). From this, one can see that learning a new language involves the learning of a new culture (Allwright & Bailey 1991). Consequently, teachers of a language are also teachers of culture (Byram 1989).

The implications of language being completely entwined in culture, in regards for language teaching and language policy are far reaching. Language teachers must instruct their students on the cultural background of language usage, choose culturally appropriate teaching styles, and explore culturally based linguistic differences to promote understanding instead of misconceptions or prejudices. Language policy must be used to create awareness and understandings of cultural differences, and written to incorporate the cultural values of those being taught.

Implications for language teaching Teachers must instruct their students on the cultural background of language usage. If one teaches language without teaching about the culture in which it operates, the students are learning empty or meaningless symbols or they may attach the incorrect meaning to what is being taught. The students, when using the learnt language, may use the language inappropriately or within the wrong cultural context, thus defeating the purpose of learning a language.

Conflict in teaching styles also stem from the relationship between language and culture. During the past decade, I have taught English in Taiwan and have observed a major difficulty in English instruction brought about by teachers and suffered by students. Western English teachers who teach in Taiwan bring along with them any or all of their teaching and learning experiences. To gain employment in Taiwan as an English teacher (legally), one must have received a Bachelor’s degree (Information for foreigners), thus, all instructors of English in Taiwan have, to some degree, an experience of learning in a higher educational setting. From this, they bring with them what they imagine to be appropriate teaching methodology. What is not generally understood, even seldom noticed is that while Taiwanese classes are conducted in a Chinese way, that is in a teacher centered learning environment, the native English teacher’s instruction is focused on student centered learning (Pennycook 1994). Pennycook (1994) continues by pointing out that student centered learning is unsuitable for Chinese students. The students may not know how to react to this different style of learning. A case in point, when at the beginning of my teaching career in Taiwan, I found it very easy to teach English, but very difficult to get the students to interact with me while I was teaching. Teaching was very easy because the students were well behaved and very attentive. The difficulties surfaced when trying to get the students to interact with me, their teacher. At the time, I did not realize that in Taiwan, it was culturally unacceptable for students to interact with their teacher. The Taiwanese students were trained to listen to what the teacher said, memorize it, and later regurgitate it during an exam. I was forced to change my method of teaching so that I was recognised as a “friend” rather than a teacher. The classroom setting had to be changed to a much less formal setting to coax out student interaction. As Murray (1982) pointed out, Chinese students will refuse to accept this “informal discussion” style of teaching. However, once the students were comfortable in their surroundings and didn’t associate it to a typical “Chinese” style class, they became uninhibited and freely conversed in English. The language classes taught using this style proved to be most beneficial to the students with an overall increase in the grade point average.

Because language is so closely entwined with culture, language teachers entering a different culture must respect their cultural values. As Englebert (2004) describes: “…to teach a foreign language is also to teach a foreign culture, and it is important to be sensitive to the fact that our students, our colleges, our administrators, and, if we live abroad, our neighbours, do not share all of our cultural paradigms.”

I have found teaching in Taiwan, the Chinese culture is not the one of individualism, as is mine, but focused on the family and its ties. The backwash from teaching using western culturally acceptable methods must be examined before proceeding as they may be inappropriate teaching methods, intentional or not, may cause the student embarrassment, or worse, to the entire students’ family. As Spence (1985) argues, success and failure in a Chinese cultural framework influences not just oneself but the whole family or group. Therefore, teachers must remember to respect the culture in which they are located.

Language teachers must realize that their understanding of something is prone to interpretation. The meaning is bound in cultural context. One must not only explain the meaning of the language used, but the cultural context in which it is placed as well. Often meanings are lost because of cultural boundaries which do not allow such ideas to persist. As Porter (1987) argues, misunderstandings between language educators often evolve because of such differing cultural roots, ideologies, and cultural boundaries which limit expression.

Language teachers must remember that people from different cultures learn things in different ways. For example, in China memorization is the most pronounced way to study a language which is very unlike western ideologies where the onus is placed on free speech as a tool for utilizing and remembering vocabulary and grammar sequences (Hui 2005). Prodromou (1988) argues that the way we teach reflects our attitudes to society in general and the individual`s place in society. When a teacher introduces language teaching materials, such as books or handouts, they must understand that these will be viewed differently by students depending on their cultural views (Maley 1986). For instance, westerners see books as only pages which contain facts that are open to interpretation. This view is very dissimilar to Chinese students who think that books are the personification of all wisdom, knowledge and truth (Maley 1986).

One should not only compare, but contrast the cultural differences in language usage. Visualizing and understanding the differences between the two will enable the student to correctly judge the appropriate uses and causation of language idiosyncrasies. For instance, I have found, during my teaching in Taiwan, that it is necessary to contrast the different language usages, especially grammatical and idiom use in their cultural contexts for the students to fully understand why certain things in English are said. Most Taiwanese students learning English are first taught to say “Hello. How are you?” and “I am fine. Thank you, and you?” This is believed to be what one must say on the first and every occasion of meeting a westerner. If I asked a student “What’s new?” or “How is everything?” they would still answer “I am fine, thank you and you?” Students often asked me why westerners greet each other using different forms of speech which, when translated to Mandarin, didn’t make sense. This question was very difficult to answer, until I used an example based in Chinese culture to explain it to them. One example of this usage: In Chinese, one popular way to greet a person is to say (…phonetically using pinyin) “chr bao^ le ma?” This, loosely translated to English, would have an outcome similar to “Have you eaten?” or “Are you full?” This greeting was developed in ancient Chinese culture as there was a long history of famine. It was culturally (and possibly morally) significant to ask someone if they had eaten upon meeting. This showed care and consideration for those around you. Even now, people are more affluent but this piece of language remains constant and people still ask on meeting someone, if they have eaten. If someone in a western society was greeted with this, they would think you are crazy or that it is none of your business. The usage of cultural explanations for teaching languages has proved invaluable for my students’ understanding of the target language. It has enabled them to differentiate between appropriate and inappropriate circumstances of which to use English phrases and idioms that they have learnt. Valdes (1986) argues that not only similarities and contrasts in the native and target languages have been useful as teaching tools, but when the teacher understands cultural similarities and contrasts, and applies that knowledge to teaching practices, they too become advantageous learning tools.

Implications for language policy Creators of second language teaching policies must be sensitive to the local or indigenous languages not to make them seem inferior to the target language. English language teaching has become a phenomenon in Southeast Asia, especially in Taiwan. Most Taiwanese universities require an English placement test as an entry requirement (Information for Foreigners Retrieved May 24, 2007). Foreigners (non-native Taiwanese) which are native English speaking students however, do not need to take a similar Chinese proficiency test, thus forwarding the ideology that the knowledge of English is superior to the Chinese counterpart and that to succeed in a globalized economy; one must be able to speak English (Hu 2005). Such a reality shows that our world has entered the age of globalisation of the English language, in which most observers see a tendency toward homogeneity of values and norms; others see an opportunity to rescue local identities (Stromquist & Monkman 2000, p 7). The implications for language policy makers are that policies must be formed which not only include but celebrate local languages. Policies must not degrade other languages by placing them on a level of lower importance. Policies should incorporate the learner’s first language, the usage, and complexities as a means to create better linguistic comprehension as well as cultural understanding.

Policies for language teaching must encompass and include cultural values from the societies from which the languages are derived as well as being taught. In other words, when making policies regarding language teaching, one must consider the cultural ideologies of all and every student, the teacher, as well as the culture in which the target language is being taught. Language teaching policies formed with the cultural characteristics of both teacher and student in mind will not be prone to make assumptions about the appropriateness of students’ behaviour based on the policy maker’s own cultural values (Englebert 2004) but will increase cultural awareness. The American Council on The Teaching of Foreign Languages has expounded on the importance of combining the teaching of culture into the language curriculum to enhance understanding and acceptance of differences between people, cultures and ideologies (Standards 1996). One example where as policy makers did not recognize the importance of culture is outlined by Kim (2004), in which the Korean government had consulted American ESL instructional guidelines which stated that for students to become competent in English they must speak English outside of the classroom. The government on reviewing this policy requested that all Korean English language students use English outside of the classrooms to further enhance their language competency. What they failed to consider is that while in America, English is taught as a second language and speaking English was quite acceptable in all locations, that in Korea, English is taught as a foreign language and the vast majority of the Korean population do not converse with each other in English. Korean students speaking English outside of the classroom context were seen as show-offs. In a collectivistic culture, as is Korea, such displays of uniqueness are seen as a vice to be suppressed, not as a virtue (Kim 2004). Thus policy makers must not rely on the cultural views and policies of others, but incorporate the cultural views of the students as well as considering the culture where the teaching is taking place. Language teachers need to be informed about various teaching interaction-based methodologies, manipulate them and develop their own teaching methods compatible with the educational context to foster interaction between students (Kim 2004).

When creating policies, one must consider the cultural meanings of teaching materials used. The materials may have a far broader meaning or encompass far more (or less) than what one has considered. An example of this is when the school I worked for decided that I introduce a discussion topic on holidays with one of my classes. The school did not enlighten me as to the cultural significance of holidays or what the Chinese equivalent of the word entails. This problem, as described by Yule (1996), is that people have pre-existing schemata or knowledge structure in their memory of what constitutes certain ideas; e.g. an apartment, a holiday, what are breakfast items. The culturally based schemata that the students had for holidays were considerably different than that of my own. Their ideology of a holiday was any day that was special, possibly where one did not have to go to school, a weekend, a birthday, or any other major happening. When I asked the students what their favourite holiday was, I received many replies, all of which were not what I was looking for. I proceeded to tell them that Christmas was a holiday. This however, was a bad example as Christmas is not a holiday in Taiwan. In addition, I did not consider that a Chinese definition of the English word ‘holiday’ has a very broad meaning, thus the students were correctly answering my question however in their own cultural context.

Finally, as this paper has shown, language and culture are intertwined to such an extent whereas one cannot survive without the other. It is impossible for one to teach language without teaching culture. The implications for language teaching and policy making are therefore vast and far reaching. As a teacher of language, one must be culturally aware, considerate of the students` culture, and inform students of cultural differences thus promoting understanding. Language policy must reflect both the target language culture as well as the students`, teacher`s, and administrative persons` culture thus avoiding any cultural misinterpretations.

Works Cited

Allwright D & Bailey KM (1991) Focus on the language classroom: an introduction to classroom research for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Brooks N (1986) Culture in the classroom. In JM Valdes (ed) Culture bound: bridging the cultural gap in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 123–128.

Byram M (1989) Cultural studies in foreign language education. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Emmitt M & Pollock J (1997) Language and learning: an introduction for teaching (2nded). Melbourne: Oxford University Press.

Englebert (2004) Character or Culture? An EFL Journal, 24(2), 37-41. Hantrais L (1989) The undergraduate’s guide to studying languages. London: Centre for Information on Language Teaching and Research.

Hui Du (2005) False alarm or real warning? Implications for China of teaching English. Journal of Educational Enquiry, Vol. 6, (1), 90- 109. Information for foreigners (n.d.) Retrieved June 17, 2007 from http://iff.immigration.gov.tw/front/residence.php

Kim J. (2004) Coping with Cultural Obstacles to Speaking English in the Korean Secondary School Context. Asian EFL Journal, Vol 6 Issue 3 Retrieved May 12, 2007 from http://www.asian-efl- journal.com/september_04_ksj.php

Maley A (1986) XANADU – ‘A miracle of rare device’: the teaching of English in China. In JM Valdes (ed) Culture bound: bridging the cultural gap in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 102–111.

Murray DM (1982) The great walls of China. Today’s Education, vol 71, pp Porter E (1987) Foreign involvement in China’s colleges and universities: a historical perspective. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, vol 11, no 4, pp 369–385.

Prodromou L (1988) English as cultural action. EFT Journal, vol 42, no 2, pp 73–83.

Murray DM (1982) The great walls of China. Today’s Education, vol 71, pp 55–58.

Spence JT (1985) Achievement American style: the rewards and cost of individualism. American Psychologist, vol 40, no 12, pp 1285–1295.

Stromquist NP & Monkman K (2000) Defining globalization and assessing its implications on knowledge and education. In NP Stromquist & K Monkman (eds) Globalization and education: integration and contestation across cultures. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, pp 3–2

Valdes JM (1986) Culture bound: bridging the cultural gap in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Xu ZG (1997) Interpretation of Analects. Beijing: People’s Literature Press.

You may also like:

• From Teaching TEFL to Teaching Culture
• Review ~ Pedagogy and Practice in Second Language Teaching
• Difficulties in Teaching the Language of Describing People

65 Comments

As the other commenters have said, language and culture are closely linked.

Its sad to think that some nations had the intention to remove the language and culture of others by forcing them to speak their preferred language and punishing those for speaking their native tongue.

Such as the Aboriginal children who were kidnapped from their families and forced to live with white families.

or the Catholic schools in Canada who took in children who were punished, tortured and even killed for speaking their own language. Even the pope had to apologize last year for this.

good paper about language

Yes, that is correct. Language is part of culture and even language is culture.

Its really good

This article is very helpful. Thank you

thanks it was helpful

Learners will not learn language separated from its cultural context.

Teachers should have an idea about the culture of the language that he /she taught to avoid misunderstanding as the language and culture are tightly connected.

Most people separate language from culture, but in fact we can not do this because we use language to express our culture and when we learn a language it is not enough to know the structure or the lexis, we need also as learners to be exposed to the culture by using the language, so we would know more about it.

It is clearly shown the mutual importance of language and culture , a good teacher bears in mind that teaching a language is not only transfering its lexical, phonological or structure systems but also, being aware of the impact of the culture on producing or reciving a language.

Any person can communicate easily by using the target language if he or she knows the specific features of the new culture.

It is obvious that the language and culture are strongly related to eachother. They are even noticed in our daily life , when ever we meet new people, they will notice our language and they will immediately ask whare are you from?. This article was very benificial. The teacher should take into consideration , the different students culture in one classroom. And even plan a lesson upon these different cultures within.

This article was really helpful

I noticed that language is affected by culture. because cultures intetrfere each other which leads to producing new concepts of language.

I noticed that language is affected by culture. Especially because cultures interfered with each other which eventually led having new language.

Thank you for the useful tips. Language is interconnected with culture. We adapt our language to the culture we are exposed to. As teachers, we need to teach our students that each culture has its own characteristics. Students should be aware that they won’t find equivalents for each and everything they want.

knowing the distinctive relationship between language and culture helps teachers to be more creative,more skillful and able to solve many problems they may encounter.language teachers should understand and respect students’culture,it’s too necessary to attract their attention toward learning.

Thanks for the great article learning a new language means to learn anew culture too,and these tow are compined together introducing anew language within the culture make it much easy.

Culture is something influenced and impacted by the language whereas, language is formed by the culture of a society. Similarly, language is not only an expression or a means of communication, but a component of a culture that makes it unique and specific.

Our values and speech shapes our identity and personality. It not only does represent the individual identity, but represents the identity of where he/she belongs to.

Humans are born in the same way and experience the same stages of life. However, the difference is the environment in which each individual grows up and the accent which he/she becomes familiar to. This creates a specific identity of a certain values and speech that differs from person to person.

thanks for this useful article. Language is the official spokesman of culture, through it we learn about other countries cultures language and culture are very connected to each other.

Thank you for this interesting article which is smooth and easy to understand ,this let us think about the importance of knowing the culture of the country before learning it’s language to use it in appropriate way.

Culture and language both of them related to each other, we can’t separate them.If we know culture we could easily learn it’s language all babies when they born they are the same but language and culture give him or her the ID

Thank you for this sharing. I think language is a reflection of cultures. Everyone’s thoughts are shaped by his own culture and the the understanding of related culture helps in enhancing the knowledge of their language. So, teachers of a certain language should refer to the culture to understand some concepts than cannot be transmitted in a new culture.

Language and culture may consider one unit. Both of them are interconnected. This article was amazing and useful.

When you learn a new language, it not only involves learning its alphabet, the word arrangement and the rules of grammar, but also learning about the specific society’s customs and behavior. When learning or teaching a language, it is important that the culture where the language belongs be referenced, because language is very much ingrained in the culture.

Different language with one culture and the whole inter wining of these relationship start at one birth day.The understanding of a culture and its people can be enhanced by the knowledge of their language

In order to teach language ,you have to teach the related cultural things and makes a useful link between them

language and culture are two issues inextricably linked and tied to each other. so their impact on each other is nessary inevitable.

It’s very important to entwin language to culture since they’re deeply connected & affect each other. You , as a teacher, cannot teach a language apart from it’s language coz it’ll be meaningless and Ss won’t benefit the wanted outcomes. Introducing the language with relating it to the culture makes the vocabs and phrases more comprehensive.

You can’t teach language without teaching culture. You have to link the second language with the culture to stimulate students.

Since thoughts differ because the use of different languages, when one want to learn a new language it is a must to learn about its culture to better understand the way how meanings are comprehended.

language and culture are very connected to each other, so language teacher should teach students culture of the source language to make sure that students will use the language in the right culture context. teacher should also pay attention to the way his students look at teaching process. He should also be aware to the culture of his students.

The phrase language is culture ad culture is language,so the relationship between them is very strong.In addition,when we learn language we learn culture and different cultures allow people learn in different ways.

Language and culture are both related to each other every child comes to life and learn the language by interacting with people around him. Language shaped by the culture because we see that in the same country people use the same language but in differant ways and accents and they use some of the words differantly according to the place they live in. If we want to learn any language we need to know or understand the culture and the way of thinking for these people who speak this language.

The implications of language being completely entwined in culture and Language policy must be used to create awareness and understandings of cultural differences, and written to incorporate the cultural values of those being taught.so, Teachers must instruct their students on the cultural background of language usage and conflict in learning styles.

“Language is the culture and culture is the language” both developed together .

The more you know about culture the easier it is to get involved and learn new words.

Great article. I completely agree with the author, that our language shaped by our culture and teaching language means teaching culture. we can’t separate learning languages from their cultures because the relation between them is deeply rooted.

Thank you for this great content. I agree with with you that language and culture they are associated together and if you are not that familiar to its culture you won’t be able to learn their language it helps us to onow more about it and gain more knowledge

language is usedto transmit values,laws, rituals and even the taboos. it affects the identy of people who live in the same place and create specific behaviours. also language the way we thinking, living and our style life.

This content is really helpful to enhance my skills of writing and understanding of text in this new study environment. Thanks alot to provide this readings

I have learnt many things when i switched from culture to English learning. Culturally the learning of my language has helped very much in the learning of English language

I am asking these questions because I want to show you the best way to boost the pleasure of watching live sports. The new bingo sites connected with real free bingo offers many top quality games. While gaining knowledge through our own mistake is good, gaining knowledge through other people’s mistakes will be brilliant. 에비앙카지노

Perfect article

thanks for the great information…now I know a lot about the bond between language and culture.

Yes a wonderful and interesting article. I am a Dutch second language teacher and anthroplogist. And it would be excellent idea to integrate cultural awereness more into language training.

Many thanks for the inspiring insights in this article. I am currently doing my Phd research study at the Tech.Uni.Dresden-Germany, about the theme : “Enhancing Literacy and Cooperatives in the Informal Education Settings in Uganda”. There we have to learn English at school; amidst a myriad of local languages, the two most widely used are Luganda and Swahili in my study area.I would like to receive and use this and other similar examples from Asia as research, teaching and training materials, in order to bring awareness for the need for appropriate language policy implications in Africa, beginning with Uganda.

Therefore, I kindly request for more information in this regard. Secondly, I would like to be in contact with researchers and actors/activists within the African cultural context

With kind regards

Thanks a lot…

Enlightening and at its best . Thanks for your compilation & direction

I find the article is easy to be understood. Thank you.

From a teachers standpoint, I might agree with some of the previous methods comments, but from a researchers standpoint doing a doctorate study on 2nd language in Korea, I like what you wrote. It will help me. Thank you.

I blog quite often and I seriously thank you for your content.

Your article has really peaked my interest. I’m going to take a note of your site and keep checking for new information about once per week. I opted in for your RSS feed as well.

Thanks for your knowledge despite the fact that it was not properly punctuated and some errors in writing.

thanks for educative article.this article somehow touches my life..

I born and grown up in a society which is not my families type in culture and language. I learn their language and culture but not my families original culture as they were displaced from their original birth place.

2 years ago (after I am 25 yrs old),they relocate me with the whole family to their original birth place. this communities are my relatives in blood but not in culture and language. I cannot speak their language but my father and mother do.I couldn’t adapt their culture yet but my families do.

my parents wants me to marry one the lady from this communities to rebuild my culture and to bring my up coming children on their culture track.

how I can date someone whom we speak different language,culture etc…

If its not for my family,I would have been returned to the place I have grown up.

Pease I need your advice!!!!

sorry for poor english,,..

Thanks a lot. It really helped a lot.

A telling example of cultural differences is your use of the word learnt, a normal usage in the UK, but far less frequently in the US and Canada. It was the one clue which left me with the impression you were not a native born American, our colloquialisms can be very illustrative.

Thanks a lot. My other question is what is the relationship between language, culture and society?

Your article is a good one. As a masters student of language arts education in Nigeria, I found it so helpful. There is content and the message is clear. Thanks a lot.

thanks for your contribution my is how language affects culture

Thaks alot .it really helpfull piece of writing..very concise and to the point..I -as a second of English -found easy to digest..

language and culture are two issues inextricably interwoven and tied to each other. so their impact on each other is inevitable.

thanks.this will help me alot in my assignment.its really great.

thanks, it will help me a lots in my forth coming exam, my medium of exam is Hindi and i will translate it into Hindi.

Thanks for your guidance through this work of your’s. It is helpful for me asI am doing research on language and culture at JNU. Regards, Manisha Pal

your work was of great important.i’m a student teacher writting a project on the topic’METHODOLOGY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND IT’S IMPLICATION’.i’ll welcome suggestions help tools from you.

It certainly could do with some editing, but it is provided free both by the author and the site after all. More importantly, I think comments on its content are far more constructive than the comments you have made

This is a poorly written, error-filled thesis: incomplete sentences, sloppy punctuation, occasional gibberish. It doesn’t speak well for the author or for TEFL.net. Examples: “When an infant is born, it is not unlike any other infant born, in fact, quite similar.” “The implications of language being completely entwined in culture, in regards for language teaching and language policy are far reaching.” “”… one must consider the cultural ideologies of all and every student, the teacher, as well as the culture in which the target language is being taught.” I’m astonished to find that the author is a native English-speaker.

Leave a comment

Email * (not published)

This domain has expired. Is this your domain? Renew Now!

Get a new domain registered at NameSilo.com. Find out who owns any domain name with the WHOIS tool.

This webpage was generated by the domain owner using Sedo Domain Parking . Disclaimer: Sedo maintains no relationship with third party advertisers. Reference to any specific service or trade mark is not controlled by Sedo nor does it constitute or imply its association, endorsement or recommendation.

Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer.

To browse Academia.edu and the wider internet faster and more securely, please take a few seconds to  upgrade your browser .

Enter the email address you signed up with and we'll email you a reset link.

• We're Hiring!
• Help Center

The Relationship between Language and Culture

Related Papers

Language, Culture and Curriculum

claire kramsch

Saima Jafri

The current study examines the literature linked with the significance of culture in learning a second language .In the last few decades there has been considerable research on the role culture plays in language education. It is not possible to divorce cultural phenomenon from language instruction in modern times. The basic thesis of the study is that successful communication is not just about language ability but about cultural understanding as well. Thus, Language teaching has to focus not just on improving and enhancing communicative competence but cultural competence also has to be inculcated among the learners. The teaching of culture has the potential to create compassion and reverence among the learners toward diverse customs of the world. The integration of culture in language learning can promote cultural insightfulness and a broader outlook. Introduction When it comes to learning a second language, culture appears as a neglected aspect both in curriculum and pedagogy. Learners enter the Second Language class room with their own distinctive culture and it is important for them to get acquainted and even to acquire the culture of the second language to succeed at the new language. Since culture is embedded in the very language we speak, second language learning is connected with cultural acquisition at the very core.

International Journal of English Language and Translation Studies

The present study aimed at presenting the historical background of the emergence of culture in language learning and how it can be correlated with the language learners. In fact, by providing various definitions of culture and the role it might play in the process of language learning, whether directly or indirectly, this research provides a clear-cut overview of culture and its application among the people as well as their communication in the society. Moreover, the relationship between culture and language learning is also taken into account. To this end, basic definitions of culture in different research studies are investigated moving toward finding a path to make a connection between language and culture. Therefore, a review of studies on the relationship between language learning and culture is provided to account for the possible effectiveness of benefiting from culture in the language learning process in that the learning context (i.e. foreign or second language) can be affected by the culture of the teachers as well as the learners. This demands that both teachers and learners should be aware of cultural issues surrounding the language and the fact that it can be beneficial for the process of language learning. If learner are consciously involved in the culture of the language they are learning, they certainly can have better performance and understand the language more tangibly.

Sumera Umrani

The current study examines the literature linked wi th the significance of culture in learning a second language .In the last few decades th re has been considerable research on the role culture plays in language education. It is not p ssible to divorce cultural phenomenon from language instruction in modern times. The basic the sis of the study is that successful communication is not just about language ability bu t about cultural understanding as well. Thus, Language teaching has to focus not just on improvin g a d enhancing communicative competence but cultural competence also has to be inculcated a mong the learners. The teaching of culture has the potential to create compassion and reverenc among the learners toward diverse customs of the world. The integration of culture in la guage learning can promote cultural insightfulness and a broader outlook.

Applied Linguistics

Kazem Lotfipour-Saedi

There are different views on the relationship between language and culture. Some consider them as separate entities one being a code-system and the other a system of beliefs and attitudes. Some believe in a cause and effect relationship between the two; and yet others argue for a co-evolutionary mode of interrelation. This paper will subscribe to the Hallidayan co-evolutionary view of the relationship (cf. Halliday 1991), presenting the view that language and culture are both integrated into a unique socio-semiotic system always interacting with one another for the successful functioning of the system. It will discuss some aspects of this interaction and the implications for ESL/EFL education programs.

sheeraz ali , Bahram Kazemian , Israr Hussain

English has been designated as a source of intercultural communication among the people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. A range of linguistic and cultural theories contribute meaningful insights on the development of competence in intercultural communication. The speculations suggest the use of communicative strategies focusing on the development of learners’ efficiency in communicating language through cultural context. However, the teaching of culture in communication has not been paid due importance in a number of academic and language settings of Pakistan and Iran. This assignment study indicates problems in view of teaching English as a medium of instruction in public sector colleges of interior Sindh, Pakistan and prescribed textbooks in Iranian schools. It also aims to identify drawbacks and shortcoming in prescribed textbooks for intermediate students at college level and schools. Therefore, the assignment study recommends integration of cultural awareness into a language teaching programme for an overall achievement of competence in intercultural communication.

Birgit Brock-Utne

Brunilda Kondi

Al-Hussein S Mohsen , خديجة علي

Language is a basic tool for communication. It expresses feelings, emotions, needs, thoughts, etc. Culture is the actual life of a particular group of people. This research aims at defining language and culture, and it examines the relationship between them as well as the important role that culture plays in teaching and learning English as a foreign language in Libya. This study is made up of two parts; theoretical and practical. The theoretical part sheds light on the relation between language and culture and on how to incorporate culture in English language course-books. The practical part includes two sections; the first is an analysis of the cultural content of the course-books used in the secondary level in Libya while the second takes care of

Loading Preview

Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. You can download the paper by clicking the button above.

RELATED PAPERS

International journal of humanities and social sciences

Bikhtiyar Omar Fattah

Online Submission

ali haydar Bektas

Sashka Jovanovska

Tamar Mebuke

Mairin Hennebry-Leung (née Hennebry)

The Modern Language Journal

Gilberte Furstenberg

Heidi Byrnes

Jelena Ranisavljevic

LUCKY AYU NOVITASARI

nurul aoliyah

English for Specific Purposes

Manel Lacorte

Zumratxon Shukurova

Rijalda Dizdarevic

Armenian Folia Anglistika

Richard Amoako

International Journal of Social Sciences & Educational Studies

Mustafa Altun

Revue Sciences Humaines

sarah merrouche

Modern Language Journal

Katherine Arens

Language Teaching

International Journal of Language and Linguistics

Hawkar Akram Awla

World Englishes and Culture in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) Education

Nurdan KAVAKLI

The SAGE Encyclopedia of Intercultural Competence

Gillian Peiser

ELT Journal

Wenying Jiang

RELATED TOPICS

•   We're Hiring!
•   Help Center
• Find new research papers in:
• Health Sciences
• Earth Sciences
• Cognitive Science
• Mathematics
• Computer Science
• Academia ©2024

• Search Menu

Sign in through your institution

• Advance articles
• Editor's Choice
• Key Concepts
• The View From Here
• Author Guidelines
• Submission Site
• Open Access
• Why Publish?
• About ELT Journal
• Editorial Board
• Advertising and Corporate Services
• Journals Career Network
• Self-Archiving Policy
• Dispatch Dates
• Terms and Conditions
• Journals on Oxford Academic
• Books on Oxford Academic

• < Previous

The relationship between culture and language

• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data

Wenying Jiang, The relationship between culture and language, ELT Journal , Volume 54, Issue 4, October 2000, Pages 328–334, https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/54.4.328

• Permissions Icon Permissions

This paper discusses the inseparability of culture and language, presents three new metaphors relating to culture and language, and explores cultural content in specific language items through a survey of word associations. The survey was designed for native Chinese speakers (NCS) in Chinese, as well as for native English speakers (NES) in English (see Appendix). The words and expressions associated by NCS convey Chinese culture, and those associated by NES convey English culture. The intimate relationship between language and culture is strikingly illustrated by the survey, which confirms the view that language and culture cannot exist without each other.

Personal account

• Sign in with email/username & password
• Get email alerts
• Save searches
• Purchase content
• Activate your purchase/trial code
• Add your ORCID iD

Institutional access

Sign in with a library card.

• Sign in with username/password
• Recommend to your librarian
• Institutional account management
• Get help with access

Access to content on Oxford Academic is often provided through institutional subscriptions and purchases. If you are a member of an institution with an active account, you may be able to access content in one of the following ways:

IP based access

Typically, access is provided across an institutional network to a range of IP addresses. This authentication occurs automatically, and it is not possible to sign out of an IP authenticated account.

Choose this option to get remote access when outside your institution. Shibboleth/Open Athens technology is used to provide single sign-on between your institution’s website and Oxford Academic.

• Click Sign in through your institution.
• Select your institution from the list provided, which will take you to your institution's website to sign in.
• When on the institution site, please use the credentials provided by your institution. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.
• Following successful sign in, you will be returned to Oxford Academic.

If your institution is not listed or you cannot sign in to your institution’s website, please contact your librarian or administrator.

Enter your library card number to sign in. If you cannot sign in, please contact your librarian.

Society Members

Society member access to a journal is achieved in one of the following ways:

Sign in through society site

Many societies offer single sign-on between the society website and Oxford Academic. If you see ‘Sign in through society site’ in the sign in pane within a journal:

• Click Sign in through society site.
• When on the society site, please use the credentials provided by that society. Do not use an Oxford Academic personal account.

If you do not have a society account or have forgotten your username or password, please contact your society.

Sign in using a personal account

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members. See below.

A personal account can be used to get email alerts, save searches, purchase content, and activate subscriptions.

Some societies use Oxford Academic personal accounts to provide access to their members.

Viewing your signed in accounts

Click the account icon in the top right to:

• View your signed in personal account and access account management features.
• View the institutional accounts that are providing access.

Signed in but can't access content

Oxford Academic is home to a wide variety of products. The institutional subscription may not cover the content that you are trying to access. If you believe you should have access to that content, please contact your librarian.

For librarians and administrators, your personal account also provides access to institutional account management. Here you will find options to view and activate subscriptions, manage institutional settings and access options, access usage statistics, and more.

Short-term Access

To purchase short-term access, please sign in to your personal account above.

Don't already have a personal account? Register

Email alerts

Citing articles via.

• Recommend to Your Library

Affiliations

• Online ISSN 1477-4526
• Print ISSN 0951-0893
• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Rights and permissions
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

The Impact of Society and Culture on Language

• First Online: 30 August 2024

Cite this chapter

• Joanna Dornbierer-Stuart 2  

This chapter begins by looking at the effect that society and its social structures would have had on emerging language, especially regarding the need to hunt, keep peace and raise offspring. It then turns to the cultural evolution of language and the notion that language is self-evolving as it is transmitted across the community via social interaction. It explores the possibility that not only genes affect language but, vice versa, language affects genes in a complex interation between biology and culture. The chapter finishes with Kirby's loop of three adaptive systems involved in the emergence of language. 

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Institutional subscriptions

Harari, Y. N. (2014). Sapiens: A brief history of humankind . Harvill Secker.

Google Scholar  

Gull, T. (2021). Mensch und Schimpans. UZH Magazin, 2 (21), 32–37.

Deacon, T. (2010). A role for relaxed selection in the evolution of the language capacity. PNAS, 107 (2), 9000–9006. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0914624107

Smith, K. (2006). Cultural evolution of language. In E.-CÂÂ. K. Brown (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics (2nd ed., pp. 315–322)

Odling-Smee, J., Laland, K. N., & Feldman, M. W. (2003). Niche construction: The neglected process in evolution. Monographs in Population Biology, 37 . https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400847266

Deacon, T. (1997). The symbolic species: The co-evolution of language and the brain . Norton.

de Boer, B. (2000). Self organization in vowel systems. Journal of Phonetics, 28 (4), 441–465. https://doi.org/10.1006/jpho.2000.0125

Wikipedia. (2023). Cultural selection theory . https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory

Crozier, G. K. D. (2008). Reconsidering cultural selection theory. The British Journal for the Philosophy of Science, 59 (3), 455–479. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjps/axn018

Croft, W. (2000). Explaining language change . Longman.

Oudeyer, P., & Kaplan, F. (2007). Language evolution as a Darwinian process: Computational studies. Cognitive Processing, 8 , 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10339-006-0158-3

Article   Google Scholar  

Christiansen, M., & Chater, N. (2008). Language as shaped by the brain. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 31 , 489–558. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X08004998

Cuskley, C. (2020). Language evolution: A brief overview . PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/3y98j

Kirby, S., Dowman, M., & Griffiths, T. L. (2007). Innateness and culture in the evolution of language. PNAS, 102 (12), 5241–5245. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0608222104

Kirby, S., & Hurford, J. R. (2002). The emergence of linguistic structure: An overview of the iterated learning model. In A. Cangelosi & D. Parisi (Eds.), Simulating the evolution of language (pp. 121–147). Springer.

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

School of English, Birmingham City University, Birmingham, UK

Joanna Dornbierer-Stuart

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Joanna Dornbierer-Stuart .

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Dornbierer-Stuart, J. (2024). The Impact of Society and Culture on Language. In: The Origins of Language. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54938-0_5

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-54938-0_5

Published : 30 August 2024

Publisher Name : Palgrave Macmillan, Cham

Print ISBN : 978-3-031-54937-3

Online ISBN : 978-3-031-54938-0

eBook Packages : Social Sciences Social Sciences (R0)

Share this chapter

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

Identity, Language, and Culture Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Identity and diaspora, connection between language, identity and cultural difference, reference list.

Identity is marked out by differences in the surrounding or context within which an individual or thing is found. Differences are what make an individual or a group of people identifiable or definable. The identity of a person and what he uses, his culture and language are closely connected.

Language and culture act as symbols which mark or delineate an individual’s identity characteristics. Difference in identity makes an individual or a group of people see themselves as belonging.

The differences outline the demarcations of in-groups to which individuals belong. The basic differences between in-groups are enshrined in the language and symbolic systems that they use.

Identity definitions make individuals or a group of people to see themselves as being better than others. Hall (1997, p. 8) provides a case of a Serb militia man who claims that Serbs are totally different from Croats even in the cigarettes they smoke. Due to the kind of identity definition they hold, the Croats think themselves to be better than Serbs (Hall, 1997, 8).

The language one speaks is a powerful symbol of identity and through it, others can tell one’s nationality or culture. A person can encourage positive identity practice when he accepts and learns the identity of a particular community.

Inversely, if one rejects or vilifies the cultural identity of others, he or she encourages negative identity practices, which if unchecked are likely to result in full blown conflicts. Through language we are able to present to people who we really are and it’s also a way for others to make their own assumptions of who we are.

We have different languages and this is what marks an individual’s or a group of people’s identity. For example, the common English language the Australians speak is different from the ones Americans speak.

The differences in the English spoken in America and the English spoken in Australia results or is a consequence of difference in accents. Therefore, the difference in accents distinguishes these two groups although they speak the same language; English.

Cultural characteristics are also important symbols, which distinguish an individual or a group of people as belonging to a particular group or culture. Through the differences in cultures we are able to mark one’s identity and know or make assumptions of who they are and from which background they hail.

Identity is relational in the sense that it is distinguished by something it is not or does not have. If a particular culture does not have or do something which another culture has or does, then that is what distinguishes that particular culture, and thus gives it an identity.

Language, identity and cultural differences all have this character. An individual or a group of people may not have something in their language or culture which another individual or group of people have. What one culture lacks that another culture has gives the respective cultures a sense of identity; it distinguishes them from the others.

Language, identity and cultural differences are all marked through symbols. Things an individual or a group of people use are closely related to their identity, these are symbols which identify or define them.

They may be using something which another one doesn’t use or which they think is better than theirs, like in the case of Serbs and Croats it’s the cigarettes which define them. The cigarettes act as the symbols and differentiated or distinguish identities (Hall, 1969, p.10).

Language, identity and culture are connected because it is the differences inherent in language that map a given identity. Language and culture are connected because language often carries symbolic meanings that can only be understood in the context of the given culture.

Both languages and cultures have symbols which also act as identifiers or distinction between individuals or groups of people. Language and Culture like identity are also relational in that they are all distinguished by something they are not.

Different languages, identities and cultures have different things which the other does not have and this is what distinguishes and makes them different.

The differences in culture and language gives respective cultures and languages a sense of identity and this is important because it defines an individual or a group of people. Our identities reflect the common historical experiences and shared cultural values which make us to be a united people with stable reference of meaning.

Identity is important in that it defines who we really are and in the post colonial struggles it played a big role in reshaping our world.

The rediscovery of identity in post colonial societies has been the object of hope which has been helping former colonial subjects and colonizers rehabilitate themselves with regard to self definition and appropriation of how others define themselves (Hall, 1997).

Identity has also played an important role in the development of many important social movements. These include feminist, anti-colonial and anti-racist, environmental activists, lobby groups, human rights activists, among others movements. What brings this people together is a common identity.

They identify themselves because of the different causes they hold dear in society. The difference in cause or concern gives them an identity. Further, these social movements are identifiable with distinctive language use or jargon and their developing of symbols that frame a kind of subculture.

Language being a powerful symbol of identity is a major difference between different cultural groups in Australia. Even among people who speak English, differences in accent and use of cliché words creates further distinctions, subcultures and thus identities.

I have some experience of having lived in a multicultural setting. The setting composed of people of African origin, African Americans and indigenous locals. From observations, I noticed many differences that distinguished each set of individuals or groups.

The Chinese believe that in order to achieve unity they must take pride in their history and culture; they believe that intellectual unity and consolidated power is what brings them social harmony. This is different from Australians who still deconstruct their culture, consolidate power and through government work to implement their agendas.

People of Chinese origin focus more on self development and personal growth than transforming or challenging traditional structures and set ups. This is unlike the attitude of black Americans or English Australians.

Considering countries, china is very distinctive or different from Australia. Australia is identified from Chinese because they don’t take pride in their history and cultures like the Chinese do.

Another way of distinguishing between Australians and Chinese is by language. The Chinese have their languages and even those who have immigrated to Australia still speak and teach their children to speak Chinese.

National identity in Australia was brought about by earlier Australians identifying selves with being able to withstand hardship. This kind of identity has produced a sporting spirit that has continued to grow.

Other historical factors like the gold rush days, Federation, World Wars and others have been significant symbols which have greatly influenced the development of Australia’s national identity.

The Gold Rush had a great impact on the economy of Australia and development of the nation. Diggers in the goldfields developed a strong relationship which has been important to them on how they and others perceive being Australian.

Since then, the diggers’ rebelliousness and disregard for the authority at that time has remained an important topic of discussion in Australia history and identity.

Diverse cultures, people and images in Australia have been a strong symbol of identity. Many important events and people who were involved in these events have helped the Australians shape the view they have of their nations and how others view them as a nation.

Indigenous communities have kept their cultural heritage strong and alive by passing it to every generation. These include their knowledge, art and performances.

By speaking and teaching their language to their children, protecting their culture, sacred and important places and objects, the Australians have been able to maintain and be proud of their identity.

The Aboriginal people in Australia value their land so much. They believe their land is what sustains people. Reciprocally, people and culture in turn are supposed to sustain the land. National parks are of great significance for the Aboriginal people because of the stories associated to them; stories that have been told from one generation to the other.

The diverse cultures and people unite the Australians and this has made them committed to their country. They have a right to express their diverse cultures and beliefs and to participate freely in Australia’s national development.

Everyone in Australia is expected to respect an individual’s worth, dignity and freedom. Every individual has freedom of speech, religion, association and is expected to support and maintain peace. The pride each individual group takes in its cultural heritage has helped keep Australian cultures live.

The cultural identification helps distinguish people and offers them an identity. National initiatives and mechanisms have been put in place to help Australians towards becoming more tolerant towards difference.

Art in Australia has contributed to the shaping and reflecting of the nation’s image. Art scenes have reflected the diverse indigenous cultural traditions and this as a symbol of identity has helped to define the nation. Modern art in Australia is totally different to that of Chinese.

Because of government funding, Australia’s art is more political compared to that of Chinese. This has caused a great divide between the private and the government funded art’s market. This is a mark of identity because identity is relational as it is distinguished by something it is not.

Art in China is distinguished from that of Australia because it’s less political. The difference in art scenes of these two countries also marks identity because identity is marked by differences, and through these differences Australia is able to define itself.

Education in Australia is different from that of China in that in Australia they are more focused on students while in China they are more focused on teachers.

A teacher in Australia will help students find answers to a question by themselves by providing them with the basic knowledge while in China a teacher will easily give answers to students without letting them do something on their own first.

In Australia students interact a lot and more easily than in China. Students in Australia learn by doing things on their own and interacting with their fellow students and they plan their own learning. These differences in education between China and Australia mark identity because identity is all about differences.

Identity is marked through symbols. As a matter of fact, symbols are very important for marking cultural identity and regeneration.

For example, national flag, food recipe and uniform are such symbols that identify individuals or groups. Australia has a national flag in which they take pride and which has become an expression of identity. It is the nation’s chief symbol and Australians respect it and use it with dignity.

Through symbols, individuals define their culture and are able to feel connected with their past. Moreover, symbols also connect the present with the future as they help to store or safeguard a people’s heritage. This is because the symbols have been there from the past and have been passed from one generation to the other.

For example in Australia, the ruling authority wanted to make the Union Jack as the uniting symbol. Many Australians were against this and they tried to create their own symbols in order to challenge the authorities and express their culture.

Many of these were rejected by the government which has in turn has made Australia remain seeking for symbols. Up to now, symbols still define much of political life in Australia and Australians are still trying to find new symbols. This shows how symbols are important in marking an identity of an individual or a nation.

Chinese boast when it comes to hospitality and this is clearly expressed by their way of life. In China they can easily invite a stranger in their homes and share with him their food and make sure he/she is full before leaving. It’s different in Australia because they are kind of wary of strangers than the Chinese people.

Identity is marked through social and material conditions. When it comes to drinking, alcohol is important for both Australians and Chinese. What makes the difference is the way of consumption. The Chinese get drunk very fast and it is acceptable for them to act in an uncontrolled manner while drunk.

For the Chinese drinking is a way of showing respect. On the other hand Australians drink more slowly while having a conversation and they don’t seem to like it when one starts to act in an uncontrolled manner due to drunkenness.

Sex is considered a taboo topic for discussion in China and in order for a woman to be respected and valued in marriage; she has to be a virgin. In Australia sex topics are not considered taboo and they are openly discussed and for a man to marry he doesn’t have to get a virgin woman.

This has caused many women and men to be sexually experienced before getting married. This for most of older Chinese is very immoral. It doesn’t mean that the Chinese are upright in behavior; they also have a number of practices that Australians find immoral.

Men in China find themselves in sexual unfulfilling marriages, this makes it acceptable for them to visit prostitutes or have mistresses. In Australia this is totally unacceptable. Chinese maintain their morality before getting married but after marriage it gets different while Australians maintain their morality in marriage.

Australia is a multicultural nation in which they have many different races, ethnic groups and cultures. In Australia there are the indigenous and non-indigenous people. The indigenous people are claimed to have been marginalized through colonization.

One of the major debates on the significance of belonging and culture is identity. Multiculturalism in Australia is about cultural diversity and has influenced greatly the identity of the nation. It values its racial and ethnic diversity by giving its people freedom to express their cultural values.

Multiculturalism in Australia has worked well because different cultures have been accepted by the people and the peaceful relationship between diverse cultures and individuals has been maintained.

Diversity in Australia has acted as a positive force in bringing the people of together by accepting each others different culture and this has been a very significant identity which the people of Australia take pride in.

Sports, music and art have provided Australia with an identity. It has been recognized worldwide through its achievements in sports.

They have been able to achieve this through a successful multicultural society and their sporting heroes are recognized and valued worldwide giving Australia an identity.

Hall’s explanation of the connection between language, identity and cultural difference has helped in explaining how these three connect. As Hall put it, identity is marked out by differences.

Different people speak different languages and this difference is what makes an individual identify with a particular group of people. There are different cultures and identity which exists between people and they are all marked by differences.

Identity representation has signifying symbols and processes which produce meanings through which we can know who we are and understand our experiences. This symbolic system makes us understand who we are and what we might be in future.

Representations of identity helps an individual see and know themselves. Culture shapes identity by giving meaning to our experiences in that we are able to define ourselves by relating to our cultural experiences.

Diaspora identities are those which are continuing to develop themselves a new through transformation and difference. Thus cultural identities go through constant transformation as it is about what you become and what you are. Cultural identities are the points of identification which are made throughout history of a culture.

In Australia multiculturalism has made it difficult for the government to approve a national cultural symbol because all cultures are equal and the people enjoy freedom of being individuals.

Social and symbolic markings are both important for the defining and maintaining of identities. Symbolic marking is how we look at and understand our social relations and practices while social differentiation is the way people live with these types of differences in their everyday relations.

Identities are formed and maintained because they mater so much and this is why people would always claim their positions and identify with them. Different people, cultures, ethnic groups and even religious groups claim a common culture as their foundation. Identity depends on difference and in social relations symbolic and social differences develop.

Foods people eat tell a lot about who they are and what culture we are in. Foods indicate religious as well as ethnic background and culture of a people, there are foods which are considered as unclean by other cultures or religious groups but are eaten by others.

Through such foods we are able to make an assumption or know which culture or religion one comes from, for example Muslims are identified for their avoidance of pork and this defines their religion.

This marks the identity of such groups who avoid certain foods and the identities of those who are part of a particular belief system and those who are not. The types of food people eat are materialistic because people eat what they are able to afford and what is available in their society.

Identities are made in relation to other identities, what they are not is what defines them and this brings the difference. Chinese art scenes are not as political as those of Australia and this is what marks the difference.

Cultural identities are histories which people share and thus make them one people or one culture. A Diaspora must discover this identity in order for them to express their cultural experiences.

Around the world people define their cultural identity by stereotyping themselves. The stereotypes model the behavior that people want to copy and make people feel that they are part of a community and that they belong to a particular culture.

In Australia, individuals have appreciated the importance of identity and in order to confirm their identity, they have created stereotypes. The Australians take pride in their national unity and people from different cultures are all one and care for one another.

In conclusion, Hall’s argument that Identity is marked by differences is a valid one. Further, the interconnection he relates about language, culture and identity as illustrated in the foregoing paragraphs is a valid one.

Some differences are taken to be more important than others by different ethnic groups or cultures. One group might see themselves superior to the other and what they use as more important and great than the others.

Identity is also marked through social and material conditions. A group may be separated socially and disadvantaged materially if it is it is symbolically marked as an enemy or taboo.

Symbols mark distinctions which are present in social relations. In social relations people use different things and because an individual or group of people may think of theirs as better than others, it brings the distinction.

If a group is socially separated because it is marked as an enemy they will be materially disadvantaged because no one would want to associate with such group which is claimed to be a taboo or enemy.

Social relations may be organized and divided into opposing groups; one group may see themselves as better than the other and consider the other as nothing because of the different social backgrounds and cultures.

Hall, S. (1997). Cultural Identity and Diaspora . London: SAGE Publication

Hall, S. (1969). Commonwealth of Australia . London: Sage Publications

• Why We Are Responsible For Being Born
• Identity Development Process
• Cultural Pride and Cultural Baggage
• Culture, Diversity and Health Experiences of Indigenous People in Australia
• The Breakdown of Indigenous Culture in Australia
• African Identity: Domingo Alvarez
• American Immigrants and Identity Crisis
• Importance and Challenges of Hyphenated Identity
• Language and Political Theory in Construction of Japanese Identity
• Transitions, Repetitions, Comparisons and Contrasts as Robidoux’s Basic Strategies
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2019, May 1). Identity, Language, and Culture. https://ivypanda.com/essays/identity-and-diaspora-essay/

"Identity, Language, and Culture." IvyPanda , 1 May 2019, ivypanda.com/essays/identity-and-diaspora-essay/.

IvyPanda . (2019) 'Identity, Language, and Culture'. 1 May.

IvyPanda . 2019. "Identity, Language, and Culture." May 1, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/identity-and-diaspora-essay/.

1. IvyPanda . "Identity, Language, and Culture." May 1, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/identity-and-diaspora-essay/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "Identity, Language, and Culture." May 1, 2019. https://ivypanda.com/essays/identity-and-diaspora-essay/.

The Outsider in a Nation: Rudolf Rocker, Nationalism, and Generative Linguistics

Studies in Ethnicity and Nationalism

21 Pages Posted:

David Lobina

Affiliation not provided to ssrn.

Date Written: June 06, 2024

In Nationalism and Culture, now a largely forgotten book, the anarchist thinker Rudolf Rocker offers a compelling account of the nationalist phenomenon, from its origins and development to its influence (or lack thereof) over the linguistic and cultural practices of the large groups of people that typically encompass a nation-state. The present paper aims to revisit and update Rocker’s book, highlighting its relevance and potential contribution to the modern study of nationalism. In particular, I employ the tools of Noam Chomsky’s generative study of language to characterise the roles language and culture play in the formation of national identities, in so doing unearthing some of the psychological underpinnings of nationalist beliefs and thus, furthermore, clarifying the actual effects of nationalist policies on language, culture, and artistic creativity.

Keywords: Rudolf Rocker; Nationalism; Language; Culture; Creativity; Generative Linguistics.

Suggested Citation: Suggested Citation

David Lobina (Contact Author)

Do you have a job opening that you would like to promote on ssrn, paper statistics, related ejournals, political theory: history of political thought ejournal.

Subscribe to this fee journal for more curated articles on this topic

Calculate for all schools

Your chance of acceptance, your chancing factors, extracurriculars, college essays and military life: is it overdone.

As a military child, I've moved around a lot. It's really impacted my life and shaped me as a person, and I'm thinking of writing my college essay about it. But I'm worried it's a common essay topic. Thoughts?

Moving around as a military child is indeed an experience that many students write about, but that doesn't mean it can't make for a compelling essay. Ultimately, it's not about the commonality of the topic, but how you approach it. The best essays showcase unique aspects about your personality and experiences.

Now, an essay about moving around a lot could easily fall into cliches like learning adaptability or cultural understanding. To avoid that, consider focusing on specific anecdotes or insights that you've gained which might be distinct to your experiences.

For example, perhaps all the transitions fostered in you a keen interest in languages or local history, and you have combined these somehow in your high school years, such as starting a regional history club or creating a local language app. Or maybe being the "new kid" frequently led you to develop a passion for creating inclusive spaces, leading you to establish welcome groups for new students at your schools.

These are just illustrations, your story should be individually reflective of your journey. The more it is centered around your personal growth and lessons, the less likely it will feel "overdone." Remember, nobody can tell your story but you. Focus on what makes you unique and let that shine through in your essay.

About CollegeVine’s Expert FAQ

CollegeVine’s Q&A seeks to offer informed perspectives on commonly asked admissions questions. Every answer is refined and validated by our team of admissions experts to ensure it resonates with trusted knowledge in the field.

• DOI: 10.62049/jkncu.v4i2.129
• Corpus ID: 271422459

Tachoni Male Circumcision Rituals: Navigating Cultural Revitalization, Heritage and Identity through Lexico-Semantic Analysis

• Lucy K. L. Mandillah
• Published in Journal of the Kenya National… 23 July 2024
• Sociology, Linguistics
• Journal of the Kenya National Commission for UNESCO

2 References

Changing cultural practices: a case study of male circumcision in south africa, a definition of cultural heritage: from the tangible to the intangible, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers